~ NOTES BY UJJWAL SIR

[MICRO-ORGANISMS]
[chapter-02]
 Microorganisms — Friend and Foe

NOTES

Q) What does the word ‘micro’ stand for in microorganisms?

-> The word ‘micro’ is derived from the Greek word mikros ,
which means small or minute.

Therefore, in the term microorganism , the prefix ‘micro’

indicates that these organisms are so tiny that they cannot be
seen with the unaided eye.

-> They are microscopic in nature, which means they can only
be observed using a microscope.

Q) WHAT ARE MICROORGANISMS?

-> Microorganisms are living organisms that are extremely small

in size and are not visible to the naked eye.

-> These can only be observed under a microscope, hence the

name microorganism (micro = small, organism = living being).

-> Microorganisms are present in almost every environment on

Earth — in the air, water, soil, inside the human body, and
even in extreme places such as hot springs, icy regions, and
deep oceans. Despite their tiny size, they have a powerful
impact on human life, agriculture, industry, and the
environment.

Q) WHAT IS MICROBIOLOGY?

-> The branch of science which deals with the study of

microorganisms is known as Microbiology.

-> It involves understanding the biology of microbes including

their classification, structure, functions, reproduction, and their
roles in nature.

-> A person who studies microorganisms is called a

microbiologist.

-> Microbiology is important in medicine, agriculture, food

processing, environmental science, and biotechnology.

DISCOVERY OF MICROORGANISMS

-> Robert Hooke, in 1665, used a microscope to observe the

structure of cork and discovered tiny box-like structures, which
he named “cells.”
-> However, it was Antoni van Leeuwenhoek in 1674, who is
credited with observing live microorganisms for the first-time.

-> These discoveries laid the foundation for the field of

microbiology.

PRESENCE OF MICROORGANISMS AROUND US

Although we cannot see microorganisms with the naked eye,

their presence can be felt in many ways.

-> when milk turns into curd, it is due to the activity of

bacteria.

-> The rising of dough used for making bread and cakes is caused
by yeast, a type of fungus.

-> Spoilage of food, bad odour from garbage, and mould on

stale bread are also due to microorganisms.

-> The fact that diseases like the common cold, flu, or
tuberculosis spread from one person to another is further proof
of microbial activity in our surroundings.
TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS

Microorganisms are classified into five major groups:

i) Bacteria

ii) Fungi

iii) Algae

iv) Protozoa and

v) Viruses.

🔹 BACTERIA (SINGULAR: BACTERIUM)

-> Bacteria are single-celled organisms that do not have a well-

defined nucleus, meaning they are prokaryotic.

-> They are among the oldest and most abundant organisms on
Earth and are found in almost all environments — soil, air,
water, inside our bodies, and even in harsh conditions like hot
springs or frozen glaciers.

Bacteria come in different shapes:

 Coccus – Spherical
 Bacillus – Rod-shaped
  Spirillum – Spiral
 Vibrio – Comma-shaped

-> Some bacteria have flagella, which are tail-like structures

that help them move.

-> They reproduce asexually by a process called binary fission, in

which one bacterial cell splits into two identical cells.

-> While some bacteria are harmful and cause diseases, many
are extremely beneficial.

-> For example,

i) Rhizobium helps fix nitrogen in the soil.

ii) Lactobacillus helps in curd formation

iii) certain bacteria help in decomposition and cleaning the

environment.

🔹 FUNGI (SINGULAR: FUNGUS)

-> Fungi are microorganisms that do not contain chlorophyll and

hence cannot make their own food.

-> They are heterotrophs, which means they depend on others

for nutrition.
-> Fungi can be unicellular (like yeast) or multicellular (like
bread mould and mushrooms).

-> The body of a multicellular fungus consists of hyphae, which

are thread-like structures, and a fruiting body, which produces
spores for reproduction.

-> Fungi reproduce asexually, usually through spore formation or

budding (in the case of yeast).

-> They are often saprophytic (feed on dead matter) or

parasitic (feed on living organisms).

-> Common examples of fungi include Penicillium , Aspergillus ,

and Yeast .

🔹 ALGAE (SINGULAR: ALGA)

-> Algae are plant-like microorganisms that contain chlorophyll

and carry out photosynthesis to make their own food.
Therefore, they are autotrophs.

-> They usually grow in water — ponds, lakes, rivers, and oceans
— and are often referred to as the "grasses of many waters."

-> Although algae may appear in different colours due to the

presence of various pigments, they all perform photosynthesis.
-> Some algae are unicellular, like Chlamydomonas and Diatoms ,
while others are multicellular, like Spirogyra and blue-green
algae .

