Hand Book of

Agriculture & Plant

Sciences
Editor

Dr. Dwaipayan Sinha

ABS BOOKS
Delhi-110086
 The responsibility for facts stated, opinion expressed or
conclusions reached and plagiarism, if any, in this book
is entirely that of the author(s). Neither the publisher nor the
editors will be responsible for them whatever.

ISBN : 978-93-91002-25-1 Overseas Branches

Copyright : Editor
Edition 2021
ABS Books
Publisher and Exporter
Yucai Garden, Yuhua Yuxiu
Community, Chenggong
District, Kunming City,
Yunnan Province -650500
China
Published by
ABS Books
ABS Books Publisher and Exporter
Publisher and Exporter
B-21, Ved and Shiv Colony, Budh Vihar Microregion Alamedin-1
Phase-2, Delhi - 110086 59-10 Bishek, Kyrgyz
 : +919999868875, +919999862475 Republic- 720083
 : [email protected] kyrgyzstan
Website : www.absbooksindia.com

PRINTED AT
Trident Enterprise, Noida (UP)

All right reserved. No. Part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
transmitted or utilized in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise , without the prior permission of the copyright owner Author/Editors. Application
for such permission should be addressed to the Publisher and Author/ Editors. Please do not
participate in or do not encourage piracy of copyrighted materials in violation of the author’s
rights. Purchase only authorized editions.

Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences

By : Dr. Dwaipayan Sinha
 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my thanks and gratitude to the Principal
of Government General Degree College, Mohanpur, Paschim
Medinipur, West Bengal, India, Dr. Nimai Chand Masanta for his
constant encouragement in making this venture successful. I would
also like to thank Dr. Rajendra Prasad De, Head, Department of
Botany for his cooperation and inspiration. I express my heartiest
thanks to The Director of Public Instruction, Department of Higher
Education, Government of West Bengal for constant encouragement
and academic support to make the venture successful. I am highly
grateful to Prof. (Dr). S.B. Babbar, Professor & Head, Department
of Botany, University of Delhi, for his blessings and constant
encouragement in my academic ventures and for framing the
foreword for the book. I am also grateful to my supervisor Prof.(Dr).
P.K. Tandon, Professor, Department of Botany, Lucknow University
for his blessings, inspiration, and constant encouragement in my
academic arena. I also thank Prof. (Dr) P.L. Uniyal, Professor,
Department of Botany, the University of Delhi for his constant
encouragement. I also thank Prof Debdulal Banerjee, Head,
Department of Botany & Forestry, and Prof. Subrata Raha, Head,
Department of Botany, Sidho Kanho Birsa University for their
encouragement in this venture. I also convey my thanks to all my
teachers for their guidance, inspiration, and motivation. This book
would not have been a success without vital contributions from the
authors. I wholeheartedly express my thanks to all the authors for
their efforts in writing wonderful chapters and highlighting the
issues related to the theme of the book. I also express my thanks to
all the reviewers who have given their vital inputs for the betterment
of the scientific contents of the book. I convey my heartiest thanks
to Mr. Sanjeev and all the team members of ABS Books, New Delhi
for accepting the proposal and making the venture successful from
a publication point of view. Finally I thank my parents and family
members for their generous support during the entire work.

