PROCESS

INSTRUMENTATION

Dr. N. Sirisha
Assistant Professor
P ROCESS I NSTRUMENTATION
❑ Raw material Costly Products
❑ Commercial-scale operation

Refinery Control Room

P ROCESS I NSTRUMENTATION
 Process instrumentation is about measurement and
control.
 Instrumentation engineering is the engineering
specially focused on the design and configuration of
process systems.
 Instruments are devices which are used in measuring
attributes of process systems.
 Instrumentation is the basis for the control of a
process.
P ROCESS I NSTRUMENTATION

 It provides the various indications to the operator for

controlling the process.
 In some cases, operator records these indications for
evaluating the current condition of the process and to
take actions if the conditions are not as expected.
 Because of the continuous interactive nature of most
of the processes, manual control is not feasible and is
unreliable.
 With instrumentation, automatic control of such
processes can be achieved.
I NSTRUMENT
 An instrument can be defined as a device for determining
the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
 Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which
define the instrument’s use, are the means by which the
variables and the relations between variables are found.

Need of Measurement
In chemical process industry, we always want to know:
I. Temperature: Boiler, Reactor, furnace, etc.
II. Pressure: High pressure reactor vessel, etc.
III. Flow Rate: Process Fluid in a pipe, reflux stream in
the distillation column, etc.
N EED OF M EASUREMENT
IV. Concentration: Reactor, etc.
V. Others: pH, moisture content, conductivity,
density of a sample, etc.

The fundamental need of measurement in

industrial manufacturing and processing is to
obtain a numerical value corresponding to the
variable being measured so that we can determine
the quantity of a product (or) the efficiency of
production.
C LASSIFICATION OF M E A S U R I N G I NSTRUM ENTS
 The mechanical instrument The first instruments
were mechanical in nature. This instrument is suitable
for measuring the static and stable condition because the
instrument is unable to give the response to the dynamic
condition, e.g. Scales, Calipers etc. Mechanical
instruments suffer from a disadvantage that they are
unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic
and transient conditions. These instruments have
several moving parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky and
consequently have a large mass.
 The electrical instrument is used for measuring
electrical quantities likes current, voltage, power, etc.
Their response is faster than the mechanical one. The
ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter are the examples of the
electrical measuring instrument. These are light and
compact and provide greater flexibility in construction.
They Consume less power.
 The electronic instrument has quick response
time. The instrument provides the quick response
as compared to the electrical and mechanical
instrument. Electronic instruments are steadily
becoming more reliable on account of
improvements in design and manufacturing
processes.
Tachometer measure speed of motor
Electricity meter
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT
1. Absolute instrument
❖ Absolute instrument measures the process variable directly
from the process without the use of conversion.
❖ Such instruments do not require comparison with any other
standard.
❖ The tangent galvanometer is an example for the absolute
instrument.
❖ These instruments are used as standards in labs and
institution.
2. Secondary instrument-voltmeters, ammeters, and pressure gauges
❖ These instruments are so constructed that the deflection of
such instruments gives the magnitude of the electrical
quantity to be measured directly.
❖ These instruments required to calibrated with respect to the
standard instrument.
❖ These instruments are usually used in practice.
❖ It has two types:
Digital Instrument
 The digital instrument gives the output in the numeric
form.
 The instrument is more accurate as compared to the
analogue instrument because no human error occurs in
the reading.
Analog instrument
 The instrument whose output varies continuously is
known as the analogue instrument.
 The analogue instrument has the pointer which shows
the magnitude of the measurable quantities.
 The analogue device classifies into two types:

