Functions: Detailed Notes for Upper Sixth Science Students

Introduction to Functions
In mathematics, a function is a special type of relation between two sets, say set A
(the domain) and set B (the codomain), such that every element in set A is mapped
to exactly one element in set B.

Think of a function as a machine: you put an input in, and it gives you a unique output.
You can't put the same input in and get two different outputs.

Visual Analogy:
●​ Function: Imagine a vending machine. For each button you press (input), you get
exactly one specific item (output). You can't press "A1" and sometimes get a
chocolate bar and sometimes get crisps.
●​ Not a Function (a general relation): Imagine a social media account. One
person (input) can follow many different accounts (outputs). Also, many different
people (inputs) can follow the same account (output).
Key Terminology:
●​ Domain: The set of all possible input values (often denoted by x).
○​ Example: In f(x)=x​, the domain cannot include negative numbers if we are
working with real numbers.
●​ Codomain: The set of all possible output values that could result from the
function. It's the "target set" where the outputs are expected to land.
○​ Example: For f(x)=x2 where f:R→R, the codomain is R (all real numbers).
●​ Range (or Image): The set of all actual output values that the function produces
for a given domain. The range is always a subset of the codomain.
○​ Example: For f(x)=x2 where f:R→R, the range is [0,∞) (all non-negative real
numbers), because x2 can never be negative.
●​ Independent Variable: The input variable (usually x), whose value can be chosen
freely from the domain.
●​ Dependent Variable: The output variable (usually y or f(x)), whose value
depends on the independent variable.
Notation:

A function f from set A to set B is often written as:

f:A→B
This means "function f maps elements from set A to set B."
If an element x from set A is mapped to an element y from set B, we write y=f(x). This
is read as "y is a function of x" or "f of x".

Example:
Consider the function f(x)=x2+1.
●​ If the domain is the set of all real numbers, R:
○​ If x=2, then f(2)=22+1=5.
○​ If x=−3, then f(−3)=(−3)2+1=10.
○​ If x=0, then f(0)=02+1=1.

Ways to Represent a Function

Functions can be represented in several ways:
1.​ Algebraically (using a formula): This is the most common way.
○​ f(x)=3x−5
○​ g(t)=4.9t2 (e.g., distance fallen under gravity)
○​ h(θ)=tan(θ)
2.​ Graphically: By plotting points (x,f(x)) on a coordinate plane.
○​ Vertical Line Test: A curve in the Cartesian plane represents a function if and
only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once. This ensures that
for every input x, there is only one output y.
○​ Example 1 (Function): The graph of y=x2 passes the vertical line test. For any
vertical line you draw, it will intersect the parabola at most once.
○​ Example 2 (Not a Function): The graph of x=y2 (a sideways parabola) does
NOT pass the vertical line test. A vertical line at x=4 would intersect at y=2 and
y=−2. This means for input x=4, there are two outputs, which violates the
definition of a function.
3.​ Numerically (using a table of values):
○​ Example: Cost of taxi ride based on distance.​
| Distance (km) x | Cost (FCFA) C(x) |​
|-------------------|--------------------|​
| 1 | 500 |​
| 2 | 800 |​
| 3 | 1100 |​
| 4 | 1400 |
4.​ Verbally (in words):
○​ Example 1: "The function f takes a number, multiplies it by 2, and then adds 1."
(This describes f(x)=2x+1).
○​ Example 2: "The function A calculates the area of a circle given its radius."
(This describes A(r)=πr2).
Determining the Domain and Range
1. Domain:
When a function is given by an algebraic formula and no specific domain is stated, we assume
the domain is the largest possible set of real numbers for which the formula is defined.
Common restrictions on the domain:
●​ Division by Zero: The denominator of a fraction cannot be zero.
○​ Example: For f(x)=x−52x​, we need x−5=0⟹x=5.​
Domain: {x∈R∣x=5} or (−∞,5)∪(5,∞).
○​ Example: For g(x)=x2−9x2+1​, we need x2−9=0⟹(x−3)(x+3)=0⟹x=3 and
x=−3.​
Domain: {x∈R∣x=3,x=−3}.
●​ Even Roots of Negative Numbers: We cannot take an even root (like square
root, fourth root) of a negative number in the set of real numbers.
○​ Example: For h(x)=x+7​, we need x+7≥0⟹x≥−7.​
Domain: [−7,∞).
○​ Example: For k(x)=9−x2​, we need 9−x2≥0⟹x2≤9⟹−3≤x≤3.​
Domain: [−3,3].
●​ Logarithms of Non-Positive Numbers: The argument of a logarithm must be
positive.
○​ Example: For m(x)=log(2x−4), we need 2x−4>0⟹2x>4⟹x>2.​
Domain: (2,∞).
○​ Example: For n(x)=ln(x2), we need x2>0⟹x=0.​
Domain: (−∞,0)∪(0,∞).
2. Range:
Determining the range can be more challenging and often involves:
●​ Analyzing the graph of the function.
●​ Understanding the behavior of the function's formula.
●​ Considering the domain restrictions.
●​ Example 1: Find the domain and range of f(x)=(x−2)2+3.
○​ Domain: This is a polynomial (quadratic) function, so there are no restrictions.
Domain: R or (−∞,∞).
○​ Range: Since (x−2)2≥0 for all real x, the smallest value (x−2)2 can be is 0
(when x=2). Therefore, the smallest value of f(x) is 0+3=3. The parabola opens
upwards.​
Range: [3,∞).
●​ Example 2: Find the domain and range of g(x)=x1​.
○​ Domain: The denominator cannot be zero, so x=0. Domain: (−∞,0)∪(0,∞).
○​ Range: Can x1​ever be 0? No, a fraction is zero only if its numerator is zero,
 and here the numerator is 1. As x approaches ±∞, 1/x approaches 0. As x
approaches 0, 1/x approaches ±∞. Thus, g(x) can take any real value except 0.​
Range: (−∞,0)∪(0,∞).
Types of Functions
1. Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function is a function of the form:
P(x)=an​xn+an−1​xn−1+⋯+a1​x+a0​
where n is a non-negative integer (the degree of the polynomial), and a0​,a1​,…,an​are real
coefficients with an​=0.
●​ Domain: All real numbers (R).
●​ Examples:
○​ Constant function (degree 0): f(x)=5. Graph is a horizontal line.
○​ Linear function (degree 1): f(x)=−3x+2. Graph is a straight line with slope -3
and y-intercept 2.
○​ Quadratic function (degree 2): f(x)=x2−4x+3. Graph is a parabola.
○​ Cubic function (degree 3): f(x)=x3−x. Graph has an 'S' shape.

