ZOO 102

DIVERSITY OF ANIMAL FORMS, STRUCTURES, AND FUNCTIONS

 Animal Diversity includes: Exploration of major animal phyla, including their characteristics,
diversity, and evolutionary relationships.
 Animal diversity refers to the wide range of species within the animal kingdom,
 Various forms of animals
 Behaviors of animals
 Adaptations of animals
 Ecological roles exhibited by animals
 Animal diversity refers to the vast variety of animal species on Earth, each with unique
characteristics, forms, functions and adaptations that enable them to survive and thrive in
different environments.
 This diversity is a result of evolutionary processes and encompasses differences not only in
species but also in genetics, behaviors, and ecological roles.
 Animal Diversity: Exploration of major animal phyla,

 Importance of studying animal diversity

 Understanding different animals helps us learn about nature.
 Studying animals teaches us how they live and survive.
 Knowing about animal diversity helps us understand ecosystems better.
 Learning about animals is fun and interesting!
 Animal diversity is crucial for ecosystem stability and resilience, providing numerous ecological
benefits such as pollination, seed dispersal, decomposition, and pest control.

 It also contributes to the richness of life on Earth and has intrinsic value, representing the
evolutionary heritage of life.

 What are Some Common Adaptations in Animals?

Adaptations are traits that have evolved to increase an animal's chances of survival and
reproduction in its environment. Common adaptations include:
- Camouflage: The ability to blend into the environment to avoid predators.
- Mimicry: Imitating the appearance or behavior of another species.
- Specialized Feeding Structures: Adaptations such as beaks, teeth, and digestive systems
tailored to specific diets.
- Locomotive Structures: Adaptations like flagella, cilia, pseudopodia, wings, fins, and legs that
aid in movement.

 How is Animal Diversity Studied?

Biologists study animal diversity through various methods, including:
- Field Studies: Observing animals in their natural habitats to understand their behaviors and
interactions.
- Taxonomy: Classifying animals based on their evolutionary relationships and physical
characteristics.

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 - Genetics: Analyzing DNA to uncover evolutionary history and genetic diversity within and
between species.
- Ecology: Studying how animals interact with their environment and other living organisms.

 There is little disagreement among biologists about the placement of most animals into phyla,
although zoologists disagree on the status of some phyla, particularly those with few members
or recently discovered ones.
 Traditionally, the phylogeny of animals has been inferred using features of anatomy and
aspects of embryological development, from which a broad consensus emerged over the last
century concerning the main branches of the animal tree of life.

 However, in the past 30 years, gene sequence data have accumulated at an accelerating pace
for all animal groups.

 Phylogenies developed from different molecules sometimes suggest quite different

evolutionary relationships among the same groups of animals. However, combining data from
multiple genes has resolved the relationships of most phyla.

 Current studies are using sequences from hundreds of genes to try to fully resolve the

 animal tree of life.

 The diversity of animals is obvious in the Tables 1 and 2 below, which describe key
characteristics of 20 of the animal phyla.

 What are the Major Groups of Animals?

The animal kingdom is broadly classified into several major groups, each with distinct
characteristics:
- Invertebrates: These animals lack a vertebral column (backbone)

 COMMON PHYLA IN THE ANIMAL KINDOM are

 Kingdom Protozoa (Amoeba, Paramecium, Plasmodium)

 Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

 Phylum Radiata (Hydra, Jellyfish Obelia geniculata)

 Phylum Ctenophora (Comb jellies)

 Phylum Rotifera (Rotifers)

 Phylum Platyhelminthes eg Tapeworms, Liver flukes

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  Phylum Annelida (Earthworms, leeches)

 Phylum Mollusca (snails, clams, octopuses),

 Phylum Arthropoda (Crabs, Lobsters, Insects)

 Phylum Echinodermata (Sea Urchin, Sea stars) and

 Subphylum Vertebrata Vertebrates have a backbone and include classes like Mammalia
(mammals), Aves (birds), Reptilia (reptiles), Amphibia (amphibians), and Pisces (fish).

TYPICAL EXAMPLES KEY CHARACTERISTICS

PHYLUM
Arthropoda Beetles, other insects,  Chitinous exoskeleton covers
(arthropods) crabs, spiders, kill, segmented, coelomate body, with
scorpions, centipedes, paired, jointed appendages:
millipedes  Many types of insects have wings,
occupy marine, terrestrial and
freshwater habitats.
 Most arthropods are insects (as are
most animals)
Mollusca (Molluscs) Snails, Oysters, Clams,  Coelomate body of many molluscs is
Octopuses, Slugs covered by one or more shells secreted
by a part of the body termed the
mantle.
 Many kinds possess a unique rasping
tongue, a radula.
 Members occupy marine, terrestrial
and freshwater habitats
Chordata Mammals, Fish, Reptiles,  Each coelomate individual possesses a
(chordates) Aves, Amphibians notochord, a dorsal nerve cord,

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 pharyngeal silts, and a potential tail at
some stage of life.
 In vertebrates, the notochords is
replaced during development by the
spinal column.
 Members occupy marine, terrestrial
and freshwater habitats
Platyhelminthes Planarians, Tapeworms,  Unsegmented, coelomate, bilaterally
(flatworms) liver and blood flukes symmetrical worms.
 Digestive cavity has only one opening;
tapeworms lack a gut
 Many species are parasites of medical
and veterinary importance.
 Members occupy marine, terrestrial
and freshwater habitats b(as well as
the bodies of other animals)
Nematoda Ascaris, pinworms,  Pseudocoelomate, unsegmented,
(roundworms) hookworms, filarial bilaterally symmetrical worms.
worms  Tubular digestive tract has mouth and
anus.
 Members occupy marine, terrestrial
and freshwater habitats, some are
important parasites of plants and
animals, including humans
Annelida Earthworms,  Segmented, bilaterally symmetrical,
(segmented Polychaetes, tube coelomate worms with a complete
Worms) worms, leeches digestive tract; Most have bristles
(chaetes) on each segment that
anchor them in tubes or aid in crawling.
 Occupy marine, terrestrial and
freshwater
Porifera (sponges) Barrel sponges, boring  Bodies of most asymmetrica defining
sponges, basket “an individual” is difficult.
sponges, bath sponges  Body lacks tisues or organs, being a
meshworl of cells surrounding
channels that open to the outside
through pores and that expand into
iternal cavities lined with food-filtering
flagellated cells (choanocytes).
 Most species are marine (150 species
live in freshwater)
Echinodermata Sea stars, sea urchins,  Adult body pentaradial (fivefold) in
(echinoderms) sand dollars, sea symmetry.
cucumber  Water vascular system is a coelomic
space, endoskeleton of calcium
carbonate plates. Many can regenerate
lost body parts. Fossils are more
diverse in body plan than extant