-> They reproduce by fragmentation, binary fission, or sexual

reproduction.

🔹 PROTOZOA (SINGULAR: PROTOZOAN)

-> Protozoa are unicellular microorganisms that are often

referred to as animal-like microbes because they move and eat
like animals.

-> They are either free-living or parasitic.

-> Free-living protozoa, such as Amoeba , feed on bacteria and

small particles in the water.

-> Parasitic protozoa, like Plasmodium , live inside other

organisms and cause diseases like malaria.

-> Protozoa use different means for movement:

 Amoeba uses pseudopodia (false feet)

 Paramecium moves with cilia
 Euglena moves using a flagellum
🔹 VIRUSES (SINGULAR: VIRUS)

-> Viruses are very unique microorganisms because they show

both living and non-living characteristics.

-> When outside a living host, they behave like non-living things
— they do not move, grow, feed, or reproduce.

-> However, once inside a living cell, they become active and
start reproducing by taking control of the host’s machinery.

-> Viruses cannot be classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

-> They are often named based on the diseases they cause —
for example, Polio virus , HIV virus , Coronavirus , Influenza
virus .

-> A virus that infects bacteria is known as a bacteriophage.

✳ HARMFUL AND USEFUL MICROORGANISMS

Harmful Microorganisms:

-> Some microorganisms are pathogens, which means they cause

diseases in humans, animals, and plants.

-> For example, Plasmodium causes malaria, Mycobacterium

tuberculosis causes TB, and some fungi damage crops.
-> Disease-causing microbes can spread through air, water, food,
or by physical contact and are responsible for communicable
diseases like influenza, typhoid, and cholera.

-> Carriers like mosquitoes and houseflies help spread these

microbes.

Useful Microorganisms:

-> Bacteria like Lactobacillus help in curd formation.

-> Yeast is used in baking and alcohol production.

-> Penicillium, a fungus, produces penicillin, the first antibiotic

discovered by Alexander Fleming.

-> Microorganisms help in cleaning the environment by

decomposing waste.

-> Rhizobium bacteria fix nitrogen in legume roots, helping

plants grow better.

✳ VACCINES AND VACCINATION

-> Vaccination is a method of immunizing the body against

diseases.
-> A vaccine contains dead or weakened microbes that cannot
cause disease but can stimulate the body's immune system.

-> When a person is vaccinated, their white blood cells produce

antibodies, which protect them from future infections.

-> This method has helped prevent diseases like polio, smallpox,
tetanus, tuberculosis, hepatitis, and more.

-> The first vaccine was created by Edward Jenner against

smallpox, earning him the title "Father of Vaccination."

✳ FOOD POISONING

-> When food is contaminated with microorganisms, they may

release harmful toxins. Consumption of such food can lead to
food poisoning, which causes symptoms like vomiting, stomach
ache, diarrhoea, and dehydration. It can be serious and
sometimes even fatal if not treated quickly.

✳ FOOD PRESERVATION

-> To prevent food spoilage and food poisoning, it is important

to preserve food. This is done by either killing microbes or
preventing their growth.
-> Some common methods include:

 Drying: Removes moisture (e.g., mint leaves, dried fish).

 Boiling: Kills microbes by heat.
 Salting and Sugar: Draws out water from microbes.
 Chemical preservatives: Like sodium benzoate.
 Pasteurization: Heating milk to 70°C and cooling (discovered
by Louis Pasteur).
 Refrigeration and Freezing: Low temperatures prevent
microbial growth.
 Canning: Storing food in air-tight containers after
sterilization.

✳ NITROGEN CYCLE

-> Nitrogen is essential for the formation of proteins in living

beings.

-> Although nitrogen gas makes up 78% of the atmosphere, it

cannot be used directly by plants or animals. It must be
converted into usable forms.

The Nitrogen Cycle includes the following steps:

1. Nitrogen Fixation: Lightning or nitrogen-fixing bacteria (like

Rhizobium ) convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates.
 2. Absorption by Plants: Plants use nitrates to make
proteins.
3. Assimilation by Animals: Animals eat plants and obtain
nitrogen.
4. Decomposition: Dead organisms are broken down into
ammonia.
5. Nitrification: Ammonia is converted to nitrates by
nitrifying bacteria.
6. Denitrification: Nitrates are converted back to nitrogen
gas by denitrifying bacteria, returning it to the atmosphere.

SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATED TO THIS CHAPTER…

1. CAN MICROORGANISMS BE SEEN WITH THE NAKED EYE? HOW

CAN WE SEE THEM?

-> No, most microorganisms cannot be seen with the naked eye
because they are too small. We can see them using a microscope,
which magnifies their image so we can observe their shape and
structure.

2. DEFINE MICROORGANISMS. WHAT ARE THE MAJOR GROUPS OF

MICROORGANISMS?
-> Microorganisms are very tiny living organisms that are not
visible to the naked eye. We can see them using a microscope.
The major groups of microorganisms are:

 Bacteria
 Fungi
 Protozoa
 Algae
 Viruses

3. NAME THE MICROORGANISMS WHICH CAN FIX ATMOSPHERIC

NITROGEN IN THE SOIL.

Microorganisms like Rhizobium, Azotobacter, and Blue-Green

Algae (Cyanobacteria) such as Anabaena and Nostoc help fix
atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, enriching its fertility.

4. WHAT ARE PATHOGENS?

Pathogens are harmful microorganisms that cause diseases in

humans, animals, or plants.

Examples include disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

5. HOW DOES A VACCINE WORK?

A vaccine contains dead or weakened microbes. When injected

into the body, it trains the immune system to recognize and
destroy that particular microbe, helping the body to fight
future infections.

6. WHY ARE VIRUSES CONSIDERED NEITHER LIVING NOR NON-

LIVING ORGANISMS?

Viruses are considered neither fully living nor non-living because

they cannot reproduce or show life processes outside a living
cell. But once inside a host cell, they multiply and behave like
living organisms.

7. HOW DO MICROORGANISMS HELP IN CLEANING THE

ENVIRONMENT?

Certain microorganisms help in decomposing dead plants, animals,

and waste, converting them into simpler substances. This
natural process cleans the environment and recycles nutrients
back into the soil.
8. LIST TEN WAYS IN WHICH MICROBES ARE USEFUL TO US.

Microbes are extremely helpful in many areas of life:

1. Making curd – Lactobacillus bacteria help convert milk into

curd.
2. Bread making – Yeast is used to make dough rise in
baking.
3. Alcohol production – Yeast helps in fermentation to
produce alcohol.
4. Cleaning environment – Decomposer microbes break
down organic waste.
5. Nitrogen fixation – Bacteria like Rhizobium add nitrogen
to the soil.
6. Medicine production – Antibiotics like penicillin are
made using fungi.
7. Vaccine production – Microbes are used to prepare vaccines.
8. Food preservation – Helpful bacteria produce acids and
alcohol that preserve food.
9. Sewage treatment – Microorganisms break down waste
in treatment plants.
10. Digestion – Helpful bacteria in our gut aid in digestion
and keep us healthy.

9. HOW ARE MICROBES HARMFUL TO US?

Some microbes are harmful and cause diseases, spoil food, and
damage crops:

 Disease-causing microbes: Bacteria and viruses cause diseases

like cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis, flu, and COVID-19.

 Food spoilage: Fungi and bacteria grow on food and spoil it,
making it unsafe to eat.

 Crop damage: Microbes like fungi and bacteria can infect

plants, causing diseases like rust and blight.

 Animal infections: Microbes also cause diseases in animals

like anthrax in cattle.

So, though many microbes are useful, some can cause serious
harm to living beings and property.

10. WHAT IS FOOD PRESERVATION? EXPLAIN FIVE WAYS IN WHICH

THIS CAN BE DONE.
-> Food preservation means protecting food from spoilage caused
by microbes and keeping it safe to eat for a longer time.

Here are five common methods:

1. Refrigeration: Cooling slows down microbial growth.

2. Salting: Salt removes moisture and stops bacteria from
growing (used in pickles, fish).
3. Sugar: High sugar content in jams and jellies prevents
microbial growth.
4. Boiling and heating: Kills microbes in milk and water.
5. Chemical preservatives: Substances like sodium benzoate
and vinegar are added to foods to prevent spoilage.

11. DRAW A NEAT, LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE IN

NATURE. EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS STEPS INVOLVED IN IT.
EXPLANATION OF STEPS:

1. Nitrogen Fixation: Bacteria like Rhizobium convert

atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃), which
plants can use.
2. Nitrification: Ammonia is converted into nitrates by
nitrifying bacteria.
3. Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrates from the soil to
make proteins.
4. Decomposition: Dead plants and animals are broken
down by microbes, releasing nitrogen compounds back into
the soil.
5. Denitrification: Some bacteria convert nitrates back
into nitrogen gas, releasing it into the atmosphere and
completing the cycle.