2. Rational Functions
A rational function is a function that can be written as the ratio of two polynomials, P(x) and
Q(x), where Q(x)=0:
f(x)=Q(x)P(x)​
●​ Domain: All real numbers except for the values of x that make the denominator
Q(x) zero.
●​ Example: f(x)=x−3x2+1​. Domain: {x∈R∣x=3}.
●​ Example: g(x)=x2+11​. The denominator x2+1 is never zero (as x2≥0, so x2+1≥1).
Domain: R.
3. Exponential Functions
An exponential function is a function of the form:
f(x)=ax
where a is a positive constant (a>0) and a=1.
●​ Domain: All real numbers (R).
●​ Range: All positive real numbers ((0,∞)).
●​ Key properties:
○​ The graph always passes through (0,1) because a0=1.
○​ If a>1, the function is increasing (e.g., 2x, ex). It grows rapidly.
○​ If 0<a<1, the function is decreasing (e.g., (0.5)x=(21​)x). It decays rapidly.
○​ There is a horizontal asymptote at y=0.
●​ Examples:
 ○​ f(x)=3x. Values: 3−1=31​, 30=1, 31=3, 32=9.
○​ g(x)=ex (natural exponential function, where e≈2.718). Widely used in science
for growth and decay models.
○​ Application: Population growth, radioactive decay, compound interest.