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 species. Exclusively marine.
Cnidaria Jellyfish, Hydra, corals,  Radially symmetrical, acoelomate body
(cnidarians) Sea anemones, Sea fans has tissues but no organs.
 Mouth opens into a simple digestive
sac and is surrounded by tentacles
armed with stinging capsules
(nematocysts).
 In some groups, individuals are joined
into colonies.
 Some can secrete a hard exoskeleton.
The very few nonmarine species live in
freshwater
Bryozoa (moss Sea mats, Sea moss  The only exclusively colonial phylum,
animals, also called each colony comprises numerous
polyzoa and small, coelomate individuals (zooids)
Ectoprocta) connected by an exoskeleton
(calcareous in marine species, organic
in most freshwater ones). A ring of
ciliated tentacles (Iophophore)
surrounds the mouth of each zooid; the
anus lies beyond the Iophophore
Rotifera (wheel Rotifers  Small pseudocoelomates with a
animals) complete digestive tract including a set
of complex jaws. Cilia at the anterior
end beat so they resemble a revolving
wheel. Some are very important in
marine and freshwater habitats as
food for predators such as fishes.
Nemertea (ribbon Lineus  Protostome worms notable for their
worms also called fragility-when disturbed, they fragment
Rhynchocoela in pieces. Long, extensible proboscis
occupies their coelom; thatnof some
tipped by a spearlike stylet. Most
marine, but some live in freshwater and
a few are terrestrial.
Tardigrada (water Hypsibius  Microscopic protostomes with five
bears) body segments and four pairs of
clawed legs.
 And individual lives a week or less but
can enter a state of suspended
animation ("cryptobiosis") in which it
can survive for many decades.
 Obviously marine, freshwater, and
terrestrial habitats.
Branchiopoda Lingula  Protostomous animals encased in two
( lamp shells) shells that are oriented with respect to
the body differently than in bivalved
mollusks. A ring of ciliated tentacles
(lophophore) surrounds the mouth.

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 More than 30,000 fossil species are
known.
Ctenophora (Sea Comb jellies, sea walnuts  Gelatinous, almost transparent, often
walnuts) bioluminescent marine animals; eight
bands of cilia; largest animals that use
cilia for locomotion; complete
digestive tractor with anal pore.
Chaetognatha Sagitta  Small, bilaterally symmetrical,
transparent marine worms with a fin
(arrow worms) along each side, powerful bristly jaws,
and lateral nerve cords.
 Some inject toxin into prey and some
have large eyes. It is uncertain if they
are coelomates, and if so, whether
protostomes or dueterostomes.
Onychophora Peripatus  Segmented protostomous worms with
a chitinous soft exoskeleton and
(velvet worms) unsegmented appendages.
 Related to arthropods. The only
exclusively terrestrial phylum, but that
are interpreted as their Cambrian
ancestors were marine.
Loricifera Nanaloricus mysticus  Tiny marine pseudocoelomates that
live in spaces between grains of sand.
(loriciferans)  The mouth is borne on the tip of a
flexible tube. Discovered in 1983.
Cycliophora Symbion  Microscopic animals that live on
mouthparts of claw lobsters.
(cycliophorans) Discovered 1995.

Micrognathozoa Limnognathia  Microscopic animals with complicated

jaws. Discovered in 2000 in Greenland.
(micrognathozoans)

 CLASSIFICATION OF SUB-KINGDOM PROTOZOANS

 Phylum Euglenozoa eg Euglena, Trypanosoma, Leishmania, Peranema.
 Phylum Ciliophora eg Paramecium, Balantidium
 Protozoan are
 Unicellular; some colonial and some multicellular stages in their life cycles.
 Mostly microscopic, although some are large enough to be seen without microscope.
 No germ layers present
 No organs or tissues but specialized organelles are found.
 Free-living, mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, all represented in the group.
 Locomotion is chiefly by pseudopodia, cilia, flagella.
 Protozoa are notable for their ability to move independently, a characteristic found in the
majority of species.
 Nutrition of all types: May be autotrophic (manufacturing own food by photosynthesis),

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 heterotrophic (depending on other plants or animals for food), saprozoic (using nutrients
dissolved in the surrounding medium).
 They usually lack the capability for photosynthesis, although the genus Euglena is renowned for
motility as well as photosynthesis (and is therefore considered both an alga and a protozoan).
 Aquatic or terrestrial habitat.
 Reproduction asexually is by fission, budding and cysts and sexually by conjugation
 Most protozoal species are aerobic, but some anaerobic species have been found in the human
intestine and animal rumen.
 Most protozoa have a single nucleus, but some have both a macronucleus and one or more
micronuclei.
 Contractile vacuoles may be present in protozoa to remove excess water, and food vacuoles are
often observed.
 All protozoans are eukaryotes and therefore possess a “true,” or membrane-bound nucleus.
 Phylum Porifera

 Characteristic features of Phylum Porifera

 They are multicellular animal and the body consists of an aggregation of several types of cells
differentiated to perform various functions.
 These cells are extremely versatile and are capable of changing form and function. In fact, the
cells may exhibit division of labour among themselves.
 Body consists of pores called ostia, canals, and chambers that form a unique system of water
currents on which sponges depend for food and oxygen
 Sponges have collar cells, or choanocytes. These cells are flagellated and are strikingly similar
to the choanoflagellates (colonial, unicellular protists).
 Most sponges are marine; all aquatic
 They exhibit radial symmetry or none
 Sponges are suspension feeders and rely on any type of food suspended in the flowing water.
 Skeletal structures of sponges consist of fibrillar collagen (a protein) and calcareous or
siliceous crystalline spicules, often combined with variously modified collagen (spongin)
 They have no specialized organs or true tissues for respiration and excretion, these occur by
simple diffusion.
 All adult sponges are sessile and remain attached to some solid object, rocks or substratum at
all times.
 Most sponges are hermaphrodites. Asexual reproduction occurs through budding or gemmules
and sexual reproduction by eggs and sperm.
 Diversity of Sponges

 The canal systems and the character of the skeletal materials are major diagnostic features
which forms the basis for the classification of sponges.

