Communication in the 21st Century

COMMUNICATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Communication Models
Models of communication provide us with a visual representation of the different
aspects of a communication situation. Since communication is a complex process, it’s
often challenging to determine where a conversation begins and ends. That is where
models of communication come in — to simplify the process of understanding
communication.

1. Linear Model
A one-way communication model where the sender transmits a message to the
receiver without expecting a response.

Types of Linear Model

1. Aristotle Model - Focuses on persuasion, emphasizing three key elements: ethos

(credibility), pathos (emotions), and logos (logic).

●​ Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility,

authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their choice.
●​ Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions
(anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
●​ Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be interesting
— it needs to follow the rules of logic.
Picture this:
Professor Hustvedt is giving a lecture on neurological disorders to her students. She
delivers her speech persuasively, in a manner that leaves her students mesmerized. The
professor is at the center of attention, whereas her audience — her students — are
merely passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message influences them and makes them
act accordingly.
So, in this situation, professor Hustvedt is the speaker, and her lecture on disorders is
the act of speech. The occasion in question is a university lecture, while the students are
her target audience. The effect of her speech is the students gaining knowledge on this
subject matter. One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention
to the feedback in communication because the audience is passive.

2. Lasswell's Model - A linear model that answers the question "Who says what to whom
with what effect?"

Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements:
●​ Who created the message?
●​ What did they say?
●​ What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
●​ To whom did they say it?
●​ What effect did it have on the receiver?
The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:
●​ Communicator,
●​ Message,
●​ Medium,
●​ Audience/Receiver, and
●​ Effect.

Picture this:​
Let’s say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a suitcase
salesman, Mr. Sanders. He is promoting his brand of suitcases as the best. Aware that
millions of viewers are watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a
remarkable impression. By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his
product as the best on the market, and consequently increasing sales revenue.

So, in this instance, Mr. Sanders is the communicator. The message he is conveying is
the promotion of his brand of suitcases as the best. The medium he uses is television.
His audience consists of evening TV viewers in the US. The effect he is achieving by
doing this is raising brand awareness and increasing sales revenue.

3. Shannon-Weaver Model - The mother of communication models. A model that

describes communication as a process of encoding and decoding messages. It consists
of five elements: sender, encoder, channel, decoder, and receiver.

★​ Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the
communication process.

Picture this:​
Paula, a VP of Marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new
marketing strategies they are about to introduce next month. She wants a detailed study
of the competitor’s activity by the end of the week. Unfortunately, while she was
speaking, her assistant Peter interrupted her, and she forgot to tell Julian about the most
important issue. At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some
mistakes, which had to be corrected later on.

Let’s take a moment to briefly analyze this example. Paula is the sender, her mouth
being the encoder. The meeting she held was the channel. Julian’s ears and brain were
decoders, and Julian was the receiver. Can you guess Peter’s role? Yes, he was the noise.

4. Berlo's S-M-C-R Model - A communication model that considers four key elements:
Source (S), Message (M), Channel (C), and Receiver (R).
Picture this:​
Watching the news on television is the perfect example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of
communication. In this case, the news presenter is the source of the news and they
convey the message to the audience. The news is the message, the television is the
channel, and the audience are the receivers of the message.

2. Interactive Model
A two-way communication model where the sender and receiver interact with each
other, with the receiver providing feedback to the sender.

Types of Interactional Model

1. Osgood-Schramm Model - An interactive model that views communication as a

circular process.

●​ Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the communication

process are changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
 ●​ Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally engaged as
encoders and decoders.
●​ The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be properly
interpreted to be understood.

Picture this:​
Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly, they call
you, and you start updating each other about what happened during the time you have
not seen each other. In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and
decoding messages, and your communication is synchronous. You are both
interpreting each other’s messages.

2. Westley and MacLean Model - A transactional model that views communication as a

dynamic process.

●​ The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the

communication process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with
environmental factors.
●​ This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background,
culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.
●​ The very process of communication, according to this communication model,
starts with environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or
society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space,
etc.
●​ Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.
Picture this:
Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident. This is the type of
stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you had
seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a bit late. So, the communication
process in this example does not start with you, but with the road accident you have
witnessed. Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore,
allows us to pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of
communication.

3. Transactional Model
A dynamic communication model where the sender and receiver are equally involved in
the communication process.
 ●​ Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction,
meaning that it is a cooperative process in which communicators co-create the
process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.
●​ In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.
●​ Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange
information during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural
bonds, and shape our opinions.
●​ In other words, communication helps us establish our realities.

Types of Transactional Model

1. Barnlund's Model - A transactional model that views communication as a

simultaneous process of sending and receiving messages.

●​ Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular

process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the receiver,
both of whom can affect the message being sent.
●​ The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important.
Feedback from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators
provide feedback.
●​ At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the
communication’s effect and effectiveness.
2. Dance's Helical Model - A dynamic model that views communication as a spiral
process.

●​ According to this communication model, in the communication process, the

feedback we get from the other party involved influences our next statement
and we become more knowledgeable with every new cycle.

Picture this:
Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout
their life. Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on,
using rudimentary methods of communication. For instance, as babies, we cry to get our
mothers’ attention. Later on, we learn to speak in words, and then in full sentences.
During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication.
Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to communicate
more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective
communication. In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the
top of Dance’s helix.

Communication Ethics

Communication
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or
nonverbal means (Richard Nordquist, 2024).

What is Ethics?
Ethics are guidelines that help people decide what's right and wrong, and how to treat
others.
Ethical Communication
Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and
the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts,
cultures, channels, and media (NCA, 1999).

Unethical Communication
Unethical communication is communication that is dishonest, deceptive, or
misleading.

The Principles of Ethical Communication

1. Ensuring Transparency and Honesty

Communicators should provide accurate and truthful information without misleading
or leaving out important details.

Example: A student tells the teacher they don’t understand a topic instead of pretending
they do.

2. Respect for others

Means of considering others' feelings, perspectives, and rights when speaking,
listening, or writing. It involves politeness, active listening, and avoiding offensive or
dismissive language.

Example: A student patiently listens to a classmate struggling to explain an answer

instead of interrupting or laughing.

3. Avoid a Negative Tone

Ethically communicating assumes the speaker will avoid rudeness, be polite and
professional, and have tact. The ethical communicator knows that it’s not only
important what you say, but how you say it.

Example:
Instead of: “That idea won’t work.”
Say: “That’s an interesting idea! Maybe we could adjust it to make it more effective.”

4. Fairness and Equity

Ensure that all voices are acknowledged, diverse perspectives are respected, and
information is shared in an inclusive and unbiased manner.
Example: A teacher ensures that all students, regardless of their background, get equal
chances to speak and participate.

5. Accept Responsibility
Involves being truthful, transparent, and respectful in conveying information while
taking ownership of one’s words, actions, and their potential impact on others.

Example:
Instead of: “I’m sorry if you were offended.” (This shifts blame.)
Say: “I’m sorry for what I said. I didn’t mean to hurt you, and I will be more mindful in
the future.”

6. Respect Privacy And Confidentiality

Ensure that sensitive information is protected, shared only with authorized
individuals, and handled with integrity to maintain trust and compliance with ethical
and legal standards.

Example: A doctor does not disclose a patient’s medical condition to others without
consent, respecting their privacy.

7. Cultural Sensitivity
Involves recognizing and respecting diverse communication styles to avoid
misunderstandings and foster inclusivity.

Example: Instead of saying, “That’s not how we do it here,” say, “We have a different
approach, but I’d love to learn about yours.”
 "Communication is the key to successful relationships." - Jeanne Phillips

Communication and Globalization

What is Globalization?
●​ Globalization describes the growing interdependence of the world’s economies,
cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services,
technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.
●​ Globalization is a term used to describe how trade and technology have made the
world into a more connected and interdependent place.

How does Communication affect Globalization?

Globalization has transformed communication by breaking barriers and enabling global
interaction.

World Englishes and Global Communication

Refers to the various varieties of the English language spoken across the globe. Global
communications signifies the use of English as a primary means of communication
between people from different countries.

Braj Kachru an Indian-American Linguist

proposed 3 Concentric Circles Model
of Englishes.
●​ ENL
●​ ESL
●​ EFL

Standard English
is a variety of language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is
usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.

Varieties of Language

1. Accent - pronunciation characteristics of a particular group of people relative to another

group.

Example:
●​ In American English, "tomato" is pronounced as tə-MAY-toh, while in British English, it
is pronounced as tə-MAH-toh.
●​ Someone from New York might say "coffee" as "caw-fee", while someone from Texas
might pronounce it as "cah-fee".
2. Regional Dialect - a way of speaking a language that is used only in a particular area or by
a particular group.

Example:
●​ In the U.S., people in the South might say "y’all" (you all), while people in the North say
"you guys".
●​ In the UK, a soft bread roll is called a "bap" in London, a "bun" in Newcastle, and a
"cob" in Nottingham.
●​ In the Philippines, Tagalog speakers say "gusto ko ito", while Ilocano speakers say
"kayak daytoy" (both meaning "I like this").

3. Pidgin - a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two

or more groups that do not have a language in common.

Example:
●​ Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea is a pidgin language that developed from English and
local languages.
○​ "Mi likim yu" = "I like you."
●​ Hawaiian Pidgin English emerged from English, Hawaiian, and Asian languages used
by workers in plantations.
○​ "You like go beach?" = "Do you want to go to the beach?"

4. Creole - a complete language used in a community and acquired by children as their

native language.

●​ A creole is a fully developed language that originates from a pidgin but becomes the
native language of a community. It has its own grammar and vocabulary.

Example:
●​ Haitian Creole evolved from French and African languages.
○​ "Mwen rele Jean." = "My name is Jean."
●​ Jamaican Patois developed from English and West African languages.
○​ "Mi deh yah" = "I am here."

5. Indigenize Varieties - are spoken mainly as second languages in ex colonies with

multilingual populations.

Example:
●​ Philippine English (influenced by Tagalog and other local languages)
○​ "Can I go out?" (instead of "May I go out?") is commonly used in Filipino schools.
●​ Indian English (influenced by Hindi and other regional languages)
○​ "I am having a meeting now." (instead of "I am in a meeting now.")
Every language has 5 registers.
1. Frozen
2. Formal
3. Consultative
4. Casual
5. Intimate

Culturally Sensitive and Bias Free Language

What is Cultural Sensitivity?

●​ Connect us with other cultures
●​ Shows respect, kindness and value to culture differences without barriers

❖​ Contextual Understanding of Cultural Differences

❖​ Avoiding Offensive Language Through Cultural Awareness
❖​ Building Trust with Culturally Sensitive Content
❖​ Bridging Cultural Gaps

Bias Free Language

Known as inclusive language, refers to words and phrases that are free from prejudices,
stereotypes, or discriminatory implications. It includes comments about age, disability,
gender, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality.

Key Principles of Bias Free Language

Avoiding Stereotypes
For example, instead of referring to a nurse as “she” and a doctor as “he,” use gender-neutral
terms like “they” or “the healthcare professional.”

Using Inclusive Terminology

For instance, rather than saying “disabled person,” use “person with a disability” to emphasize
the individual first.

Respecting Cultural Differences

Example: Consider the phrase “mankind.” While it has been traditionally used to refer to
humanity as a whole, it is not gender-neutral. Instead, using “humanity” or “people” removes the
gender bias and makes the language more inclusive.

More Informations:
 1.​ What is the difference between interactive and transactional models of
communication?

In simple terms:
●​ Interactive Model of communication is like a two-way street with feedback. It considers
both the sender and receiver as active participants. Think of it as texting with a
friend—one person sends a message, the other replies, and this exchange continues.
●​ The Transactional Model goes a step further. It sees communication as happening
simultaneously, meaning both people are sending and receiving messages at the same
time. Imagine a face-to-face conversation where you nod, react, and speak all at once. It
emphasizes that communication is continuous and influenced by context (like
emotions or environment).
●​ So, while the interactive model is like taking turns in a conversation, the
transactional model is like talking and reacting at the same time.

2.​ Differentiate the following:

●​ Aristotle’s Model
Imagine a motivational speaker on stage. They prepare their speech carefully, choosing words
to inspire the audience. The speaker delivers the message, and the audience listens. The goal?
To persuade or influence them. This model focuses on how well the speaker delivers the
message to create an effect on the audience—but there’s no feedback involved.

Example: A politician giving a campaign speech, trying to convince people to vote for them.

●​ Lasswell’s Model
Think of a news anchor on TV. They read the news script (message) through a broadcast
(channel) to inform the public (audience). After the broadcast, people react in different
ways—some might feel informed, others might worry or take action. This model breaks
communication down into who is speaking, what they’re saying, how they’re delivering it,
to whom, and what effect it has.

Example: A journalist reporting a typhoon warning on national TV, influencing people to prepare
for the storm.

●​ Shannon-Weaver Model
Picture yourself making a phone call to a friend, but there’s a weak signal, and you can’t hear
them clearly. That’s “noise” interrupting communication. This model focuses on how messages
travel through different channels and how disturbances (like static, distractions, or
misunderstandings) can affect the message.

Example: You’re in a noisy café trying to talk on the phone, but the background noise makes it
hard to understand each other.
 ●​ Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model
Imagine a teacher explaining a lesson. The effectiveness of communication depends on many
factors:
➢​ The teacher’s skills (Do they explain well?)
➢​ The message’s clarity (Is the lesson well-structured?)
➢​ The channel used (Are they using visual aids or just talking?)
➢​ The students’ understanding (Do they have prior knowledge?)

This model shows that communication isn’t just about sending a message—it’s about how both
the sender and receiver influence understanding.

Example: A teacher explains a difficult math problem, using diagrams and examples to make
sure students understand.

3.​ What is the Osgood-Schramm Model?

The Osgood-Schramm Model is a two-way communication model where both people take
turns as sender and receiver. It shows that communication is continuous and interactive,
just like a natural conversation.

