Intrumentation

(ENEX 252)
Anila Kansakar
Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering
Pulchowk Campus
Chapter 3 (Part II)
3.2 Introduction to sensor and its working principle
3.3 Types of sensors
(Electrical sensor, chemical sensor, biological sensor, acoustic
sensor, optical sensor and other motion sensor), characteristic of
sensors
3.4 Introduction to actuator, classification of actuators (Hydraulic,
pneumatic, electric and mechanical), characteristic of actuator
Introduction to Sensor
• Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to
the ambient changes in their environment or within the intended
zone of their deployment.
• They generate responses to external stimuli or physical
phenomenon through characterization of the input functions
(which are these external stimuli) and their conversion into
typically electrical signals.
• For example, heat is converted to electrical signals in a
temperature sensor, or atmospheric pressure is converted to
electrical signals in a barometer.
Examples
Workflow Diagram of sensor
Workflow Diagram of a Sensor System
The diagram illustrates the workflow of a sensor-based monitoring system, specifically for
detecting a fire event. The process is divided into four main stages:
1. Environment (Event: Fire)
• The process begins in the environment where a specific event occurs—in this case, a fire
inside a building.
2. Sensing (Temperature Sensor)
• A temperature sensor is placed in the environment. When the fire event happens, the
sensor detects the rise in temperature.
3.Processing (Sensor Node)
• The temperature data collected by the sensor is sent to a sensor node. The sensor node
processes this data, possibly filtering or converting it, and prepares it for transmission.
4. Monitoring
• The processed data is then sent to a monitoring device, such as a laptop or computer.
Here, the data is displayed and can be further analyzed or used to trigger alerts for
emergency response
• The various sensors can be classified based on:
• power requirements
• sensor output
• property to be measured
Power Requirements:Depending on the requirements of power, sensors
can be of two types.
i. Active:
• Active sensors do not require an external circuitry or mechanism to provide it
with power.
• It directly responds to the external stimuli from its ambient environment and
converts it into an output signal.
• For example, a photodiode converts light into electrical impulses.
ii. Passive:
• Passive sensors require an external mechanism to power them up.
• The sensed properties are modulated with the sensor’s inherent characteristics
to generate patterns in the output of the sensor.
• For example, a thermistor’s resistance can be detected by applying voltage
difference across it or passing a current through it.
Sensor output
i. Analog
• Analog sensors generate an output signal or voltage, which is
proportional (linearly or non-linearly) to the quantity being
measured and is continuous in time and amplitude.
• For example, a thermometer or a thermocouple can be used for
measuring the temperature of a liquid.
ii. Digital
• These sensors generate the output of discrete time digital
representation (time, or amplitude, or both) of a quantity being
measured, in the form of output signals or voltages
Measured Property
Scalar:
• Scalar sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of the
quantity being measured.
• The output is in the form of a signal or voltage.
• Scalar physical quantities are those where only the magnitude of the
signal is sufficient for describing or characterizing the phenomenon
and information generation.
• Examples of such measurable physical quantities include color,
pressure, temperature, strain, and others.
• A thermometer or thermocouple is an example of a scalar sensor that
has the ability to detect changes in ambient or object temperatures
(depending on the sensor’s configuration).
• Factors such as changes in sensor orientation or direction do not affect
these sensors (typically).
Vector:
• Vector sensors are affected by the magnitude as well as the
direction and/or orientation of the property they are measuring.
• Physical quantities such as velocity and images that require
additional information besides their magnitude for completely
categorizing a physical phenomenon are categorized as vector
quantities.
• Measuring such quantities are undertaken using vector sensors.
• For example, an electronic gyroscope, which is commonly found
in all modern aircraft, is used for detecting the changes in
orientation of the gyroscope with respect to the Earth’s orientation
along all three axes.
Generation of Sensor(From 1st to 5th Generation)
• Sensors have gone through fascinating evolutionary leaps—each
generation smarter, smaller, and more connected than the last.
i. First Generation: Basic Analog Sensors
• Era: Mid-20th century
• Technology: Simple analog devices
• Function: Directly measure physical quantities (temperature, pressure,
etc.)
• Examples: Thermocouples, strain gauges, mercury thermometers
• Output: Raw voltage or current without processing
ii. Second Generation: Analog Sensors with Signal
Conditioning
• Era: 1970s–1980s
• Technology: Analog sensors + electronic circuits
• Function: Improved accuracy with added amplifiers, filters, and
converters
• Examples: Pressure sensors with built-in amplification
• Output: More stable analog signals, sometimes converted to digital
iii. Third Generation: Smart Sensors
• Era: 1990s–2000s
• Technology: Built-in microcontrollers
• Function: Combine sensing with processing, memory, and diagnostics
• Examples: Digital accelerometers, smart temperature sensors
• Output: Digital, self-calibrating, with embedded decision-making
capability
iv. Fourth Generation: Intelligent & Networked Sensors
• Era: 2010s–Present
• Technology: Internet-connected (IoT) sensors
• Function: Real-time monitoring, cloud connectivity, remote control
• Examples: IoT-enabled motion sensors in smart homes
• Output: Data sent over Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc.
v. Fifth Generation: Cognitive & Autonomous Sensors
• Era: Emerging & Future
• Technology: AI-powered, context-aware
• Function: Learn from data, adapt to environment, make autonomous
decisions
• Examples: Self-driving car LiDAR with real-time threat detection
• Output: Highly contextual, sent to edge/cloud for big-picture insights
• From humble thermometers to AI-enabled sensing ecosystems,
sensors are the silent geniuses behind modern tech.
Types of sensors
• There are so many types of sensors out there—like a buffet of tech
tools, each designed to detect something different.
• that breaks them down based on what they measure:
1. Electrical Sensor
2. Chemical Sensor
3. Biological Sensor
4. Acoustic Sensor
5. Optical Sensor
6. Motion Sensor
 Electrical Sensors
• Current sensor – Measures electrical current flow.
• Voltage sensor – Detects voltage level in a circuit.
• Resistive sensor – Senses changes in resistance, often due to
temperature or light.

