CELL BIOLOGY GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

UNIT I: CELL AS A BASIC UNIT OF LIVING SYSTEMS AND CELLULAR ORGANELLS

CYTOLOGY: Cytology is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of the cell which
is the basic unit of life. Cell biology is concerned with the physiological properties metabolic processes,
signaling pathways, life cycle, chemical composition and interactions of the cell with their environment.
Cell biology is the study of the structure and functions of the cells.
HISTORY OF CELL THEORY: -The cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hooke in 1665.He
observed plant cells (cork) in microscope and named it as CELLS (Small rooms). Robert Hooke in 1665
described the individual units of the honeycomb-like structure in cork under compound microscope.
Landmarks in Cell Study
 Discovery of Cell: Cell was discovered by an English scientist Robert Hook in the year 1665. He
published this information in his book ‘Micrographia’. He observed that dead cells in a thin cork slice
in a self-made microscope. And this was the beginning of cell study and discovery.
 Anton Von Leeuwenhoek designed an improved microscope and observed first free-living
cells (Bacteria) in the year.
 Robert Brown A Scottish Botanist discovered nucleus in the year 1831.
 Félix Dujardin, a French biologist known for his work on protoplasm (which he named "sarcode").

 In 1840, Jan Evangelista Purkinje did coin the term "protoplasm" to describe the jelly-like substance
within cells.

 In 1838, botanist Matthias Schleiden made a careful study of plant tissues and developed the first statement of
the cell theory. He stated that all plants “are aggregates of fully individualized, independent, separate beings,
namely the cells themselves.”

 In 1839, Theodor Schwann reported that all animal tissues also consist of individual cells.

 Rudolf Virchow used the theory that all cells arise from pre-existing cells to lay the groundwork for cellular
pathology, or the study of disease at the cellular level.
The three postulates of cell theory are the following:
 All living things are made of cells.
 The cell is the structural and functional unit of cell
 All cells come from pre-existing cells.

CELL: Cell is a structural and functional unit of life. The term cell is derived from the Latin word
‘cella’ means storeroom or chamber. Cells are the building blocks of organisms.
Functions of cells: -
 Cells make the body of a plant as animals.
 Life exists inside the cells.
 In unicellular organisms, a single cell does all the functions of the organism
 Cells eat, digest, respire, secrete and do all other functions.

Prokaryotes: -Prokaryotic cells fall into a size range of about 1–5µm(micrometer) and hence can be
observed clearly by microscopes. However, some prokaryotic cells may be larger than this.
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms belonging to the domains Bacteria and Archaea. Prokaryotic
cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, have no nucleus, and lack organelles. All prokaryotic
cells are encased by a cell wall. Many also have a capsule or slime layer made of polysaccharide.
Prokaryotes often have appendages (protrusions) on their surface. Flagella and some pili are used for
locomotion, fimbriae help the cell stick to a surface, and sex pili are used for DNA exchange. Most
prokaryotic cells have a single circular chromosome. They may also have smaller pieces of circular
DNA called plasmids.
Flagella:-Flagella are whip like structures made of protein and provide motility to the cell.
Fimbriae and pili:- Fimbriae are proteinaceous, sticky, projected structure used by cells to attach to
each other and to objects around them, while pili are tubules that are used to transfer DNA from one
cell to another cell.
Capsule:- Depending on the type of bacterium, there may be an exterior surrounding layer such as a
capsule or slime layer, made of glycocalyx
Cell wall :-The prokaryotic cell’s cell wall is present outside the plasma membrane. It provides rigidity
to the cell shape and structure and protects the cell from its environment. Bacterial cell wall is primarily
composed of peptidoglycan and on the basis of cell wall composition the bacteria classified into gram-
positive and gram-negative organisms.
Cytoplasmic Membrane:-The cytoplasmic membrane is a membrane that provides a selective barrier
between the environment and the cell’s internal structures.
Cytoplasm: -Cytoplasm is thick.aqueous, semitransparent, and elasticsmifluid present inside the
prokaryotic cell. It is about 80% water and contains primarily proteins (enzymes), carbohydrates,
lipids, inorganic ions, and many low- molecular-weight compounds. Inorganic ions are present in
much higher concentrations in cytoplasm than in most media.
Nucleoid/Genetic material:-The cytoplasm also contains a region called the nucleoid, which is where
the DNA of the cell is located. The prokaryotic cell consists of a chromosome that isn’t contained
within a nuclear membrane or envelope. The nucleoid or bacterial chromosome comprises a closed
circle of double stranded DNA, many times the length of the cell and is highly folded and compacted.
Ribosomes:-Ribosomes are the principle structure in a prokaryotic cell after the nucleoid. They are
composed of a complex of protein and RNA, and are the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
Inclusion bodies:-Many granular structures known as inclusion bodies are found in the cytoplasm of
certain bacteria. These contain organic compounds such as starch, glycogen or lipid and act as food
reserves.

STRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTIC CELL

Structure of Eukaryotic cell (both plant cell and animal cell)

Ultra-structure of plant cell: All plant cells have the same basic eukaryotic organization. The major
difference between plant cells and animal cell is the present of cell-wall. Plant cells are eukaryotic cells
that vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic organisms. Both plant and animal cells
contain nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the distinctive aspects of a plant cell is the
presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane.
 Structure of plant cell
Cell Wall: It is a rigid layer which is composed of cellulose, glycoproteins, lignin, pectin, and
hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane. It comprises proteins, polysaccharides,
and cellulose.
Cell membrane:- It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is
composed of a thin layer of protein and fat. The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating
the entry and exit of specific substances within the cell.
Nucleus:- The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital
function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism,
and growth
Plastids:- They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store
starch, to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules
which form the building blocks of the cell
ChloroplastsIt is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is
shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA.
Each chloroplast contains a green colored pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of
photosynthesis
Central Vacuole:It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a
membrane that surrounds central vacuole.
Golgi ApparatusThey are found in all eukaryotic cells which are involved in distributing synthesized
macromolecules to various parts of the cell.
RibosomesThey are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They
are the sites for protein synthesis,
MitochondriaThey are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic
cells. They provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules.
Lysosome: Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed
membrane. They perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles,
food particles and foreign bodies in the cell
Structure of animal cell:-Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma
membrane and containing a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. The microscope has been a
fundamental tool in the field of cell biology and is often used to observe living cells in culture.
 Structure of Animal cells
 Centrioles - Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules and are
found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division but aren't essential to the
process.
 Cilia and Flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion of
individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or materials past an
immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that manufacture,
processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is connected to
the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a pipeline between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Endosomes and Endocytosis - Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles, formed via a complex
family of processes collectively known as endocytosis, and found in the cytoplasm of virtually every
animal cell. The basic mechanism of endocytosis is the reverse of what occurs during exocytosis or
cellular secretion. It involves the invagination (folding inward) of a cell's plasma membrane to
surround macromolecules or other matter diffusing through the extracellular fluid.
 Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for cell’s
chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them
for export to the outside of the cell.
 Intermediate Filaments - Intermediate filaments are a very broad class of fibrous proteins that play
an important role as both structural and functional elements of the cytoskeleton. Ranging in size from
8 to 12 nanometers, intermediate filaments function as tension-bearing elements to help maintain cell
shape and rigidity.
 Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down cellular
waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds, which are transferred to the
cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.
 Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These
filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the cytoskeleton.
 Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic
cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a variety of functions, ranging from transport to
structural support.
 Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of every
eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting oxygen and
nutrients into energy.
 Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information processing and
administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two major functions: it stores the cell's hereditary
material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary
metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
 Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm, roughly
spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies, but peroxisomes
are the most common.
 Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In
prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Eukaryotic
animal cells have only the membrane to contain and protect their contents. These membranes also
regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.
 Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes; tiny organelles composed of approximately 60 percent
RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of four strands of RNA. In
prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of RNA.