Example:
You tell your friend, "That movie was great!" → They understand and reply, "Yes! The twist was
amazing!" → You respond again.

This back-and-forth cycle of encoding, decoding, and feedback keeps repeating, making
communication dynamic and ongoing.

4.​ What is the difference between accent, regional dialect, pidgin, creole, and
indigenized varieties?

An accent refers to differences in pronunciation within the same language. People may
pronounce words differently based on where they are from, but they still use the same
vocabulary and grammar. For example, Filipinos speaking English often have a distinct Filipino
accent compared to Americans or British speakers.

A regional dialect, on the other hand, goes beyond just pronunciation. It includes differences in
vocabulary and grammar as well, forming a unique variety of a language spoken in a specific
area. For instance, Tagalog is spoken differently in Batangas compared to Manila, with
variations in expressions and sentence structures.

Meanwhile, a pidgin is a simplified language that develops when two groups of people with no
common language need to communicate. It is not a native language but rather a mix of words
and structures borrowed from different languages to make basic communication possible. Over
time, if a pidgin becomes the first language of a new generation and develops its own stable
grammar and vocabulary, it turns into a creole. A good example is Chavacano, which started as
a pidgin between Spanish colonizers and Filipinos but eventually became a full-fledged
language spoken natively by many people.

Lastly, an indigenized variety occurs when a foreign language, like English, is adapted to fit a
local culture and way of speaking. In the Philippines, for example, Philippine English includes
unique expressions such as “comfort room” for restrooms and “open the light” instead of “turn
on the light.” These modifications make the language more natural for local speakers while still
being understandable to others.

5.​ What is cultural sensitivity?

Cultural sensitivity means being aware, respectful, and understanding of other people's
cultures, beliefs, and traditions. It means recognizing that different cultures have their own ways
of thinking, speaking, and behaving—and making sure we don’t offend or disrespect them, even
if they are different from our own.

For example, if you visit another country, you try to learn and respect their customs, like
greeting people properly or dressing appropriately. In conversations, you also avoid making
jokes or comments that might be offensive to someone's background or beliefs.

In simple terms, cultural sensitivity is about treating people from different cultures with
kindness, respect, and open-mindedness.

6.​ Further explain the key principles of Bias Free Language:

a.​ Avoiding Stereotypes

Stereotypes are generalized and often inaccurate beliefs about a particular group of people.
Using language that reinforces stereotypes can be harmful or offensive. To avoid this, we must
focus on individual qualities rather than making assumptions based on gender, race, age, or
other factors.

Example of avoiding stereotypes:

●​ Instead of “Women are emotional leaders,” say “Leaders should balance logic and
empathy.”
●​ Instead of “Men are better at math,” say “Anyone can excel in math with practice.”

b.​ Using Inclusive Terminology

Inclusive language acknowledges and respects all individuals, ensuring no one feels
excluded or marginalized. This means using gender-neutral terms, avoiding outdated or
offensive words, and considering diverse identities.

Example of using inclusive terminology:

●​ Instead of “fireman” or “policeman,” use “firefighter” or “police officer.”
 ●​ Instead of “disabled person,” say “person with a disability” to emphasize the person
first.
●​ Instead of “guys” to address a mixed group, say “everyone” or “folks.”

c.​ Respecting Cultural Differences

Language should show awareness and appreciation of different cultures without appropriating
or misrepresenting them. This means avoiding offensive terms, learning how people prefer to be
identified, and being mindful of how words may have different meanings in different cultures.

Example of respecting cultural differences:

●​ Instead of using terms like “exotic” to describe people or traditions, use specific
and respectful descriptions.
●​ Instead of making assumptions about someone’s background based on their name
or appearance, ask respectfully if needed.
●​ Instead of using humor that mocks cultural practices, be open to learning about them
with respect.
Public Speaking
PUBLIC SPEAKING​

Public Speaking
●​ Public speaking is a form of communication that involves delivering a message to
an audience (Kapur, R. 2022).
●​ Speaking means communication. Conveying messages and communicative skills
can be enhanced when listeners and speakers engage in meaningful
communication in the target language (Yildiz, 2020).

Elements of Public Speaking

1.​ Speaker
●​ Speaker is the first link in the chain of public speaking; everything starts with the
speaker. The one who applies the rules and requirements of public speaking.
Their attitudes and applications will give a certain shape to public speaking. They
should make arrangements carefully to make an effective speech to the others.

2.​ Audience
●​ The people to which the message will be delivered by the speaker is called the
audience. Therefore, since it is the community to which the public speaking is
directed, the audience is the other complementary element together with the
speaker.

3.​ Message
●​ The speaker and the listener come to the fore as human elements, the message
that will ensure the communication between the two, and what the speaker wants
to convey is the message.

4.​ Channel
●​ The message is transmitted from the speaker to the listener. This channel can be
face-to-face communication as well as through technological means. Examples of
these are radio, television, and the Internet.

5.​ Setting
●​ In public speaking, the environment in which the communication is directed
from the speaker to the listener is important.

6.​ Delivery
 ●​ The transmission of the message to the other party, together with the use of all
the premises required by public speaking, is expressed as delivery. In other words,
delivery is the speaker's ability to best convey his message to the listener.

Forms of Delivery

1.​ Extemporaneous Delivery

●​ Extemporaneous delivery involves careful planning and preparation, but the
speaker should use notes as a guide rather than memorizing the speech.

2.​ Memorization
●​ Memorization can make the speech sound unnatural and less engaging.

3.​ Impromptu Delivery

●​ In the impromptu version, which is the opposite of the previous delivery, the
speaker does not make any plans and addresses the audience unprepared. This
has some risky aspects.

4.​ Manuscript
●​ Manuscript speeches involve reading directly from a written text. This ensures
thorough preparation and organization but can hinder eye contact and audience
engagement, potentially leading to boredom.

Purposes of Public Speaking

1. To Inform
This type of speech aims to educate the audience about a topic, providing them with new
information or insights.

2. To Persuade
This type of speech aims to convince the audience to agree with a particular viewpoint
or to take a specific action.

3. To Entertain
This type of speech aims to amuse and engage the audience, often through storytelling,
humor, or captivating performances.
History of Public Speaking

1. The Classical Period (500 BCE - 400 BCE)

●​ public speaking = political participation
●​ emergence of philosophers and growth of communication
●​ "Fantastic Four" vs "Sophist"

2. Medieval Period (400 CE - 1400 CE)

●​ public speaking = religious preaching
●​ public speaking is used to guide pagans in the right path
●​ dark age of public speaking
●​ emergence of religious philosophy

3. Renaissance (1400 CE - 1600 CE)

●​ public speaking = empowering secular institutions and government
●​ combination of Classical & Medieval Period
●​ public speaking in this period is regarded as arts

4. Modern Era/Enlightenment (1600 CE - 1800 CE)

●​ public speaking = wake of the revolution
●​ acceptance of plurality
●​ public speaking is used for revolt, peace talks and emergence of war

5. Contemporary Applications (1900 CE - 2000 CE)

●​ public speaking = universal/everyday uses
●​ public speaking encompasses all aspects of community
●​ public speaking is developed in all fields

How to Improve Your Public Speaking

Shortcoming 1: Failing to Engage the Audience

●​ Know Your Audience: Understand their goals, interests, and existing knowledge to tailor
your speech accordingly.
●​ Create a Speaking Outline: Focus on one main idea and use brief phrases or words to
guide your presentation, keeping the audience engaged.
●​ Use Vocal Techniques: Vary your tone, pitch, rate, and volume to captivate the audience
and maintain attention.
●​ Practice Good Posture: Stand tall and straight to project confidence and a clear voice.

Shortcoming 2: Overuse of Filler Words

●​ Cultivate Awareness: Record yourself speaking and listen to identify repetitive filler
words.
●​ Collect Thoughts: Use pauses instead of filler words, allowing yourself time to think and
gather your next words.
 ●​ Calm Nerves: Take a deep breath and pause before starting your speech to reduce
anxiety and improve delivery.

Best Practices in Public Speaking

1.​ Reading
Expanding vocabulary and knowledge through reading helps with effective
communication.

2.​ Listening to Podcasts and Online Streams

Gaining insights and improving public speaking abilities through educational podcasts
and
online streams.

3.​ Self-Reflection
Recognizing and correcting mistakes, seeking knowledge beyond language skills, and
continuously assessing public speaking abilities are essential for improvement.

4.​ Practicing Stage Presence

Seeking chances to speak at various events or discussions to refine delivery, understand
audience reactions, and learn effective methods of connection.

5.​ Socializing in Academic Settings

Engaging in public speaking opportunities to develop and refine language skills.
TED Talks
Introduction
●​ Effective oral communication is essential for success in education, career, and
life (Tripathy, 2020).
●​ TED Talks have emerged as influential platforms for sharing knowledge and
inspiring audiences through expert storytelling and effective communication
techniques (Rabi et al., 2023).
●​ TED (Technology, Entertainment, and Design) was founded in 1984 and
expanded globally through TEDx events.
●​ TED Talks provide valuable models for enhancing oral presentation techniques,
expanding vocabulary, and adapting communication skills to different contexts
(Compagnone, 2015).
●​ Oral communication is crucial for:
○​ Academic success (class discussions, presentations).
○​ Professional success (job interviews, business meetings).
○​ Personal interactions and public speaking (Kilag et al., 2023).
●​ Beyond their entertainment value, TED Talks have been recognized as valuable
educational tools that enhance oral presentation skills and vocabulary
development.

Impact on Oral Communication Skills

●​ Studies (Segarra et al., 2019; Olga, 2019; Welton, 2015):
○​ Improved students' ability to present ideas clearly and engage audiences.
○​ Enhanced confidence in public speaking (Washington, 2022).
○​ TED Talks model effective communication:
■​ Structuring speeches
■​ Using storytelling techniques
■​ Engaging with audiences

Positive Influence on Oral Presentation Skills

✔ Effective Communication Models – TED speakers demonstrate mastery of
rhetorical strategies, storytelling, and non-verbal communication (Ishaq et al., 2013).​
✔ Structured Narrative Format – Clear introduction → Problem → Solution →
Conclusion enhances audience comprehension (Gallo, 2016).​
✔ Emotional Engagement – Storytelling using anecdotes and metaphors increases
audience connection (Jovic et al., 2023).​
✔ Non-Verbal Techniques – Eye contact, facial expressions, and vocal modulation
strengthen delivery (Sueyoshi & Hardison, 2005).

Enhanced Vocabulary Acquisition

✔ Exposure to Specialized Terms – TED Talks introduce viewers to domain-specific
and sophisticated language (Sen et al., 2019).​
 ✔ Nuanced Language Use – Context-appropriate vocabulary and polished language
improve fluency (Komarova et al., 2022).​
✔ Active Learning – Regular exposure leads to improved use of advanced
expressions and greater linguistic range (Valle et al., 2023).

Transferability to Diverse Audiences

✔ Educational Settings – Students using TED Talk strategies show improved
presentation skills (White & Brown, 2017).​
✔ Professional Contexts – Enhanced business presentations and client interactions
due to structured messaging and emotional connection (Alfia et al., 2022).​
✔ Workplace Communication – Effective team collaboration and increased
engagement using TED Talk-inspired techniques (Miller, 2021).

Balancing Style and Substance

✔ Risk of Oversimplification – Focus on brevity and entertainment can compromise
depth (Compagnone, 2015).​
✔ Style vs. Content – Engaging delivery should not overshadow substantive content
(Samayoa, 2017).​
✔ Balanced Approach – Educators should encourage critical evaluation of both
content and delivery.

Critical Thinking
✔ Exposure to diverse viewpoints encourages analysis and independent thinking.
✔ Studies (Higgins, 2013; Lee & Drajati, 2019):
●​ Students are better at evaluating and synthesizing information.
●​ Improved articulation of personal viewpoints.

Student Engagement
✔ TED Talks increase motivation and participation.
✔ Studies (Luna Scott, 2015):
●​ Higher engagement with course content.
●​ Encourages discussions and deeper understanding.
✔ Language learning benefits (Nottingham, 2017):
●​ ESL students showed increased motivation and confidence in communication.

Diversity and Inclusion

✔ TED Talks feature diverse speakers and topics, promoting empathy and
understanding.
✔ Studies (Salem, 2019; Simonds et al., 2017):
●​ Fostered discussions on race, gender, and identity.
 ●​ Increased awareness of global issues and cultural diversity.
●​ Promoted a more inclusive learning environment.

Active Learning Strategies Using TED Talks

To maximize TED Talk benefits, learners can:
●​ Note-Taking & Summarization: Reinforces learning.
●​ Mimicry & Practice: Enhances pronunciation and fluency.
●​ Discussion & Reflection: Strengthens critical thinking and communication skills
(Brown & Larson, 2021).
Educators can integrate TED Talks into curriculum-based activities to develop effective
speaking skills (Richards & Bohlke, 2020).

Challenges and Considerations

●​ Language Barriers:
○​ ESL students may need additional support (Tilwani et al., 2022).
●​ Overreliance on TED Talks:
○​ Kogila (2020): TED Talks should complement other methods, not replace
them.
○​ Balanced teaching approach recommended.

Practical Implications for Educators

●​ Incorporating TED Talks:
○​ Use as models for effective communication.
●​ Promoting Critical Thinking:
○​ Encourage students to analyze and evaluate talks.
●​ Enhancing Engagement:
○​ Use to spark interest and participation.
●​ Fostering Inclusivity:
○​ Select diverse talks to promote equity and inclusion.
●​ Balanced Approach:
○​ Combine TED Talks with other teaching methods.

Conclusion
●​ TED Talks significantly improve oral communication, vocabulary acquisition,
critical thinking, and engagement.
●​ Their structured format, emotional engagement, and non-verbal techniques
improve delivery and audience connection across different settings.
●​ Foster empathy, inclusivity, and understanding of global issues.
●​ Challenges include language barriers and overreliance.
●​ Future Research:
 ○​ Long-term effects
○​ Strategies for supporting ESL students
○​ Assessment development
○​ Representation of diverse voices
●​ TED Talks are a valuable tool for modern education, empowering students to
become effective communicators and critical thinkers.