Environmental Sensors
• Temperature sensor (e.g., thermocouple, thermistor) – Measures
heat or cold.
• Humidity sensor – Detects moisture levels in the air.
• Barometric pressure sensor – Tracks atmospheric pressure.
 Light & Radiation Sensors
• Photodiode/Phototransistor – Measures light intensity.
• Infrared sensor – Senses heat and infrared radiation.
• UV sensor – Detects ultraviolet radiation levels.

Motion & Position Sensors

• Accelerometer – Measures acceleration or tilt.
• Gyroscope – Tracks orientation or angular velocity.
• Proximity sensor – Detects nearby objects without contact.
• GPS sensor – Determines geographic location.

Human-related Sensors/Biological Sensor

• Touch sensor – Detects physical contact.
• Heart rate sensor – Monitors pulse.
• Bioelectrical sensors – Track electrical signals from the body (like ECG)
 Industrial & Mechanical Sensors
• Pressure sensor – Measures force exerted on a surface.
• Gas sensor – Detects types and concentrations of gases.
• Vibration sensor – Monitors mechanical oscillation.

Sound Sensors
• Microphone – Converts sound into electrical signals.
• Ultrasonic sensor – Uses high-frequency sound waves to
measure distance.
Types of Sensors
1. Electrical Sensor
• An electrical sensor works by detecting a physical change in the
environment—like temperature, light, pressure, or motion—and
converting that change into an electrical signal that can be
measured, processed, or displayed.
• Electrical sensors are critical in various applications including
industrial automation, power management, consumer electronics,
and safety systems. They enable real-time measurement and control
of electrical and physical parameters.
Basic Working Process
of an Electrical Sensor

