Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Disaster Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pdisas

Geomorphic index alterations and socioeconomic implications: A case study

of a Coastal River system in Bangladesh
Sukhen Goswami a,* , Md. Masum Billah b , Md Sabbir Hossen a , Mehedi Hasan Ovi a,
Shacin Chandra Saha a , Mir Md. Tasnim Alam d , Probir Kumar Bhowmik c , Atikul Haque Farazi a ,
Md. Ashraful Islam e , Dhiman Kumer Roy a
a
Department of Geology and Mining, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Barishal, Barishal 8254, Bangladesh
b
Institute of Water and Flood Management, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh
c
Department of Accounting and Information Systems, Faculty of Business Studies, University of Barishal, Barishal 8254, Bangladesh
d
Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation (PKSF), Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
e
Department of Geology, Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Riverbank erosion, driven by natural processes and human activities, poses significant socio-environmental
Riverbank Erosion challenges in Bangladesh. This study investigated the geomorphic evolution and socioeconomic impacts of
Accretion riverbank erosion along the Sandhya River in Babuganj Upazila, Barishal, Bangladesh. The primary aim was to
Geomorphic evolution
assess how natural processes and human interventions, such as sand mining and infrastructure development,
Sinuosity index
Socioeconomic impacts
have altered the river morphology and affected local communities. Landsat imagery from 1980 to 2023, with a
Sandhya River 10-year interval, was analyzed to assess key geomorphic indices—sinuosity, channel width, widening rate, and
migration rate using remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and field surveys. The results
indicate significant geomorphic transformation, with sinuosity varying between 1.01 and 2.08, with a post-2000
increase in channel widening (up to 27 m/year) linked to intensified sand mining and brickfield expansion. Mid-
channel bar formation, absent before 2000, reached 4.0 km2 by 2023, affecting flow patterns. The widening rate
shifted from a maximum of 19 m/year (1980–2000, pre-sand mining) to 27 m/year (2000–2023, post-sand
mining), with a peak near Doarika Bridge, which increased the vulnerability of the Barishal Airport area,
averaging 3.65 m/year. Socioeconomic surveys (n = 154) reveal severe livelihood disruption: 65 % of lost land
was agricultural, 73 % of affected households migrated to urban centers, and 45 % fell into debt. The most
affected areas were Dehergati, Rahamatpur, Rakudia, and Kedarpur, emphasizing the need for capacity building.
The study concludes that integrated geomorphic restoration and community resilience planning are urgently
needed to address erosion-driven displacement and economic vulnerability in the region.

1. Introduction extreme weather events, such as floods and storms, as a result of climate
change, which further accelerates the process of riverbank erosion
Riverbank erosion is a critical environmental issue that affects river [1,7–13]. The impacts of riverbank erosion are particularly severe in
systems worldwide, with significant implications for ecosystems, infra­ developing countries, such as Bangladesh, where communities often rely
structure, and local communities. As climate change accelerates and on riverine ecosystems for their livelihoods and survival [2,8,14–20].
human activities intensify, riverbanks are increasingly vulnerable to In Bangladesh, riverbank erosion is a persistent and widespread
erosion, which can lead to the loss of fertile agricultural land, the issue, deeply influencing the socioeconomic landscape. The extensive
displacement of populations, and the destruction of critical infrastruc­ network of rivers, particularly in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, is
ture. Globally, riverbank erosion is exacerbated by factors such as land- highly susceptible to erosion, which is compounded by seasonal flooding
use changes, deforestation, and the construction of dams and levees and the effects of upstream interventions [21–24]. Bangladesh has
[1–6]. Recent studies have also highlighted the increasing frequency of experienced significant changes in its river morphology, leading to the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sgoswami@bu.ac.bd (S. Goswami).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2025.100450
Received 13 May 2025; Received in revised form 6 July 2025; Accepted 10 July 2025
Available online 17 July 2025
2590-0617/© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

displacement of millions of people. Riverbank erosion accounts for excessive groundwater pumping, and land subsidence on riverbed ele­
approximately 50 % of homelessness in the country, resulting in the loss vations have been linked to the intensification of erosion processes
of agricultural land, homes, and infrastructure [2,17,25–28] The situa­ [24,29,37,38]. Furthermore, research has shown that river migration,
tion is exacerbated by increasing human interventions such as sand characterized by the lateral shifting of river channels, is often acceler­
mining, urbanization, and the construction of embankments, which alter ated by human interventions such as sand mining, bank protection, and
the natural flow of rivers and accelerate the rate of erosion [3,29–31]. the construction of artificial cutoffs [3,5,6,31,37,39–41] . Several re­
The degradation of riverbanks also impacts biodiversity, as vital habitats searchers have used geomorphic indices, such as the sinuosity index,
for fish and other wildlife are lost [32–34]. channel width, and migration rate, to analyze riverbank erosion and
The Sandhya River in Babuganj Upazila, Barishal, represents a prime changes in river morphology [2,3,26,42,43]. Moreover, satellite imag­
example of a river system undergoing significant geomorphic alterations ery and remote sensing technologies, combined with Geographic Infor­
due to both natural and anthropogenic factors. Over recent decades, the mation System (GIS) techniques, have been effectively employed to
river has experienced increased erosion, leading to the loss of farmland study temporal changes in river morphology and assess the impacts of
and the displacement of communities living along its banks [35]. These erosion and accretion on river channels [2,8,23,42,44–48]. Despite
changes are attributed to a combination of sedimentation, deforestation, these advances, there is still a need for more comprehensive studies that
and the encroachment of urban areas, which have altered the river’s address both the geomorphic and socioeconomic dimensions of river­
natural course and reduced its capacity to carry sediment [2,35,36]. The bank erosion, particularly in the context of the Sandhya River.
river morphology has also been influenced by the construction of em­ This study aims to fill this gap by examining the geomorphic alter­
bankments and the extraction of sand, which further exacerbates the ations and associated socioeconomic impacts of riverbank erosion along
erosion process [2,8,36]. the Sandhya River. Specifically, the study seeks to investigate the effects
Numerous studies have explored the geomorphic alterations of river of human interventions, such as sand mining and bank protection, on
systems and their socioeconomic impacts. Riverbank erosion in geomorphic indices, including the sinuosity index, channel width,
Bangladesh, for instance, has been widely studied, revealing its severe widening rate, and migration rate, from 1980 to 2023. The research also
consequences on local populations, including displacement and the loss explores mid-channel bar and sidebar development and evaluates the
of agricultural land [3,8,17,18,25–28,37] . The impacts of sand mining, changes in river channel geometry due to erosion-accretion processes.

Fig. 1. Study area map showing the geographical location of Babuganj Upazila (top left) and the erosion and accretion patterns of the Sandhya River (bottom) during
the study period.