Dr. Dwaipayan Sinha

Foreword

“
 Preface
Plants are a fascinating group of plants that have been
dominating the earth for 400 million years. During evolution, they
have undergone series of evolutionary changes to suit themselves
with the surrounding environment. These evolutionary changes
not only included morphological changes to suit varied climatic
conditions but also armed with intricate physiological changes to
synchronize with the former and fortify better adaptability. These
physiological changes of the plant later proved to be of immense help
to the humans who evolved much later somewhere between 6 million
to 2 million years ago. The physiological and biochemical evolution
of the plants with the synchronous origin of various taxa resulted
in the formation of numerous biochemical pathways producing a
large number of secondary metabolites whose one primary aim is to
protect the plants from herbivores and insect which in the due course
of evolution became an integral part of the food chain. However, the
secondary metabolites also proved to be of immense use to humans
since antiquity who unknowingly since prehistoric times used
plants for their food and medicine. It is only in the past hundred
years or so, people became aware of the chemical constituent of the
plants and started exploring their various beneficial properties. The
agricultural activities also coevolved with human civilization and
with the increase in population, higher yield along with protection
of crops from pathogen attack became a necessity. This lead to the
formulation of fertilizers which consequently paved the way for
biofertilizers with a fewer side effects on humans and animals but
with a more green approach towards fertility enhancement. With
the advent of industrialization the menace of pollution cropped up
and presently this pollution is encroaching soil water and air. This
is having a deleterious effect on the ecosystem concerning human
and animal health and also agricultural productivity. Thus keeping
this in mind the scientific community was determined to remediate
the polluted sites with the help of biological agents in which the
plants and microbes played an important role. This provided major
protection to agriculture from contamination thereby sustaining
productivity. Thus, an attempt is made to highlight the progress
and advances in the field of agriculture and plant science. Thus A
handbook of Agricultural and Plant Sciences is an attempt to compile
information related to the field of agriculture and plant science.
The main purpose of the book is to provide relevant information
to the readers on aspects largely cantered on plants. The book is
divided into three sections namely agriculture and sustainable
development, plants and microbes as nutraceutical agents, and
medicinal potential of plants. Selected chapters in relevance to
the sections have been accommodated to provide an overview. The
first section deals with various aspects through which crops can
be fortified through bio fertilization and also decontamination of
polluted lands. The world population is presently stressing upon
consumption of foods from natural sources as consumption of fast
food with artificial agents is leading to the onset of several diseases.
This has led to a group of foods that confers nutrition as well as
a medicinal benefit at the same time. They are presently termed
and considered nutraceuticals. The second section of the book deals
with the nutraceutical potential of plants and microbes which
are symbiotically associated with plants. The third section is also
related to the second one concerning the medicinal importance. This
section encompasses the medicinal importance of plants. Plants as
antiviral agents have been accommodated because of the current
pandemic situation. The section also contains a chapter on the ant
diabetic potential of plants and also the medicinal importance of
gymnosperms and bioactive potentials of bryophytes which adds
up to the variation in chapters focusing on the medicinal aspect.
The book is also accompanied by several tables within each chapter
which gives a clear and systematic description of the theme that is
discussed upon. The book is an academic venture and would benefit
the scientific community and readers who are interested in the field
of plant sciences.

Dr. Dwaipayan Sinha

 List of Contributors
1. Riya Dutta Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology
laboratory Department of Botany and
Forestry Vidyasagar University Midnapore,
lndia.
Biofertilizers
Hiran Kanti Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology and Sustainable
Santra laboratory Department of Botany and Development
Forestry Vidyasagar University Midnapore,
lndia
Debdulal Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology
Banerjee laboratory Department of Botany and
Forestry Vidyasagar University Midnapore,
lndia
2. Arpita De Department of Botany, Government Science An Overview
College, Autonomous, Bangalore, Karnataka, of Multifarious
India. Potential of
Biofertilizer
3. Suchhanda Department of Botany, Shri Shikshayatan
Ghosh College, 11, Lord Sinha Road, Kolkata, Heavy Metal
Bioremediation of
India.
Agricultural Soils
Satarupa Department of Botany,Shyampur for Sustainability
Dey Siddheswari Mahavidyalaya, Ajodhya, and Food Safety
Howrah, West Bengal, India.

4. Suchismita Department of Zoology, Nabadwip Vidyasagar Prospects of

Chatterjee College. Agriculture in
Saha Near Future
5. Priya Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies,186A,
Mondal Kalikapur Canal Road, Ekatre 2nd Floor,
Kolkata, lndia. Agronomic and
Souvik Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies,186A, Nutraceutical
Datta Kalikapur Canal Road, Ekatre 2nd Floor, Properties of
Kolkata, lndia. Indigenous Rice
Varieties
Debal Deb Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies,186A,
Kalikapur Canal Road, Ekatré 2nd Floor,
Kolkata, lndia.
6. Preeti Department of Botany, Gargi College,
Agarwal Sirifort Road, New Delhi, lndia.
Plant
Reema Department of Botany, Gargi College, Nutraceuticals:
An Emerging
Mishra Sirifort Road, New Delhi, lndia.
Approach for
Samira Department of Botany, Gargi College, Better Health
Chugh Sirifort Road, New Delhi, lndia. Management