Çç
The Documented Essay on a Concept
What is Academic Writing?
Academic writing is a formal understandable written expression of one’s own evidence-based
perspectives (University of Leeds, 2019) on a given topic, question or subject. Additionally, it is
focused, impersonal, open-minded, objective, precise, clear, engaging, thorough and consistent
with convention within its specific discipline (Hyland & Jiang, 2017, Lachowicz, 1981, Lowe &
Willey, 2018 and Lin-Siegler, 2017).

and its Purpose?

Academic writing is a formal method of composing text aimed at the dissemination of knowledge
within an academic setting, commonly used in higher education contexts such as colleges and
universities (Johnson, 2016). Writing in this context reflects not just individual autonomy but also
a collective understanding, shaped by factors like culture, audience, and genre (Paudel, 2020).
Academic writing shares principles aligned with scientific methods, aiming to convey information
systematically, and objectively (Bhandari, 2025).

How to Develop a Strong Thesis Statements

The thesis statement or main claim must be debatable. An argumentative or persuasive piece of
writing must begin with a debatable thesis or claim. In other words, the thesis must be
something that people could reasonably have differing opinions on. If your thesis is something
that is generally agreed upon or accepted as fact then there is no reason to try to persuade
people. (Strong Thesis Statements - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University, n.d.)

For Examples:

"The Philippines is an archipelago consisting of over 7,000 islands located in Southeast

Asia."

This thesis is non-debatable because it presents a factual statement that cannot be reasonably
disputed. It simply conveys an established piece of information about the Philippines, making it
objective and not open to debate.

"The implementation of the 'Build, Build, Build' infrastructure program in the Philippines
has had mixed effects, significantly boosting the economy but exacerbating
environmental degradation and displacement of local communities."

This thesis is debatable because it presents a claim that can be argued from multiple
perspectives. Some may argue that the program has primarily benefited the economy, while
others may focus on its negative social and environmental consequences. It invites further
research and discussion, which is a key characteristic of a debatable thesis statement.

Key features of Academic Writing

Formal tone
• Follow convention in the field
• Avoid slang or colloquial language
• Avoid shorthand or contractions
• Organise work in properly constituted paragraphs
Evidence-based
• Support all arguments with evidence
• Use relevant research findings
• Use examples from practice
• Also use theoretical or conceptual propositions
• Use any other relevant literature, both published and unpublished

Depth and breadth

• To demonstrate depth, closely discuss or examine your arguments in detail, including
questioning widely held assumptions and notions.
• For breadth, consider all key counterarguments to your own and support these with evidence
as well.
• Include a wide range of evidence, i.e., different types and sources
• Offer balanced perspectives, including those you do not personally agree with.

Supportable conclusions
• Each examined argument should have a conclusion or closing
• For each argument, what is the ‘therefore’?
• You have considered multiple perspectives on the argument. So what?
• You have used multiple sources to support different perspectives. So what?
• For each well-rounded argument, reach a closing, i.e., the central insight of that section or
paragraph.

Clarity of meaning
• Use simple, easy-to-understand language for the discipline
• Offer operational definitions of key terms of the piece of writing
• Use technical terms how they are used in that discipline, bearing in mind the audience
• Describe, explain, expand, conclude
• Be succinct or concise

Focused
• Every part of the writing must meaningfully contribute towards answering the question,
examining the topic or fulfilling the overall purpose of the piece.
• Avoid including content just because it excites you
• Everything in the piece must earn its place by clearly relating to the core purpose of the
writing.

Sustained
• Follow through every argument in a balanced manner
• Ensure every argument is sufficiently developed and concluded or closed before moving on to
the next.

Cohesion of written thought

• Sound academic work flows, and cohesion is key to presenting convincing arguments
• Ensure that there is harmony within and between your paragraphs
• Transitions between points must be logical

Grounded in the discipline or topic

• All content must be consistent with the discipline
• Different terms mean different things in different disciplines. Ensure meanings in your writing
are consistent with disciplinary meanings.
• As appropriate, include discipline-specific literature and/ or evidence
• Inferences or interpretations must be compatible with those held within the field or discipline.
• Conclusions reached and insights drawn must be consistent with the field or discipline.

Originality
• The work ought to be original, i.e., it must be your own
• Even though others’ work is drawn on to extend or support one’s argument, the composition of
the work must be one’s original effort.
• Present your own arguments
• Draw your own insights
• Make your own inferences
• Use your own examples
• Reach your own conclusions

Four Main Types of Academic Writing

Descriptive Academic Writing
It is the simplest type of academic writing, its purpose is to provide factual information, describe
a certain event, topic or phenomenon and the information should always be clear, precise and
without bias. Descriptive writing also uses vivid details such as sensory sight, hearing, taste,
smell, and touch to make the readers more immersed in what they are reading and it should be
organized logically so the readers won’t have a hard time reading parts of the academic paper.
Always maintain a formal tone and use third person perspective at all times.

Analytical Academic Writing

Analytical is about analyzing the subject of academic writing listing things it uses descriptive
writing sometimes, but it is more organized and it is used to compare, or point out things that
are memorable on that subject. It is used more to analyze, compare, contrast, relate, and
examine. This is the main purpose of analytical academic writing; it thoroughly explains aspects
of the topic, article and claim.

Persuasive Academic Writing

Its sole purpose is to convince the readers on a specific viewpoint using logic, evidence and
reasoning, this type of writing is usually found in essays, research papers and in arguments.
The elements of Persuasive Academic Writing are an argument that clearly states the writer’s
position, must have credible evidence, reasoning, logic, data and examples it also needs to
acknowledge the viewpoint of the other party and form a counter argument to strengthen the
argument that is being made, must also use formal tone, proper citation and purpose.

Critical Academic Writing

This is used to solely criticize an article, topic, or research overall subject. It provides a counter
argument and points out the flaws on the claim made or just the subject itself, the writer must
provide 2 or more viewpoints on the matter that supports the critical paper being made. It is
usually used in criticizing works like articles, academic journals.
Process of Academic Writing
1.1. Research
1.​ Research in the academic writing process is essential for authors to broaden their
knowledge about a certain topic. Usually, with the help of research, it establishes
fundamental ideas, making a smooth process of writing along the way.

1.2. Prewriting
Prewriting is a step in the academic writing process that refers to organizing ideas and
extending the knowledge of the author about the topic.
• In prewriting, the author/s has to think outside the box and incorporate established ideas
gained in research.
• Also, the authors think ahead of who is going to be their readers to know what approach
applies to the paper (tone, style, and focus) and (to inform, to persuade, or to argue).

1.2.1. Brainstorming
It is a technique of using creativity to create a comprehensive engagement of ideas about the
topic.

1.2.2. Freewriting
A flexible and creative way of generating raw ideas about the topic, continuous writing in a
paper without worrying about editing or grammatical errors.

a. Mind mapping
It is a prewriting technique where the authors map out their ideas from the main topic to the
subtopics onto the details of the topic.

b. Conceptual mapping
Like mind mapping, it maps out ideas but in a more comprehensive way. It seeks the
relationships between paper resources and generated ideas given on the topic.

c. Listing
A prewriting technique in which the topic is broken down into smaller ideas, concepts, and the
basic components through a list.

1.2.3. Outlining
In prewriting, after the ideas were blurted from the general topic to its small details. Outlining
serves as the process of organizing to develop the structured composition of ideas.

1.3. Drafting
In this phase of writing, drafting serves as the process of turning research and prewriting into a
comprehensive written paper.
• In this phase, like freewriting, it's about putting thoughts without worry about perfection.
• It follows the structure of the outlined ideas used in prewriting, ensuring a coherent and logical
progression of ideas.

1.4. Revision-Editing-Proofreading
After the drafting phase, the next phase will proceed with a process of perfecting the structure of
the paper, such as spelling, grammar, punctuation, etc.
1.4.1. Revision
In this process, the authors look at the overall quality of the paper. It is used to correct the
organization of ideas, improve the content, and check on the clarity or the intended purpose of
the paper.

1.4.2. Editing
In this process, the editors ensure the paper's readability and precision
• Focuses on language, style, citation, and tone of the paper.

1.4.3. Proofreading
In this process, the proofreaders check on the grammatical or technical errors of the paper.
• Focuses on the spelling, punctuation, grammar, and even the alignment or the format of the
paper being checked.

1.5. Final Draft and Publication

This is the last phase of the academic writing process where:
• Final Draft
Serves as a comprehensive error-free document saved by the author after the entire process.
• Publication
Shared documents for the readers or made available for other authors to use.

Significance
1. Promotes critical thinking.
2. Ensure clarity and coherence
3. Enhances Credibility
4. Develop writing skills
5. Importance of readers
6. Encourages Attention to Details
7. Contributes knowledge sharing.

The Documented Essay

A research paper or documented essay is a piece of writing in which you incorporate
information—facts, arguments, opinions—taken from the writings of authorities in a particular
field. (Murray & Rockowitz, n.d)

TECHNIQUES FOR GENERATING IDEAS

Brainstorming
• on paper
• into a recording device
• with a classmate
• with your instructor
• using lists or diagrams
• questioning through who, what, where, when, why, how?

Asking yourself questions

• What have I learned about the subject from class or from my notes?
• What have I learned from the text(s) in the course?
• What do I know about the subject from my own experience?
• What am I interested in finding out about the subject?
• Where can I find more background information on the subject that will stimulate further thought
or more questions?

Consider the overall strategy for your paper:

Should it
• Review sources? (arrangement by ideas—not authors)
• analyze and synthesize sources? (arrangement by arguments—not authors)
• persuade the reader? (argue for a thesis of your own)
• inform the reader?
• do a combination of the above?

ORGANIZING THE RESEARCH AND THE ESSAY

keep accurate notes.
try to paraphrase
reconsider your thesis.
review the notes

WRITING AND REVISING

Reread each draft as you would any essay, checking for the following:
• Unity: Does everything in the paper relate to the thesis?
• Coherence: Do paragraphs and sections follow one another in a logical order?
• Development: Are your points fully explained?
• Style: Are ideas expressed clearly?
• Mechanics: Is the paper in correct, edited English?

CITING AND DOCUMENTING

Bibliography, Works Cited list, or References list arranged alphabetically

Types of Citations
●​ APA (American Psychological Association),
●​ ASA (American Sociological Association)
●​ Chicago (from The Chicago Manual of Style)
●​ AMA (American Medical Association)and,
●​ Notes-Bibliography (Turabian).

Plagiarism and Principles of Documentation

What is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism occurs when you use someone else’s work without acknowledging the original
author. Plagiarism is regarded as stealing and often leads to serious consequences and harsh
punishment. This is usually found in several areas, especially academic writing, where concepts
and statements are derived from an origin without proper citing.
What are the Principles of Documentation?

●​ The context of documentation

When discussing the "context of documentation" within the principles of documentation, it refers
to the surrounding factors that provide meaning and understanding to the documented
information. It encompasses the "why," "who," "where," "when," and "how" of the documentation.

●​ The characteristics of effective documentation

Effective documentation, regardless of the field, shares several key characteristics. These
characteristics ensure that the documentation is useful, reliable, and serves its intended
purpose. These characteristics are the accuracy, legibility, originality and the document being
complete.

●​ The common elements of documentation

When considering the common elements of documentation, it's helpful to think about the
components that contribute to clear, useful, and reliable records. These elements can be found
across various types of documentation, from medical records to software manuals. Such as the
following:

Identification: Title, Author, Date and Version Control.

Content: Purpose, Scope, Data/Information, Context and Reference.
Structure: Headings/Subheadings, Logical Flow, and Visual Aids
Contextual Information: Background information, Explanations of terms, and Rationale for
decisions.
Accuracy and Completeness: Factually correct information, and All relevant details included.
Accessibility: Easy to find and retrieve, and In a usable format.

The methods of documentation

The "methods of documentation of documentation" refers to the various techniques and

approaches used to create, record, and manage information. Essentially, it's about how you
document, not what you document. The following are the methods of documentation.

Textual Methods - The textual method involves documenting information using words,
sentences, and paragraphs, whether handwritten or digitally typed. It relies on the power of
language to convey facts, observations, procedures, and other relevant details.

Electronic Methods - The electronic method involves using computer systems, software
applications, and digital devices to document information. It encompasses a wide range of
technologies, from simple word processing to complex database systems.

Audio Methods - The audio method involves recording spoken information using devices such
as microphones, recorders, or digital audio software. This can include interviews, meetings,
dictations, or any situation where spoken communication is essential.

Charting by Exception - Charting by exception means documenting only significant findings or

exceptions to pre-defined standards or norms. If everything is within normal limits, it is not
documented. Only deviations or abnormal findings are recorded.
How to cite properly?
●​ When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means
that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in
the text, for example, (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the
reference list at the end of the paper.
●​ If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or
making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make
reference to the author and year of publication and not the page number in your in-text
reference. All sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the
end of the paper.
●​ Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
●​ If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four
letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions
apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing
New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose.
(Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new
media.)
●​ When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word:
Natural-Born Cyborgs.
●​ Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of
Hitchcock's Vertigo."
●​ Italicize the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television
series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz;
Friends.
●​ Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles
from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia
Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds;" "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."
Lesson 4: Summarized
I. What is Academic Writing?
Academic writing is a formal and evidence-based method of expressing one's thoughts and
arguments. It is a form of writing that adheres to specific conventions, primarily used within
scholarly and educational settings. This type of writing requires clarity, objectivity, and
consistency, and is grounded in research and critical thinking.