 PHYLUM CNIDARIA AND CTENOPHORA

 The Radiata include Phylum Cnidaria and Phylum Ctenophora.
 Cnidarians get their name from specialized cells, called cnidocytes (from a Greek word
meaning “sea nettles”), that contain stinging organelles. Cnidocytes are located mainly in the
epidermis, especially on the tentacles.
 Cnidarians are no doubt structurally more advanced than sponges because their body cells
form perfect tissues.

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 Examples of Cnidarians include jellies (often called jellyfish), corals, and sea anemones. Some
cnidarians are bioluminescent (radiate light), and some (e.g. the Portuguese man-of-war) can
sting and inflict deadly pain.
General Characteristic Features of Cnidarians
 Cnidarians are group of animals with simple degree of structural and functional organization.
 They are exclusively marine, although few species live in fresh water.
 Most members are sessile and few may remain unattached or swim feebly.
 Cnidarians are radially symmetrical and are diploblastic with two distinct layers (Ectoderm and
Endoderm).
 In between these two layers is a non-cellular mesoglea which is jelly-like.
 Thickness of mesoglea varies among classes and between polyp and medusa.
 The gastrovascular cavity has a single opening that serves as both mouth and anus.
 Cnidarian has an incomplete alimentary gut because it has only one of the two possible
openings that guts have — a mouth, but no anus, therefore, the mouth serves for both ingestion
of food particles and expulsion of wastes.
 They use their tentacles to capture prey and push it into the mouth. The mouth leads into the
gastrovascular cavity, where digestion takes place.
 Digestive enzymes are secreted into the gastrovascular cavity.
 The first part of the digestive process breaks down the food into particles small enough for the
nutritive muscular cells to consume by phagocytosis — the final stage of the digestive process.
 Extracellular digestion occurs in the gastrovascular cavity and intracellular digestion in
gastrodermal cells.
 Gas exchange and excretion occur by diffusion. The body wall is thin enough that no cell is far
from the surface.
 Sense organs include well-developed statocysts (organs of balance) and ocelli (photosensitive
organs); complex eyes in members of Cubozoa.
 They have cnidocytes (specialized cells that function in defense and capture of prey.
Cnidocytes contain organelles called cnidae, which are able to evert (extend or retract). Cnidae
that sting are called nematocysts. These nematocysts are used to immobilize and capture prey.
They are also used for defense.
 The life cycle of many cnidarians includes a sessile polyp stage (a form with a dorsal mouth
surrounded by tentacles) and a free-swimming medusa (jellyfish) stage.
 Classification of Cnidarians

 PHYLUM CNIDARIA is subdivided into four major classes. These are classes Hydrozoa,
Scyphozoa, Anthozoa and Cubozoa

 Class Hydrozoa eg Hydra, Physalia physalis (Portugese man-of-war), Obelia geniiculata

 Class Scyphozoa eg Aurelia aurita (Jelly fish), Cassiopeia, Rhizostoma.
 Class Anthozoa eg Metridium marginatum (Sea anemones), Alcyonium (Dead man’s finger
corals) and sea fans
 Class Cubozoa eg Tripedalia cystophora, Sea wasp (Chironex fleckeri)
 Phylum Ctenophora
 Examples are Pleurobrachia (Comb jellies), Beroe sp, Cestum sp. and Coeloplana sp. Members
are exclusively marine; free-swimming animals. There are two tentacles bearing eight
longitudinal rows of cilia resembling combs; animal moves by means of these bands of cilia.
 Characteristic features of Ctenophorans

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 Eight rows of combs (ctenes) arranged radially around body.
 They exhibit biradial symmetry, meaning equal halves of the animal could be obtained by cutting
through the body axis in two different ways.
 It is an arrangement of internal canals and position of the paired tentacles change the radial
symmetry into a combination of radial and bilateral.
 They are diploblastic and have eight rows of cilia that resemble combs
 Ctenophores feed on mostly on plankton such as copepods.
 The body plan of Ctenophorans shows that there are two blind canals which terminate near the
mouth.
 Alimentary gut is complete. The mouth opens into pharynx, gut with gastrovascular cavity and
terminates at anal canal.
 Excretory products are eliminated via the mouth and anal pore. Extracellular digestion occurs in
the pharynx.
 Tentacles are extensible with adhesive glue cells; Colloblasts and adhesive cells used in prey
capture are present in most members.
 Body ellipsoidal or spherical in shape with oral and aboral ends; no definite head.
 No coelomic cavity. Muscular contractions via muscle fibers (cells), not epitheliomuscular cells.
 There are no special organs for respiration and excretion therefore these processes occur via
the body surface.
 Ctenophores are also like cnidarians in that they consist of two cell layers separated by a thick,
jellylike mesoglea.
 Ctenophores have a nervous system similar to that of Cnidarians.
 It consists of a subepidermal plexus, which is concentrated under each comb plate, but nervous
system has no distinct brain or central nervous system that is found in more advanced animals.
 Reproduction monoecious (male and female organs in one individual animal) in most; gonads
located on the lining of gastrovascular canal under the comb plates. Free swimming cydippid
larva which later develops directly to an adult.
 Phylum Platyhelminthes (The Flatworms)

 Platyhelminthes is derived from two Greek words: Platys (=Flat) and helmins (= worms) -
meaning flatworms. They are small soft-bodied worms with more advanced body structures
than the early diploblastic (radiate) metazoans.

 Thus, they exemplify a transition from the primitive to a more complex structure of higher
animals. The characteristic features that distinguished this group of animals from the primitive
radiates are:

 The body tissues are built up from three defined layers; the outer ectoderm, a middle mesoderm
and the inner endoderm hence they are called triploblastic animals.
 The body symmetry is bilateral - a median sagittal section along one plane divides the body into
two equal halves that are mirror image of each other.
 They are dorso-ventrally flattened; with a dorsal (upper) and ventral (lower) surfaces as well as
anterior (front) and posterior (rear) ends.
 The anterior end of the body differentiates into a distinct ‘head region’, with aggregation of
nerve cells referred to as cerebral ganglia. This is the cephalization process.
 The nervous and excretory systems consist of a pair of cerebral ganglia (‘brain’) and flame cells
(protonephridia) respectively.
 In many groups, the nervous system is in a ladder-like pattern (orthogon type), with a paired

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 cerebral ganglion at the anterior end from where nerves run anteriorly and, the three longitudinal
nerves extend posteriorly. The latter is connected by transverse commissures.
 Similarly, the excretory system the protonephridia are linked by tubules to the excretory canals
that opens to the exterior as excretory pore.
 Reproductive system is complex, mainly hermaphrodite with each sex possessing well
developed gonads
 They lack circulatory and respiratory systems.
 Anus is absent
 The phylum Platyhelminthes is classified into 4 major classes:
Turbellaria Monogenea Trematoda Cestoda
 Platyhelminthes consist of Class Turbellaria, Class Trematoda, Class Monogenea and Class
Cestoda

 Class Turbellaria

 Members of this Class, with the exception of the few parasitic or commensals, are mostly free-
living unsegmented worms that live as carnivorous benthic animals in the marine water, but
some species are also found in the terrestrial and freshwater habitats.

