Learning outcomes Curve defined by Parametric Equations Parameterising a curve Eliminating the parameter Calculus with Parametric curves
Parametric Equations
Frans Nghinaundiyele Ndinodiva
Namibia University of Science and Technology
October 7, 2020
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Parametric Equations
Learning outcomes Curve defined by Parametric Equations Parameterising a curve Eliminating the parameter Calculus with Parametric curves
Outline
1 Learning outcomes
2 Curve defined by Parametric Equations
Examples
3 Parameterising a curve
Parametric equation for a line
4 Eliminating the parameter
5 Calculus with Parametric curves
Tangents
Areas
Volume of solid of revolution
Arc length
Surface Area
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Parametric Equations
Learning outcomes Curve defined by Parametric Equations Parameterising a curve Eliminating the parameter Calculus with Parametric curves
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
To plot a curve described by parametric equations,
To Parameterize a curve,
To convert the parametric equations of a curve into the form
y = f (x),i.e to eliminate the parameter ,
To determine derivatives and equations of tangents for parametric
curves,
To find the area under a parametric curve,
To find the volume generated by rotating a curve defined by
parametric equations,
To use the equation for arc length of a parametric curve,
To apply the formula for surface area to a volume generated by a
parametric curve.
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Parametric Equations
Learning outcomes Curve defined by Parametric Equations Parameterising a curve Eliminating the parameter Calculus with Parametric curves
Curve defined by Parametric Equations
If x and y are given as functions
x = f (t), y = g (t)
over an interval of t-values, then the set of points (x, y ) = [f (t), g (t)]
defined by these equations is a parametric curve. The equations are
parametric equations for the curve. The variable t is a parameter for
the curve.
In general, the curve with parametric equations
x = f (t), y = g (t) a ≤ t ≤ b
has initial point (f (a), g (a)) and terminal point (f (b), g (b))
Each value of t determines a point,(x, y ) = [f (t), g (t)] which we can
plot in a coordinate plane. As t varies, the point (x, y ) = [f (t), g (t)]
varies and traces out a curve C .
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The parameter t does not necessarily represent time and, in fact, we
could use a letter other than t for the parameter. But in many
applications of parametric curves, t does denote time and therefore we
can interpret (x, y ) = [f (t), g (t)] as the position of a particle at time t.
To sketch the parametric curve one may use table of value or simply
eliminate the parameter to find a Cartesian equation y = f (x) of the
curve.
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Examples
Examples
Sketch and identify what curve is represented by each of the following
parametric equations.
1 x = t 2 − 2t y =t +1
2 x = cost y = sint 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
2
3 x = sint y = sin t
4 x = 3cos2t y = 4sin2 2t
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Parameterising a curve
Definition
If y = f (x) then we can write parametric equations by writing
x(t) = t and y = f (t), and
If x = f (y ) then we can write parametric equations by writing
y (t) = t and x = f (t).
For example:
a) The parabola y = x 2 can be represented by parametric equations
x(t) = t and y = t 2
b) A circle centered at (0, 0) with radius r can be represented by
parametric equations x(t) = rcost and y = rsint
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Exercise:
Exercise: Parameterize each of the following curve
a) y = x 2 − 1
b) x = y 3 − 2y
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Parametric equation for a line
Parametric equation for a line
One can use the idea of vectors to find the parametric equations for a
line. Recall, a vector is a directed line segment, or geometrically a
difference between two points in the plane. Note also that, vectors are
not fixed in place, as they are only determined in a relative sense.
Suppose that we consider the line through the point (3, 2) which goes in
the direction v = (1, 4). This line can be expressed as
(3, 2) + t(1, 4) = (3 + t, 2 + 4t)
which is now in parametric form with parameter t.
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Parametric equation for a line
In general, the direction vector from (x0 , y0 ) to (x1 , y1 ) is
v̄ = (x1 , y1 ) − (x0 , y0 ) = (x1 − x0 , y1 − y0 ).