2
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

Additionally, the study assesses the socioeconomic consequences of Sandhya River within Babuganj Upazila, Barishal. Geographically, the
these geomorphic changes on the local communities in Babuganj Upa­ area is bordered by Muladi and Barishal Sadar Upazila to the east,
zila. By integrating remote sensing and GIS techniques, the study aims to Gaurnadi to the north, Barishal Sadar and Jhalokati Upazila to the south,
provide a comprehensive analysis of the temporal morpho-dynamic and Wazirpur Upazila to the west. The Sandhya River originates from
changes and their implications for local livelihoods. This research will the Arial Khan River near Muladi and flows towards its confluence with
also contribute to the development of sustainable river management the Kacha River near Pirojpur. The study area is located between lati­
strategies that address both the geomorphic and socioeconomic chal­ tudes 22.47◦ to 22.51◦ N and longitudes 90.15◦ to 90.22◦ E. It is influ­
lenges posed by riverbank erosion. Eventually, this study seeks to pro­ enced by a semi-diurnal tidal regime, where sedimentation has
vide valuable insights for policymakers and local stakeholders in progressively reduced river capacity, contributing to the degradation of
mitigating the effects of riverbank erosion and promoting sustainable unprotected areas [2,35,36,49].
land use in Bangladesh. The region has a tropical climate characterized by distinct wet and
dry seasons [35,36]. Annual high temperatures average around 33.5 ◦ C,
2. Description of the study area with lows averaging 25.21 ◦ C [50]. The area receives an average annual
precipitation of 49.08 mm, with the majority of rainfall occurring during
The study area is situated in the central part of Babuganj Upazila in the monsoon season [50,51]. The topography of the study area is pre­
southern Bangladesh (Fig. 1), within a tectonic setting where the Indian, dominantly flat, with sediment properties akin to those found in other
Eurasian, and Burmese subplates converge [22]. This research was fluvial deposits of the Barishal region [35]. These sediments are pri­
conducted in the Rahmatpur, Dwarika, and Kedarpur unions along the marily composed of medium to fine-grained sand, with a minor amount

Fig. 2. Methodological workflow outlining the steps followed in the study.

3
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

of coarse and fine silt and clay, which are vulnerable to erosion [52,53] . osity index was calculated following the methodology outlined by
Agriculture is the primary land use in the area, with rice cultivation Mueller (1968) [56]:
being predominant. The diversity of crops and land use patterns in the
Channel Thalweg Length
Barisal region has been documented, highlighting the importance of rice Sinuosity Index (SI) = (1)
Valley Length
cultivation in the local economy [54,55] . However, the region faces
environmental challenges such as salinity intrusion, which has
3.2.2. Changes in channel width
expanded from 0.83 million to 1.09 million hectares due to climate
Channel width, measured as the breadth from one bank to the
change, rendering large areas uncultivable [53,55].
opposite bank, is a critical parameter for evaluating lateral adjustments
in river morphology caused by hydrodynamic forces and anthropogenic
3. Materials and methods
activities [8,49]. In this study, channel width was measured perpen­
dicular to the river’s flow direction at equidistant intervals along the
The methodological approach of this study integrated both primary
Sandhya River using historical satellite imagery and topographic maps.
and secondary data sources (Fig. 2) to assess river dynamics and their
Measurements were standardized across five temporal benchmarks
associated impacts. The analysis primarily focused on the calculation of
(1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2023) to ensure consistency. The average
geomorphic indices to quantify river morphological changes over time.
channel width for each period was calculated to assess spatial and
Multispectral satellite images were acquired for spatial analysis. Various
temporal variability [57]:
geomorphic indices were computed to evaluate channel adjustments
∑n
and landscape evolution. Additionally, household questionnaire surveys Wi
and Key Informant Interviews (KII) from 154 samples and focused group Average Channel Width = i=1 (2)
n
discussion (FGD) with older individuals (7–8 FGD meetings) who had
experienced river erosion were conducted to supplement and validate where Wi is the width at the ith transect, and n is the total number of
the findings derived from geospatial analysis. This integrated approach transects.
facilitated a comprehensive understanding of riverine transformations
and their socioeconomic implications. 3.2.3. Widening rate
The widening rate quantifies the temporal expansion or contraction
3.1. Satellite data collection of the river channel, providing insights into erosional and depositional
dynamics. It was computed for four intervals (1980–1990, 1990–2000,
Landsat imagery, with its adequate spatial resolution, is well-suited 2000–2010, and 2010–2023) using the following formula [5].
for monitoring river system dynamics, including the erosion and ac­ W2 − W1
cretion of riverbanks. In this study, remote sensing (RS) data were in­ Widening rate (m/year) = (3)
T2 − T1
tegrated into a geographical information systems (GIS) framework to
analyze trends in erosion and accretion and to calculate alterations in Where W₁ and W₂ represent the average channel widths at the start
geomorphic indices. Satellite images were specifically collected during (T₁) and end (T₂) of each interval, respectively, positive values denote
the dry season (from January to April) to ensure cloud-free conditions channel widening, while negative values indicate narrowing.
and stable water levels, as the river is less prone to high-water events
during this period. Satellite data for mapping morphological changes 3.2.4. Riverbank migration
and land use in the years 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2023 were Riverbank migration refers to the lateral displacement of channel
collected from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Ex­ banks over time, a key indicator of geomorphic instability. Migration
plorer (USGS, 2024). The datasets were processed, resampled, and rates were derived by tracking the horizontal shift of bank lines between
analyzed using ArcGIS. The details of the satellite images used are successive periods using a centroid-based analysis of digitized bank
provided in Table 1. positions [58]. The migration distance (D) was calculated as:
D
Migration rate (m/year) = (4)
3.2. Geomorphic index calculation T2 − T1
Where D is the Euclidean distance between corresponding bank line
3.2.1. Sinuosity index
centroids, and T₂ − T₁ is the time interval in years.
The Sinuosity Index (SI) is commonly employed to assess river
morphology and gauge the extent of meandering. A sinuosity index
3.2.5. Erosion and accretion
value exceeding 1.5 typically indicates a meandering river. The sinu­
Erosion and accretion were quantified to assess net sediment loss or
gain along the Sandhya River. Using Landsat imagery and GIS-based
Table 1 overlay analysis [59], the net area change (ΔA) between consecutive
Details of satellite images used for the analysis.*
periods was computed as follows:
Date of Satellite Sensor Path/ Band Cloud Resolution
Acquisition ID ID Row Used Cover (m) ΔA = Aaccretion − Aerosion (5)
(%)
Where Aaccretion and Aerosion represent the areas of sediment deposi­
January 15, Landsat 137/ 4–6 tion and bank erosion, respectively, rates of erosion and accretion (m/
MSS 0 30
1980 3 44 and 7
January 07, Landsat 137/ 1–5
year) were normalized by the duration of each interval to evaluate
TM 0 30 temporal trends.
1999 5 44 and 7
February Landsat 137/ 1–5
ETM+ 0–5 30
28, 2000 7 44 and 7
January 30, Landsat 137/ 1–5
3.3. Field study on societal impacts of riverbank Erosion
TM 0–3 30
2010 5 44 and 7
April 20, Landsat OLI & 137/ 1–5 This study assesses the socioeconomic impacts of riverbank erosion
0–3 30
2023 8 TIRS 44 and 7 through field investigations and geomorphic analysis. A total of 154
*
MSS: Multi-Spectral Scanner; TM: Thematic Mapper; ETM+: Enhanced households, repeatedly displaced by erosion (at least once or twice),
Thematic Mapper Plus; OLI & TIRS: Operational Land Imager & Thermal were surveyed. Located along actively eroding banks, these households
Infrared Sensor (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov). were selected to evaluate exposure to erosion and accretion processes.

