la) Heredity

The transfer of characters or traits from the parents to their

offsprings is called heredity.
b) Variations

The differences between the characters or traits among the

individuals of the same species are called variations.

2) Accumulation of variations during reproduction

When organisms reproduce, the offsprings show minor
variations due to inaccuracies in DNA copying. These
variations are less in asexual reproduction and more in
sexual reproduction.
Some variations are useful variations and they help the
organism to adjust to the changes in the environment. Some
variations do not help the organism to adjust to the changes
in the environment and they may die and become extinct.
3) Rules for inheritance of characters (traits)
Characters are transferred through genes present in the
DNA molecules in the chromosomes present in the
nucleus of the cell.
The inheritance of characters is due to the fact that both
the father and mother contributes equal amount of genetic
material to the child. So for each trait there are two factors
one from the father and one from the mother.
Gregor Johann Mendel conducted experiments with
garden pea plants and determined the rules for the
inheritance of traits.
DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
It is the chemical name for the molecule that carries genetic instructions
in all living organisms.

Gene-is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are
made up of DNA. It is a segment of DNA that codes for a particular
phenotype/function.

Alleles: are different forms of the same gene. For example a

gene which controls height in pea plant has two alternative form,
one of the allele controls tallnes (T) while the other controls
dwarfness (t).
Phenotype: observable physical characteristics of an organism. It
is determined by both genetic makeup and environmental
influences.

Genotype: Set of genes that an organism carries.`

Homozygous- means that the organism has two copies of the same
allele for a gene i.e. TT or tt.

Heterozygous- means that an organism has two different alleles of

a gene eg. Tt.

Dominant trait- is the one that will express phenotypically in the

heterozygotes. A dominant allele is expressed by capital letter (T).

Recessive trait- is the one that will only express in homozyogotes.

A recessive allele is expressed by small letter (t)

Mendel’s Laws of Heredity

❑Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, carried
important studies on Heredity. ❑He is regarded
as Father of Genetics.
❑He was the first person who succeded in
predicting how traits are transferred from one
generation to the next generation.
❑Mendel worked on Pea Plants- Pisum
sativum
Because- they can grow easily in large numbers
-they can be either self-pollinated
themselves or cross-pollinated with another
plant
-they contain many contrasting
characters
Seven characters studied by Mendel
a) When pleuuants having one pair of
character (Eg:- tall and short
plants) was crossed (Monohvbrid
cross)
Mendel selected pea plants having one pair of character - a tall pea plant and
a short pea plant. He selected pure tall (TT) and pure short (tt) pea plants and
cross pollinated them. He obtained all tall plants (Tt) in the first generation (F 1).
When the first generation plants were self pollinated, he obtained tall and dwarf
plants in the ratio 3:1 in the second generation. (F2)
The ratio of pure tall (TT), hybrid tall (Tt) and pure dwarf (tt) was in the ratio
1:2:1
The trait that is expressed in the F1 generation is called the dominant trait and
the trait that is supressed in the F1, is called the recessive trait.
 P

RR (round) rr (wrinkled)

self fertilization Rr (round)

3 tall: 1 short 3:1 Ratio 3/4 Round 1/4 Wrinkled

3:1 Ratio 3/4 Round 1/4 Wrinkled
b) When plants having two pairs of
characters (Eg:- shape and colour of
seeds) were crossed (Dihvbrid cross)
Mendel selected pea plants having two pairs of characters - shape and colour of seed.
He selected plants having round yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled green seeds (rryy) and
cross pollinated them. He obtained all plants with round yellow seeds (RrYy) in the F 1
generation. When these plants were self pollinated in the F2 generation out of 16 plants, 9
had round yellow (RrYy), 3 had round green (Rryy), 3 had wrinkled yellow (rrYy) and 1 had
wrinkled green (rryy) seed in the ratio 9:3:3:1
Parental
generation R= Dominant allele for seed shape (round) r
=Recessive allele for seed shape (wrinkled) Y =
Dominant allele for seed color (yellow) y =
Recessive allele for seed color (green)