We can find any point (x, y ) on the line segment by adding a scalar
multiple of v̄ to the point (x0 , y0 ). So, we have
(x, y ) = (x0 , y0 ) + t(x1 − x0 , y1 − y0 ),
which simplifies to:
(x, y ) = ((1 − t)x0 + tx1 , (1 − t)y0 + ty1 ), where 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
For example: Find the parametric equation for the line through points
(3, 2) when t = 0 and (4, 6) when t = 1.
Solution
(3, 2)(1 − t) + t(4, 6) = (3 + t, 2 + 4t)
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Parametric equation for a line
Lines in Three Dimensions
Similarly, the direction vector from (x0 , y0 , z0 ) to (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is
v̄ = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) − (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (x1 − x0 , y1 − y0 , z1 − z0 ).
We can find any point (x, y , z) on the line segment by adding a scalar
multiple of v̄ to the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ). So, we have
(x, y , z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(x1 − x0 , y1 − y0 , z1 − z0 ),
which simplifies to:
(x, y , z) = ((1−t)x0 +tx1 , (1−t)y0 +ty1 , (1−t)z0 +tz1 ), where 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
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Parametric equation for a line
To find an equation representing a line in three dimensions one can also
choose a point P0 on the line and a non-zero vector v̄ parallel to the line,
if r¯0 is the position vector of the point P0 , then the line must have the
form
r̄ = r¯0 + v̄t.
This is the vector equation of a line in three dimensions. By letting
r = (x, y , z), r0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ), and v̄ = (a, b, c) we obtain the equation
(x, y , z) = (x0 + at, y0 + bt, z0 + ct)
which leads to the parametric equations of the line passing through the
point P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and parallel to the vector v = (a, b, c):
x = (x0 + at y = y0 + bt z = z0 + ct).
For example:To find the parametric equations of the line passing through
the point (−1, 2, 3) and parallel to the vector (3, 0, −1), we first find the
vector equation of the line. Thus, r = (−1, 2, 3) + t(3, 0, −1). Hence, the
parametric equations of the line are x = −1 + 3t, y = 2, and z = 3 − t.
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Eliminating the parameter
For polynomial, exponential, or logarithmic equations expressed as
two parametric equations, we choose the equation that is most
easily manipulated and solve for t. We substitute the resulting
expression for t into the second equation. This gives one equation in
x and y , i.e. y = f (x) or x = f (y ).
Eliminating the parameter from trigonometric equations is a
straightforward substitution. We can use a few of the familiar
trigonometric identities and the Pythagorean Theorem.
Eliminate the parameter from each of the following parametric equations.
a) x(t) = t 2 + 1 y (t) = 2 + t
b) x(t) = e√−t y (t) = 3e t
c) x(t) = t + 2 y (t) = logt t>0
d) x(t) = rcost y (t) = rsint
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Calculus with Parametric curves
Having seen how to represent curves by parametric equations,
parameterise a curve and rewrite parametric equation in rectangular form
we now apply the methods of calculus to these parametric curves. In
particular, we solve problems involving tangents, area, volumes, arc
length, and surface area.
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Tangents
Tangents
A parametrized curve x = f (t) and y = g (t) is differentiable at t if f and
g are differentiable at t. At a point on a differentiable parametrized
curve where y is also a differentiable function of x, the derivatives dy
dt ,
dx dy
dt , and dx are related by the Chain Rule:
dy dy dx
= · .
dt dx dt
If dx
dt 6= 0, we may divide both sides of this equation by
dx
dt to solve for dy
dx .
Thus,
dy dy /dt
= .
dx dx/dt
The above equation (which you can remember by thinking of cancelling
the dts) enables us to find the slope dy
dx of the tangent to a parametric
curve without having to eliminate the parameter t.
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Tangents
We see from the equation that the curve has a,
dy dx
1 horizontal tangent when dt = 0 (provided that dt 6= 0) and
dx dy
2 vertical tangent when dt = 0 (provided that dt 6= 0).
This information is useful for sketching parametric curves.
Example: If x = 2t + 3 and y = t 2 − 1, find dy dx in terms of x.
dy dy /dt 2t x −3
Solution: = = =t= .
dx dx/dt 2 2
If parametric equations define y as a twice-differentiable function of x,
2
we can calculate ddxy2 as a function of t:
d 2y d dy dy 0 /dt
2
= = .
dx dx dx dx/dt
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Tangents
d 2y
Example: Find dx 2 as a function of t if x = t − t 2 and y = t − t 3 .