 They are mostly small in size, about 2 mm long but some terrestrial forms are larger and longer,
reaching about 60cm long.
 The level of cephalization is low.
 There is no anus.
 The nervous system in lower turbellarians is mainly epidermal nerve net.
 Example is Planaria or Dugesia (=Euplanaria) and Fecampia
 Class: Trematoda (The digenea)

 Members of this class are important parasitic group of Platyhelminthes, commonly called the
‘fluke’.

 The adults are cylindrical and leaf-like endoparasitic worms, inhabiting the digestive tract and
other visceral organs (liver, lungs, bile ducts, bladder and pancreatic ducts) in humans and all
classes of vertebrates.

 Class: Cestoda (the tapeworms)

 These are endoparasitic Platyhelminthes, with variable size and shapes. Typically, matured
adult tapeworms are comparable to fluke worms, being flattened and elongated, but live only in
the intestine or its diverticular of vertebrate hosts.

 Example is Taenia saginata and T. solium

 Phylum Nematoda

 Nematoda (Greek Nema = thread and Eidos = form) is the largest group of aschelminthes.

 They are generally referred to as roundworms with unsegmented cylindrical body, pointed at
both anterior and posterior ends.

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 Nematodes are ubiquitous, numerous and widespread in all types of habitats (soil, water,
decaying organic matter and tissues of plants and animals) and environment (mountains,
deserts and deep bottom of water bodies).

 Most nematodes exist as free-living worms, feeding on microorganisms and decaying organic
matters while others live as parasites of plants and animals.

 The parasitic forms cause serious diseases in their hosts, and are thus of economic and
medical importance. Although, nematodes are greatly diverse, their structure is remarkably
uniform.

 Characteristic features of Nematode

 They are triploblastic – body wall composed of three layers as in Platyhelminthes.

 However, they are pseudocoelomate because the body cavity (space between the body wall
and the gut) is not an endomesoderm (not lined by a mesodermal epithelium), but a pseudocoel
filled with fluid, fibrous tissues and fixed cells (giant cells).
 The body is covered with thick, flexible multi-layered cuticle that bears cuticular setae (hairs),
spines or annulations.
 Below the cuticle is a syncytial epidermal (hypodermal) layer that projects into the pseudocoel
as epidermal ridges (chords) at the mid-dorsal, mid-ventral and mid-lateral lines of the body.
 Most nematodes are dioecious (sexes are separate), but hermaphroditism is not uncommon.
 The males, usually with curled tail, are generally smaller than the females.
 The gonads are tubular and fertilization is internal.
 Development may or may not require intermediate host, but larva emerging from embryonated
egg undergo five transformational stages by moulting.

PHYLUM ANNELIDA
 They are segmented worms.
 Annelida are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, metamerically segmented coelomates.
 They belong to the protosome branch of animal kingdom and have spiral cleavage and
determinate development.
 All the segments are integrated into a single functional unit.
 All organ systems are present and well developed.
 Metamerism (Body segmentation): This is the greatest advancement of this phylum and lays
the foundation of the highly specialized metamerism of the arthropods.
 Presence of coelom (fluid filled space between two layers of mesoderm: splanchnic mesoderm
and somatic mesoderm).
 Metamerism is the division of the body of an animal into linear series of similar rings or
segments, each of which is built on more or less the same plan and resembling each other.
 The number of segments is usually constant and all are structurally identical. segments are
formed in front of the last segment or pygidium.
 Greater complexity in structure and function is made possible.
 Segment can be specialized for different functions without interference with others
 Metamerism is not restricted to the annelids, it is shared by the arthropods where it is highly
developed, and also by vertebrates. Annelids however, demonstrate the phenomena in its least
modified form.

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 PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

 The phylum mollusca is the second largest group in the animal kingdom. The term Mollusca is
derived from Latin word, ‘mollis’ which means soft, i.e having of soft parts in their body. They
are thought to have evolved from annelids based on the following evolutionary similarities: a
trocophore larva similar to that of the polychaete worms, central nervous system arranged in a
circum-oesophageal ring, presence of perivisceral portion of the coelom, dorsal position of the
vascular trunk.

 They are one of the most diverse groups of animals on the planet.

 Examples are snails, octopuses, squid, clams, scallops, oysters, and chitons.

 The living species have been grouped into various classes according to their symmetry and the
characters of the foot, shell, mantle, gills and nervous system.

 MAJOR FEATURE OF ANIMAL PHYLOGENETICS TREE NOTES

 INTRODUCTION

 Systematics, i.e. the study of the diversity of living things and the evolutionary relationship
between them, has been able to put some order into the chaotic situation.

 Although taxonomy is as old as man himself, the early man attempted taxonomy using personal
and practical criteria, hence could not make a tangible headway.

 Aristotle (300 BC), the famous Greek philosopher and biologist, was the first individuals to
make serious interest in taxonomy on the basis of structural similarities. He divided living
things into 14 groups and went ahead to subdivide these according to size. John Ray (1627-
1705), a British naturalist later in the 17th century, also expressed his belief that organism
should have a set of names and advocated for a taxonomic system with natural affinities.

 Carl Von Linné or Carlous Von Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist in the 18th century
following the same line of thinking, using plants, wrote a book title “Systema naturae” in 1758.
He named about 12000 species of plants and animals and classified, and today his scheme is
the most acceptable taxonomic scheme the world the world over. Some of the principles
initiated by this book include: - (i) hierarchical system (ii) taxonomic ranking (iii) binomial
system (iv) astrological symbols for male and female.

 Taxonomy is the study of the principle practice and rules of classification and nomenclature
of living organisms.

 There are two bases for such classification.

 (1) Phonetic taxonomy, which involves grouping on the basis of phenotypic similarity and
engaging complex used are largely morphological, anatomical, biochemical and cytological.

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 (2) Phyletic taxonomy, which involves grouping on the basis of presumed evolutionary and
genetic relationships. The outcomes of the two systems are usually fairly similar despite the
fact that phyletic classification s liable to subjective bias.

 A species form the basic unit of classification of animals. There are different ways of
distinguishing a species.

