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Discourse Studies

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Discourse Studies

This document is about diacourse studies

Uploaded by

jk036567
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discourse

In the context of discourse analysis, discourse refers to language use beyond the level of a
sentence, particularly how language is used in real-life situations to construct meaning, convey
social norms, and exercise power. It's not just about grammar or vocabulary, but about how
language functions in different contexts.

Key points about discourse in discourse analysis:

1. Language in Use: Discourse focuses on actual instances of language—written, spoken, or


multimodal—used in specific contexts rather than abstract rules.

2. Contextual Meaning: It considers how meaning is shaped by context, including the social,
cultural, historical, and political environments in which the discourse occurs.

3. Social Function: Discourse is seen as a social practice. It not only reflects but also shapes
society, identities, ideologies, and power relations.

4. Structures and Patterns: Analysts look at how texts are organized (cohesion, coherence, turn-
taking, narrative structure, etc.), and how these structures contribute to meaning and social
interaction.

5. Power and Ideology: Particularly in critical discourse analysis (CDA), discourse is seen as a
way to reinforce or challenge power structures, ideologies, and inequalities.

In short, discourse is more than just talking or writing—it's about how language works socially
to produce meaning, influence people, and shape the world.

Discourse Analysis/Discourse Studies


Discourse Studies or Discourse Analysis is an interdisciplinary field that examines how language
is used in texts and contexts to communicate, construct meaning, and shape social realities. It
looks beyond individual words or sentences to understand how language functions in real-life
communication—spoken, written, or multimodal.

Key Aspects of Discourse Analysis:

1. Language in Context

Discourse analysis focuses on how language is used in real situations. It studies communication
as it naturally occurs in conversations, media, politics, education, and more.

2. Structure and Function


Analysts look at how language is organized (e.g., grammar, cohesion, coherence) and what it
does—such as persuading, informing, blaming, or constructing identities.

3. Social and Cultural Meaning

Discourse analysis explores how language reflects and shapes social norms, beliefs, values, and
ideologies.

4. Power and Ideology

Especially in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), it investigates how discourse maintains or


challenges power relations, such as in political speeches, news reports, or institutional
communication.

5. Interdisciplinary Nature

It draws on linguistics, sociology, anthropology, psychology, communication studies, and


cultural studies.

Examples of Discourse Analysis Applications:

Studying how politicians frame issues in speeches.

Analyzing classroom interactions to understand teaching methods.

Examining how media portrays gender or race.

Investigating how organizations use language to manage their image.

In essence, discourse analysis helps us understand not just what people say, but how and why
they say it, and what effects it has in society.

Difference between discourse and discourse analysis


The difference between discourse and discourse analysis lies in what each term refers to:

1. Discourse

Definition: Discourse refers to language as it is used in real-life communication, beyond isolated


sentences. It includes spoken, written, or visual language used in context.

Focus: The actual content—what is being said or written, and how it constructs meaning.

Examples: A political speech, a news article, a classroom conversation, or a social media post.

🟢 Think of discourse as the object of study—the real-world use of language.


2. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Discourse analysis is the study of discourse—the methods and theories used to
analyze how language is used to communicate, influence, and shape society.

Focus: The process of examining and interpreting discourse to uncover patterns, meaning,
power dynamics, and social functions.

Examples: Analyzing how a politician uses language to gain support, or how gender is portrayed
in media texts.

🟢 Think of discourse analysis as the tool or approach used to understand discourse.

In Short:

Term_ What It Is_ Focus. _Example

Discourse _Language in use _What is being said and how_ A TED Talk, a
newspaper editorial

Discourse Analysis_ Study of discourse _How language works in context_ Analyzing tone and
persuasion in the TED Talk

Critical Discourse
Critical discourse refers to discourse (language in use) that is examined with a focus on power,
inequality, ideology, and social change. It’s typically studied within the framework of Critical
Discourse Analysis (CDA), which views language not just as a means of communication but as a
tool that can maintain or challenge power relations in society.

🔍 What Is Critical Discourse?

Language as Social Practice: Critical discourse is seen as something that shapes and is shaped by
social structures. It reflects ideologies and can influence how people think and behave.

Focus on Power and Ideology: It often reveals how language can legitimize dominance,
marginalize certain groups, or reinforce stereotypes (e.g., racism, sexism, classism).
Embedded in Context: Critical discourse is always tied to a broader social, historical, or political
context—you can’t understand it without looking at who is speaking, to whom, and for what
purpose.

🧠 Example Topics in Critical Discourse:

How media outlets portray migrants or refugees.

How political leaders use language to shape public opinion.

How corporate or institutional language hides responsibility (e.g., “mistakes were made” vs.
“we made mistakes”).

How textbooks or school curricula frame gender roles or historical events.

🔁 Related Field: Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

CDA is the method used to analyze critical discourse. It’s interdisciplinary and draws on
linguistics, sociology, political science, and more. Scholars like Norman Fairclough, Teun van
Dijk, and Ruth Wodak are key figures in this field.

✅ In Summary:

Term _. Definition

Critical Discourse _Discourse that reflects, maintains, or challenges power, ideology, and
social structures.