Solution:
dy
1. Find y 0 = dx in terms of t:
dy dy /dt 1 − 3t 2
y0 = = = .
dx dx/dt 1 − 2t
2. Differentiate y 0 with respect to t:
dy 0 d 1 − 3t 2 2 − 6t + 6t 2
= = .
dt dt 1 − 2t (1 − 2t)2
d 2y
3. Divide dy 0 /dt by dx/dt to get dx 2 :
d 2y dy 0 /dt (2 − 6t + 6t 2 )/(1 − 2t)2 2 − 6t + 6t 2
= = = .
dx 2 dx/dt 1 − 2t (1 − 2t)3
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Tangents
Example: A curve C is defined by the parametric equations
x = t 2 y = t 3 − 3t.
(a) Show that C has two tangents at the point (3, 0) and find their
equations.
(b) Find the points on C where the tangent is horizontal or vertical.
(c) Determine where the curve is concave upward or downward.
(d) Sketch the curve.
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Areas
Areas
We know that the area under a curve y = F (x) from a to b is
Z b
A= F (x)dx,
a
where F (x) ≥ 0. If the curve is traced out once by the parametric
equations x = f (t) and y = g (t), α ≤ t ≤ β, then by substituting into
the above equation we get the area formula as follows:
Z b Z β
A= ydx = g (t)f 0 (t)dt
a α
Example: Find the area under one arch of the cycloid
x = r (θ − sinθ) y = r (θ − sinθ)
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Areas
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Volume of solid of revolution
Volume of solid of revolution
Recall:
Definition
The volume (V ) of a solid generated by revolving the region bounded by
y = f (x) and the x− axis on the interval [a, b] about the x−axis is
Z b
2
V =π (f (x)) dx and
a
The volume (V ) of a solid generated by revolving the region bounded by
x = f (y ) and the y − axis on the interval [a, b] about the y −axis is
Z b
2
V =π (f (y )) dy .
a
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Volume of solid of revolution
If a bounding curve is defined in parametric form by the equations
x = x(t), y = y (t), where the parameter t varies from α to β, then the
volume of the solid generated by revolving the curve about the x− axis is
given by
Z β
dx
V =π y 2 dt.
α dt
Respectively, when the curve is rotated about the y − axis, the volume of
the solid of revolution is equal to
Z β
dy
V =π x2 dt.
α dt
For example: One arch of the cycloid x = θsinθ, y = 1cosθ revolves
around its base. Calculate the volume of the body bounded by the given
surface.
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Volume of solid of revolution
Solution
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Volume of solid of revolution
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Arc length
Arc length
We already know how to find the length L of a curve C given in the form
y = F (x), a ≤ x ≤ b. That is, if F 0 is continuous, then
s 2
Z b
dy
L= 1+ dx
a dx
Suppose that C can also be described by the parametric equations
x = f (t) and y = g (t), α ≤ t ≤ β, where f 0 (t) > 0. This means that C
is traversed once, from left to right, as t increases from a α to β and
f (α) = a, f (β) = b. By substituting into the above equation we get the
arc length formula as follows:
s v !2
Z b 2 Z βu dy
dy u
dt dx
L= 1+ dx = t 1 + dx dt
a dx α dt
dt
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Arc length
After algebraic manipulations we get
s
Z β 2 2
dx dy
L= + dt
α dt dt
Example: Find the length one arch of the cycloid
x = r (θ − sinθ) y = r (θ − sinθ)
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Arc length
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Surface Area
Surface Area
In the same way as for arc length, we can adapt the surface area formula
above to obtain a formula for surface area described parametric
equations. If the curve given by the parametric equations x = f (t) and
y = g (t), α ≤ t ≤ β,, is rotated about the x-axis, where f 0 and g 0 are
continuous and g (t) ≥ 0, then the area of the resulting surface is given by
s
Z β 2 2
dx dy
S= 2πy + dt
α dt dt
Example: Show that the surface area of a sphere of radius r is 4πr 2 .
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Surface Area
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Parametric Equations