According to the University of Leeds (2019), academic writing is “a formal understandable

written expression of one’s own evidence-based perspectives.” Hyland and Jiang (2017)
emphasize that academic writing is characterized by engagement, while Lachowicz (1981)
notes that it should be objective. Lowe and Willey (2018) stress that academic writing must be
precise, and Lin-Siegler (2017) argues that it should be consistent in tone and message.

II. Purpose of Academic Writing

The primary purpose of academic writing is to communicate and disseminate knowledge. It
provides a platform for students and scholars to express their ideas in a structured, formal
manner that contributes to intellectual discussions within a specific discipline.

According to Paudel (2020), academic writing is an individual and collective product influenced
by cultural, genre-based, and audience-related factors. Bhandari (2025) also explains that
academic writing mirrors the scientific method as it involves organized, objective, and rational
processing of ideas to establish logical outcomes.

III. Characteristics of Academic Writing

Academic writing is distinguished by the following key characteristics:

1.​ Formal – It avoids colloquial or casual language, contractions, and slang. The tone
remains professional and respectful throughout.​

2.​ Evidence-based – All claims and arguments must be supported by credible sources
such as scholarly articles, books, and empirical research.​

3.​ Depth and Breadth – Ideas should be explored with thoroughness, taking into account
multiple perspectives.​
 4.​ Supportable Conclusions – All assertions and conclusions must be logically reasoned
and backed by evidence.​

5.​ Clarity of Meaning – Language should be straightforward and easy to understand;

technical terms must be used appropriately and defined as needed.​

6.​ Focused – Every sentence and paragraph must contribute directly to the central thesis
or research question.​

7.​ Sustained – Arguments should be fully developed and elaborated, rather than
presented as incomplete or isolated thoughts.​

8.​ Cohesion of Written Thought – Ideas must flow smoothly through transitions and
consistent structuring.​

9.​ Grounded in the Discipline or Topic – The paper should reflect the conventions and
terminologies relevant to the academic field it represents.​

10.​Originality – While drawing upon existing literature, the writing must express unique
analysis or interpretation, showcasing the writer’s own scholarly voice.

IV. Types of Academic Writing

Academic writing serves various purposes and can be categorized into four major types. Each
type has specific goals, structures, and language features:

1. Descriptive Writing

Purpose: To define, describe, or explain a concept, process, event, object, or theory in a factual
and objective manner.

Features:

●​ Focuses on presenting facts and information without interpretation.

●​ Uses neutral and objective language.
●​ Frequently employs the third-person point of view.
●​ Common in summaries, background sections, and definitions.

Example:​
“The water cycle consists of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection.”
Used in:

●​ Reports (background sections)

●​ Literature reviews
●​ Laboratory observations
●​ Definitions and descriptions of theories or models

2. Analytical Writing

Purpose: To examine, interpret, and evaluate the components of a concept, issue, or problem
and show relationships between parts.

Features:

●​ Involves categorizing and comparing ideas.

●​ Focuses on breaking down complex topics into smaller elements.
●​ May include charts, graphs, or frameworks to analyze data.
●​ Often includes some descriptive elements but goes beyond by organizing information
logically.

Example:​
“In comparing the educational systems of Japan and the Philippines, it is evident that Japan
places greater emphasis on discipline and national identity, while the Philippines focuses on
global competitiveness and English proficiency.”

Used in:

●​ Compare-and-contrast essays
●​ Analytical reports
●​ Research papers
●​ Case studies

3. Persuasive Writing

Purpose: To convince the reader to accept a particular point of view or course of action,
supported by reasoning, logic, and evidence.

Features:

●​ Includes a clear position or argument (thesis).

●​ Supports claims with credible sources and logical reasoning.​
 ●​ Often addresses counterarguments to strengthen the position.
●​ Strong use of evaluative language to influence readers.

Example:​
“Online learning should continue post-pandemic due to its flexibility and accessibility, especially
for students in remote areas.”

Used in:

●​ Argumentative essays
●​ Opinion articles
●​ Editorials
●​ Policy papers
●​ Position papers

4. Critical Writing

Purpose: To engage with multiple sources, perspectives, and arguments in order to assess
their strengths and weaknesses, and form an informed judgment or interpretation.

Features:

●​ Goes beyond summarizing or analyzing by evaluating assumptions, implications, and

logic.
●​ Involves synthesis of ideas from different sources.
●​ Aims to construct a reasoned and well-supported conclusion.
●​ Reflects the writer’s informed stance based on research and analysis.

Example:​
“While social media facilitates democratic participation, it also creates echo chambers that limit
exposure to diverse opinions, thus weakening its potential as a tool for social change.”

Used in:

●​ Literature reviews
●​ Critical response essays
●​ Reflective essays
●​ Academic critiques
V. Thesis Statement
A thesis statement is the main claim or central idea of an academic essay or research paper. It
acts as the foundation upon which the entire argument or discussion is built. A strong thesis
guides the structure and focus of the paper and informs the reader about the writer’s position or
objective.

Characteristics of a Strong Thesis Statement:

1.​ Debatable – The thesis should make a claim that could be challenged by others. It must

✅
not be a statement of fact.

❌
○​ “Social media is harmful to teenagers’ mental health.”
○​ “The Philippines is an archipelago.” (This is factual and not debatable)​

✅
2.​ Specific – The thesis should be clear and detailed, not vague or overly broad.
○​ “Government subsidies should prioritize small-scale farmers to promote food

❌
security in rural communities.”
○​ “The government should help agriculture.” (Too general)​

3.​ Focused – It must concentrate on a particular idea that can be thoroughly explored

✅
within the paper’s scope.
○​ “Mandatory military training in universities may instill discipline but risks

❌
glorifying violence and nationalism.”
○​ “War is bad.” (Too broad and simplistic)

Examples:

Non-debatable Thesis:

“The Philippines is composed of 7,641 islands.”

●​ This is a verified fact and cannot be debated or argued, so it is not suitable as a thesis.​

Debatable Thesis:

“The 'Build, Build, Build' program has improved the economy but also caused significant harm to
the environment.”

●​ This is debatable because:

○​ It presents two contrasting impacts.​
It invites further exploration: How has it improved the economy? In what ways
has it harmed the environment?
 ○​ Readers may agree or disagree, making it open for discussion.

Why the Thesis Statement Matters:

●​ Acts as a roadmap for the essay.

●​ Helps the writer stay focused on the argument.
●​ Allows the reader to understand the main point early on.
●​ Guides the selection of relevant evidence and structure of the essay.

VI. Academic Writing as a Process

Academic writing is not a one-step task; it is a dynamic, multi-stage process consisting of the
following stages:

1. Research

The writer collects relevant, credible, and scholarly sources that help support the ideas and
arguments in the paper. Research is the foundation of a strong academic paper.

2. Prewriting

This phase involves organizing ideas before beginning the actual writing. It helps the writer
develop a clearer direction for the paper.

Prewriting Strategies:

●​ Brainstorming – Listing out ideas freely, either individually or in a group.

●​ Freewriting – Writing continuously without worrying about grammar or organization to
generate raw ideas.
➢​ Mind Mapping – Drawing connections between ideas visually.
➢​ Conceptual Mapping – A more structured visual approach to organizing
complex ideas.
➢​ Listing – Creating bullet points or categorized topics.
●​ Outlining – Laying out the structure of the essay in hierarchical form.

3. Drafting

The first version of the essay is created by translating ideas from the outline into complete
sentences and paragraphs. At this stage, the focus is on idea development rather than
perfection.
4. Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

●​ Revising – Substantive changes to improve logic, organization, and content.

●​ Editing – Refining language use, sentence structure, and clarity.
●​ Proofreading – Correcting surface-level issues such as grammar, spelling, punctuation,
and formatting.

5. Final Draft and Publication

After careful revision and editing, the final draft should reflect a polished and coherent piece of
academic work that upholds standards of accuracy, integrity, and clarity.

VII. The Documented Essay

A documented essay, commonly known as a research paper, uses external sources such as
facts, arguments, statistics, or expert opinions to support the writer’s ideas. These ideas must
be properly cited, following a specific documentation format such as APA, MLA, or Chicago
style.

According to Murray and Rockowitz, a documented essay incorporates others’ insights to

support a central thesis. This type of writing requires careful planning, source selection, and
synthesis of multiple perspectives.

VIII. Writing Process for Documented Essays

1.​ Choose a Topic – Select a topic that is interesting and researchable.
2.​ Formulate a Thesis Statement – Clearly define the main argument or purpose.
3.​ Conduct Research – Use academic databases, books, and peer-reviewed journals.
4.​ Organize Information – Group related information and develop a logical structure.
5.​ Draft the Essay – Begin with an introduction, followed by body paragraphs with
evidence, and conclude with a strong summary.
6.​ Revise and Finalize – Ensure cohesion, accuracy, and proper citation.

Important Tips:

●​ Do not simply summarize sources; analyze and critique them.

●​ Identify gaps, strengths, and weaknesses in existing literature.
●​ Relate all ideas back to your thesis.
●​ Take careful notes during research to avoid plagiarism.​
 ●​ Review multiple times before submission to ensure quality.

IX. Significance of Academic Writing

Academic writing plays a critical role in the academic and professional development of students
and researchers. It:

1.​ Enhances critical and analytical thinking skills.

2.​ Promotes clarity, structure, and logical reasoning.
3.​ Encourages independent learning and scholarly engagement.
4.​ Builds academic credibility and supports intellectual contribution.
5.​ Strengthens communication and research skills.
6.​ Develops precision and attention to detail.
7.​ Fosters a deeper understanding of various disciplines.

X. Citation and Plagiarism

Academic integrity is a fundamental principle in scholarly work. Understanding citation and
plagiarism is essential to maintaining honesty, credibility, and professionalism in all academic
tasks.

A. Citation

Citation is the scholarly practice of formally acknowledging the sources of information, ideas,
data, or words that are incorporated into one’s academic writing. It serves several essential
purposes:

Purpose of Citation:

●​ To give credit to the original authors or creators of the work.

●​ To demonstrate academic honesty by avoiding intellectual theft.
●​ To allow readers to trace the sources and verify the information used.
●​ To support arguments with credible and authoritative evidence.
●​ To join the academic conversation by showing engagement with existing literature.​
 When to Cite:

●​ When quoting directly from a source.

●​ When paraphrasing or summarizing another person’s ideas.
●​ When using factual information, statistics, or data that are not common knowledge.
●​ When referencing theories, methods, or frameworks developed by others.

Common Citation Styles:

Each discipline may prefer a particular citation format. Here are the most widely used styles:

1.​ APA (American Psychological Association):​

○​ Commonly used in the social sciences (e.g., psychology, education, sociology).

○​ Emphasizes the author and date of publication.
○​ Example (in-text): (Garcia, 2021)
○​ Example (reference): Garcia, A. (2021). Education in the Digital Age. Pearson.​

2.​ MLA (Modern Language Association):​

○​ Used primarily in literature, arts, and humanities.

○​ Focuses on the author and page number.
○​ Example (in-text): (Garcia 45)
○​ Example (works cited): Garcia, Ana. Education in the Digital Age. Pearson, 2021.​

3.​ Chicago Manual of Style:​

○​ Preferred in history and some humanities.

○​ Offers two systems: notes and bibliography (footnotes or endnotes) and
author-date.
○​ Example (footnote): Ana Garcia, Education in the Digital Age (New York:
Pearson, 2021), 45.​

4.​ Harvard Referencing System:​

○​ Common in many international academic institutions.

○​ Author-date style similar to APA.
○​ Example (in-text): (Garcia 2021)
○​ Example (reference): Garcia, A. (2021). Education in the Digital Age. Pearson.​
 Importance of Consistency:

Writers must consistently follow the required citation style throughout the academic paper.
Failure to do so may lead to confusion, lower credibility, or even accusations of academic
dishonesty.

B. Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of using another person’s intellectual work—whether words, ideas,
images, or data—without proper acknowledgment. It is considered a serious academic offense
and can lead to disciplinary action, including failing grades, suspension, or expulsion.

Forms of Plagiarism:

1.​ Direct Plagiarism:​

Copying a portion of text word-for-word from a source without using quotation marks or
providing proper citation.​
Example: Copying an entire paragraph from a website into an essay without
acknowledging the source.​

2.​ Mosaic Plagiarism (Patchwriting):​

Combining phrases or ideas from various sources with one's own writing but without
proper citation. Often includes slightly reworded content but retains the original structure
or language.​
Example: Rewriting parts of an article while keeping the sentence structure intact and
not citing the source.​

3.​ Self-Plagiarism:​
Reusing one’s own previously submitted work (e.g., an essay or project) for a different
course or assignment without proper citation or the instructor’s permission.​
Note: Even if it’s your own work, it must be acknowledged if reused.​

4.​ Accidental Plagiarism:​

Occurs when a student fails to cite sources properly due to lack of understanding or
careless referencing.​
Example: Forgetting to include an in-text citation for paraphrasing too closely to the
original source.​
 How to Avoid Plagiarism:

To ensure academic integrity and avoid committing plagiarism—intentionally or

unintentionally—students should practice the following:

1.​ Always give credit to the original author or source when using their ideas or words.
2.​ Use quotation marks for any direct quotes, and cite the source appropriately.
3.​ Paraphrase effectively by rewriting the information in your own words and sentence
structure—while still citing the source.
4.​ Summarize properly by condensing the main points of a source, and acknowledging it.
5.​ Keep organized notes while researching. Record all source details (author, title, page,
year, etc.) to ensure proper citation later.
6.​ Use citation management tools (e.g., Zotero, Mendeley, or Microsoft Word’s built-in
citation feature) to track and format sources accurately.
7.​ Consult plagiarism detection tools such as Turnitin or Grammarly to ensure originality.
8.​ Understand your institution’s academic integrity policy and follow it strictly.