 Linnaeus belief that a species has its own distinctive structural features that it does not share
with members of similar but different species (typological concept). This may, however, be
misleading, as it is a well-known fact that male and female or adult and juvenile forms of the
same species may differ structurally. The biological definition of a species recognizes that it
distinctive characters are passed from parent to the offspring (biological concept).

 A species is therefore described as a group in which members interbreed and share the same
gene pool.

 IDENTIFICATION/NOMENCLATURE

 This entails providing a universally acceptable name for every animal type. Organisms are given
scientific names and not common names because the later varies with languages even those
that speak the same language sometimes use different common names for the same organism
e.g. rats answer ‘Ofon’ ‘Eku’ and ‘Eku’ in Yoruba dialect.

 To avoid this, a universal language such as Latin, which used to be well known to most scholars,
was adopted. More so taxonomy started with the ancient Greeks and the Romans who speak
Latin and Greek languages.

 The binomial system of nomenclature proposed by Carlous Von Linnaeus in his book is the
universally acceptable scheme for biological nomenclature.

 In this system every organism is given a two-part name of the genus (a category than can
contain many species) and the first letter of this are written in upper case. The second word is
the specific epithet of the species, which usually describes something peculiar about the
species.

 Scientific names are written in italics when in print but underlined separately when
handwritten, to show that it is a biological name that is universally accepted by scientists
throughout the world rather than a common name that may only be known locally, e.g. Human is
scientifically named Homo Sapiens or Homo sapiens.

 To further ensure conformity a standard, the generic and specific names follow a laid down
code by the International Codes of Nomenclature and are published as scientific reports by
taxonomist. By convention and for distinctive reasons, the following guidelines are as followed:-

 Species names are never used on their own. It must be accompanied by generic name.

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 The names are written out in full when first mentioned but subsequently, the generic name is
abbreviated to its initial letter and a full stop, i.e. H. sapeiens or H. sapeiens

 The abbreviation ‘sp’. (all in low case) should be used in place of if a single species of the
genus is being referred to or when the specific name is not known e.g. Cirrina sp. Or Cirrina sp.

 If more than a member species is meant then ‘spp.’ is used e.g. and Cirina spp. Or Cirrina spp.
Note that this should not be underlined or italicized.

 The authority should follow each species on first usage in a formal text such as the final year
project reports and in the title of the test. Name(s) of persons to whom the name is attributed
and date the name was described are quoted in front of the cited name e.g. Panthara pardus
Linnaeus 1758. Sometimes these names are abbreviated but this must follow and agreed
standard e.g. Panthera pardus L. 1758. If the species was first described under a different
genus, the name of the author of the original description is presented in parentheses.

 Common names when used should not start with an uppercase letter e.g. rat

 CLASSIFICATION

 Zoologist generally belief that classifying animals reduce the enormity of variety of organism to
a sizeable number of groups and therefore assist in overcoming the chaos and confusion
involved.

 Two major classification types are known. Artificial and Natural Classifications.

 Artificial classification groups the animal for the purpose of convenience, using few and easily
observed characters. Most often these characters are imposed on the organisms hence do not
reflect phylogenic and evolutionary relationships. Example of such characters include where the
animal lives, how they move, what they feed on, etc.

 Natural classification, on the other hand, groups the animals according to their natural affinities,
using numerous internal and external characters and even characters waiting to be discovered.
They therefore express natural relationship like phylogenic and evolutionary relationship. This
classification mode is preferable and has been adopted in Biology because it allows biologist to
see the organismal world as having a fine number of groups with historical and evolutionary
relationship.

 It introduces a set classification principle involving (i) the arrangement of animals in a

hierarchical order, (ii) the arrangement of animal based on structural and natural relationships
(homology) and (iii) an arrangement transcending human interpretation and judgment.

 The Linnaean is a fine example of this.

 The shortfall of the biological definition included the fat that it is not directly applicable to
asexually reproducing individuals and even where applicable they are not always reproductively

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 isolated, as the variant types tends to interbreed occasionally resulting in infertile individuals.

 To clear these fallouts, an acceptable definition has been developed to accommodate the two
views.

 A species is a group of individual animals which in the sum total of their characters
(morphological, physiological, embryological, genetical etc.) constantly resemble each other to
a greater degree than members of other groups: which forms true interbreeding assemblage but
will not, under natural condition, produce viable or fertile offsprings with members of another
group.

 A sibling species is morphologically similar group but reproductively isolated.

 Animals are placed in Taxa (GK. Taxis, arrangement), i.e. group of animals that fill a particular
category of classification.

 Each group, called a taxon, contains animals sharing basic features.

 Hence, having common ancestry. Seven major taxonomic ranks are recognized, i.e. species,
genus, family, order, class, phylum and kingdom, listed in ascending order. The species is the
most exclusive group containing fewest animals.

 There are several species within a genus, several genera within a family, several families within
an order and so on.

Phylum Chordata

PHYLUM CHORDATA

(The chordates)

Chordates is formed from the latin word chorda meaning cord or string. It includes vertebrates
represented by fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Three groups of marine animals called
protochordates are also members of this phylum. The distinguishing characteristics shared in some
degree by all chordates are:

1. A tubular nerve cord dorsal to the digestive tract.

2. Paired lateral gill slits or opening in the wall of the pharynx.

3. A stiff elastic longitudinal notochord between the nerve cord and the digestive tract.

4. A post anal tail. These characteristics are found in some embryonic stage although it may
disappear or greatly reduced in adult animals. For instance, the notochord is present in the
embryos of vertebrates but during development it is replaced with a new structure the vertebral
column or backbone composed of cartilage or bone (vertebrae). Gill slits are functional in fishes
for respiration but appear only in the embryo of amphibians, reptiles and mammals.

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  Chordate features (General characteristics)

 Bilaterally symmetrical, there are three germ layers and a well-developed coelom. The anterior
portion of the nerve cord is enlarged to form a brain.

 Segmented muscles are located in an unsegmented trunk. A ventral heart with blood vessels
are present. A cartilage or bony endoskeleton is present in vertebrates.

 PROTOCHORDATES

 These are marine animals which have one or more chordate characteristics during development.
There are three groups: Hemichordates, Urochordates and Cephalochordates.

 Hemichordates

 They are worm-like animals with soft and elongated bodies. They burrow into the sand and mud.
E.g. Acron worms Balanoglossus.

 The body is divided into three parts. The anterior region is called proboscis, the collar is located
after the proboscis and a long trunk. There is a terminal tail.