➢ Null Type Instrument

➢ Deflection Type Instrument

 Null Type Instrument
➢ In this instrument, the zero or null deflection
indicates the magnitude of the measured quantity.
➢ The instrument has high accuracy and
sensitivity. In null deflection instrument, the one
known and one unknown quantity use.
➢ When the value of the known and the unknown
measuring quantities are equal, the pointer shows
the zero or null deflection,e.g. Weighing Balance
➢ The null deflection instrument is used in the
potentiometer and in galvanometer for obtaining
the null point.
Deflection Type Instrument
➢ The instrument in which the value of measuring
quantity is determined through the deflection of
the pointer is known as the deflection type
instrument.
➢ The measuring quantity deflects the pointer of the
moving system of the instrument which is fixed on
the calibrated scale.
➢ Thus, the magnitude of the measured quantity is
known.
a) Indicating instrument

b) Integrating instrument

c) Recording instrument
(a) Indicating instrument:- ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters
❖ The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the
measured quantity is known as the indicating
instrument.
❖ The indicating instrument has the dial which moves
on the graduated dial.
❖ The voltmeter, ammeter, clock are the examples of
the indicating instrument.
(a) Integrating instrument:energy meter, ampere meter
❖ The instrument which measures the total energy
supplied at a particular interval of time is known as
the integrating instrument.
❖ The total energy measured by the instrument is the
product of the time and the measure of electrical
quantities.
❖ The energy meter and watt-hour meter are the
examples of integrating instrument.
(c) Recording instrument: cardiograms, chromatograms
❖ The instrument records the circuit condition at a
particular interval of time is known as the recording
instrument.
❖ The moving system of the recording instrument carries a
pen which lightly touches on the paper sheet.
❖ The movement of the coil is traced on the paper sheet.
❖ The curve drawn on the paper shows the variation in the
measurement of the electrical quantities.
❖ In many cases the instrument makes a written record,
usually on paper, of the value of the quantity under
measurement . E.g. E C G , E E G etc.
❖ The response time of the electronic instrument is very
high as compared to the electrical and mechanical
device.
F U N C T I O N O F I NSTRUMENTS
 Indicating Function:
❖ This function includes supplying information concerning
the variable quantity under measurement.
❖ Several types of methods could be employed in the
instruments and systems for this purpose.
❖ Most of the time, this information is obtained as the
deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
 Recording Function:
❖ In many cases, the instrument makes a written record,
usually on paper, of the value of the quantity under
measurement against time or against some other
variable.
❖ This is a recording function performed by the
instrument.
 Signal Processing:
❖ This function is performed to process and modify
the measured signal to facilitate recording /
control.
 Controlling Function:quality control, process control,
and production control
❖ This is one of the most important functions,
especially in the food processing industries where
the processing operations are required to be
precisely controlled.
❖ In this case, the information is used by the
instrument or the systems to control the original
measured variable or quantity.
Control of Process and Operation
F UNCTIONAL E L E M E N T S O F A M E A S U R E MENT S YSTEM
E L E M E N T S O F M E A S U R E M E NT
 The purpose of analysis and synthesis, the instruments
are considered as systems.
 The different components are called elements and they
perform certain definite and required steps in the act of
measurement.

A sensor detects changes in an environment and produces a

corresponding output.
A transducer converts one form of energy into another.
Sensor:A sensor detects physical parameters like temperature, pressure, light, or
motion.
Output: It produces a signal (often electrical) that represents the measured
quantity.
Example: A temperature sensor converts heat into a voltage signal.
Transducer:
Converts: A transducer changes one form of energy into another.
Can include sensors:
Transducers often incorporate a sensor to detect the initial input, but they also
include components to process and convert the signal.
Example:A microphone (transducer) converts sound waves (mechanical energy)
into electrical signals. Ex:microphones, loudspeakers, and thermometers
•Actuators:
Actuators are devices that convert energy into mechanical motion, enabling
automated actions. Common examples include electric motors, hydraulic
cylinders, and pneumatic cylinders
F U NC T I O N O F E A C H ELEMENT

1. Primary Sensing Element:

An element that is sensitive to the measured
variable. The sensing element sense the condition,
state or value of the process variable.

2. Variable conversion element (Transducer Element):

An element that converts the signal from one
physical form into another without changing the
information contents of the signal.
Example: Bourdon Tube, Bellow, etc.
3. Data Transmitter Element:
An element that transmits the signal from one
location to another without changing its information
content. Data may be transmitted over long
distances.
Example: Shaft and gearing assembly, telemetry
system for transmitting signals from missiles to
ground equipment.