Conclusion
Academic writing is an essential skill for students, scholars, and professionals. By
understanding its characteristics, processes, and ethical guidelines, writers can produce
high-quality, credible, and original scholarly work. The documented essay serves as a
foundational academic genre that encourages research, synthesis, and intellectual
contribution—essential components of academic growth and integrity.
Midterm Reviewer
COMMUNICATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Communication Models
Models of communication provide us with a visual representation of the different
aspects of a communication situation. Since communication is a complex process, it’s
often challenging to determine where a conversation begins and ends. That is where
models of communication come in — to simplify the process of understanding
communication.

1. Linear Model
A one-way communication model where the sender transmits a message to the
receiver without expecting a response.

Types of Linear Model

1. Aristotle Model - Focuses on persuasion, emphasizing three key elements: ethos

(credibility), pathos (emotions), and logos (logic).

●​ Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility,

authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their choice.
●​ Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions
(anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
●​ Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be interesting
— it needs to follow the rules of logic.
Picture this:
Professor Hustvedt is giving a lecture on neurological disorders to her students. She
delivers her speech persuasively, in a manner that leaves her students mesmerized. The
professor is at the center of attention, whereas her audience — her students — are
merely passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message influences them and makes them
act accordingly.
So, in this situation, professor Hustvedt is the speaker, and her lecture on disorders is
the act of speech. The occasion in question is a university lecture, while the students are
her target audience. The effect of her speech is the students gaining knowledge on this
subject matter. One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention
to the feedback in communication because the audience is passive.

2. Lasswell's Model - A linear model that answers the question "Who says what to whom
with what effect?"

Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements:
●​ Who created the message?
●​ What did they say?
●​ What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
●​ To whom did they say it?
●​ What effect did it have on the receiver?
The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:
●​ Communicator,
●​ Message,
●​ Medium,
●​ Audience/Receiver, and
●​ Effect.

Picture this:​
Let’s say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a suitcase
salesman, Mr. Sanders. He is promoting his brand of suitcases as the best. Aware that
millions of viewers are watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a
remarkable impression. By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his
product as the best on the market, and consequently increasing sales revenue.

So, in this instance, Mr. Sanders is the communicator. The message he is conveying is
the promotion of his brand of suitcases as the best. The medium he uses is television.
His audience consists of evening TV viewers in the US. The effect he is achieving by
doing this is raising brand awareness and increasing sales revenue.

3. Shannon-Weaver Model - The mother of communication models. A model that

describes communication as a process of encoding and decoding messages. It consists
of five elements: sender, encoder, channel, decoder, and receiver.

★​ Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the
communication process.

Picture this:​
Paula, a VP of Marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new
marketing strategies they are about to introduce next month. She wants a detailed study
of the competitor’s activity by the end of the week. Unfortunately, while she was
speaking, her assistant Peter interrupted her, and she forgot to tell Julian about the most
important issue. At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some
mistakes, which had to be corrected later on.

Let’s take a moment to briefly analyze this example. Paula is the sender, her mouth
being the encoder. The meeting she held was the channel. Julian’s ears and brain were
decoders, and Julian was the receiver. Can you guess Peter’s role? Yes, he was the noise.

4. Berlo's S-M-C-R Model - A communication model that considers four key elements:
Source (S), Message (M), Channel (C), and Receiver (R).
Picture this:​
Watching the news on television is the perfect example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of
communication. In this case, the news presenter is the source of the news and they
convey the message to the audience. The news is the message, the television is the
channel, and the audience are the receivers of the message.

2. Interactive Model
A two-way communication model where the sender and receiver interact with each
other, with the receiver providing feedback to the sender.

Types of Interactional Model

1. Osgood-Schramm Model - An interactive model that views communication as a

circular process.

●​ Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the communication

process are changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
 ●​ Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally engaged as
encoders and decoders.
●​ The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be properly
interpreted to be understood.

Picture this:​
Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly, they call
you, and you start updating each other about what happened during the time you have
not seen each other. In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and
decoding messages, and your communication is synchronous. You are both
interpreting each other’s messages.

2. Westley and MacLean Model - A transactional model that views communication as a

dynamic process.

●​ The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the

communication process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with
environmental factors.
●​ This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background,
culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.
●​ The very process of communication, according to this communication model,
starts with environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or
society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space,
etc.
●​ Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.
Picture this:
Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident. This is the type of
stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you had
seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a bit late. So, the communication
process in this example does not start with you, but with the road accident you have
witnessed. Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore,
allows us to pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of
communication.

3. Transactional Model
A dynamic communication model where the sender and receiver are equally involved in
the communication process.
 ●​ Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction,
meaning that it is a cooperative process in which communicators co-create the
process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.
●​ In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.
●​ Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange
information during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural
bonds, and shape our opinions.
●​ In other words, communication helps us establish our realities.

Types of Transactional Model

1. Barnlund's Model - A transactional model that views communication as a

simultaneous process of sending and receiving messages.

●​ Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular

process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the receiver,
both of whom can affect the message being sent.
●​ The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important.
Feedback from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators
provide feedback.
●​ At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the
communication’s effect and effectiveness.
2. Dance's Helical Model - A dynamic model that views communication as a spiral
process.

●​ According to this communication model, in the communication process, the

feedback we get from the other party involved influences our next statement
and we become more knowledgeable with every new cycle.

Picture this:
Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout
their life. Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on,
using rudimentary methods of communication. For instance, as babies, we cry to get our
mothers’ attention. Later on, we learn to speak in words, and then in full sentences.
During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication.
Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to communicate
more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective
communication. In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the
top of Dance’s helix.

Communication Ethics

Communication
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or
nonverbal means (Richard Nordquist, 2024).

What is Ethics?
Ethics are guidelines that help people decide what's right and wrong, and how to treat
others.
Ethical Communication
Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and
the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts,
cultures, channels, and media (NCA, 1999).

Unethical Communication
Unethical communication is communication that is dishonest, deceptive, or
misleading.

The Principles of Ethical Communication

1. Ensuring Transparency and Honesty

Communicators should provide accurate and truthful information without misleading
or leaving out important details.

Example: A student tells the teacher they don’t understand a topic instead of pretending
they do.

2. Respect for others

Means of considering others' feelings, perspectives, and rights when speaking,
listening, or writing. It involves politeness, active listening, and avoiding offensive or
dismissive language.

Example: A student patiently listens to a classmate struggling to explain an answer

instead of interrupting or laughing.

3. Avoid a Negative Tone

Ethically communicating assumes the speaker will avoid rudeness, be polite and
professional, and have tact. The ethical communicator knows that it’s not only
important what you say, but how you say it.

Example:
Instead of: “That idea won’t work.”
Say: “That’s an interesting idea! Maybe we could adjust it to make it more effective.”

4. Fairness and Equity

Ensure that all voices are acknowledged, diverse perspectives are respected, and
information is shared in an inclusive and unbiased manner.
Example: A teacher ensures that all students, regardless of their background, get equal
chances to speak and participate.

5. Accept Responsibility
Involves being truthful, transparent, and respectful in conveying information while
taking ownership of one’s words, actions, and their potential impact on others.

Example:
Instead of: “I’m sorry if you were offended.” (This shifts blame.)
Say: “I’m sorry for what I said. I didn’t mean to hurt you, and I will be more mindful in
the future.”

6. Respect Privacy And Confidentiality

Ensure that sensitive information is protected, shared only with authorized
individuals, and handled with integrity to maintain trust and compliance with ethical
and legal standards.

Example: A doctor does not disclose a patient’s medical condition to others without
consent, respecting their privacy.

7. Cultural Sensitivity
Involves recognizing and respecting diverse communication styles to avoid
misunderstandings and foster inclusivity.

Example: Instead of saying, “That’s not how we do it here,” say, “We have a different
approach, but I’d love to learn about yours.”
 "Communication is the key to successful relationships." - Jeanne Phillips

Communication and Globalization

What is Globalization?
●​ Globalization describes the growing interdependence of the world’s economies,
cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services,
technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.
●​ Globalization is a term used to describe how trade and technology have made the
world into a more connected and interdependent place.

How does Communication affect Globalization?

Globalization has transformed communication by breaking barriers and enabling global
interaction.

World Englishes and Global Communication

Refers to the various varieties of the English language spoken across the globe. Global
communications signifies the use of English as a primary means of communication
between people from different countries.

Braj Kachru an Indian-American Linguist

proposed 3 Concentric Circles Model
of Englishes.
●​ ENL
●​ ESL
●​ EFL

Standard English
is a variety of language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is
usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.

Varieties of Language

1. Accent - pronunciation characteristics of a particular group of people relative to another

group.

Example:
●​ In American English, "tomato" is pronounced as tə-MAY-toh, while in British English, it
is pronounced as tə-MAH-toh.
●​ Someone from New York might say "coffee" as "caw-fee", while someone from Texas
might pronounce it as "cah-fee".
2. Regional Dialect - a way of speaking a language that is used only in a particular area or by
a particular group.

Example:
●​ In the U.S., people in the South might say "y’all" (you all), while people in the North say
"you guys".
●​ In the UK, a soft bread roll is called a "bap" in London, a "bun" in Newcastle, and a
"cob" in Nottingham.
●​ In the Philippines, Tagalog speakers say "gusto ko ito", while Ilocano speakers say
"kayak daytoy" (both meaning "I like this").

3. Pidgin - a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two

or more groups that do not have a language in common.

Example:
●​ Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea is a pidgin language that developed from English and
local languages.
○​ "Mi likim yu" = "I like you."
●​ Hawaiian Pidgin English emerged from English, Hawaiian, and Asian languages used
by workers in plantations.
○​ "You like go beach?" = "Do you want to go to the beach?"

4. Creole - a complete language used in a community and acquired by children as their

native language.

●​ A creole is a fully developed language that originates from a pidgin but becomes the
native language of a community. It has its own grammar and vocabulary.

Example:
●​ Haitian Creole evolved from French and African languages.
○​ "Mwen rele Jean." = "My name is Jean."
●​ Jamaican Patois developed from English and West African languages.
○​ "Mi deh yah" = "I am here."

5. Indigenize Varieties - are spoken mainly as second languages in ex colonies with

multilingual populations.

Example:
●​ Philippine English (influenced by Tagalog and other local languages)
○​ "Can I go out?" (instead of "May I go out?") is commonly used in Filipino schools.
●​ Indian English (influenced by Hindi and other regional languages)
○​ "I am having a meeting now." (instead of "I am in a meeting now.")
Every language has 5 registers.
1. Frozen
2. Formal
3. Consultative
4. Casual
5. Intimate

Culturally Sensitive and Bias Free Language

What is Cultural Sensitivity?

●​ Connect us with other cultures
●​ Shows respect, kindness and value to culture differences without barriers

❖​ Contextual Understanding of Cultural Differences

❖​ Avoiding Offensive Language Through Cultural Awareness
❖​ Building Trust with Culturally Sensitive Content
❖​ Bridging Cultural Gaps

Bias Free Language

Known as inclusive language, refers to words and phrases that are free from prejudices,
stereotypes, or discriminatory implications. It includes comments about age, disability,
gender, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality.

Key Principles of Bias Free Language

Avoiding Stereotypes
For example, instead of referring to a nurse as “she” and a doctor as “he,” use gender-neutral
terms like “they” or “the healthcare professional.”

Using Inclusive Terminology

For instance, rather than saying “disabled person,” use “person with a disability” to emphasize
the individual first.

Respecting Cultural Differences

Example: Consider the phrase “mankind.” While it has been traditionally used to refer to
humanity as a whole, it is not gender-neutral. Instead, using “humanity” or “people” removes the
gender bias and makes the language more inclusive.

More Informations:
 1.​ What is the difference between interactive and transactional models of
communication?

In simple terms:
●​ Interactive Model of communication is like a two-way street with feedback. It considers
both the sender and receiver as active participants. Think of it as texting with a
friend—one person sends a message, the other replies, and this exchange continues.
●​ The Transactional Model goes a step further. It sees communication as happening
simultaneously, meaning both people are sending and receiving messages at the same
time. Imagine a face-to-face conversation where you nod, react, and speak all at once. It
emphasizes that communication is continuous and influenced by context (like
emotions or environment).
●​ So, while the interactive model is like taking turns in a conversation, the
transactional model is like talking and reacting at the same time.

2.​ Differentiate the following:

●​ Aristotle’s Model
Imagine a motivational speaker on stage. They prepare their speech carefully, choosing words
to inspire the audience. The speaker delivers the message, and the audience listens. The goal?
To persuade or influence them. This model focuses on how well the speaker delivers the
message to create an effect on the audience—but there’s no feedback involved.

Example: A politician giving a campaign speech, trying to convince people to vote for them.

●​ Lasswell’s Model
Think of a news anchor on TV. They read the news script (message) through a broadcast
(channel) to inform the public (audience). After the broadcast, people react in different
ways—some might feel informed, others might worry or take action. This model breaks
communication down into who is speaking, what they’re saying, how they’re delivering it,
to whom, and what effect it has.

Example: A journalist reporting a typhoon warning on national TV, influencing people to prepare
for the storm.

●​ Shannon-Weaver Model
Picture yourself making a phone call to a friend, but there’s a weak signal, and you can’t hear
them clearly. That’s “noise” interrupting communication. This model focuses on how messages
travel through different channels and how disturbances (like static, distractions, or
misunderstandings) can affect the message.

Example: You’re in a noisy café trying to talk on the phone, but the background noise makes it
hard to understand each other.
 ●​ Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model
Imagine a teacher explaining a lesson. The effectiveness of communication depends on many
factors:
➢​ The teacher’s skills (Do they explain well?)
➢​ The message’s clarity (Is the lesson well-structured?)
➢​ The channel used (Are they using visual aids or just talking?)
➢​ The students’ understanding (Do they have prior knowledge?)

This model shows that communication isn’t just about sending a message—it’s about how both
the sender and receiver influence understanding.

Example: A teacher explains a difficult math problem, using diagrams and examples to make
sure students understand.

3.​ What is the Osgood-Schramm Model?

The Osgood-Schramm Model is a two-way communication model where both people take
turns as sender and receiver. It shows that communication is continuous and interactive,
just like a natural conversation.