4
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

Data collection included structured household surveys and Key variations in the sinuosity index over the five time periods for each
Informant Interviews (KIIs) to assess displacement, occupational shifts, section are presented in Fig. 3c. In Section 1, the sinuosity index
land loss (agricultural, orchard, homestead), income changes, and increased gradually from 1.03 in 1980 to 1.49 in 2010, indicating a
adaptive responses. Eight villages in Babuganj Upazila were surveyed trend towards greater river meandering. However, a slight reduction
using random sampling: Mohishadi (10), Rahamatpur (17), Doarika was observed by 2023, with the index decreasing to 1.35. This suggests a
(20), Manikkathi (8), Khudrakathi (23), Rakudia (25), Kedarpur (15), moderate stabilization in the river’s path after a period of increased
and Vuterdia (36). This study integrates geomorphic and socioeconomic meandering. In Section 2, the sinuosity index showed a marked
analyses to examine erosion-accretion dynamics and the impacts on decrease, starting from 2.08 in 1980 and falling to 1.6 in 2023. The most
livelihoods along the Sandhya River. significant decline occurred between 1980 and 1990, when the index
dropped from 2.08 to 1.7, and it has remained relatively stable since
3.4. Estimating the relationship between land Erosion and population then. This reduction is likely linked to anthropogenic activities such as
migration brickfields and sand mining, which were observed during the field
surveys.
A quantitative correlation analysis was conducted to assess the In Section 3, the sinuosity index exhibited a steady increase from
relationship between the riverbank erosion and population displace­ 1.01 in 1980 to 1.29 in 2023. This indicates a gradual increase in
ment. Data on the number of migrated individuals were collected meandering over the studied period, with the most notable changes
through household surveys during fieldwork. Eroded land areas (km2) occurring after 2000. The increased sinuosity in this section may be a
were estimated using Landsat satellite images from 1980 to 2023, result of natural river dynamics or changes in sediment deposition.
analyzed through GIS. A scatter plot was created in Python 3.13.0, with Finally, in Section 4, the sinuosity index showed a steady rise from 1.05
the number of migrated people plotted against the corresponding eroded in 1980 and 1990 to 1.41 in 2023, with a significant increase between
land. A linear regression line was fitted, and the equation, along with the 2010 and 2023. This gradual increase in meandering suggests that this
R2 value, was displayed to interpret the strength of correlation (Fig. 8c). section of the river has been more dynamic compared to others.
The sinuosity index of the Sandhya River has experienced significant
4. Results and discussion changes from 1980 to 2023. While sections 1 and 3 showed a gradual
increase in sinuosity, section 2 exhibited a reduction, potentially due to
4.1. Changes in sinuosity index human activities [37,43,47]. The overall trend indicates varied
geomorphic responses across the river, reflecting both natural processes
The Sandhya River, originating from the Arial Khan River near and human interventions [8].
Muladi and flowing towards its confluence with the Kacha River near
Pirojpur, has undergone significant geomorphic changes over the past 4.2. Changes in channel width
several decades. In this study, the sinuosity index (SI), which measures
the degree of meandering in the river, was assessed at four distinct The width of the Sandhya River has shown notable variation across
sections of the river, as shown in Fig. 3a. These sections were analyzed ten transects, with significant changes observed over five distinct pe­
across five time periods: 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2023. riods between 1980 and 2023. The data from these transects (Fig. 3b)
The sinuosity index values across the four sections varied between a reveal a general trend of fluctuating river width, with specific transects
minimum of 1.01 and a maximum of 2.08. The spatiotemporal showing a consistent increase, while others displayed more irregular

Fig. 3. Temporal Evolution of the Sandhya River (1990–2023). (A) Lateral migration patterns across four river sections over different years; (B) Transects used to
measure river width changes over time; (C) Sinuosity index variations at four river sections across different years; (D) River width at various transect locations for
individual years.