 There are gill slits on the trunk and a short tubular nerve cord.

 A typical notochord is lacking and there are no special sense organs.

 Sexes are separate, fertilization is external. A larval stage is present from which adult worm
develops.

Subphylum Urochordata

They are filter feeders. The only chordate feature is found in the free swimming larval stage which is
the presence of perforated pharynx E.g. Ciona intestinalis commonly called Sea squirt

 They are popularly known as tunicates. They are sedentary. The body is covered by a tough firm
test or tunic consisting of cellulose-type substance called tunicin from which the name
tunicates is obtained.

 A typical sea squirt consists of a sac-like body which is divided into two regions, the thorax and
abdomen. The animal is attached to a substratum at the posterior end, and the anterior end has
two openings or siphons, one is the mouth and the other opening leads to the atrium. Water

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 comes in through the mouth or inhalant siphon and is carried through the pharyngeal slit where
filtering occurs into the atrium. The water goes out through the exhalent siphon.

 The abdomen contains digestive tract heart and gonads, intestine and gill slits open into the
atrium. On the ventral side of the pharynx is a groove the endostyle which extend the whole
length of the animal. The blood vascular system is open and there are no capillaries.

 Tunicates are hermaphroditic. The gonads open separately into the atrium and the larval form is
called appendicularia. Asexual reproduction by budding also occurs in this group.

 Subphylum Cephalochordata

 This group of chordates are noted for being more advanced than other protochordates and they
possess chordate features: pharyngeal gill slits, a notochord persists throughout life. E.g.
Amphioxus or lancelet Branchiostoma. Amphioxus is laterally compressed and pointed at both
ends and it inhabits sandy beaches. The animal is usually buried in the sandy bottom of shallow
water while the anterior end project out for feeding and respiration.

 Branchiostoma nigerensis is found in Lagos lagoon. It has dorsal and ventral fins. It resembles
a small fish. There is an oral hood projecting forward at the anterior end. The wheel organ is a
complicated series of ciliated grooves and ridges. There are tentacle-like processes called oral
cirri above the mouth. They are v-shaped myotomes. Arranged along each side of the body and
tail, the mouth projects into a sac-like pharynx which occupies half the body length. There are
gill slits around the pharyngeal region. The gill slits open into the atrium. There is no heart and
blood contains no respiratory pigments.

 A notochord extends the whole length of the body. Above the notochord is a tubular dorsal
nerve cord. Excretion is by protonephridia. Gaseous exchange occurs all over the body surface.

 Eggs and sperms are shed into the water during breeding seasons, fertilization is external. The
cephlochordates provide a link between the Agnathans jawless fishes and invertebrates.

SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATES

 This subphylum includes a vast majority of chordates. Vertebrates are classified into two
superclasses, the Agnatha and Gnathostomata.

General characteristics

1. The notochord is wholly or partially replaced by a vertebral column in the adult. This is
composed of a large number of small skeletal elements (vertebrae) extending the length of the
body and surrounding the spinal cord.

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 2. It is from this structure that the members of this group derive their common name, vertebrates.

3. The head is clearly differentiated, the brain being enclosed in a cranium (brain box) and sense
organs (eyes, ears and olfactory organs) being well developed. (Vertebrates are also craniata
because of the cranium).

4. 6 visceral clefts are typically present – they are not associated with feeding.

5. A very muscular heart is present with at least 3 chambers and blood vascular system is closed.
Blood flows forwards ventrally and backwards dorsally.

6. Excretion is by mesodermal kidneys.

7. Alimentary system is complete with the anus located before the posterior end. Associated
structures like liver, pancreas are always present.

8. Respiration is by five or six pairs of gill slits with their contained gills in the lower vertebrates
whereas higher vertebrates breathe by means of lungs.

9. Nervous system is in form of a hollow dorsal tube, the front end of which is differentiated into
brain with sense organs.

10. With few exceptions, vertebrates possess paired appendages.

11. Sexes are always separate, asexual reproduction does not occur.

The subphylum is divided into two groups according to the structure of the appendages viz.

1. Pisces which has paired and single fins.

2. Tetrapoda which have two pairs of limbs.

The present-day living vertebrates are categorized into two major groups.

1. Those without jaws (Super class Agnatha, class cyclostomata)

2. Those with jaws (Super class Gnathostomata)

General Characteristics of Agnathans

1. The body is long, slender and cylindrical. The tail region is compressed.

2. The mouth is round and suctorial and jaws are absent. Tongue armed with rasping teeth.

3. Paired fins and girdles are absent.

4. The skin is soft, smooth with numerous mucus glands. There are no scales.

5. Visceral clefts are not used for feeding. There are 5 to 16 pairs of gills in lateral pouches.

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 6. The head bears lidless eyes and median pineal eye.

7. The notochord persists in adults; the vertebral column being feebly developed. Skull and visceral
arches are cartilaginous.

8. The olfactory organs are median and unpaired.

9. Heart consists of only two chambers (atrium and ventricle).

10. Two kidneys with ducts.

 Biology of Lamprey (Lampetra fluviatis)

 Lamptera lives and feeds in the sea but goes to the river to breed. They are elongated,
cylindrical and eel-like, no jaws, mouth has circular sucking disc.

 There are 7 pairs of gill slits along the side of the head. The skin is scaless, smooth and
glandular.

 They are ectoparasites of fishes attach themselves by sectorial mouth to suck blood.
Respiratory system is adapted to its parasitic mode of life. The gills lie within the 7 pouches.
Each pouch opens to the outside through a small aperture on the body wall.

 A 3-chambered heart is present. The blood contains haemoglobin in blood corpuscles. The
kidneys open into the cloaca.

 Lampreys are sensitive to smell, possess eyes and two semicircular canals in ear. Sexes are
separate, fertilization is external. The zygote hatches into Ammocete larva.

External features of Lamprey

CLASS GNATHOSTOMATA

 These are vertebrates with jaws. The jaws being formed from the mandibular arch (one of the
visceral arches).

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  The jaws (upper and lower) boarder the mouth. Gnathostomes possess paired limbs and their
notochord is either persistent or replaced by vertebral column.

 Among these vertebrates are the cartilaginous fishes (chondrichthyes) and the bony fishes
(osteichthyes).

 Jaws enable animals to adapt to a wide variety of foods, eat large chunks of food, allow
vertebrates to grasp and manipulate food effectively and with development of teeth, it become
organs of defence and offence.

 Paired appendages which allow for maintenance of stability during movement are also found in
Gnathostomes.