Example:
You tell your friend, "That movie was great!" → They understand and reply, "Yes! The twist was
amazing!" → You respond again.

This back-and-forth cycle of encoding, decoding, and feedback keeps repeating, making
communication dynamic and ongoing.

4.​ What is the difference between accent, regional dialect, pidgin, creole, and
indigenized varieties?

An accent refers to differences in pronunciation within the same language. People may
pronounce words differently based on where they are from, but they still use the same
vocabulary and grammar. For example, Filipinos speaking English often have a distinct Filipino
accent compared to Americans or British speakers.

A regional dialect, on the other hand, goes beyond just pronunciation. It includes differences in
vocabulary and grammar as well, forming a unique variety of a language spoken in a specific
area. For instance, Tagalog is spoken differently in Batangas compared to Manila, with
variations in expressions and sentence structures.

Meanwhile, a pidgin is a simplified language that develops when two groups of people with no
common language need to communicate. It is not a native language but rather a mix of words
and structures borrowed from different languages to make basic communication possible. Over
time, if a pidgin becomes the first language of a new generation and develops its own stable
grammar and vocabulary, it turns into a creole. A good example is Chavacano, which started as
a pidgin between Spanish colonizers and Filipinos but eventually became a full-fledged
language spoken natively by many people.

Lastly, an indigenized variety occurs when a foreign language, like English, is adapted to fit a
local culture and way of speaking. In the Philippines, for example, Philippine English includes
unique expressions such as “comfort room” for restrooms and “open the light” instead of “turn
on the light.” These modifications make the language more natural for local speakers while still
being understandable to others.

5.​ What is cultural sensitivity?

Cultural sensitivity means being aware, respectful, and understanding of other people's
cultures, beliefs, and traditions. It means recognizing that different cultures have their own ways
of thinking, speaking, and behaving—and making sure we don’t offend or disrespect them, even
if they are different from our own.

For example, if you visit another country, you try to learn and respect their customs, like
greeting people properly or dressing appropriately. In conversations, you also avoid making
jokes or comments that might be offensive to someone's background or beliefs.

In simple terms, cultural sensitivity is about treating people from different cultures with
kindness, respect, and open-mindedness.

6.​ Further explain the key principles of Bias Free Language:

a.​ Avoiding Stereotypes

Stereotypes are generalized and often inaccurate beliefs about a particular group of people.
Using language that reinforces stereotypes can be harmful or offensive. To avoid this, we must
focus on individual qualities rather than making assumptions based on gender, race, age, or
other factors.

Example of avoiding stereotypes:

●​ Instead of “Women are emotional leaders,” say “Leaders should balance logic and
empathy.”
●​ Instead of “Men are better at math,” say “Anyone can excel in math with practice.”

b.​ Using Inclusive Terminology

Inclusive language acknowledges and respects all individuals, ensuring no one feels
excluded or marginalized. This means using gender-neutral terms, avoiding outdated or
offensive words, and considering diverse identities.

Example of using inclusive terminology:

●​ Instead of “fireman” or “policeman,” use “firefighter” or “police officer.”
 ●​ Instead of “disabled person,” say “person with a disability” to emphasize the person
first.
●​ Instead of “guys” to address a mixed group, say “everyone” or “folks.”

c.​ Respecting Cultural Differences

Language should show awareness and appreciation of different cultures without appropriating
or misrepresenting them. This means avoiding offensive terms, learning how people prefer to be
identified, and being mindful of how words may have different meanings in different cultures.

Example of respecting cultural differences:

●​ Instead of using terms like “exotic” to describe people or traditions, use specific
and respectful descriptions.
●​ Instead of making assumptions about someone’s background based on their name
or appearance, ask respectfully if needed.
●​ Instead of using humor that mocks cultural practices, be open to learning about them
with respect.
PUBLIC SPEAKING​

Public Speaking
●​ Public speaking is a form of communication that involves delivering a message to
an audience (Kapur, R. 2022).
●​ Speaking means communication. Conveying messages and communicative skills
can be enhanced when listeners and speakers engage in meaningful
communication in the target language (Yildiz, 2020).

Elements of Public Speaking

1.​ Speaker
●​ Speaker is the first link in the chain of public speaking; everything starts with the
speaker. The one who applies the rules and requirements of public speaking.
Their attitudes and applications will give a certain shape to public speaking. They
should make arrangements carefully to make an effective speech to the others.

2.​ Audience
●​ The people to which the message will be delivered by the speaker is called the
audience. Therefore, since it is the community to which the public speaking is
directed, the audience is the other complementary element together with the
speaker.

3.​ Message
●​ The speaker and the listener come to the fore as human elements, the message
that will ensure the communication between the two, and what the speaker wants
to convey is the message.

4.​ Channel
●​ The message is transmitted from the speaker to the listener. This channel can be
face-to-face communication as well as through technological means. Examples of
these are radio, television, and the Internet.

5.​ Setting
●​ In public speaking, the environment in which the communication is directed
from the speaker to the listener is important.

6.​ Delivery
 ●​ The transmission of the message to the other party, together with the use of all
the premises required by public speaking, is expressed as delivery. In other words,
delivery is the speaker's ability to best convey his message to the listener.

Forms of Delivery

1.​ Extemporaneous Delivery

●​ Extemporaneous delivery involves careful planning and preparation, but the
speaker should use notes as a guide rather than memorizing the speech.

2.​ Memorization
●​ Memorization can make the speech sound unnatural and less engaging.

3.​ Impromptu Delivery

●​ In the impromptu version, which is the opposite of the previous delivery, the
speaker does not make any plans and addresses the audience unprepared. This
has some risky aspects.

4.​ Manuscript
●​ Manuscript speeches involve reading directly from a written text. This ensures
thorough preparation and organization but can hinder eye contact and audience
engagement, potentially leading to boredom.

Purposes of Public Speaking

1. To Inform
This type of speech aims to educate the audience about a topic, providing them with new
information or insights.

2. To Persuade
This type of speech aims to convince the audience to agree with a particular viewpoint
or to take a specific action.

3. To Entertain
This type of speech aims to amuse and engage the audience, often through storytelling,
humor, or captivating performances.
History of Public Speaking

1. The Classical Period (500 BCE - 400 BCE)

●​ public speaking = political participation
●​ emergence of philosophers and growth of communication
●​ "Fantastic Four" vs "Sophist"

2. Medieval Period (400 CE - 1400 CE)

●​ public speaking = religious preaching
●​ public speaking is used to guide pagans in the right path
●​ dark age of public speaking
●​ emergence of religious philosophy

3. Renaissance (1400 CE - 1600 CE)

●​ public speaking = empowering secular institutions and government
●​ combination of Classical & Medieval Period
●​ public speaking in this period is regarded as arts

4. Modern Era/Enlightenment (1600 CE - 1800 CE)

●​ public speaking = wake of the revolution
●​ acceptance of plurality
●​ public speaking is used for revolt, peace talks and emergence of war

5. Contemporary Applications (1900 CE - 2000 CE)

●​ public speaking = universal/everyday uses
●​ public speaking encompasses all aspects of community
●​ public speaking is developed in all fields

How to Improve Your Public Speaking

Shortcoming 1: Failing to Engage the Audience

●​ Know Your Audience: Understand their goals, interests, and existing knowledge to tailor
your speech accordingly.
●​ Create a Speaking Outline: Focus on one main idea and use brief phrases or words to
guide your presentation, keeping the audience engaged.
●​ Use Vocal Techniques: Vary your tone, pitch, rate, and volume to captivate the audience
and maintain attention.
●​ Practice Good Posture: Stand tall and straight to project confidence and a clear voice.

Shortcoming 2: Overuse of Filler Words

●​ Cultivate Awareness: Record yourself speaking and listen to identify repetitive filler
words.
●​ Collect Thoughts: Use pauses instead of filler words, allowing yourself time to think and
gather your next words.
 ●​ Calm Nerves: Take a deep breath and pause before starting your speech to reduce
anxiety and improve delivery.

Best Practices in Public Speaking

1.​ Reading
Expanding vocabulary and knowledge through reading helps with effective
communication.

2.​ Listening to Podcasts and Online Streams

Gaining insights and improving public speaking abilities through educational podcasts
and
online streams.

3.​ Self-Reflection
Recognizing and correcting mistakes, seeking knowledge beyond language skills, and
continuously assessing public speaking abilities are essential for improvement.

4.​ Practicing Stage Presence

Seeking chances to speak at various events or discussions to refine delivery, understand
audience reactions, and learn effective methods of connection.

5.​ Socializing in Academic Settings

Engaging in public speaking opportunities to develop and refine language skills.
Introduction
●​ Effective oral communication is essential for success in education, career, and
life (Tripathy, 2020).
●​ TED Talks have emerged as influential platforms for sharing knowledge and
inspiring audiences through expert storytelling and effective communication
techniques (Rabi et al., 2023).
●​ TED (Technology, Entertainment, and Design) was founded in 1984 and
expanded globally through TEDx events.
●​ TED Talks provide valuable models for enhancing oral presentation techniques,
expanding vocabulary, and adapting communication skills to different contexts
(Compagnone, 2015).
●​ Oral communication is crucial for:
○​ Academic success (class discussions, presentations).
○​ Professional success (job interviews, business meetings).
○​ Personal interactions and public speaking (Kilag et al., 2023).
●​ Beyond their entertainment value, TED Talks have been recognized as valuable
educational tools that enhance oral presentation skills and vocabulary
development.

Impact on Oral Communication Skills

●​ Studies (Segarra et al., 2019; Olga, 2019; Welton, 2015):
○​ Improved students' ability to present ideas clearly and engage audiences.
○​ Enhanced confidence in public speaking (Washington, 2022).
○​ TED Talks model effective communication:
■​ Structuring speeches
■​ Using storytelling techniques
■​ Engaging with audiences

Positive Influence on Oral Presentation Skills

✔ Effective Communication Models – TED speakers demonstrate mastery of
rhetorical strategies, storytelling, and non-verbal communication (Ishaq et al., 2013).​
✔ Structured Narrative Format – Clear introduction → Problem → Solution →
Conclusion enhances audience comprehension (Gallo, 2016).​
✔ Emotional Engagement – Storytelling using anecdotes and metaphors increases
audience connection (Jovic et al., 2023).​
✔ Non-Verbal Techniques – Eye contact, facial expressions, and vocal modulation
strengthen delivery (Sueyoshi & Hardison, 2005).

Enhanced Vocabulary Acquisition

✔ Exposure to Specialized Terms – TED Talks introduce viewers to domain-specific
and sophisticated language (Sen et al., 2019).​
✔ Nuanced Language Use – Context-appropriate vocabulary and polished language
improve fluency (Komarova et al., 2022).​
✔ Active Learning – Regular exposure leads to improved use of advanced
expressions and greater linguistic range (Valle et al., 2023).

Transferability to Diverse Audiences

✔ Educational Settings – Students using TED Talk strategies show improved
presentation skills (White & Brown, 2017).​
✔ Professional Contexts – Enhanced business presentations and client interactions
due to structured messaging and emotional connection (Alfia et al., 2022).​
✔ Workplace Communication – Effective team collaboration and increased
engagement using TED Talk-inspired techniques (Miller, 2021).

Balancing Style and Substance

✔ Risk of Oversimplification – Focus on brevity and entertainment can compromise
depth (Compagnone, 2015).​
✔ Style vs. Content – Engaging delivery should not overshadow substantive content
(Samayoa, 2017).​
✔ Balanced Approach – Educators should encourage critical evaluation of both
content and delivery.

Critical Thinking
✔ Exposure to diverse viewpoints encourages analysis and independent thinking.
✔ Studies (Higgins, 2013; Lee & Drajati, 2019):
●​ Students are better at evaluating and synthesizing information.
●​ Improved articulation of personal viewpoints.

Student Engagement
✔ TED Talks increase motivation and participation.
✔ Studies (Luna Scott, 2015):
●​ Higher engagement with course content.
●​ Encourages discussions and deeper understanding.
✔ Language learning benefits (Nottingham, 2017):
●​ ESL students showed increased motivation and confidence in communication.

Diversity and Inclusion

✔ TED Talks feature diverse speakers and topics, promoting empathy and
understanding.
✔ Studies (Salem, 2019; Simonds et al., 2017):
●​ Fostered discussions on race, gender, and identity.
●​ Increased awareness of global issues and cultural diversity.
●​ Promoted a more inclusive learning environment.

Active Learning Strategies Using TED Talks

To maximize TED Talk benefits, learners can:
●​ Note-Taking & Summarization: Reinforces learning.
●​ Mimicry & Practice: Enhances pronunciation and fluency.
●​ Discussion & Reflection: Strengthens critical thinking and communication skills
(Brown & Larson, 2021).
Educators can integrate TED Talks into curriculum-based activities to develop effective
speaking skills (Richards & Bohlke, 2020).

Challenges and Considerations

●​ Language Barriers:
○​ ESL students may need additional support (Tilwani et al., 2022).
●​ Overreliance on TED Talks:
○​ Kogila (2020): TED Talks should complement other methods, not replace
them.
○​ Balanced teaching approach recommended.

Practical Implications for Educators

●​ Incorporating TED Talks:
○​ Use as models for effective communication.
●​ Promoting Critical Thinking:
○​ Encourage students to analyze and evaluate talks.
●​ Enhancing Engagement:
○​ Use to spark interest and participation.
●​ Fostering Inclusivity:
○​ Select diverse talks to promote equity and inclusion.
●​ Balanced Approach:
○​ Combine TED Talks with other teaching methods.