5
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

patterns. These changes are visually represented in Fig. 3d, which il­ recorded the highest widening rate (+27 m/year) during 2010–2023,
lustrates the temporal variation in width at each “Transect” for five whereas station 4 experienced the most pronounced narrowing (− 11 m/
distinct years. year) between 1990 and 2000. In contrast, station 7 demonstrated
From 1980 to 1990, the majority of sections showed an increase in relatively stable widening throughout the study period.
river width, especially in transects 1, 2, and 5. For instance, the width at Overall, the Sandhya River has exhibited a consistent widening
transect- 1 rose from 255 m to 314 m, and transect- 2 expanded from trend, averaging up to 3.65 m/year. In particular, the 2010–2023 period
264 m to 282 m. However, a slight reduction in width was noted in saw a substantial widening at several locations, notably at stations 2 and
transect- 8, where the width decreased from 349 m in 1980 to 284 m in 5. Field observations indicated that Stations 2 and 3, situated in areas
1990. Between 1990 and 2000, most transects continued to show an with intensive sand mining and frequent brickfield activities, exhibited
increase in width, with transect- 5 expanding from 344 m to 400 m and widening rates ranging from 5 m/year to 27 m/year during this period.
transect- 2 increasing from 282 m to 288 m. Conversely, transect- 4 Conversely, station 4, which showed a widening rate of 19 m/year
experienced a decline in width from 508 m in 1990 to 382 m in 2000, during 1980–1990, recorded a narrowing rate of − 9 m/year between
suggesting possible shifts in the river course or changes in land use. More 2010 and 2023. These variations underscore the dynamic nature of the
irregular changes marked the period from 2000 to 2010. While some ‘river’s morphological evolution.
transects continued to expand, others narrowed. For example, transect- Significant bank failures at meander bends have contributed to
3 grew from 332 m in 2000 to 348 m in 2023, while transect- 6 channel widening and the formation of mid-channel bars, thereby
decreased from 403 m in 2000 to 336 m in 2010 and was further reduced altering the fluvial dynamics of the Sandhya River. Although no mid-
to 300 m by 2023. In contrast, transect- 9 exhibited consistent growth, channel bars were observed in 2000 or 2010, four had developed by
increasing from 301 m in 1980 to 504 m in 2010, though a slight 2023. Continuous riverbank failure, combined with sand mining and
decrease to 498 m occurred at the end of the study period (Fig. 3d). excavation for brickfield materials, has led to sidebar erosion, with no
By 2023, many transects showed significant increases in river width sidebars observed in 2014 and 2020. Sediment deposition from up­
compared to 1980, with some reaching widths much greater than those stream flows and local bank collapses has played a crucial role in bar
initially recorded. Transect- 2, for instance, expanded dramatically to formation, further modifying the river’s morphology. These processes
709 m, highlighting substantial changes in the channel morphology intensify helical flow, exacerbate bank failures at meander bends, and,
likely influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors. Other together with the presence of mid-channel bars, disrupt the natural flow
transects, such as 7 and 10, also experienced consistent growth. How­ regime by increasing sedimentation and reducing channel capacity. The
ever, transect- 6 demonstrated a reduction, possibly attributed to vulnerability of cohesive materials at the bank toe further destabilizes
localized erosion or changes in sediment deposition patterns. the riverbanks, reinforcing the overall widening trend.
The data underscore the dynamic nature of the Sandhya River, with
significant temporal and spatial changes in width across various tran­
4.4. Riverbank migration
sects. While most sections experienced overall expansion, fluctuations
were evident in some areas, with the largest increase observed in tran­
Riverbank migration was examined at ten stations over four distinct
sect- 2. These changes reflect the complex interplay of natural processes
periods: 1980–1990, 1990–2000, 2000–2010, and 2010–2023. Signifi­
and human activities, which have shaped the morphology over time.
cant fluctuations in migration were observed for both the north (right)
and south (left) banks, with measurements recorded in meters (m) at
4.3. Rate of widening each station. The migration patterns are visually represented on the map
on the left side of Fig. 5, while the migration distances are shown in the
In this study, the widening rate of the Sandhya River was measured graph on the right. Arrows at each measurement location indicate the
at 10 stations over four-time intervals (1980–1990, 1990–2000, direction of migration.
2000–2010, and 2010–2023). Analysis revealed significant fluctuations In the 1980–1990 period, the south bank generally experienced more
in channel width, with widening rates ranging from − 11 m/year to +27 substantial migration than the north bank. At Station 1, the south bank
m/year, depending on the station and time period (Fig. 4). Notably, shifted 65 m, while the north bank only shifted 26 m, with movement
stations 2 and 4 exhibited the most tremendous variability: station 2 occurring in a northward direction. The most pronounced migration

Fig. 4. Maps showing (A-E) the locations of the widening rate measuring stations and (F) the corresponding rate of widening (m/year) for the Sandhya River between
1980 and 2023.

6
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

Fig. 5. Maps depicting the direction of riverbank movement; Graphs showing the migration distances of both the north (right) and south (left) banks.

occurred at Station 8, where the south bank migrated 220 m north, and 4.5. Land degradation and accretion
the north bank shifted 193 m north. The 1990–2000 period continued
the observed migration trend, with further increases in migration dis­ Riverbank erosion causes significant land degradation over large
tances. At Station 6, the south bank migrated 211 m, while the north areas, affecting homesteads, agricultural land, livestock, and barren
bank shifted 278 m in a southward direction. In contrast, Station 2 land. In villages such as Mohishadi, Doarika, Kedarpur, Rahamatpur,
exhibited considerable movement, with the south bank migrating 202 m Khudrakathi, Vuterdia, Manikkathi, and Rakudia, some residents have
south and the north bank shifting 241 m north. lost more than half of their land due to erosion. Babuganj Upazila, in
Between 2000 and 2010, migration distances increased significantly, particular, is subject to substantial sediment deposition from the
with the most pronounced changes occurring at Station 6. During this Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) river system. Satellite data anal­
period, the south bank migrated 491 m south, while the north bank ysis over the past four decades reveals significant erosion along the
shifted 495 m south. A large flood around 2007 near Stations 3, 6, and 8 Sandhya River banks, affecting eight villages in Babuganj Upazila, with
contributed to the vulnerability of these areas (Fig. 5), which likely a total area of 3.36 km2. In contrast, accretion expanded by 6.403 km2,
influenced the migration patterns during this period. During the while approximately 11.854 km2 of land remained stable.
2010–2023 period, migration became more varied. The south bank From 1980 to 2000, the erosion rate remained relatively constant,
generally exhibited greater migration than the north bank. The largest averaging around 0.731 km2/year (Fig. 6). Meanwhile, the accretion
total shifts were recorded at Station 6, where the south bank migrated rate increased slightly, averaging 1.14 km2/year, and the area of un­
826 m and the north bank 857 m. Migration directions remained pre­ changed land remained at approximately 2.6 km2. From 2000 to 2010,
dominantly northward at Stations 1, 3, 4, 8, and 9, while southward the erosion rate increased to around 1.32 km2/year, while the accretion
migration was observed at Stations 2, 5, 6, 7, and 10. rate accelerated significantly, adding 2.16 km2 of land. The area of
In 1998, riverbank stabilization measures, including revetments and stable land decreased slightly by approximately 2.5 km2 during this
concrete blocks, were implemented near Station 3, close to Dwarika period. Between 2010 and 2023, the accretion rate reduced to approx­
Bridge and Barishal Airport, to mitigate erosion, resulting in a tempo­ imately 1.956 km2/year, while the area of unchanged land expanded
rary decline in the migration rate. However, after 2000, the rate significantly by about 4.157 km2. Notably, the rate of erosion during this
increased again, primarily due to sand mining and brickfield operations period decreased dramatically to approximately 0.584 km2/year.
along the Sandhya River. The period from 2000 to 2010 witnessed the The use of riverbank stabilization measures, such as the embank­
highest migration rates, exacerbated by flooding and continued ments and concrete blocks to resist the riverbank erosion and to preserve
anthropogenic activities. This process has had an impact on both the the erosion-prone banks, and sand mining in the neck cutoff region have
sinuosity and the rate of width. Most of the brickfields and zones of sand significant impacts on depositional rate and formation of point bars
mining are located in those specified sections 2 and 3. Sand mining [61,62]. The formation of mid-channel bars is a direct consequence of
exerts various impacts on the river morphological features, including sediment deposition from upstream bank collapses and sand mining
channel excavations within the mining zone [31,60], river bank erosion activities, as mentioned in the previous sections. These bars, which were
and configuration change [40]. absent in 2000 and 2010, occupied nearly 4.0 km2 by 2023, disrupting
This trend is particularly concerning near critical infrastructure; for natural flow regimes and increasing flow resistance. Consequently,
instance, the Sandhya River, which was approximately 1 km from midchannel bars and new char lands are forming near the Doarika
Barishal Airport in 1980, had migrated to within 0.35 km by 2023 bridge and cut bank in the midchannel of the Sandhya River.
(Supplement-01). This shift is driven by increased discharge and
scouring at meander necks, exacerbating bank erosion and channel 4.6. Socioeconomic impacts of the geomorphic evolution of the Sandhya
widening. River