SURFACE ARCHITECTURE
Cell wall of plants
Cell Wall: - covers the outermost layer of the cell-protecting it from the outer environment. The
composition of the cell wall varies based on the organism. It has a permeable nature, separating the
interior content of the cell from exterior components. The cell wall is responsible for providing
support, protection, and shape to the cell. It is present only in fungi, eukaryotic plants, and very few
prokaryotes. A fundamental difference between plant and animal cells is that the plant cell is
surrounded by a rigid cell wall, made of polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin) and lignin.
Plants cell walls are divided into primary cell wall, secondary cell wall and middle lamella.
Primary cell walls are thin and characteristic of young, growing cells. This is the first cell wall which is
situated closest to the inside of the cell. This cell wall is formed of cellulose which allows the wall to
stretch and grow easily. Most of the primary cells contain structural proteins and pectic
polysaccharides. The primary cell wall is thinner than most other layers and is comparatively permeable
than others.
Secondary cell walls are thicker and stronger, and they are deposited when most cell enlargement has
ended, and Secondary cell walls have their strength and toughness due to lignin; a glue-like material.
After the cell grows completely, this wall is formed in the inner part of the primary cell wall. Certain
cells are formed of lignin and cellulose, providing additional rigidity and waterproofing to the cells.
Further, the rectangular shape of the cell is also provided by this layer. This layer provides permeability,
and it’s also the thickest layer.
 Middle lamella is an intracellular structure separating the walls of two adjacent cell walls.
Middle lamella is composed of is made up of pectin. It is the outermost layer of the cell wall. It is like
an interface between the neighboring cells, gluing them together. The middle lamella is mainly
composed of pectins. Along with this, other substances like proteins and lignin can also be found in
this layer.

Functions of cell wall

 They determine the morphology, growth and development of plant cells.
 They protect the protoplasm from the invasion by viral, bacterial and fungal pathogens.
 They are rigid structures and thus help the plant in withstanding the gravitational forces.
 They are involved in the transport of materials and metabolites.
 They withstand the turgor pressure which develops within the cells due to high osmotic pressure.
 They help prevent water loss from the cell.
 It acts as a barrier between the interior cellular components and the external environment.

THE MICROSCOPE
Introduction:
The microscope is a fundamental tool for biologists. This instrument has been perfected over the past 300
years. It has, within limits, allowed the invisible to become the visible. The extension of the eye or vision
makes much information available to the curious student. For instance: shape, size, position, connections,
colors, number, texture and even chemical composition are some of the facts that may be recorded by the
eye and the microscope.
Types of microscopes:
Light Microscope - the models found in most schools, use compound lenses and light to
magnify objects. The lenses bend or refract the light, which makes the object beneath them appear closer.
Invited by a spectacle maker, Zacharias Janssen, around the year 1590
Scanning Electron Microscope - allow scientists to view a universe too small to be seen with a light
microscope. SEMs don’t use light waves; they use electrons (negatively charged electrical particles) to
magnify objects up to two million times.
Transmission Electron Microscope - also uses electrons, but instead of scanning the surface (as with
SEM's) electrons are passed through very thin specimens.
Terms:
Magnification How much larger an object appears under a scope than it actually is;
oculars are engraved with their magnifying powers; oculars magnify 10X (magnification = 10 multiplied by,
for instance 4 for scanning power = 40 times normal size).
Resolution The rendering of detail; high magnification without good resolution is
worthless; light is the limiting factor of resolution; the blue light of your scope allows resolution of 0.2
microns.
Depth of Field The distance through which you can move the specimen and still have it in focus; the higher
the magnification, the closer the objective is to the slide and so the depth of field decreases; this requires a
more delicate technique.
To see such small structures, the subject must be made larger or magnified. Thus, in microscopy, we talk a
lot about magnification. However, the most important function of your microscope is not magnification, but
the rendering of detail or resolution. If a mouse was magnified to the size of an elephant, but you could not
distinguish it from an elephant, would this extend your knowledge of the mouse? Accordingly, resolution is
the costly feature of a microscope.
Here are some important precautions for handling our microscopes that will keep them in great
condition for many years.
√ CARRYING:
Always carry your microscope with two hands, one grasping the arm or back slot and the other supporting
the base.
√ TABLE PLACEMENT:
Set the microscope on a flat, solid support and in a position where it will not easily be knocked off. Coil the
cord to avoid tripping over it.
√ CLEANING:
Lenses must be clean for resolution. Use only lens paper or gauze and cleaning solution. Never use your
finger, handkerchief, paper towels or spit to clean the lenses. Do not remove any parts for cleaning; it only
allows dust to enter the microscope.
√ PUTTING AWAY:
Turn off light & center mechanical stage.
Position the nosepiece so that the lowest scanning (4X) objective is in place. Remove the slide from the
stage, put in proper place.
Clean the stage and lenses with gauze and lens cleaner, wipe off any oil. Wrap the cord around the arm.
CAREFULLY carry with two hands and GENTLY place the microscope in the proper cabinet.