Conclusion
●​ TED Talks significantly improve oral communication, vocabulary acquisition,
critical thinking, and engagement.
●​ Their structured format, emotional engagement, and non-verbal techniques
improve delivery and audience connection across different settings.
●​ Foster empathy, inclusivity, and understanding of global issues.
●​ Challenges include language barriers and overreliance.
●​ Future Research:
○​ Long-term effects
○​ Strategies for supporting ESL students
○​ Assessment development
○​ Representation of diverse voices
●​ TED Talks are a valuable tool for modern education, empowering students to
become effective communicators and critical thinkers.
What is Academic Writing?
Academic writing is a formal understandable written expression of one’s own evidence-based
perspectives (University of Leeds, 2019) on a given topic, question or subject. Additionally, it is
focused, impersonal, open-minded, objective, precise, clear, engaging, thorough and consistent
with convention within its specific discipline (Hyland & Jiang, 2017, Lachowicz, 1981, Lowe &
Willey, 2018 and Lin-Siegler, 2017).

and its Purpose?

Academic writing is a formal method of composing text aimed at the dissemination of knowledge
within an academic setting, commonly used in higher education contexts such as colleges and
universities (Johnson, 2016). Writing in this context reflects not just individual autonomy but also
a collective understanding, shaped by factors like culture, audience, and genre (Paudel, 2020).
Academic writing shares principles aligned with scientific methods, aiming to convey information
systematically, and objectively (Bhandari, 2025).

How to Develop a Strong Thesis Statements

The thesis statement or main claim must be debatable. An argumentative or persuasive piece of
writing must begin with a debatable thesis or claim. In other words, the thesis must be
something that people could reasonably have differing opinions on. If your thesis is something
that is generally agreed upon or accepted as fact then there is no reason to try to persuade
people. (Strong Thesis Statements - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University, n.d.)

For Examples:

"The Philippines is an archipelago consisting of over 7,000 islands located in Southeast

Asia."

This thesis is non-debatable because it presents a factual statement that cannot be reasonably
disputed. It simply conveys an established piece of information about the Philippines, making it
objective and not open to debate.

"The implementation of the 'Build, Build, Build' infrastructure program in the Philippines
has had mixed effects, significantly boosting the economy but exacerbating
environmental degradation and displacement of local communities."

This thesis is debatable because it presents a claim that can be argued from multiple
perspectives. Some may argue that the program has primarily benefited the economy, while
others may focus on its negative social and environmental consequences. It invites further
research and discussion, which is a key characteristic of a debatable thesis statement.

Key features of Academic Writing

Formal tone
• Follow convention in the field
• Avoid slang or colloquial language
• Avoid shorthand or contractions
• Organise work in properly constituted paragraphs
Evidence-based
• Support all arguments with evidence
• Use relevant research findings
• Use examples from practice
• Also use theoretical or conceptual propositions
• Use any other relevant literature, both published and unpublished

Depth and breadth

• To demonstrate depth, closely discuss or examine your arguments in detail, including
questioning widely held assumptions and notions.
• For breadth, consider all key counterarguments to your own and support these with evidence
as well.
• Include a wide range of evidence, i.e., different types and sources
• Offer balanced perspectives, including those you do not personally agree with.

Supportable conclusions
• Each examined argument should have a conclusion or closing
• For each argument, what is the ‘therefore’?
• You have considered multiple perspectives on the argument. So what?
• You have used multiple sources to support different perspectives. So what?
• For each well-rounded argument, reach a closing, i.e., the central insight of that section or
paragraph.

Clarity of meaning
• Use simple, easy-to-understand language for the discipline
• Offer operational definitions of key terms of the piece of writing
• Use technical terms how they are used in that discipline, bearing in mind the audience
• Describe, explain, expand, conclude
• Be succinct or concise

Focused
• Every part of the writing must meaningfully contribute towards answering the question,
examining the topic or fulfilling the overall purpose of the piece.
• Avoid including content just because it excites you
• Everything in the piece must earn its place by clearly relating to the core purpose of the
writing.

Sustained
• Follow through every argument in a balanced manner
• Ensure every argument is sufficiently developed and concluded or closed before moving on to
the next.

Cohesion of written thought

• Sound academic work flows, and cohesion is key to presenting convincing arguments
• Ensure that there is harmony within and between your paragraphs
• Transitions between points must be logical

Grounded in the discipline or topic

• All content must be consistent with the discipline
• Different terms mean different things in different disciplines. Ensure meanings in your writing
are consistent with disciplinary meanings.
• As appropriate, include discipline-specific literature and/ or evidence
• Inferences or interpretations must be compatible with those held within the field or discipline.
• Conclusions reached and insights drawn must be consistent with the field or discipline.

Originality
• The work ought to be original, i.e., it must be your own
• Even though others’ work is drawn on to extend or support one’s argument, the composition of
the work must be one’s original effort.
• Present your own arguments
• Draw your own insights
• Make your own inferences
• Use your own examples
• Reach your own conclusions

Four Main Types of Academic Writing

Descriptive Academic Writing
It is the simplest type of academic writing, its purpose is to provide factual information, describe
a certain event, topic or phenomenon and the information should always be clear, precise and
without bias. Descriptive writing also uses vivid details such as sensory sight, hearing, taste,
smell, and touch to make the readers more immersed in what they are reading and it should be
organized logically so the readers won’t have a hard time reading parts of the academic paper.
Always maintain a formal tone and use third person perspective at all times.

Analytical Academic Writing

Analytical is about analyzing the subject of academic writing listing things it uses descriptive
writing sometimes, but it is more organized and it is used to compare, or point out things that
are memorable on that subject. It is used more to analyze, compare, contrast, relate, and
examine. This is the main purpose of analytical academic writing; it thoroughly explains aspects
of the topic, article and claim.

Persuasive Academic Writing

Its sole purpose is to convince the readers on a specific viewpoint using logic, evidence and
reasoning, this type of writing is usually found in essays, research papers and in arguments.
The elements of Persuasive Academic Writing are an argument that clearly states the writer’s
position, must have credible evidence, reasoning, logic, data and examples it also needs to
acknowledge the viewpoint of the other party and form a counter argument to strengthen the
argument that is being made, must also use formal tone, proper citation and purpose.

Critical Academic Writing

This is used to solely criticize an article, topic, or research overall subject. It provides a counter
argument and points out the flaws on the claim made or just the subject itself, the writer must
provide 2 or more viewpoints on the matter that supports the critical paper being made. It is
usually used in criticizing works like articles, academic journals.
Process of Academic Writing
1.1. Research
Research in the academic writing process is essential for authors to broaden their knowledge
about a certain topic. Usually, with the help of research, it establishes fundamental ideas,
making a smooth process of writing along the way.

1.2. Prewriting
Prewriting is a step in the academic writing process that refers to organizing ideas and
extending the knowledge of the author about the topic.
• In prewriting, the author/s has to think outside the box and incorporate established ideas
gained in research.
• Also, the authors think ahead of who is going to be their readers to know what approach
applies to the paper (tone, style, and focus) and (to inform, to persuade, or to argue).

1.2.1. Brainstorming
It is a technique of using creativity to create a comprehensive engagement of ideas about the
topic.

1.2.2. Freewriting
A flexible and creative way of generating raw ideas about the topic, continuous writing in a
paper without worrying about editing or grammatical errors.

a. Mind mapping
It is a prewriting technique where the authors map out their ideas from the main topic to the
subtopics onto the details of the topic.

b. Conceptual mapping
Like mind mapping, it maps out ideas but in a more comprehensive way. It seeks the
relationships between paper resources and generated ideas given on the topic.

c. Listing
A prewriting technique in which the topic is broken down into smaller ideas, concepts, and the
basic components through a list.

1.2.3. Outlining
In prewriting, after the ideas were blurted from the general topic to its small details. Outlining
serves as the process of organizing to develop the structured composition of ideas.

1.3. Drafting
In this phase of writing, drafting serves as the process of turning research and prewriting into a
comprehensive written paper.
• In this phase, like freewriting, it's about putting thoughts without worry about perfection.
• It follows the structure of the outlined ideas used in prewriting, ensuring a coherent and logical
progression of ideas.

1.4. Revision-Editing-Proofreading
After the drafting phase, the next phase will proceed with a process of perfecting the structure of
the paper, such as spelling, grammar, punctuation, etc.
1.4.1. Revision
In this process, the authors look at the overall quality of the paper. It is used to correct the
organization of ideas, improve the content, and check on the clarity or the intended purpose of
the paper.

1.4.2. Editing
In this process, the editors ensure the paper's readability and precision
• Focuses on language, style, citation, and tone of the paper.

1.4.3. Proofreading
In this process, the proofreaders check on the grammatical or technical errors of the paper.
• Focuses on the spelling, punctuation, grammar, and even the alignment or the format of the
paper being checked.

1.5. Final Draft and Publication

This is the last phase of the academic writing process where:
• Final Draft
Serves as a comprehensive error-free document saved by the author after the entire process.
• Publication
Shared documents for the readers or made available for other authors to use.

Significance
1. Promotes critical thinking.
2. Ensure clarity and coherence
3. Enhances Credibility
4. Develop writing skills
5. Importance of readers
6. Encourages Attention to Details
7. Contributes knowledge sharing.

The Documented Essay

A research paper or documented essay is a piece of writing in which you incorporate
information—facts, arguments, opinions—taken from the writings of authorities in a particular
field. (Murray & Rockowitz, n.d)

TECHNIQUES FOR GENERATING IDEAS

Brainstorming
• on paper
• into a recording device
• with a classmate
• with your instructor
• using lists or diagrams
• questioning through who, what, where, when, why, how?

Asking yourself questions

• What have I learned about the subject from class or from my notes?
• What have I learned from the text(s) in the course?
• What do I know about the subject from my own experience?
• What am I interested in finding out about the subject?
• Where can I find more background information on the subject that will stimulate further thought
or more questions?

Consider the overall strategy for your paper:

Should it
• Review sources? (arrangement by ideas—not authors)
• analyze and synthesize sources? (arrangement by arguments—not authors)
• persuade the reader? (argue for a thesis of your own)
• inform the reader?
• do a combination of the above?

ORGANIZING THE RESEARCH AND THE ESSAY

keep accurate notes.
try to paraphrase
reconsider your thesis.
review the notes

WRITING AND REVISING

Reread each draft as you would any essay, checking for the following:
• Unity: Does everything in the paper relate to the thesis?
• Coherence: Do paragraphs and sections follow one another in a logical order?
• Development: Are your points fully explained?
• Style: Are ideas expressed clearly?
• Mechanics: Is the paper in correct, edited English?

CITING AND DOCUMENTING

Bibliography, Works Cited list, or References list arranged alphabetically

Types of Citations
●​ APA (American Psychological Association),
●​ ASA (American Sociological Association)
●​ Chicago (from The Chicago Manual of Style)
●​ AMA (American Medical Association)and,
●​ Notes-Bibliography (Turabian).

Plagiarism and Principles of Documentation

What is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism occurs when you use someone else’s work without acknowledging the original
author. Plagiarism is regarded as stealing and often leads to serious consequences and harsh
punishment. This is usually found in several areas, especially academic writing, where concepts
and statements are derived from an origin without proper citing.
What are the Principles of Documentation?

●​ The context of documentation

When discussing the "context of documentation" within the principles of documentation, it refers
to the surrounding factors that provide meaning and understanding to the documented
information. It encompasses the "why," "who," "where," "when," and "how" of the documentation.

●​ The characteristics of effective documentation

Effective documentation, regardless of the field, shares several key characteristics. These
characteristics ensure that the documentation is useful, reliable, and serves its intended
purpose. These characteristics are the accuracy, legibility, originality and the document being
complete.

●​ The common elements of documentation

When considering the common elements of documentation, it's helpful to think about the
components that contribute to clear, useful, and reliable records. These elements can be found
across various types of documentation, from medical records to software manuals. Such as the
following:

Identification: Title, Author, Date and Version Control.

Content: Purpose, Scope, Data/Information, Context and Reference.
Structure: Headings/Subheadings, Logical Flow, and Visual Aids
Contextual Information: Background information, Explanations of terms, and Rationale for
decisions.
Accuracy and Completeness: Factually correct information, and All relevant details included.
Accessibility: Easy to find and retrieve, and In a usable format.

The methods of documentation

The "methods of documentation of documentation" refers to the various techniques and

approaches used to create, record, and manage information. Essentially, it's about how you
document, not what you document. The following are the methods of documentation.

Textual Methods - The textual method involves documenting information using words,
sentences, and paragraphs, whether handwritten or digitally typed. It relies on the power of
language to convey facts, observations, procedures, and other relevant details.

Electronic Methods - The electronic method involves using computer systems, software
applications, and digital devices to document information. It encompasses a wide range of
technologies, from simple word processing to complex database systems.

Audio Methods - The audio method involves recording spoken information using devices such
as microphones, recorders, or digital audio software. This can include interviews, meetings,
dictations, or any situation where spoken communication is essential.

Charting by Exception - Charting by exception means documenting only significant findings or

exceptions to pre-defined standards or norms. If everything is within normal limits, it is not
documented. Only deviations or abnormal findings are recorded.
How to cite properly?
●​ When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means
that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in
the text, for example, (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the
reference list at the end of the paper.
●​ If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or
making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make
reference to the author and year of publication and not the page number in your in-text
reference. All sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the
end of the paper.
●​ Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
●​ If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four
letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions
apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing
New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose.
(Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new
media.)
●​ When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word:
Natural-Born Cyborgs.
●​ Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of
Hitchcock's Vertigo."
●​ Italicize the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television
series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz;
Friends.
●​ Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles
from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia
Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds;" "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."
I. What is Academic Writing?
Academic writing is a formal and evidence-based method of expressing one's thoughts and
arguments. It is a form of writing that adheres to specific conventions, primarily used within
scholarly and educational settings. This type of writing requires clarity, objectivity, and
consistency, and is grounded in research and critical thinking.

According to the University of Leeds (2019), academic writing is “a formal understandable

written expression of one’s own evidence-based perspectives.” Hyland and Jiang (2017)
emphasize that academic writing is characterized by engagement, while Lachowicz (1981)
notes that it should be objective. Lowe and Willey (2018) stress that academic writing must be
precise, and Lin-Siegler (2017) argues that it should be consistent in tone and message.