The geomorphic change of the Sandhya River has had profound

7
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

Fig. 6. Trends of Erosion and Accretion along the Sandhya River (1980–2023), representing a higher accretion rate in the last 30 years.

socioeconomic consequences, primarily driven by riverbank erosion and livelihoods in the study area, which is shown in Fig. 7. Agricultural land
land accretion. This section examines the key impacts, including land has been the most affected, accounting for 65 % of total eroded land,
loss and its effects on livelihoods, shifts in land use and ownership, followed by residential areas (15 %). The loss of farmland has directly
patterns of displacement and migration, and broader economic vulner­ affected food security and farming incomes, while residential property
abilities by conducting an integrated field visit and questionnaire survey erosion has led to displacement and housing insecurity. Field survey
in and around several areas, including Vuterdia, Dehergati, Raha­ data indicate that 20 % of households lost their homesteads entirely,
matpur, Rakudia, Kedarpur, Khudrakathi, Mohishadi, and Manikkathi while 22 % experienced total crop loss, and 20 % lost all their livestock
villages of Babuganj Upazila. The study was based on collecting Key (Fig. 7b). Additionally, 51 % reported partial damage to their homes,
Informant Interviews (KII) from 154 individuals and 7 to 8 focused and around 61 % and 45 % reported partial crop and livestock loss,
group discussions to gather the actual picture of erosional hazards and to respectively (Fig. 7b). These impacts highlight the necessity of strategic
validate the results from the geospatial techniques. The findings high­ land-use planning and erosion control measures to mitigate future
light the direct correlation between geomorphic changes and socioeco­ losses.
nomic instability in the study area. Erosion-induced land loss has forced residents to shift from farming
to other occupations. Before erosion, 61 % of the population were
4.6.1. Land loss and livelihood disruptions farmers, but this number dropped to 43 %, with a corresponding rise in
Riverbank erosion has significantly impacted land use and day laborers and other professions. About 12 % and 15 % moved into

Fig. 7. Analysis of Land loss and livelihood changes, and shifting the streams of livelihood for erosional impact evaluation in the study area, representing 40 % of
respondents who changed their professions.

8
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

marginal trading and industrial work, respectively. Nearly 40 % of geomorphology and socioeconomic analysis of river erosional hazards,
people changed careers due to erosion, while 59 % continued their integrating a geospatial approach to study river dynamics under both
previous occupations (Fig. 7c). This transition highlights the economic natural and anthropogenic influences. The integration of RS-GIS with
vulnerability of affected communities as they move to less stable or qualitative community-based data (KII and FGD) provides a robust,
lower-paying jobs. interdisciplinary framework applicable across geographies facing
similar riverbank instability. From a practical standpoint, the study
4.6.2. Shifts in land use and ownership patterns emphasizes the necessity of coordinated land and water management
Between 1980 and 2023, approximately 3.36 km2 of land was lost to policies, particularly in rapidly urbanizing and ecologically fragile re­
erosion, while 6.403 km2 of new land was formed (Fig. 6). Erosion gions. Although the use of 30 m spatial resolution of Landsat imagery
peaked between 2000 and 2010 but has slowed in recent years, while can be challenging to detect small-scale geomorphic changes, particu­
accretion showed an initial increase followed by a more gradual larly in narrow or highly dynamic river reaches, the study focused pri­
expansion. The most severe erosion occurred in villages like Vuterdia, marily on broader-scale geomorphic transformations that are detectable
which saw its land area shrink from 1.42 km2 to 0.37 km2, and Doarika, within the spatial limits of the dataset. The observed patterns of erosion
Rahmatpur, Rakudia, and Kedarpur, which collectively lost 1.43 km2 of and socioeconomic displacement in Babuganj reflect broader trends
land (Table 2). Conversely, areas like Khudrakathi, Mohishadi, and evident in other low-lying deltaic systems globally. Thus, the findings
Manikkathi experienced relatively lower erosion rates, losing about have strong international resonance, particularly for policymakers and
0.49 km2. This drastic land loss correlates with declining agricultural practitioners working in comparable settings across Asia, Africa, and
productivity, economic instability, and property loss. The affected Latin America. In order to achieve sustainable riverine governance on a
communities struggle with reduced income opportunities and food global scale, the strategy and suggestions presented here support scal­
insecurity. able interventions that connect geomorphic stabilization with socio­
economic resilience.
4.6.3. Patterns of displacement and migration
Frequent displacement due to riverbank erosion has forced many 6. Conclusions and recommendations
residents to relocate within or beyond the region. Survey data indicate
that 55 % of respondents were displaced 1–2 times, 32 % were displaced This study examined the significant geomorphic changes of the
3–4 times, and smaller percentages experienced even more frequent Sandhya River in Babuganj Upazila, Barishal, over the past four decades
displacement (Fig. 8a). Most displaced individuals relocated to nearby (1980–2023). Both natural processes and human interventions,
areas in Barishal (About 17 %), but approximately 73 % of displaced including sand mining, brickfield operations, and embankment con­
individuals moved to Dhaka, while 5 % settled in Chittagong, 4 % in struction, have profoundly influenced the river morphology. These ac­
Khulna, and the remainder spread across other districts in search of tivities have accelerated the erosion, widened the river channel, and
better opportunities (Fig. 8b). Regression analysis shows a strong posi­ caused shifts in the sinuosity index, which fluctuated between 1.01 and
tive correlation between migration rates and erosion intensity (Fig. 8c). 2.08. Significant widening rates, reaching up to 27 m per year, were
As more land erodes, migration increases proportionally. observed near sand-mining zones. Total lateral migration reached 857 m
at Station 6 (2010− 2023), with south (left) and north (right) bank
4.6.4. Economic vulnerabilities and adaptation challenges migration rates of 66 m/year and 63.5 m/year, respectively. Mid-
Communities affected by riverbank erosion often experience eco­ channel bars in the Sandhya River began forming after 2007 due to
nomic hardships, with many small-scale and marginal farmers falling sediment deposition from upstream bank collapses and sand mining.
into debt. Over the past 30 years, around 45 % of residents have taken Previously absent in 2000 and 2010, these bars expanded to around 4.0
personal loans to cope with financial losses (Fig. 8d). The shift in km2 by 2023, altering natural flow and increasing resistance. As a result,
employment patterns is also evident, about 40 % respondents have to new mid-channel bars and char lands have emerged near the Doarika
change their profession due to the erosional hazards (Fig. 7c). The bridge and cut bank. The formation of mid-channel bars has disrupted
transformation from farming-based livelihoods to diverse informal and river flow, contributing to instability in surrounding areas. These
service-sector jobs underscores the need for targeted economic support geomorphic changes, particularly after 2000, have had severe conse­
programs. Access to financial aid, skill development, and alternative quences for local infrastructure, such as Barishal Airport, and have led to
employment opportunities will be critical in ensuring sustainable eco­ the displacement of local communities. Riverbank erosion has caused
nomic stability for erosion-affected communities. significant socioeconomic hardship for local communities. Approxi­
mately 55 % of households have experienced displacement once or
5. Theoretical and practical implications twice, with 32 % moving 3–4 times due to repeated erosion. The loss of
agricultural land, which accounts for 65 % of the total erosion, has
This research encompasses the theoretical understanding of fluvial forced many residents to shift from farming (from 61 % to 43 % of the
population) to informal sectors. Additionally, 45 % of households have
Table 2 fallen into debt due to the recurring losses caused by erosion. Villages
Changes in land-ownership in response to erosion of eight adjoining villages in such as Vuterdia, Rakudia, and Kedarpur have been particularly
the study area. The negative sign in the total changes of occupied land indicates affected, experiencing some of the highest erosion rates.
land degradation from 2000 to 2010. To mitigate the geomorphic and socioeconomic challenges facing the
Villages Occupied Land (sq. km) at Occupied land (sq. km) before the Sandhya River, it is essential to regulate adverse human interventions,
present erosion started such as unplanned sand mining and brickfield operations, through
Vuterdia 0.38 1.42 strictly enforcing the environmental laws along the riverbank. Further­
Doarika 0.27 0.72 more, structural interventions such as bank protection, embankments,
Rahmatpur 0.23 0.60 and dams should be carefully evaluated before implementation to assess
Rakudia 0.36 0.68
their environmental and geomorphic impacts and avoid unintended
Kedarpur 0.28 0.57
Khudrakathi 0.03 0.25 consequences. Understanding the erosional patterns, particularly the
Mohishadi 0.05 0.23 formation of bars (Chars), is crucial for monitoring river flow variations
Manikkathi 0.01 0.10 and geomorphic changes. Incorporating Geomorphic Index (G.I.) anal­
Total 1.60 4.56 ysis into future research will enhance the predictive capabilities of
Total changes
erosion patterns and guide more effective management strategies.
¡2.97