4. Variable Manipulation Element:

An element that operates on the signal according to
some mathematical rule without changing physical
nature of the variable.
Input x Constant = Output
CHARACTERISTICS OF I NS TRUME NTS
There are two types of characteristics of instruments:-
1. Static characteristics,
2. Dynamic characteristics.

1. Static Characteristics
❖ The static characteristics of an instrument are
required to be considered for the instruments which
measure unvarying process conditions.
❖ The static characteristics are defined for the
instruments which measure quantities which do not
vary with time.
T H E MAIN STATIC C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A R E :-

1. Accuracy 9. Linearity
2. Sensitivity 10. Stability
3. Reproducibility 11. Range or Span
12. Bais
4. Drift
13. Tolerance
5. Static error 14. Hysteresis
6. Dead zone
7. Precision
8. Threshold
1. Accuracy
❖ It is the degree of closeness with which an
instrument reading approaches the true value of
the quantity being measured.
❖ The accuracy of a measurement indicates the
nearness to the actual/true value of the quantity.
2. Sensitivity
❖ Sensitivity is the ratio of change in output of an
instrument to the change in input.
❖ If each 1 °C rise moves the mercury column 2 mm,
the sensitivity is 2 mm / °C.
❖ Tells about responsiveness
3. Reproducibility
❖ Reproducibility is defined as the degree of closeness by
which a given value can be repeatedly measured.
❖ Repeatability of results

❖ Perfect reproducibility signifies that the given readings

that are taken for an input, do not vary with time.
4. Drift
❖ The drift is defined as the gradual shift in the
indication over a period of time where in the input
variable does not change.
❖ Drift may be caused because of environment factors
like stray electric fields, stray magnetic fields, thermal
e.m.fs, changes in temperature, mechanical vibrations
etc.
❖ Drift is classified into three categories:
a. Zero drift
b. Span drift or sensitivity drift
c. Zonal drift