II. Purpose of Academic Writing

The primary purpose of academic writing is to communicate and disseminate knowledge. It
provides a platform for students and scholars to express their ideas in a structured, formal
manner that contributes to intellectual discussions within a specific discipline.

According to Paudel (2020), academic writing is an individual and collective product influenced
by cultural, genre-based, and audience-related factors. Bhandari (2025) also explains that
academic writing mirrors the scientific method as it involves organized, objective, and rational
processing of ideas to establish logical outcomes.

III. Characteristics of Academic Writing

Academic writing is distinguished by the following key characteristics:

1.​ Formal – It avoids colloquial or casual language, contractions, and slang. The tone
remains professional and respectful throughout.​

2.​ Evidence-based – All claims and arguments must be supported by credible sources
such as scholarly articles, books, and empirical research.​

3.​ Depth and Breadth – Ideas should be explored with thoroughness, taking into account
multiple perspectives.​
 4.​ Supportable Conclusions – All assertions and conclusions must be logically reasoned
and backed by evidence.​

5.​ Clarity of Meaning – Language should be straightforward and easy to understand;

technical terms must be used appropriately and defined as needed.​

6.​ Focused – Every sentence and paragraph must contribute directly to the central thesis
or research question.​

7.​ Sustained – Arguments should be fully developed and elaborated, rather than
presented as incomplete or isolated thoughts.​

8.​ Cohesion of Written Thought – Ideas must flow smoothly through transitions and
consistent structuring.​

9.​ Grounded in the Discipline or Topic – The paper should reflect the conventions and
terminologies relevant to the academic field it represents.​

10.​Originality – While drawing upon existing literature, the writing must express unique
analysis or interpretation, showcasing the writer’s own scholarly voice.

IV. Types of Academic Writing

Academic writing serves various purposes and can be categorized into four major types. Each
type has specific goals, structures, and language features:

1. Descriptive Writing

Purpose: To define, describe, or explain a concept, process, event, object, or theory in a factual
and objective manner.

Features:

●​ Focuses on presenting facts and information without interpretation.

●​ Uses neutral and objective language.
●​ Frequently employs the third-person point of view.
●​ Common in summaries, background sections, and definitions.

Example:​
“The water cycle consists of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection.”
Used in:

●​ Reports (background sections)

●​ Literature reviews
●​ Laboratory observations
●​ Definitions and descriptions of theories or models

2. Analytical Writing

Purpose: To examine, interpret, and evaluate the components of a concept, issue, or problem
and show relationships between parts.

Features:

●​ Involves categorizing and comparing ideas.

●​ Focuses on breaking down complex topics into smaller elements.
●​ May include charts, graphs, or frameworks to analyze data.
●​ Often includes some descriptive elements but goes beyond by organizing information
logically.

Example:​
“In comparing the educational systems of Japan and the Philippines, it is evident that Japan
places greater emphasis on discipline and national identity, while the Philippines focuses on
global competitiveness and English proficiency.”

Used in:

●​ Compare-and-contrast essays
●​ Analytical reports
●​ Research papers
●​ Case studies

3. Persuasive Writing

Purpose: To convince the reader to accept a particular point of view or course of action,
supported by reasoning, logic, and evidence.

Features:

●​ Includes a clear position or argument (thesis).

●​ Supports claims with credible sources and logical reasoning.​
 ●​ Often addresses counterarguments to strengthen the position.
●​ Strong use of evaluative language to influence readers.

Example:​
“Online learning should continue post-pandemic due to its flexibility and accessibility, especially
for students in remote areas.”

Used in:

●​ Argumentative essays
●​ Opinion articles
●​ Editorials
●​ Policy papers
●​ Position papers

4. Critical Writing

Purpose: To engage with multiple sources, perspectives, and arguments in order to assess
their strengths and weaknesses, and form an informed judgment or interpretation.

Features:

●​ Goes beyond summarizing or analyzing by evaluating assumptions, implications, and

logic.
●​ Involves synthesis of ideas from different sources.
●​ Aims to construct a reasoned and well-supported conclusion.
●​ Reflects the writer’s informed stance based on research and analysis.

Example:​
“While social media facilitates democratic participation, it also creates echo chambers that limit
exposure to diverse opinions, thus weakening its potential as a tool for social change.”

Used in:

●​ Literature reviews
●​ Critical response essays
●​ Reflective essays
●​ Academic critiques
V. Thesis Statement
A thesis statement is the main claim or central idea of an academic essay or research paper. It
acts as the foundation upon which the entire argument or discussion is built. A strong thesis
guides the structure and focus of the paper and informs the reader about the writer’s position or
objective.

Characteristics of a Strong Thesis Statement:

1.​ Debatable – The thesis should make a claim that could be challenged by others. It must

✅
not be a statement of fact.

❌
○​ “Social media is harmful to teenagers’ mental health.”
○​ “The Philippines is an archipelago.” (This is factual and not debatable)​

✅
2.​ Specific – The thesis should be clear and detailed, not vague or overly broad.
○​ “Government subsidies should prioritize small-scale farmers to promote food

❌
security in rural communities.”
○​ “The government should help agriculture.” (Too general)​

3.​ Focused – It must concentrate on a particular idea that can be thoroughly explored

✅
within the paper’s scope.
○​ “Mandatory military training in universities may instill discipline but risks

❌
glorifying violence and nationalism.”
○​ “War is bad.” (Too broad and simplistic)

Examples:

Non-debatable Thesis:

“The Philippines is composed of 7,641 islands.”

●​ This is a verified fact and cannot be debated or argued, so it is not suitable as a thesis.​

Debatable Thesis:

“The 'Build, Build, Build' program has improved the economy but also caused significant harm to
the environment.”

●​ This is debatable because:

○​ It presents two contrasting impacts.​
It invites further exploration: How has it improved the economy? In what ways
has it harmed the environment?
 ○​ Readers may agree or disagree, making it open for discussion.

Why the Thesis Statement Matters:

●​ Acts as a roadmap for the essay.

●​ Helps the writer stay focused on the argument.
●​ Allows the reader to understand the main point early on.
●​ Guides the selection of relevant evidence and structure of the essay.

VI. Academic Writing as a Process

Academic writing is not a one-step task; it is a dynamic, multi-stage process consisting of the
following stages:

1. Research

The writer collects relevant, credible, and scholarly sources that help support the ideas and
arguments in the paper. Research is the foundation of a strong academic paper.

2. Prewriting

This phase involves organizing ideas before beginning the actual writing. It helps the writer
develop a clearer direction for the paper.

Prewriting Strategies:

●​ Brainstorming – Listing out ideas freely, either individually or in a group.

●​ Freewriting – Writing continuously without worrying about grammar or organization to
generate raw ideas.
➢​ Mind Mapping – Drawing connections between ideas visually.
➢​ Conceptual Mapping – A more structured visual approach to organizing
complex ideas.
➢​ Listing – Creating bullet points or categorized topics.
●​ Outlining – Laying out the structure of the essay in hierarchical form.

3. Drafting

The first version of the essay is created by translating ideas from the outline into complete
sentences and paragraphs. At this stage, the focus is on idea development rather than
perfection.
4. Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

●​ Revising – Substantive changes to improve logic, organization, and content.

●​ Editing – Refining language use, sentence structure, and clarity.
●​ Proofreading – Correcting surface-level issues such as grammar, spelling, punctuation,
and formatting.

5. Final Draft and Publication

After careful revision and editing, the final draft should reflect a polished and coherent piece of
academic work that upholds standards of accuracy, integrity, and clarity.

VII. The Documented Essay

A documented essay, commonly known as a research paper, uses external sources such as
facts, arguments, statistics, or expert opinions to support the writer’s ideas. These ideas must
be properly cited, following a specific documentation format such as APA, MLA, or Chicago
style.

According to Murray and Rockowitz, a documented essay incorporates others’ insights to

support a central thesis. This type of writing requires careful planning, source selection, and
synthesis of multiple perspectives.

VIII. Writing Process for Documented Essays

1.​ Choose a Topic – Select a topic that is interesting and researchable.
2.​ Formulate a Thesis Statement – Clearly define the main argument or purpose.
3.​ Conduct Research – Use academic databases, books, and peer-reviewed journals.
4.​ Organize Information – Group related information and develop a logical structure.
5.​ Draft the Essay – Begin with an introduction, followed by body paragraphs with
evidence, and conclude with a strong summary.
6.​ Revise and Finalize – Ensure cohesion, accuracy, and proper citation.

Important Tips:

●​ Do not simply summarize sources; analyze and critique them.

●​ Identify gaps, strengths, and weaknesses in existing literature.
●​ Relate all ideas back to your thesis.
●​ Take careful notes during research to avoid plagiarism.​
 ●​ Review multiple times before submission to ensure quality.

IX. Significance of Academic Writing

Academic writing plays a critical role in the academic and professional development of students
and researchers. It:

1.​ Enhances critical and analytical thinking skills.

2.​ Promotes clarity, structure, and logical reasoning.
3.​ Encourages independent learning and scholarly engagement.
4.​ Builds academic credibility and supports intellectual contribution.
5.​ Strengthens communication and research skills.
6.​ Develops precision and attention to detail.
7.​ Fosters a deeper understanding of various disciplines.

X. Citation and Plagiarism

Academic integrity is a fundamental principle in scholarly work. Understanding citation and
plagiarism is essential to maintaining honesty, credibility, and professionalism in all academic
tasks.

A. Citation

Citation is the scholarly practice of formally acknowledging the sources of information, ideas,
data, or words that are incorporated into one’s academic writing. It serves several essential
purposes:

Purpose of Citation:

●​ To give credit to the original authors or creators of the work.

●​ To demonstrate academic honesty by avoiding intellectual theft.
●​ To allow readers to trace the sources and verify the information used.
●​ To support arguments with credible and authoritative evidence.
●​ To join the academic conversation by showing engagement with existing literature.​
 When to Cite:

●​ When quoting directly from a source.

●​ When paraphrasing or summarizing another person’s ideas.
●​ When using factual information, statistics, or data that are not common knowledge.
●​ When referencing theories, methods, or frameworks developed by others.

Common Citation Styles:

Each discipline may prefer a particular citation format. Here are the most widely used styles:

1.​ APA (American Psychological Association):​

○​ Commonly used in the social sciences (e.g., psychology, education, sociology).

○​ Emphasizes the author and date of publication.
○​ Example (in-text): (Garcia, 2021)
○​ Example (reference): Garcia, A. (2021). Education in the Digital Age. Pearson.​

2.​ MLA (Modern Language Association):​

○​ Used primarily in literature, arts, and humanities.

○​ Focuses on the author and page number.
○​ Example (in-text): (Garcia 45)
○​ Example (works cited): Garcia, Ana. Education in the Digital Age. Pearson, 2021.​

3.​ Chicago Manual of Style:​

○​ Preferred in history and some humanities.

○​ Offers two systems: notes and bibliography (footnotes or endnotes) and
author-date.
○​ Example (footnote): Ana Garcia, Education in the Digital Age (New York:
Pearson, 2021), 45.​

4.​ Harvard Referencing System:​

○​ Common in many international academic institutions.

○​ Author-date style similar to APA.
○​ Example (in-text): (Garcia 2021)
○​ Example (reference): Garcia, A. (2021). Education in the Digital Age. Pearson.​
 Importance of Consistency:

Writers must consistently follow the required citation style throughout the academic paper.
Failure to do so may lead to confusion, lower credibility, or even accusations of academic
dishonesty.

B. Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of using another person’s intellectual work—whether words, ideas,
images, or data—without proper acknowledgment. It is considered a serious academic offense
and can lead to disciplinary action, including failing grades, suspension, or expulsion.

Forms of Plagiarism:

1.​ Direct Plagiarism:​

Copying a portion of text word-for-word from a source without using quotation marks or
providing proper citation.​
Example: Copying an entire paragraph from a website into an essay without
acknowledging the source.​

2.​ Mosaic Plagiarism (Patchwriting):​

Combining phrases or ideas from various sources with one's own writing but without
proper citation. Often includes slightly reworded content but retains the original structure
or language.​
Example: Rewriting parts of an article while keeping the sentence structure intact and
not citing the source.​

3.​ Self-Plagiarism:​
Reusing one’s own previously submitted work (e.g., an essay or project) for a different
course or assignment without proper citation or the instructor’s permission.​
Note: Even if it’s your own work, it must be acknowledged if reused.​

4.​ Accidental Plagiarism:​

Occurs when a student fails to cite sources properly due to lack of understanding or
careless referencing.​
Example: Forgetting to include an in-text citation for paraphrasing too closely to the
original source.​
 How to Avoid Plagiarism:

To ensure academic integrity and avoid committing plagiarism—intentionally or

unintentionally—students should practice the following:

1.​ Always give credit to the original author or source when using their ideas or words.
2.​ Use quotation marks for any direct quotes, and cite the source appropriately.
3.​ Paraphrase effectively by rewriting the information in your own words and sentence
structure—while still citing the source.
4.​ Summarize properly by condensing the main points of a source, and acknowledging it.
5.​ Keep organized notes while researching. Record all source details (author, title, page,
year, etc.) to ensure proper citation later.
6.​ Use citation management tools (e.g., Zotero, Mendeley, or Microsoft Word’s built-in
citation feature) to track and format sources accurately.
7.​ Consult plagiarism detection tools such as Turnitin or Grammarly to ensure originality.
8.​ Understand your institution’s academic integrity policy and follow it strictly.

Conclusion
Academic writing is an essential skill for students, scholars, and professionals. By
understanding its characteristics, processes, and ethical guidelines, writers can produce
high-quality, credible, and original scholarly work. The documented essay serves as a
foundational academic genre that encourages research, synthesis, and intellectual
contribution—essential components of academic growth and integrity.