9
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

Fig. 8. Erosion-induced migration dynamics representing the (a) Migration frequencies, (b) patterns and places , (c) correlation of migration and erosion triggered
along the Sandhya River, and (d) Utilization of personal loans by individuals over the last 30 years in the study area.

Additionally, collaboration between academic institutions and local Dhiman Kumer Roy: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
government agencies is necessary to conduct high-quality research on
river morphological changes and the impacts of human interventions. Funding
This research can provide valuable insights for policy decisions and
improve river basin management. The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the R&D
Additionally, nature-based solutions, such as bioengineering with Project, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government People’s Re­
vegetation, provide sustainable and eco-friendly methods for bank sta­ public of Bangladesh for funding a project (Budget code: SRG- 223453)
bilization. Community-focused adaptation strategies, including liveli­ to accomplish this study.
hood diversification through aquaculture and eco-tourism, can support
displaced populations and reduce dependency on agriculture. Finally, Declaration of competing interest
establishing early warning systems, coordinating sediment management
through regular dredging of mid-channel bars, and developing a na­ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
tional erosion management framework that incorporates remote sensing interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
and GIS technologies will ensure more efficient and coordinated efforts the work reported in this paper.
in managing riverbank erosion in the future. These integrated measures
provide a replicable model for sustainable river governance in Acknowledgement
Bangladesh and other vulnerable deltaic regions.
We are grateful to the technical personnel involved in this work,
CRediT authorship contribution statement especially those in the Department of Geology and Mining laboratory.
The authors would like to thank the office of the Department of Geology
Sukhen Goswami: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original and Mining, University of Barishal, Bangladesh, for their support during
draft, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Meth­ sampling and analysis. We also want to thank several undergraduate
odology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data students (Admission session: 2017-2018) of the Geology and Mining
curation, Conceptualization. Md. Masum Billah: Writing – original Department at the University of Barishal, for their cooperation during
draft, Visualization, Software, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Md the field data collection, preparation and analysis. We would like ex­
Sabbir Hossen: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, press our thanks to Ms. Afroz Jahan and Mr. Eaftada Tasin Eafti for their
Software. Mehedi Hasan Ovi: Visualization, Validation, Software, support during the data curation and analysis. Finally, we appreciate
Methodology. Shacin Chandra Saha: Visualization, Software, Re­ and humbly express our gratitude to the unanimous reviewers for their
sources. Mir Md. Tasnim Alam: Writing – review & editing, Visuali­ valuable feedback, constructive comments, and the effort the two re­
zation. Probir Kumar Bhowmik: Writing – review & editing, Project viewers put into this manuscript to enhance its quality.
administration, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.
Atikul Haque Farazi: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Md.
Ashraful Islam: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Supervision.