• Sensing the Input The sensor detects a specific electrical parameter

like current, voltage, or resistance from the surrounding system or
circuit.
• Conversion to Signal The raw input is converted into an electrical
signal (usually analog) that represents the magnitude or state of the
parameter.
• Signal Conditioning (Optional but Common)
• Involves filtering, amplification, or noise reduction
• Makes the signal cleaner and more accurate for the next steps
• Analog-to-Digital Conversion (if needed) If the sensor output is
analog and the system needs a digital signal, an ADC (Analog-to-
Digital Converter) transforms it into binary data.
• Output & Communication The sensor sends the processed signal to a
microcontroller, display, or data logger for real-time monitoring or
further action (like turning off a system during a fault).
 Chemical sensor
• A chemical sensor is a device that detects specific chemical
substances and converts that detection into a measurable
electrical signal.
• It’s like a translator between the chemical world and electronic
systems—used in everything from breathalyzers and pollution
monitors to medical diagnostics and industrial safety.
Types of Chemical Sensors
Basic Working Principle of a Chemical Sensor
Receptor (Sensing Element)
• Interacts with the target chemical (analyte).
• This could be a gas, ion, or molecule.
Transducer
• Converts the chemical interaction into an electrical signal.
• For example, a change in pH, conductivity, or voltage.
Signal Conditioning
• The raw signal is amplified, filtered, or digitized for clarity and accuracy.
Output Signal
• The processed signal is sent to a display, controller, or data logger.
Feedback (Optional)
• Some systems use feedback to adjust sensitivity or recalibrate in real time.
Breathalyzer

• A breathalyzer is a device used to estimate a

person’s blood alcohol concentration
(BAC) by analyzing a sample of their breath.
• It’s widely used by law enforcement to
check for alcohol impairment, especially in
drivers.
How It Works – Step by Step
1.Alcohol Absorption After drinking, alcohol enters the bloodstream
through the stomach and small intestine.
2.Lung Exchange As blood circulates through the lungs, some alcohol
evaporates into the alveolar air (deep lung air).
3.Breath Sample Collection The person blows into the breathalyzer,
which captures this alveolar air.
4.Chemical or Sensor Reaction Depending on the type of breathalyzer:
1. Fuel cell sensors oxidize alcohol and generate an electric current proportional
to BAC.
2. Infrared spectrometry measures how much infrared light is absorbed by
alcohol molecules.
3. Semiconductor sensors detect changes in electrical resistance due to alcohol
presence.
5.BAC Estimation The device uses a partition ratio (typically 2100:1) to
estimate BAC from breath alcohol content.
 • A biological sensor, more commonly called a
biosensor, is a device that detects biological
molecules or processes and converts that

Biological Sensor
information into an electrical signal.
• It’s like a bridge between biology and electronics—
used in everything from glucose monitors and
pregnancy tests to environmental monitoring and
food safety.
Basic Working Principle of a Biosensor
Bioreceptor (Biological Recognition Element)
• Detects the target substance (e.g. enzyme, antibody, DNA, or cell).
• Highly specific to the analyte being measured.
Transducer
• Converts the biological interaction into a measurable signal (e.g.
electrical, optical, thermal).
Signal Conditioning
• Amplifies and filters the signal to make it readable and accurate.
Output Display
• Shows the result in a user-friendly format (e.g. digital readout, graph, or
alert).
EG: Glucose
biosensor

• A glucose biosensor is a specialized

type of biosensor designed to detect
and measure glucose levels—most
commonly used in managing diabetes.
• It works by combining a biological
recognition element (like an enzyme)
with a transducer that converts the
biochemical reaction into an electrical
signal.
How a Glucose Biosensor Works (Step-by-Step)
1.Bioreceptor (e.g., Glucose Oxidase)
• Specifically reacts with glucose in the sample (like blood or interstitial
fluid).
1.Biochemical Reaction
• Glucose is oxidized by the enzyme, producing gluconic acid and
hydrogen peroxide.
3.Transducer (Electrode)
• Detects the byproduct (usually hydrogen peroxide) and converts it into
an electrical signal.
4. Signal Conditioning
• The signal is amplified and filtered to remove noise.
5. Output Display
• The processed signal is shown as a glucose concentration on a digital
screen.
 Optical Sensor
• An optical sensor is a device that detects light or changes in light and
converts it into an electrical signal.
• It’s widely used in automation, safety systems, medical devices, and
even smartphones—basically anywhere light can be used to sense
presence, position, or properties of objects.
. Ambient Light Sensor in Smartphones
• How it works: Measures surrounding light intensity to adjust screen brightness
automatically.
• Use case: Improves battery life and user comfort by dimming or brightening the
display.
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
• How it works: Emits laser pulses and measures the time it takes for them to
bounce back.
• Use case: Used in autonomous vehicles for 3D mapping and obstacle detection.
Basic Working Principle of an Optical Sensor
Light Source (Transmitter)
• Emits a beam of light (usually LED or laser).
Target Interaction
• The light interacts with the object—either reflected, absorbed, or interrupted.
Photodetector (Receiver)
• Detects the light that returns or is blocked and converts it into an electrical
signal.
Signal Conditioning
• The signal is amplified, filtered, or digitized for clarity and accuracy.
Output Signal
• The processed signal is used to trigger an action, display data, or feed into a
control system.
 • How a Barcode Reader Uses Optical Sensors:
Light Source (usually a red LED or laser)
Eg:Barcode Reader • Illuminates the barcode to create contrast
between the black bars and white spaces.
Optical Sensor (Photodiode or CCD/CMOS
sensor)
• Captures the reflected light from the barcode.
• Black bars reflect less light, white spaces reflect
more.
Signal Processing Circuitry
• Converts the varying light intensities into an
analog electrical signal.
Decoder
• Interprets the signal into digital data, usually
converting it into numbers or characters
representing the product code.
 Acoustic Sensor
• An acoustic sensor is a device that detects sound waves (or acoustic
signals) and converts them into electrical signals for analysis or action.
• Think of it as a digital ear—it listens to the environment and translates
sound into data.
MEMS Microphones in Smart Earbuds
• Sensor Type: MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems)
• How it works: Tiny silicon-based microphones detect voice and
ambient noise.
• Use case: Enables active noise cancellation and voice commands in
earbuds like Apple AirPods or Samsung Galaxy Buds.
 Electronic Stethoscope
• Sensor Type: Piezoelectric or condenser microphone
• How it works: Captures internal body sounds (like heartbeats)
and converts them into amplified electrical signals.
• Use case: Used by doctors for digital auscultation, often with
Bluetooth connectivity for remote diagnosis.