Purpose_ To uncover how language influences society, often in ways that are unequal or
oppressive.

Difference between discourse and critical discourse


The difference between critical discourse and critical discourse analysis lies in what each term
represents:

🔹 Critical Discourse

Definition: Critical discourse refers to language that reflects or shapes power, ideology, or
inequality in society.

What it is: It’s the actual language used in real-life communication that carries ideological
weight or serves political, social, or cultural purposes.
Examples:

A politician's speech promoting nationalism.

A media article portraying immigrants in a negative light.

A corporate statement that avoids blame using vague language.

🟢 Think of it as the content — the type of language used to influence or reflect power dynamics.

🔹 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

Definition: Critical Discourse Analysis is the method or approach used to study critical discourse.

What it does: It analyzes how language in texts or speech is used to construct or challenge
social inequalities, ideologies, and power structures.

Purpose: To reveal hidden meanings, biases, and the social consequences of language use.

Key scholars: Norman Fairclough, Teun van Dijk, Ruth Wodak.

🟢 Think of it as the toolkit — the methods and theories used to examine how critical discourse
works.

Characteristics of Discourse Analysis


There are several key characteristics which are used as powerful tool for discourse analysis:

1. Contextual Sensitivity: Discourse analysis is highly sensitive to context—social, cultural,


historical, and situational. Meaning in language cannot be separated from its context. Analysts
consider:Who is speaking?, To whom?, In what setting?, What are the social and political
circumstances? Example: A politician saying "We must take back control" means very different
things in a Brexit debate versus a company meeting.

2. Language as a Constructive Part of Social Reality: In discourse analysis, language is not just a
tool for communication; it actively constructs social reality. The way we talk about things
shapes how we understand and experience them. Language constructs identities (e.g., "victim"
vs. "survivor"). It also constructs social categories, events, and values. For example, calling
climate change a "crisis" vs. a "challenge" influences how seriously people take it.

3. Power and Ideology: Discourse is deeply connected to power structures and ideologies. It can
maintain, reinforce, or challenge dominant beliefs and systems. Certain groups (governments,
media, corporations) use discourse to legitimize their authority. Others may use counter-
discourse to resist power. Example: Media framing of protestors as "rioters" or "activists"
reveals ideological bias and affects public opinion.

4. Variety of Data Sources: Discourse analysis draws on a wide range of data types, including:
Spoken conversation, Written texts (books, articles, reports), Media (TV, film, news), Online
communication (tweets, forums), Visual texts (advertisements, posters). This variety reflects
the flexible and adaptive nature of discourse analysis across contexts and formats.

5. Micro-Level Analysis: Discourse analysts often work at a detailed, close-up level to examine:
Word choices, Sentence structures, Turn-taking in conversation, Use of metaphor, modality,
hedging, etc. This micro-level focus helps reveal underlying power dynamics, assumptions, and
strategies in everyday language use. For example, analyzing how a manager uses "maybe" or
"you might want to..." to soften commands in emails.

6. Identity and Subjectivity: Discourse helps to construct and negotiate identities and subject
positions. People position themselves (and others) through language (e.g., expert, victim,
authority). Identity is fluid and context-dependent, not fixed. Example: A person may speak as a
"mother" in one setting and as a "professional" in another, shifting discourse to fit the role.

7. Power and Representation: Discourse shapes how people, groups, and events are
represented in society. These representations are not neutral—they reflect underlying power
relations. Who gets to speak?, How are groups described or labeled?, What is made visible or
invisible in the discourse? Example: News media may represent refugees as "burdens" or
"threats" rather than as "individuals in crisis," affecting public policy and empathy.

✅ Summary Table

Characteristic____________________________ Explanation

Contextual Sensitivity____________ Meaning is shaped by social and situational context

Language as Constructive__________Language builds social realities and meanings

Power and Ideology______Discourse reflects and reinforces power structures and ideologies

Variety of Data Sources_________ Can analyze text, talk, media, visuals, online content

Micro-Level Analysis___________ Examines grammar, word choice, interaction patterns

Identity and Subjectivity________Language constructs personal and social identities

Power and Representation________Discourse controls how groups/events are portrayed

Brief history of discourse analysis


The origins of discourse analysis can be traced back to classical philosophy, particularly in the
works of Plato and Aristotle, who examined rhetoric, persuasion, and the role of language in
public life. While these early thinkers laid the foundation for understanding language in use,
their focus was more philosophical than analytical in the modern sense. It wasn't until the 20th
century that discourse analysis began to emerge as a formal field of study.

In the early to mid-20th century, the field was influenced by structural linguistics, especially the
work of Ferdinand de Saussure, who conceptualized language as a system of signs. Around the
1950s, Zellig Harris introduced the term discourse analysis within a linguistic framework,
focusing on how patterns of language extended beyond individual sentences. However, this
early approach remained largely formal and descriptive, with limited attention to meaning in
context.