10
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

Appendix A. Supplementary data stratigraphy and evolution of the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta. Sediment Geol 2000;
133(3–4):227–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(00)00041-5.
[23] Uddin SA, He L, Hossain MJ, Nusrat N, Debi M. Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. River Delta. In: Delta sustainability: a report to the Mega-Delta Programme of the
org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2025.100450. UN Ocean decade. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore; 2024. p. 89–116.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-7259-9_6.
[24] Paszkowski A, Goodbred Jr S, Borgomeo E, Khan MSA, Hall JW. Geomorphic
Data availability change in the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna delta. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2021;2
(11):763–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00213-4.
Data will be made available on request. [25] Rahim MA, Akter N, Roy DK, Hasan I, Salman MA, Goswami S, et al. Assessment of
socioeconomic impacts of river Bank Erosion: enhancing resilience in the Coastal
Belt of Bangladesh. J Environ Dev 2024;33(4):583–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/
References 107049652412467.
[26] Islam A, Guchhait SK. Economic vulnerabilities induced by riverbank Erosion. In:
[1] Prasertsoong N, Puttanapong N. An integrated framework for satellite-based flood Riverbank Erosion in the Bengal Delta: An integrated perspective. Cham: Springer
mapping and socioeconomic risk analysis: a case of Thailand. Prog Disaster Sci International Publishing; 2024. p. 201–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-
2025;25:100393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2024.100393. 47010-3_6.
[2] Hasan I, Dey J, Munna MMR, Preya A, Nisanur TB, Memy MJ, et al. Morphological [27] Rezaul Islam M. Drivers of vulnerability and its socioeconomic consequences: an
changes of river Bank Erosion and channel shifting assessment on Arial Khan River example of river Erosion affected people in Bangladesh. In: Climate vulnerability
of Bangladesh using Landsat satellite time series images. Prog Disaster Sci 2024;24: and resilience in the global south: human adaptations for sustainable futures; 2021.
100381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2024.100381. p. 297–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77259-8_15.
[3] Uddin MM, Mia MB, Gazi MY, Kamal AM. Quantification of land use changes [28] Siddik MA, Zaman AKMM, Islam MR, Hridoy SK, Akhtar MP. Socioeconomic
driven by the dynamics of the Jamuna River, a giant tropical river of Bangladesh. impacts of river bank erosion: a case study on coastal island of Bangladesh.
Egypt J Remote Sens Space Sci 2024;27(2):392–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. J NOAMI 2017;34(2):73–84. ISSN1027-2119.
ejrs.2024.04.004. [29] Rentier ES, Cammeraat LH. The environmental impacts of river sand mining. Sci
[4] Ghosh K, Chakraborty T. Impact of human intervention structures on the rivers: an Total Environ 2022;838:155877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
investigation of the spatiotemporal variation of grain size in the Tista River, eastern scitotenv.2022.155877.
Himalayas. Earth Surf Process Landf 2022;47(9):2245–65. https://doi.org/ [30] Van Tho N. Coastal erosion, river bank erosion and landslides in the Mekong Delta:
10.1002/esp.5374. causes, effects and solutions. In: Geotechnics for sustainable infrastructure
[5] Rinaldi M, Surian N, Comiti F, Bussettini M. A method for the assessment and development. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2019. p. 957–62. https://doi.org/
analysis of the hydromorphological condition of Italian streams: the morphological 10.1007/978-981-15-2184-3_125.
quality index (MQI). Geomorphology 2013;180:96–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/ [31] Rinaldi M, Wyzga B, Surian N. Sediment mining in alluvial channels: physical
j.geomorph.2012.09.009. effects and management perspectives. River Res Appl 2005;21(7):805–28. https://
[6] Erskine WD. Channel response to large?Scale river training works: Hunter River, doi.org/10.1002/rra.884.
Australia. Regul Rivers: Res Manage 1992;7(3):261–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/ [32] Afrose S, Ahmed N. Effect of degraded ecosystem on fish biodiversity in the old
rrr.3450070305. Brahmaputra River, Bangladesh and its conservation measures. IOSR J Environ Sci,
[7] Bhuyan N, Sajjad H, Rahaman MH, Ahmed R. Riverbank erosion induced Toxicol Food Technol 2016;10(9):37–43. e-ISSN: 2319-2402, p- ISSN: 2319-2399.
vulnerability in India: a review for future research framework. Nat Hazards 2025; [33] Fuller MR, Doyle MW, Strayer DL. Causes and consequences of habitat
121(1):1–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-024-06789-6. fragmentation in river networks. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2015;1355(1):31–51. https://
[8] Haque MM, Haque M, Ghosh MK. The coastal dynamics of the Central doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12853.
Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna Delta coast, Bangladesh: implications for coastal [34] Moyle PB, Leidy RA. Loss of biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems: evidence from fish
development and sustainability. J Coast Conserv 2024;28(1):29. https://doi.org/ faunas. In: Conservation biology: The theory and practice of nature conservation
10.1007/s11852-024-01032-7. preservation and management. Boston, MA: Springer US; 1992. p. 127–69. https://
[9] Siddha S, Sahu P. Impact of climate change on the river ecosystem. In: Ecological doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-6426-9_6.
significance of river ecosystems. Elsevier; 2022. p. 79–104. https://doi.org/ [35] Islam MM. Riverbank Erosion assessment of Sandha River and identification the
10.1016/B978-0-323-85045-2.00014-5. human induced key factor by using GIS and remote sensing method. In: 6th
[10] Naylor LA, Spencer T, Lane SN, Darby SE, Magilligan FJ, Macklin MG, et al. Stormy international conference on engineering research, volume: ICERIE-2021-143,
geomorphology: geomorphic contributions in an age of climate extremes. Earth Innovation and Education School of Applied sciences & Technologyh, SUST.
Surf Process Landf 2017;42(1):166–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4062. Sylhet, Banglades: School of Applied Sciences & Technology, SUST; 2021. p. 2021.
[11] Islam MR, Shamsuddoha M. Socioeconomic consequences of climate induced [36] Roy B. A study on fluvial flood hazard and risk assessment of Arial Khan River
human displacement and migration in Bangladesh. Int Sociol 2017;32(3):277–98. floodplain under future climate change scenarios. Thesis2019. Department of
https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580917693173. Water Resources Engineering, BUET; 2019. http://lib.buet.ac.bd:8080/xmlui/ha
[12] Aktar N. Impact of climate change on riverbank erosion. Int J Sci 2013;7(1):36–42. ndle/123456789/5917.
ISSN 2307–4531. [37] Roy S, Barman K, Das VK, Debnath K, Mazumder BS. Experimental investigation of
[13] Grove R, Croke J, Thompson C. Quantifying different riverbank erosion processes undercut mechanisms of river bank erosion based on 3D turbulence characteristics.
during an extreme flood event. Earth Surf Process Landf 2013;38(12):1393–406. Environ Processes 2020;7:341–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-019-00417-3.
https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3386. [38] Ciszewski D, Sobucki M. River response to mining-induced subsidence. Catena
[14] Bahar SM, Tabassum F, Moumita NT, Rafy MA. Determination of potential hazard 2022;214:106303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106303.
level for flood-induced damage during different life cycle stages of T. Aman rice [39] Varma N, Tan RYW, Wasson RJ, Tortajada C, Rakshit R, Saikia A. From discourses
along the floodplain of the Jamuna River. Prog Disaster Sci 2024;23:100353. to systems–policymaking for adaptive management in the Brahmaputra River
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2024.100353. basin. Environ Res Lett 2025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/add02b.
[15] Khan HM, Rahman MM. Transboundary river management of the [40] Wishart D, Warburton J, Bracken L. Gravel extraction and planform change in a
Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) Delta: environmental challenges and wandering gravel-bed river: the river Wear, Northern England. Geomorphology
strategies. Environ Degrad 2022:495–530. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030- 2008;94(1–2):131–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.05.003.
95542-7_23. [41] Erskine WD. Hydrogeomorphic effects of river training works: the case of the Allyn
[16] Hossain A, Alam MJ, Haque MR. Effects of riverbank erosion on mental health of River. NSW. Aust Geogr Stud 1990;28(1):62–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
the affected people in Bangladesh. PloS One 2021;16(7):e0254782. https://doi. 8470.1990.tb00622.x.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254782. [42] Das R. Decoding spatio-temporal dynamics of river morphology: a comprehensive
[17] Shahriar S. Impacts of floods and riverbank erosions on the rural lives and analysis of bank-line migration in lower Gangetic basin using DSAS. Model Earth
livelihoods strategies in Bangladesh: Evidence from Kurigram. Research, Syst Environ 2024;10(2):2869–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-023-01927-8.
Leadership, Transformation: Handbook of Climate Change Management; 2021. [43] Choowong M, Wattanachareekul P. Human impact on geomorphic index alteration
p. 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22759-3_150-1. at the Chi River in Kosum Phisai, Maha Sarakham, North-Eastern Thailand. Bull
[18] Mollah TH, Ferdaush J. Riverbank erosion, population migration and rural Earth Sci Thailand 2022;14(1):1–10 [ISSN 2821-9104 (Online].
vulnerability in Bangladesh (a case study on Kazipur Upazila at Sirajgonj District). [44] Shefa MS, Hasan MF, Ovi MH, Akash SMH, Parvez A, Rukshana F, et al. Navigating
Environ Ecol Res 2015;3(5):125–31. https://doi.org/10.13189/eer.2015.030502. the ravages of riverbank Erosion: socioeconomic and environmental impacts in the
[19] Roy, D.K., Goswami, S., Ahmed, T., Saha, M.K., Emon, M.H. and Rahim, M.A., Nalua Union of Bakerganj Upazila. Asian J Soc Sci Leg Stud 2024;6(4):154–61.
2017. Socioeconomic impacts of river bank erosion on Durgapasha Union in https://doi.org/10.34104/ajssls.024.015400161.
Bakerganj Upazila, Bangladesh. Barisal Univ J Part, 1(4), p.1. ISSN 2411–247X. [45] Das R, Samanta G. Impact of floods and riverbank erosion on the riverine people in
[20] Rahman MR. Impact of riverbank erosion hazard in the Jamuna floodplain areas in Manikchak block of Malda District, West Bengal. Environ Dev Sustainability 2023;
Bangladesh. J Sci Found 2010;8(1–2):55–65. https://doi.org/10.3329/jsf.v8i1- 25(11):13595–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02648-1.
2.14627. [46] Joy MAR, Upaul S, Fatema K, Amin FR. Application of GIS and remote sensing in
[21] Kuehl SA, Allison MA, Goodbred SL, Kudrass H. The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. morphometric analysis of river basin at the south-western part of great Ganges
2005. https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.05.83.0413. delta, Bangladesh. Hydrol Res 2023;54(6):739–55. https://doi.org/10.2166/
[22] Goodbred Jr SL, Kuehl SA. The significance of large sediment supply, active nh.2023.087.
tectonism, and eustasy on margin sequence development: Late Quaternary [47] Bordoloi K, Nikam BR, Srivastav SK, Sahariah D. Assessment of riverbank erosion
and erosion probability using geospatial approach: a case study of the Subansiri