Gnathostomes are classified into six classes

Chondrichthyes Cartilaginous fishes e.g. skates, rays,

dogfishes
Osteichthyes Bony fishes e.g. Tilapia
Amphibia Toads, salamander
Reptilia Lizards, snakes
Aves Birds
Mammalia Mammals such as dogs, cats,
elephant, whales, human, rats

CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES FORMERLY CLASS PISCES

 Fishes are aquatic vertebrate animals, characterized by having gills for breathing, fins for
movement, and scales covering their bodies.

 They are cold-blooded and lay eggs, and exhibit a wide variety of forms and behaviors.

 Vertebrates: They possess a backbone, a defining characteristic of vertebrates.

 Gills: These organs allow them to extract oxygen from the water.

 Fins: Used for swimming, steering, and maintaining balance in the water.

 Scales: Most fish have scales covering their skin, providing protection.

 Cold-blooded: Their body temperature fluctuates with the surrounding water temperature.

 Eggs: Most fish reproduce by laying eggs.

 Streamlined Body: Many fish have a streamlined body shape, which helps them move efficiently
through the water.

General characteristics of Fishes (Pisces)

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 1. They are adapted to aquatic life.

2. The body is streamlined with propulsive tail.

3. Paired pectoral fins are always present, also are median unpaired fins.

4. The fins possess an endoskeleton, muscles or fin rays.

5. The respiratory organs are the gills borne on branchial arches.

6. Circulation is single.

7. Prominent lateral line system is present.

8. The body is covered with bony scales of dermal origin.

9. Internal nares absent except in few lung fish.

10. Mucus secreting glands present in the skin.

11. There are 5 brachial or visceral arches associated with the gills.

12. There is no lachrymal duct associated with the eye socket.

General characteristics of chondrichthyes (Elasmobranchii)

1. Skeleton composed of cartilage.

2. The skin is covered with placoid scales.

3. Jaw suspension is hyostylic (simple).

4. Notochord persists and vertebrae are numerous, complete and separate.

5. Respiration is by 5 or 7 pairs of gills, each in a separate cleft and are not covered by an
opercular flap.

6. Spiracle present.

7. Mouth ventral.

8. Well-developed sense of smell. Poor vision.

9. No air bladder.

10. Both median and paired fins are supported by fin or horny rays the pelvic fins are with claspers
in the males.

11. Heterocercal tail.

12. Single pair of cartilage in upper and lower jaw.

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13. Spiral valve in intestine, ends in cloaca.

14. Marine.

15. 10 cranial nerves and 3 semicircular canals in each ear.

16. Sexes separate.

17. Fertilization is internal. Development is direct. Examples include sharks, skates and rays.

CLASS OSTEICHTHYES FORMERLY CLASS PISCES

 BIOLOGY OF NILE TILAPIA

 Classification: Kingdom- Animalia

 Phylum- Chordata

 Class- Actinopterygii

 Order- Cichliformes

 Family- Cichlidae

 Genus- Oreochromis

 Species- niloticus

 MORPHOLOGY

 They are laterally compressed and deep-bodied with long dorsal fins. The forward portion of the
dorsal fin is heavily spined. Spines are also found in the pelvic and anal fins. They have
distinctive, regular, vertical stripes on the body extending to the bottom edge of the caudal fin.
The tail is homocercal.

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 External features of Fish

CLASS AMPHIBIA

 Introduction

 Most amphibians are found in damp habitats such as swamps and rain forests. Even those
adapted to drier habitats spend much of their time in burrows or under moist leaves, where
humidity is high. Amphibians generally rely heavily on their moist skin for gas exchange with the
environment.

 Some terrestrial species lack lungs and breathe exclusively through their skin and oral cavity.

 Fertilization is external in most amphibians; the male grasps the female and spills his sperm
over the eggs as the female sheds them.

 External features of Toad

 Amphibians typically lay their eggs in water or in moist environments on land. The eggs lack a
shell and dehydrate quickly in dry air.

 ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT BY AMPHIBIAN

 Gills for aquatic tadpole life are used for respiration in water

 Another important adaptation to terrestrial life is a body covering that minimizes water loss.
Such a covering presents another challenge because it severely decreases gas exchange across
the body surface.

 This challenge has been met by the evolution of efficient lungs and circulatory systems for
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

 Characteristic Features of Amphibians

 Skeleton mostly bony, with varying numbers of vertebrae; ribs present in some, absent or fused

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 to vertebrae in others

 Body forms vary greatly among species: salamanders usually have distinct head, neck, trunk,
and tail; adult frogs have a compressed body with fused head and trunk and no intervening neck.

 Forelimb usually with four digits but sometimes five and sometimes fewer

 Heart with a sinus venosus, two atria, one ventricle, a conus arteriosus; double circulation
through the heart in which pulmonary arteries and veins supply lungs (when present) and return
oxygenated blood to heart; skin abundantly supplied with blood vessels

 Skin smooth, moist and glandular; integument modified for cutaneous respiration; pigment
cells (chromatophores) common and of considerable variety; granular glands associated with
secretion of defensive compounds

 Respiration by skin and in some forms by gills and/or lungs; presence of gills and lungs varies
among species and by developmental stage of some species; forms with aquatic larvae lose
gills at metamorphosis in frogs

 Many salamanders retain gills and an aquatic existence throughout life

 Ectothermic, body temperature dependent upon environmental temperature and not modulated
by metabolically generated heat

 Excretory system of paired mesonephric or opisthonephric kidneys; urea main nitrogenous

waste

 General Characteristics of Tetrapods.

 Possession of bony skeleton.

 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs.

 The pelvic girdle is fused to the vertebral column.

 Lungs present and double circulation.

 Middle ear present.

THE PENTADACTYL LIMB

 The skeleton of the limbs of all tetrapods shows a constancy of pattern despite differences in
locomotion. Thus, the limb skeletons of Amphibian, reptiles, birds and mammals followed the
generalized pentadactyl plan.

 CLASS AMPHIBIAN

 General Characteristics

 Live both in water and on land hence the class name Amphibia (both life).

 Smooth moist skin and glandular which provides respiratory surface.

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 Teeth are uniform (homodont), present on the jaws.

 Two external nostrils.

 External eardrum and prominent eyes with eyelids.

 10 cranial nerves.

 Mesonephric kidneys which excrete urea and ammonia present.

 Cloaca present.

 Three-chambered heart consisting of two atria and a single ventricle.

 Single ossicle, no external ear.

 Sexes separate.

 Eggs laid unprotected in water, fertilization external.

 Indirect development larva aquatic possessing gills.