A major shift occurred in the 1970s and 1980s when scholars began emphasizing the social and
contextual aspects of language use. The work of Dell Hymes in the ethnography of
communication highlighted how language reflects cultural norms and social roles. Meanwhile,
speech act theory, developed by John Austin and John Searle, introduced the idea that speaking
is a form of doing—language as action. Around the same time, Conversation Analysis (CA), led
by Harvey Sacks and Gail Jefferson, offered a detailed method for studying spoken interaction
and turn-taking in everyday talk. These developments pushed discourse analysis beyond
structural linguistics into social inquiry.

By the late 1980s and 1990s, discourse analysis took a more critical turn with the rise of Critical
Discourse Analysis (CDA). Scholars like Norman Fairclough, Teun van Dijk, and Ruth Wodak
argued that language is not neutral but a powerful tool for constructing and maintaining
ideologies, identities, and power relations. CDA sought to uncover how discourse is used to
reinforce dominance or resistance in politics, media, and institutions. This critical perspective
transformed discourse analysis into a deeply interdisciplinary and socially engaged field.

In the 2000s and beyond, discourse analysis expanded to include digital and multimodal forms
of communication, such as social media, video, images, and sound. Multimodal discourse
analysis emerged to study how different modes—text, visuals, gestures—combine to create
meaning. Today, discourse analysis is used across a wide range of disciplines, including
sociology, education, media studies, linguistics, political science, and cultural studies, to
investigate how language operates in shaping our understanding of the world.

Roles/Features of discourse analysis


🔹 1. Cohesion: Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical linking within a text that holds it
together and gives it flow. This includes: Conjunctions (e.g., however, because), Pronouns (e.g.,
he, they), Repetition or synonymy, Reference (e.g., this, that)

Role: It ensures that sentences are connected and text is unified on the surface level.

🔹 2. Coherence: Coherence is about the logical connections and overall sense a reader or
listener makes from a text. Unlike cohesion, it depends on context, background knowledge, and
the organization of ideas.

Role: It allows the discourse to make sense as a whole, even if cohesive devices are minimal.
Example: A story without cohesive markers can still be coherent if the events are logically
ordered.

🔹 3. Turn-Taking: In spoken discourse, turn-taking refers to how speakers manage conversation,


deciding who speaks when.

Role: It organizes dialogue and avoids chaos in communication. Rules of turn-taking are often
implicit, involving pauses, intonation, or body language. Example: A raised pitch at the end of a
sentence can signal a question and invite a response.

🔹 4. Genre: Genre refers to the type of discourse being used, such as a news article, academic
paper, sermon, or casual conversation. Each genre has specific conventions and structures.

Role: Helps participants recognize the purpose of the text and how to interpret or respond to it
appropriately.

🔹 5. Register: Register is the level of formality and style of language, depending on the situation,
audience, and purpose.

Role: It reflects the social context of discourse. A speaker might use formal language in a job
interview but switch to informal register with friends.

🔹 6. Non-Verbal Cues / Gestures: In spoken and multimodal discourse, non-verbal elements—


such as facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, and body posture—support or even replace
verbal language.

Role: They add layers of meaning, indicate emotion, show agreement or disagreement, and
guide turn-taking. Example: Nodding while someone speaks shows attentiveness or agreement.

🔹 7. Adjacency Pairs: These are paired structures in conversation, like question–answer,


greeting–greeting, or offer–acceptance.
Role: They maintain the flow of interaction and set expectations for how participants respond.

🔹 8. Discourse Markers: Words or phrases like well, so, you know, and anyway that organize
talk, indicate transitions, or manage interaction.

Role: They help structure discourse and signal speaker intentions or attitude.

✅ Summary Table:

Feature_______Role in Discourse

Cohesion______Links sentences and ideas grammatically and lexically

Coherence_____Provides logical flow and overall meaning

Turn-Taking____Manages who speaks when in conversation

Genre______Frames expectations and structure of discourse

Register______Matches language style to context and audience

Non-Verbal Cues____Adds meaning, emotion, and interaction control

Adjacency Pairs_____Structures predictable conversational sequences

Discourse Markers____Organizes talk and guides listener understanding

These elements are essential for analyzing how people understand each other and maintain
effective communication in various settings.

TEXT VERSUS DISCOURSE VERSUS VOICE


TEXT: A written form of communication information, which is a non-interactive nature. Agent is
not crucial.Non-interactive in nature. Grammatical cohesion and structure of sentences are
analyzed. Usually in written form. Ex: press reports, street signs, documents, etc.

DISCOURSE: A spoken, written, visual or audial form, communicating information that is


interactive in nature. Agent is crucial. Interactive in nature. Agents involved in the
communication, the social purpose and the medium utilized are analyzed. Can be either in
written, verbal, visual or audio form. Ex: dialogues, conversations, interactions in audio-visual
programines, etc.

VOICE: When a person use to speak a language, there are the different mediums to convey it. It
tells us about the speaker's different approach, context i.e subjectivity. Voice is a discourse
analysis that refers to individual's unique way of speaking, writing or expressing themselves,
which is shaped by their social position, experience and interaction within a broader discourse.
Voice is basically not the tone of a language, it is how that particular person is representing
himself through language. Voice is quite broader and even is related to discourse analysis. It is
the personal experience of an individual in the society.

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