11
S. Goswami et al. Progress in Disaster Science 27 (2025) 100450

River, Assam, India. Appl Geomatics 2020;12(3):265–80. https://doi.org/ Bangladesh. J Creative Writ 2024;8(2):110–32. https://doi.org/10.70771/
10.1007/s12518-019-00296-1. jocw.120 (ISSN-2410-6259).
[48] Bhuiyan MA, Kumamoto T, Suzuki S. Application of remote sensing and GIS for [55] Haque SA. Salinity problems and crop production in coastal regions of Bangladesh.
evaluation of the recent morphological characteristics of the lower Brahmaputra- Pak J Bot 2006;38(5):1359–65. ISSN 2070–3368.
Jamuna River, Bangladesh. Earth Sci Inf 2015;8:551–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/ [56] Mueller JE. An introduction to the hydraulic and topographic sinuosity indexes.
s12145-014-0180-4. Annals Assoc Am Geogr 1968;58(2):371–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
[49] Hooke JM. Complexity, self-organisation and variation in behaviour in meandering 8306.1968.tb00650.x.
rivers. Geomorphology 2007;91(3–4):236–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [57] Williams GP. River meanders and channel size. J Hydrol 1986;88(1–2):147–64.
geomorph.2007.04.021. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(86)90202-7.
[50] Springer Nature Limited and Published annually since 1864. The ’‘Statesman’s [58] Lawler DM. The measurement of river bank erosion and lateral channel change: a
Yearbook 2021: The politics, Cultures and Economies of the World. 2021. review. Earth Surf Process Landf 1993;18(9):777–821. https://doi.org/10.1002/
p. 166–70. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95972-3_24. Bangladesh. esp.3290180905.
[51] BBS. Yearbook of agricultural statistics-2021. 33rd series, Bangladesh bureau of [59] Thorne CR. Geomorphic analysis of large alluvial rivers. Geomorphology 2002;44
statistics (BBS). Dhaka, Bangladesh: Statistics and informatics division (SID), (3–4):203–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(01)00175-1.
ministry of planning. Government of the people’s republic of Bangladesh; 2022. [60] Zawiejska J, Wyżga B, Radecki-Pawlik A. Variation in surface bed material along a
p. 03–664. mountain river modified by gravel extraction and channelization, the Czarny
[52] Goswami S, Rahman AM, Fuad MIM, Roy DK, Rahim A. Groundwater quality Dunajec, polish Carpathians. Geomorphology 2015;231:353–66. https://doi.org/
assessment of Barisal city corporation in Bangladesh. Barisal Univ J Part 1 2017;4 10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.12.026.
(2):339–50 (2017) ISSN 2411-247X. [61] Mondal M, Satpati L. Human intervention on river system: a control system—a case
[53] Fahad AL, Nayem NH, Hossain N. Urban geology of Barishal District: study in Ichamati River, India. Environ Dev Sustainability 2020;22:5245–71.
Environmental and geological constraints. Am J Eng Res 2025;9(12):152–6. e- https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00423-3.
ISSN: 2320–0847 p-ISSN : 2320–0936. [62] Merritt DM, Wohl EE. Downstream hydraulic geometry and channel adjustment
[54] Khondoker NI, Hosain MM, Obaidullah AKM. Assessment of soil salinity and heavy during a flood along an ephemeral, arid-region drainage. Geomorphology 2003;52
metal contamination in agricultural zones from Barishal towards Barguna, (3–4):165–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00241-6.

12