Female gametes

1/4 RY
0 0 0 0
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy

8 / 4 Ry
1
0 6 Q 0
RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy

Q $
0 RrY rrYy
RrYY y rrYY

0 0 ©
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

1/4 RY1/4 Ry1/4 rY1/4 ry

1/4 ry
O Round, yellow Wrinkled, yellow

Resultinggenotypes:9/16 R-Y-: 3/16 R-yy: 3/16 rrY-:1/16 rryy

 Round, green
Resultingphenotypes:9/160 : 3/160 : 3/16-0 : 1/16< Wrinkled, green
4) Sex determination in human beings
Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of the
cell. Out of this two chromosomes are sex chromosomes X and Y. The
female has two X chromosomes (XX) and male has one X and one Y
chromosome (XY). The sperms and eggs have one set of sex
chromosomes. Some sperms have X chromosome and some have Y
chromosome. All eggs have X chromosome.
If a sperm having X chromosome fuses with an egg having X
chromosome the child will be a girl. If a sperm having Y chromosome
fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a boy.
 Male Female

>

XX XY

Male

Sex Determination in Human Beings

5. Variations may or may not help
organisms to survive
a) Some variations help organisms to survive
Eg There are some beetles living in green bushes. They increase
their numbers by reproduction. Crows can easily see the red beetles
and they are eaten by the crows. During reproduction due to some
variation some green beetles are produced instead of red beetles. The
green beetles are not visible to crows and are not eaten by them. Then
gradually the population of the red beetles decreases and the
population of the green beetles increases. This variation has helped the
organisms to survive.
b) Some variations do not help organisms to survive
Eg During sexual reproduction a colour variation occurs in red
beetles and some blue beetles are produced instead of red beetles.
Both the red and blue beetles are visible to crows and are eaten by
them. Then the population of both red and blue beetles decreases. This
variation has not helped the organisms to survive
c) Aquired traits cannot be passed from one generation to the next
Eg If the population of beetles increases and plants are affected by
diseases, then the food available for the beetles decreases and their
body weight also decreases. If after a few years the availability of food
increases then the body weight of the beetles also increases. This
acquired trait cannot be passed from one generation to the next
because there is no change in their genetic composition.
6. Speciation ( Formation of new species from existing
species )
The formation of new species from existing species is mainly due to
one or more of the following factors. They are Accumulation of
variations, Physical barriers, Genetic drift, Natural selection and
migration.
i) Accumulation of variations The differences between the individuals
of the same species is called variations. The accumulation of
variations over several generations produce new species.
ii) Physical barriers Populations may get separated by physical
barriers like mountains, rivers, lakes etc. These isolated groups
produce variations which can produce new species.
iii) Genetic driftNatural calamities or introduction of new members of
the same species in an area can produce changes in the gene pool
of the population and new variations are produced which can
produce new species.
iv) Natural selection Only those individuals of a species which have
useful variations and can adapt to the changes in the environment
survive and the others die. These organisms can produce variations
and new species.
v) Migration Some individuals of a species may migrate to a new
geographical area and adjust to the changes in the environment
there and develop new variations and produce new species.
8a. Inherited traits
Inherited traits are traits in an organism due to changes in the
genetic composition and it can be passed from one generation to the
next and it results in evolution.

b. Acquired traits
Acquired traits are traits which are acquired by an organism
during its lifetime and it cannot be passed from one generation to the
next and it does not result in evolution.