Smart Home Voice Assistants (e.g., Google Nest, Alexa)

• Sensor Type: MEMS microphone array
• How it works: Multiple microphones detect voice commands
from across the room, even with background noise.
• Use case: Enables voice control of smart devices, music
playback, and information retrieval.
Basic Working Principle
Sound Wave Reception
• The sensor picks up sound waves (pressure variations in air or another
medium).
Transduction
• A microphone or piezoelectric element converts these waves into an
electrical signal.
• In piezoelectric sensors, mechanical vibrations from sound cause a
crystal to generate voltage.
Signal Conditioning
• The raw signal is amplified, filtered, or digitized to make it usable.
Output Signal
• The processed signal is sent to a controller, display, or data logger.
Motion Sensor

• A motion sensor is a device that

detects physical movement in a
space and converts it into an
electrical signal to trigger a
response—like turning on lights,
sounding an alarm, or activating
a camera.
Basic Working Principle of a Motion Sensor
Emission (Optional)
• Some sensors emit energy (like infrared light, ultrasonic waves, or
microwaves) into the environment.
Detection
• The sensor monitors changes in the reflected or received signal caused
by movement of objects or people.
Signal Processing
• The raw signal is analyzed to determine if motion has occurred. This
helps reduce false alarms.
Output Trigger
• If motion is confirmed, the sensor sends a signal to activate a
connected system (e.g., lights, alarms, cameras).
 • An ultrasonic sensor is a device that uses
Ultrasonic sensor high-frequency sound waves—beyond the
range of human hearing—to detect objects
and measure distances.
Working Principle of an Ultrasonic Sensor
Transmitter (Piezoelectric Crystal)
• Emits ultrasonic sound pulses (typically around 40 kHz).
Propagation
The sound waves travel through the air until they hit an object.
Reflection (Echo)
• The waves bounce back from the object toward the sensor.
Receiver
• Detects the reflected waves and converts them into an electrical signal.
Time-of-Flight Calculation
• The sensor calculates the time taken for the echo to return and uses the
formula:
Characteristic of
sensors