4. Logarithmic Functions
A logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function. It is written as:
f(x)=loga​x
which is equivalent to af(x)=x.
●​ Domain: All positive real numbers ((0,∞)). (Because the range of an exponential
function is (0,∞))
●​ Range: All real numbers (R).
●​ Key properties:
○​ The graph always passes through (1,0) because loga​1=0.
○​ loga​a=1
○​ Logarithm Rules:
■​ loga​(xy)=loga​x+loga​y (Product Rule)
■​ loga​(yx​)=loga​x−loga​y (Quotient Rule)
■​ loga​(xp)=ploga​x (Power Rule)
○​ Change of base formula: loga​x=logb​alogb​x​(Useful for calculations with
calculators, typically using base 10 or base e)
●​ Common bases:
○​ Natural logarithm: lnx=loge​x (used extensively in calculus and science)
○​ Common logarithm: logx=log10​x (used in chemistry for pH, sound intensity
(decibels))
●​ Examples:
○​ f(x)=log2​x. Values: log2​2=1, log2​4=2, log2​8=3, log2​1=0, log2​(21​)=−1.
○​ Application: Measuring earthquake intensity (Richter scale), pH calculation in
chemistry, sound intensity.
5. Trigonometric Functions
These relate angles of a right triangle to ratios of its sides, or more generally,
coordinates on the unit circle.
●​ Sine (sin x), Cosine (cos x), Tangent (tan x), Cosecant (csc x), Secant (sec
x), Cotangent (cot x).
●​ Domain and Range vary:
○​ sinx,cosx: Domain R, Range [−1,1].
○​ tanx: Domain R except x=2π​+nπ (where n is an integer), Range R. (Vertical
asymptotes occur where cosx=0)
 ○​ cscx: Domain R except x=nπ, Range (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞).
○​ secx: Domain R except x=2π​+nπ, Range (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞).
○​ cotx: Domain R except x=nπ, Range R.
●​ Periodic: They repeat their values over a regular interval (period). For sinx and
cosx, the period is 2π. For tanx, the period is π.
●​ Examples:
○​ f(x)=sinx. Models wave phenomena, oscillations.
○​ g(x)=3cos(2x). This function has an amplitude of 3 and a period of π.
○​ Application: Describing sound waves, light waves, simple harmonic motion,
alternating current.
Properties of Functions
1. One-to-One (Injective) Functions
A function f is one-to-one if every element in the range corresponds to exactly one
element in the domain. In simpler terms, different inputs always produce different
outputs.
●​ If f(x1​)=f(x2​), then x1​=x2​.
●​ Horizontal Line Test: A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.
●​ Example 1 (One-to-One): f(x)=3x−2. If 3x1​−2=3x2​−2, then 3x1​=3x2​, so x1​=x2​. It
passes the horizontal line test. Each output comes from only one input.
●​ Example 2 (NOT One-to-One): f(x)=x2. f(2)=4 and f(−2)=4. Two different inputs (2
and -2) give the same output (4). This fails the horizontal line test (a line at y=4
intersects the parabola twice).
●​ Example 3 (One-to-One over a restricted domain): If we consider f(x)=x2 with
domain x≥0, then it IS one-to-one because we only consider the right half of the
parabola.
2. Onto (Surjective) Functions
A function f:A→B is onto if its range is equal to its codomain (Range(f)=B). This
means every element in the codomain is "hit" by at least one element from the
domain.
●​ Example 1 (Onto): Consider f:R→R defined by f(x)=2x+1. The range of this linear
function is R, which is equal to the codomain R. So it is onto.
●​ Example 2 (NOT Onto): Consider f:R→R defined by f(x)=x2. The codomain is R (all
real numbers), but the range is [0,∞) (non-negative real numbers). Since the
range is not equal to the codomain (e.g., negative numbers in R are never
outputs), it is not onto.
 ●​ Example 3 (Onto with restricted codomain): If we define f:R→[0,∞) by f(x)=x2,
then it IS onto, because the range [0,∞) is now equal to the specified codomain
[0,∞).
3. Bijective Functions (One-to-One Correspondence)
A function is bijective if it is both one-to-one (injective) and onto (surjective).
Bijective functions are important because they are precisely the functions that have inverse
functions.
●​ Example: f(x)=2x+1 (from R to R) is bijective. It passes both the horizontal and
vertical line tests, and its range is R, which matches its codomain.
4. Even and Odd Functions
●​ Even Function: A function f is even if f(−x)=f(x) for all x in its domain.
○​ Symmetry: The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.
○​ Examples:
■​ f(x)=x2: f(−x)=(−x)2=x2=f(x).
■​ f(x)=cosx: cos(−x)=cosx.
■​ f(x)=∣x∣: ∣−x∣=∣x∣.
●​ Odd Function: A function f is odd if f(−x)=−f(x) for all x in its domain.
○​ Symmetry: The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin
(rotational symmetry of 180 degrees about the origin).
○​ Examples:
■​ f(x)=x3: f(−x)=(−x)3=−x3=−f(x).
■​ f(x)=sinx: sin(−x)=−sinx.
■​ f(x)=x1​: f(−x)=−x1​=−x1​=−f(x).
●​ Note: Most functions are neither even nor odd. Some functions can be expressed
as a sum of an even and an odd function.
5. Inverse Functions
If a function f is bijective (one-to-one and onto), then it has an inverse function,
denoted by f−1(x).
●​ The inverse "undoes" what the original function does.
●​ If y=f(x), then x=f−1(y).
●​ Domain of f−1 = Range of f.
●​ Range of f−1 = Domain of f.
●​ Property: f(f−1(x))=x and f−1(f(x))=x. (The composition of a function and its
inverse yields the identity function).
●​ Graphical Relationship: The graph of f−1(x) is a reflection of the graph of f(x)
across the line y=x.
How to find the inverse function (algebraically):
1.​ Replace f(x) with y.
2.​ Swap x and y.
3.​ Solve the new equation for y.
4.​ Replace y with f−1(x).
Example 1: Find the inverse of f(x)=5x+7.
1.​ y=5x+7
2.​ x=5y+7
3.​ x−7=5y⟹y=5x−7​
4.​ f−1(x)=5x−7​
●​ Check: f(f−1(x))=5(5x−7​)+7=(x−7)+7=x.​
f−1(f(x))=5(5x+7)−7​=55x​=x.
Example 2: Find the inverse of f(x)=x−4​for x≥4.
1.​ y=x−4​
2.​ x=y−4​
3.​ Square both sides: x2=y−4​
y=x2+4
4.​ f−1(x)=x2+4.
●​ Important Note on Domain/Range:
○​ For f(x)=x−4​, Domain: [4,∞), Range: [0,∞).
○​ Therefore, for f−1(x)=x2+4, its Domain must be the Range of f(x), which is
[0,∞). So, the inverse is f−1(x)=x2+4 for x≥0. Without this domain restriction,
x2+4 would not be one-to-one.
Composition of Functions
The composition of two functions f and g, denoted by (f∘g)(x) or f(g(x)), means
applying function g first, and then applying function f to the result.
●​ (f∘g)(x)=f(g(x))
●​ The domain of f∘g consists of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the
domain of f.
Example 1: Let f(x)=x2−3 and g(x)=x+2.
●​ (f∘g)(x)=f(g(x))=f(x+2)=(x+2)2−3=(x2+4x+4)−3=x2+4x+1.
●​ (g∘f)(x)=g(f(x))=g(x2−3)=(x2−3)+2=x2−1.​
Notice that (f∘g)(x)=(g∘f)(x), so function composition is generally NOT
commutative.
Example 2: Let f(x)=x1​and g(x)=x−5.
●​ (f∘g)(x)=f(g(x))=f(x−5)=x−51​.
○​ Domain: x=5.
●​ (g∘f)(x)=g(f(x))=g(x1​)=x1​−5.
○​ Domain: x=0.