Evolution
The gradual changes taking place in living organisms giving rise
to new organisms due to changes in their genetic composition is
called evolution.
Evidences of evolution
There are a number of common features in different organisms
which provide evidence to show evolutionary relationship. The main
evidences of evolution are from the study of Homologous organs,
Analogous organs and Fossils.
a) Homologous organs are organs which are similar in structure but
different in functions.
Eg The fore limbs of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals have
similar structures but different functions. Frog (amphibian) uses its
fore limb to raise the front of the body. Lizard (reptile) uses its fore limb
for walking and running. Birds fore limbs are modified as wings for
flying. Mammals use the fore limbs for grasping, walking, running,
swimming, flying etc. This shows evolutionary relationship.
Same skeletal structure
b) Analogous organs are organs which are different in structures but
similar in functions.
Eg The wings of butterfly, bird and bat have different structures but
similar functions. This shows evolutionary relationship.
Copjn/it 0 th» KdVtwtni Crtnpaoo* Inc tVr*M*nn rtquttd k# mrodjrrhm or
 Homology and
Homology

a
nalogy
Analogy
Bat wing Butterfly wing Bird wing
 The supports (or insKt wings are
not homologous with the i
bonus of bat and bird wings. I

Insect wing

2001 © Sinauer Associates. Inc.

c) Fossils are the remains of organisms which lived long ago. From
the study of fossils we can know their structures and the time period
in which they lived. The study of fossils show evolution of simpler
forms into complex forms and their evolutionary relationship.
 Tree trunk fossil Fish fossil (Knightia)

Age of fossils can be determined by:

1. Relative method: By estimating the age of the layer of
earth’s crust where the fossil is found. Fossils near the
surface are recent and those in the deeper layers are older.
2. Radio –carbon dating: By detecting the ratios of different
isotopes of carbon in the fossils.

Importance of fossils:
1. By determining the age of fossils we come to know the
type of earth’s strata present at that time.
2. We can also know the type of animals and plants present
on the earth at that time.
3. They help in establishing evolutionary relationship by
providing connecting links, for eg . Archeoptaryx- a
connecting link between reptiles and birds.
10. Evolution bv stages
Complex organisms and its organs developed from simpler organisms
gradually over generations.
i) Evolution of eves The eyes of planaria are just eye spots to detect light. It
developed gradually into a complex organ in higher animals. ii) Evolution of
feathers Feathers were first developed in dinosaurs and used

for protection from cold. Later birds used them for fl iii) Evolution bv artificial
selection Humans cultivated wild cabbage for over 2000 years and produced
different vegetables from it by artificial selection.
Eg Cabbage - by selecting short distance between the leaves.
Cauliflower - by selecting sterile flowers.
Kale - by selecting large leaves Kholrabi - by selecting the swollen stem
Broccoli - by arresting flower growth

11.Evolution should not be equated with progress

Evolution has not resulted in progress. Evolution has resulted in
the formation of several complex species from simpler species due to
variations, genetic drift and natural selection. This does not mean that
one species gets eliminated when new species are formed or that the
new species are better than the older species. Species get eliminated
only if they are not able to adapt to the changes in the environment.
Several species which could adapt to the changes in the environment
still continue to survive for example bacteria.
Human beings have not evolved from chimpanzees. They had a
common ancestor from which they evolved separately. Human beings
are not the pinnacle of evolution but they are only one species among
the several evolving species. 12. Human evolution (Homo
sapiens!
 There is a great diversity among human beings in their form and
features around the world. Human beings evolved in Africa. Some of
them stayed there and others migrated to different parts of the world.
Then due to genetic variations and the environmental changes in
different geographical regions they developed changes in their forms
and features.
was conceded by PEKING MAN Supposedly 500,000 years old, but all evidence has disappeared.
many to the
tooth of an extinct
pig. out to

belong to a be quite
human. modern ape.
NEANDERTHAL MAN Trofessing themselves to be
At the Int'l Congress of Zoology (1958) Dr. wise they became fools. “
A.J.E. Cave said his examination showed that (Romans 1:22)
this famous skeleton found in France over 50
years ago is that of an old man who suffered
from arthritis.
NEWGUINEA MAN
Dates way back to 1970. This species has
been found in the region just north of
Australia.
CROMAGNON MAN One of the earliest and
best established fossils is at least equal in
physique and brain capacity to modern man...
so what's the difference?
MODERN MAN
This genius thinks we came from a monkey.