 Exothermic or cold blooded.

 The head is carried on a single cervical vertebra, the atlas which articulates with two condyles
on the skull.

 Buccal cavity has no cheeks and no secondary palate.

 There is no diaphragm.

 The long bones and vertebrae lack epiphyses.

 The limbs are laterally oriented.

 The class amphibian is divided into 3 orders namely urodela, apoda and anura

 General Characteristics of Order Urodela

 Possess elongated body with tail.

 Head and neck prominent.

 Limbs short and of equal length.

 No ear drum.

 Voiceless- does not produce sound.

 Well-developed sense of smell.

 Internal and external fertilization, reproduction is oviparous or ovoviviparous.

 Adult and larva differ from each other.

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 Many are neotenous- capable of reproducing at larval stage.

 Found in damp habitats.

 Examples are Newts, salamander, Necturus

 General Characteristics of Order Apoda

 Limbless elongated and worm-like body.

 Tail short or absent.

 No eyes.

 Internal fertilization occurs, some are viviparous. They are burrowers, feeding on earthworms.

 No neck.

 No eardrum.

 No larynx thus voiceless.

 Examples include Demophis and Typhlenectes.

 General Characteristics of Order Anura

 Short body with no neck and tail.

 Hind limbs longer than front limb with webbed digits.

 Ear drum present.

 Males produce sound from the vocal cord.

 Sense of sight well-developed, eyes large with eyelids.

 Large sticky mobile tongue attached anteriorly for catching insects.

 Fertilization occurs externally, reproduction is oviparous.

 Examples are Toad and Frogs

 CLASS REPTILIA

 Possess dry waterproof skin, with hairy epidermal scales, no gland in the skin.

 Distinct neck which carries the head is present.

 Teeth are uniform (homodont) and present on the jaws.

 Vertebral column is long and flexible.

 Respiration is solely by lungs, but no regular rhythmical breathing.

 Heart consists of two atria and one ventricle.

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 Excretion is by metanephric kidneys which excrete uric acid.

 No pinna to the ear, external auditory meatus sometimes present, single ossicle. Sense of smell
not well developed.

 Cloaca present.

 Large shelled eggs are laid with yolk. Undergo internal fertilization; there is direct development
and little parental care.

 Exothermic.

 12 cranial nerves.

 Buccal cavity has no cheeks.

 No diaphragm.

 External features of lizard

 CLASS AVES

 Skin is waterproof, non-glandular (except preen glands) at the base of the tail. Scales on feet,
body, covered by epidermal feathers.

 Lungs are the sole respiratory organs –rhythmical breathing movements occur. Highly efficient
respiratory system.

 The head is carried on a flexible neck and the skull articulates through a single occipital condyle.

 The brain is large with massive corpora striata and two large optic lobes with acute sense of
sight and colour.

 There are no teeth-jaws ensheathed in horny beak.

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 No pinna, single auditory ossicle, cochlea present.

 Fore limbs modified into wings with large surface area.

 Hind limbs modified into bipedal method of walking.

 The heart is four chambered with distinct systemic and pulmonary circulation.

 12 cranial nerves.

 No diaphragm.

 Cloaca present.

 Metanephric kidney which excrete uric acid.

 Eggs are large and yolky with chalky shell. Fertilization is internal, oviparous.

 Direct development, nest constructed, considerable parental care holding both parents.

 Endothermic with constant internal temperature of about 40°C.

 Bones are light and strong, lack epiphyses and may contain air spaces.

 Respiration is highly efficient. It serves for reduction of specific gravity and thermoregulation.
The lungs give off nine air sacs which extend to many parts of the body. There is only one flow
of air.

 Pigeons have complete double circulation, rapid heartbeat and increased blood pressure. All
these make circulation highly efficient.

 Excretion is by the kidneys which excrete uric acid. Pigeons like other birds lack urinary bladder
so as to reduce weight.

 Columbia has food instinct behaviour due to massive corpora strata. The optic lobes are large
for the keen eye sight while the cerebellum which coordinates the muscles is well developed.
Olfactory lobes for smell are not well developed.

 Fertilization is internal which id preceded by courtship displays. A nest is built by the female and
two eggs are laid in it. Incubation and care of the young is showed by both male and female

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  External features of the pigeon

CLASS MAMMALIA

General Characteristics

 Body covered with hair, skin has sweat glands.

 The head is carried on a flexible neck.

 The brain is large and the cerebrum and neopallium cover the mid brain.

 There is the pinna to outer ear.

 Heterodont teeth.

 Buccal cavity enclosed by cheeks.

 The limbs are vertical in orientation.

 Long bones and vertebrae have epiphyses.

 Heart is four-chambered with distinct pulmonary and systemic circulations.

 Lungs provide sole respiratory organ –regular rhythmical breathing movements. Diaphragm present.

 Dentary bone forms the lower jaw.

 12 cranial nerves.

 3 ear ossicles, all senses are well developed.

 Sound production through vocal cords in the larynx.

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 Metanephric kidneys excrete urea.

 Separate anus and urinogenital system (except in monotremes).

 Internal fertilization, viviparous (except for monotremes) egg is minute develops in the uterus.
Young nourished after birth by milk secreted from mammary gland. High parental care.

 Endothermic (warm blooded) with a high internal temperature.

Mammals are grouped into three subclasses namely

 Subclass monotremata (egg-laying mammals).

 Subclass marsupial (pouched mammals).

 Subclass Eutheria (placental mammals).

General Characteristics of Monotremata

 They lay shelled eggs.

 Cloaca present.

 No true teeth, beak present covered by skin.

 Milk secreted by specialized sweat glands.

 Body temperature lower and more variable.

 Most primitive mammals.

 Found in Australia and New Zealand.

 Examples are Duck-billed platypus and spiny ant eater (Echidna).

General Characteristics of Marsupiala

1. No placenta.

2. Young born at a very early stage of development and development is completed in the pouch
(marsupium). This contains the teats of mammary glands.

3. No milk dentition, only one set of permanent teeth

4. Shallow cloaca into which anus and urinogenital systems open. They have two vagina open into
the cloaca

5. Oviducts completely separate with two uteri

6. Examples include kangaroos, Opossums, Koalas etc.

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 7. Found in Australia and South America.

General characteristics of Eutheria

1. Young born at a very advanced stage of development

2. Allantoic placenta are present which nourishes the developing embryo

3. Two sets of teeth, milk, and permanent dentition

4. Single uterus

5. They are numerous and most successful of all mammals, they are placed in the following
orders

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