Piecewise Functions
A piecewise function is a function defined by multiple sub-functions, each applying
to a different interval of the independent variable.

Example 1:
f(x)={x+2x2​if x<1if x≥1​
To evaluate a piecewise function, determine which interval the input x falls into, and
then use the corresponding sub-function.
●​ f(−3)=(−3)+2=−1 (since −3<1)
●​ f(1)=12=1 (since 1≥1)
●​ f(5)=52=25 (since 5≥1)
Example 2 (Absolute Value Function): The absolute value function, ∣x∣, is a common piecewise
function:
∣x∣={x−x​if x≥0if x<0​
●​ ∣−5∣=−(−5)=5 (since −5<0)
●​ ∣7∣=7 (since 7≥0)

Practical Applications of Functions

Functions are fundamental to almost every area of science and engineering. They
provide a precise way to describe how one quantity depends on another.
●​ Physics:
○​ Position of a falling object as a function of time: s(t)=ut+21​at2.
○​ Force between two charges as a function of distance: Coulomb's Law,
F(r)=kr2q1​q2​​.
●​ Chemistry:
○​ Concentration of a reactant as a function of time during a chemical reaction.
○​ pH as a function of hydrogen ion concentration: pH=−log10​[H+].
●​ Biology:
○​ Population growth models: Exponential growth P(t)=P0​ekt.
○​ Enzyme activity as a function of temperature or pH.
●​ Economics:
○​ Demand for a product as a function of its price.
○​ Cost of production as a function of the number of items produced.
●​ Computer Science:
○​ Functions are the building blocks of algorithms and programs.
○​ Modeling network traffic, analyzing data.