5. Static error
❖ It is the deviation from the true value of the
measured variable.
❖ It involves the comparison of an unknown quantity
with an accepted standard quantity.
❖ The degree to which an instrument approaches to its
excepted value is expressed terms of error of
measurement.
True temperature: 100°C
Thermometer reading: 98°C
Static error = 100 - 98 = 2°C
6. Dead zone
❖ It is the largest changes of input quantity for which there
is no output.
❖ For e.g. the input that is applied to an instrument may
not be sufficient to overcome friction. It will only respond
when it overcomes the friction forces.
❖ A thermostat is set to turn on at 20°C and off at 22°C.
❖ The 2-degree band where input changes produce no output change is
the dead zone
7. Precision
❖ It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurement
that is given a fixed value of variable.
❖ For example you weigh a sample five times and get the
following results: 5.01g, 5.00g, 5.02g, 5.00g, 5.01g
8. Threshold
❖ Threshold is the smallest measurable input, below
which no output change can be identified.
❖ The threshold temperature for a chemical reaction might
be 80°C. Below 80°C, no reaction occurs.
Once it crosses that threshold, the reaction starts.
Linearity
❖ Linearity is defined as the ability of an instrument to
reproduce its input linearly.
❖ Linearity is simply a measure of the maximum
deviation of the calibration points from the ideal
straight line.
❖ Linearity is defined as,
linearity=Maximum deviation of o/p from
idealized straight line ∕ Actual readings
10. Stability
The ability of an instrument to retain its performance
throughout its specified storage life and operating life is
called as Stability.
11. Range or Span
The minimum and maximum values of a quantity for
which an instrument is designed to measure is called its
range or span. Range = Highest Value – Lowest Value
Given test scores: 55, 68, 72, 81, 90; Range = 90 – 55 = 35
12. Bias
❖ The constant error which exists over the full range of
measurement of an instrument is called bias.
❖ Such a bias can be completely eliminated by calibration.
❖ The zero error is an example of bias which can be
removed by calibration.
13. Tolerance
❖ It is the maximum allowable error that is specified in
terms of certain value while measurement, it is called as
tolerance.
❖ It specifies the maximum allowable deviation of a
manufactured device from a mentioned value.
14. Hysteresis
❖ Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output
effects while loading and unloading.
❖ When the input of an instrument is varied from zero to its
full scale and then if the input is decreased from its full
scale value to zero, the output varies.
❖ Compressor turns ON when temp rises to 25 °C. 2 °C band
avoids rapid cycling and extends compressor life (same
device we used earlier to illustrate a dead zone; that dead-
band is the thermometer’s hysteresis
2. D Y N A M I C S C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
❖ Instruments rarely respond to the instantaneous
changes in the measured variables.
❖ Their response is slow or sluggish due to mass,
thermal capacitance, electrical capacitance,
inductance etc. sometimes, even the instrument has to
wait for some time till, the response occurs.
❖ These type of instruments are normally used for the
measurement of quantities that fluctuate with time.
❖ The behaviour of such a system, where as the input
varies from instant to instant, the output also varies
from instant to instant is called as dynamic response
of the system.
❖ Hence, the dynamic behaviour of the system is also
important as the static behaviour.
 The dynamic inputs are of two types:
1. Transient
2. Steady state periodic.
❖ Transient response is defined as that part of the
response which goes to zero as the time becomes large.
❖ The steady state response is the response that has a
definite periodic cycle.
❖ The variations in the input, that are used practically to
achieve dynamic behaviour are:
I. Step input:-The input is subjected to a finite and
instantaneous change. E.g.: closing of switch.
II. Ramp input:- The input linearly changes with respect
to time.
III. Parabolic input:- The input varies to the square of
time. This represents constant acceleration.
IV. Sinusoidal input:- The input changes in accordance
with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
 The dynamic characteristics of a measurement system are:
1) Speed of response
2) Fidelity
3) Lag
4) Dynamic error
1) Speed of Response
❖ It is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument,
responds to the changes in the measured quantity.
❖ It shows how active and fast the system is.
2) Fidelity
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system
is capable of faithfully reproducing the changes in input,
without any dynamic error. Ex.BP monitor -peaks are lower
and arrive late, giving an erroneous systolic reading.
3 ) Lag
❖ Every system requires its own time to respond to the
changes in input. This time is called as lag.
❖ It is defined as the retardation or delay, in the response of
a system to the changes in the input.
4)Dynamic error
It is the difference between the true value of the
quantity that is to be measured, changing with time
and the measured value, if no static error is assumed.
Ex:Electronic instruments
 NUMERICALS
 A meter reads 127.5V and the true value of the
voltage is 127.43V. Determine
a) the static error
b) The static correction for this instrument

Sol: a) Static error (δa) = Am- At

= 127.5 – 127.43
= 0.07V

b) Static correction (δc) = - δa

= -0.07V
 A meter reads 555.50V and the true value of the
voltage is 555V. Find the static error of the
instrument.

Sol: Static error (δa) = Am- At

= 555.5 – 555
= 0.5V
 A thermometer is calibrated from 150oC to 300oC.
The accuracy is specified as ±0.2% of span. What
is the maximum static error?

Sol: Span = Max value – Min value

= 300 – 150
= 150o C
Static error = 0.2% of Span
= 0.2 % * 150
= ±0.3 o C
 When temperature is changed from 0o C to 50o C,
the resistance in a Pt 100 thermometer changes
from 100Ω to 119.4 Ω. The sensitivity for this
range is?

Sol: Sensitivity = change in output value/ change

in input true value
= (119.4 – 100)/ (50-0)
= 0.388 Ω/oC
 The true value of a steel beam is 6m. Three
repeated readings with a laser meter indicates a
length of 6.01m, 6.0095m, and 6.015m. Comment
on accuracy and calibration.

Sol: True value = 6m

Average /Mean of readings =
(6.01+6.0095+6.015)/ 3
= 6.01m