• Static Characteristics (when input

changes slowly)
• Dynamic Characteristics (when input
changes rapidly)
Actuator

• An actuator can be considered as a machine or system’s component that can

affect the movement or control the said mechanism or the system
• Control systems affect changes to the environment or property they are
controlling through actuators.
• The system activates the actuator through a control signal, which may be
digital or analog
• Figure 5.5 shows the outline of a simple actuation system. A remote user
sends commands to a processor. The processor instructs a motor controlled
robotic arm to perform the commanded tasks accordingly. The processor is
primarily responsible for converting the human commands into sequential
machine-language command sequences, which enables the robot to move.
The robotic arm finally moves the designated boxes, which was its assigned
task
Basic Working Principle of an Actuator
Input Signal
• Receives a control signal (electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic).
Energy Source Activation
• Draws energy from a power source (e.g., electricity, pressurized fluid).
Mechanical Output
• Applies force or movement to a load (e.g., a valve, gear, or lever).
Feedback (Optional)
• Some actuators include sensors to monitor position or force for precise
control.
Actuator Types
Hydraulic actuator
• A hydraulic actuator works on the principle of compression and
decompression of fluids.
• These actuators facilitate mechanical tasks such as lifting loads
through the use of hydraulic power derived from fluids in cylinders or
fluid motors.
• . The mechanical motion applied to a hydraulic actuator is converted to
either linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion.
• The almost incompressible property of liquids is used in hydraulic
actuators for exerting significant force. These hydraulic actuators are
also considered as stiff systems. The actuator’s limited acceleration
restricts its usage.
Types of Hydraulic Actuators
Pneumatic actuator
• A pneumatic actuator works on the principle of compression and
decompression of gases.
• These actuators use a vacuum or compressed air at high pressure and
convert it into either linear or rotary motion.
• Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are commonly used for valve controls of
water pipes. Pneumatic actuators are considered as compliant systems.
• The actuators using pneumatic energy for their operation are typically
characterized by the quick response to starting and stopping signals. Small
pressure changes can be used for generating large forces through these
actuators.
• Pneumatic brakes are an example of this type of actuator which is so
responsive that they can convert small pressure changes applied by drives to
generate the massive force required to stop or slow down a moving vehicle.
 Electric actuator

• electric motors are used to power an electric actuator by

generating mechanical torque
• This generated torque is translated into the motion of a
motor’s shaft or for switching (as in relays).
• For example, actuating equipments such as solenoid valves
control the flow of water in pipes in response to electrical
signals. This class of actuators is considered one of the
cheapest, cleanest and speedy actuator types available.
Mechanical actuator

• In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear
motion to execute some movement.
• The use of gears, rails, pulleys, chains, and other devices are necessary for these
actuators to operate.
• These actuators can be easily used in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or
electrical actuators.
• They can also work in a standalone mode.
• Figures 5.6(g), 5.6(h), 5.6(k), and 5.6(l) show some of the commonly available
mechanical actuators. The hydroelectric generator shown in Figures 5.6(g) and 5.6(h)
convert the water-flow induced rotary motion of a turbine into electrical energy.
Similarly, the mechanical switches shown in Figures 5.6 (k) and 5.6(l) uses the
mechanical motion of the switch to switch on or off an electrical circuit.
Thermal or magnetic actuators
• The use of thermal or magnetic energy is used for powering this
class of actuators. These actuators have a very high power density
and are typically compact, lightweight, and economical.
• One classic example of thermal actuators is shape memory
materials (SMMs) such as shape memory alloys (SMAs). These
actuators do not require electricity for actuation.
• They are not affected by vibration and can work with liquid or
gases.
• Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) are a type of magnetic
actuators.
Characteristic of actuator
Type of Motion
• Linear: Moves in a straight line (e.g., hydraulic cylinders).
• Rotary: Rotates around an axis (e.g., electric motors).
• Some actuators can convert one type into another using mechanical
linkages.
Energy Source
• Electric: Clean and precise, used in robotics and automation.
• Hydraulic: High force output, ideal for heavy machinery.
• Pneumatic: Fast and lightweight, common in factory automation.
• Mechanical: Manual or gear-driven, simple and robust.
Control Characteristics
• Accuracy: How close the actuator gets to the desired position.
• Precision: How consistently it can repeat that position.
• Responsiveness: How quickly it reacts to control signals.
• Resolution: The smallest movement it can make.
Load Capacity
• The force or torque the actuator can apply to a load.
• Hydraulic actuators excel here, while electric ones are better for
lighter, precise tasks.
Power Consumption
• Varies by type—electric actuators are efficient, while hydraulic
systems may require more energy due to pumps and fluid
handling.
Durability and Maintenance
• Hydraulic: Powerful but needs regular maintenance.
• Electric: Low maintenance, but sensitive to overload.
• Pneumatic: Simple and durable, but less precise.