Geeta Department of Botany, Gargi College,

Sirifort Road, New Delhi, lndia.
7. Chandana Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s An Overview of
Paul College, Park Street, Kolkata, lndia. Endophytic
Bacteria in the
Madhumita Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s Production of
Maitra College, Park Street, Kolkata, lndia. Bioactive
Nirmalendu Department of Botany, Barasat Govt. Compounds of
Nutraceutical
Das College, Barasat, 24 Parganas (N), India.
Importance
8. Dipan Department of Botany (UG and PG), Hooghly A Curtain Rais-
Adhikari Mohsin College, Chinsurah, Hooghly, West er on Natural
Bengal, lndia. Supplements
Being Targeted
Choice of Sur-
veillance As
Potential An-
ti-Viral Drugs :
Neutraceutical
Supplementa-
tions Vis-à-Vis
Immune
Boosters
9. Anubhuti Department of Microbiology, Maharshi
Kawatra Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana,
India.
Reema Department of Botany, Gargi College, Plants As
Mishra Sirifort Road, New Delhi, lndia. Antiviral
Agents
Aparajita Department of Botany, Gargi College,
Mohanty Sirifort Road, New Delhi, lndia.
Pooja Department of Microbiology, Maharshi
Gulati Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana,
India.
10. Susmita Department of Microbiology, Bankura
Nad Sammilani College, Bankura, West Bengal
lndia.
Asish P.G. Department of Botany, Ramananda Herbal Drug:
Mandal College, Bishnupur, Bankura, West Bengal, A Natural
lndia. Bioactive
Pradeep Department of Microbiology, Raiganj Formulation
Kumar Das University, Raiganj, Uttar Dinajpur, West & its Scope
Mohapatra Bengal, lndia. Against
Viral Diseases
Arindam Department of Microbiology, Bankura
Ganguly Sammilani College, Bankura, West Bengal
lndia.
11. Smita Ray PG Department of Botany, Bethune College,
Kolkata, West Bengal, lndia. Medicinal
Sritama PG Department of Botany, Bethune College, Plants : A
Mukherjee Kolkata, West Bengal, lndia. Boom Towards
Seemanti PG Department of Botany, Bethune College, Antiviral Drug
Ghosh Kolkata, West Bengal, lndia. Development

12. Samira Department of Botany, Gargi College, Sirifort Common Indian

Chugh Road, New Delhi, lndia. Medicinal
Geeta Department of Botany, Gargi College, Sirifort Plants with
Road, New Delhi, lndia. Antidiabetic
Preeti Department of Botany, Gargi College, Sirifort Potential
Agarwal Road, New Delhi, lndia.
Reema Department of Botany, Gargi College, Sirifort
Mishra Road, New Delhi, lndia.
13. Arnab Department of Biochemistry, School of Anti-
Kumar Life Science, and Biotechnology Adamas Inflammatory
Ghosh University, Kolkata, India. Activities of
the Eudicots in
Triphala
14. Himani Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Potential of
Yadav Delhi, India. Gymnosperms
As Source of
P. L. Uniyal Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Medicinal Prod-
Delhi, India. ucts
15. Anjana Department of Botany, Deshbandhu College,
Singh Kalkaji, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Ethnobotanical
lndia. and Medicinal
Importance of
Shelly Department of Botany, Rabindra Bryophytes
Sinha Mahavidyalaya, Champadanga, Hooghly,
West Bengal, India.
16. Priyanka Postgraduate, Department of Biotechnology, Enigma of
De St. Xavier’s College(Autonomous), 30 Park Indian Tradi-
Street (30 Mother Teresa Sarani), Kolkata, tion of Healing:
A Phytomedici-
India.
nal Perspective
17. Ashim Biotechnology: Plant Tissue Culture Unit Pteridophytes A
Chakravorty Department of Botany, Sripat Singh Treasure Trove
College, Jiaganj, Murshidabad, West of Medicine for
Human Health
Bengal, lndia.
and Their in
Vitro
Conservation
18. Chandreyee PG Department of Botany, Bethune College, An Overview
Dey Kolkata, West Bengal, lndia. of Multifarious
Importance of
Pteridophytes
Sritama PG Department of Botany, Bethune College,
Mukherjee Kolkata, West Bengal, lndia.
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgement v
Foreword vii
Preface ix
List of Contributors xi

Section - I
Agriculture and Sustainable Development

1. Biofertilizers and Sustainable Development 1

Riya Dutta
Hiran Kanti Santra
Debdulal Banerjee
2. An Overview of Multifarious Potential of
Biofertilizer
22
Arpita De
3. Heavy Metal Bioremediation of Agricultural
Soils for Sustainability and Food Safety
33
Suchhanda Ghosh
Satarupa Dey
4. Prospects of Agriculture in Near Future 59
Suchismita Chatterjee Saha
 Section - II
Plants and Microbes As Nutraceutical Agents

5. Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties of

Indigenous Rice Varieties
71
Priya Mondal
Souvik Datta
Debal Deb
6. Plant Nutraceuticals: An Emerging Approach for
Better Health Management
92
Preeti Agarwal
Reema Mishra
Samira Chugh
Geeta
7. An Overview of Endophytic Bacteria in
the Production of Bioactive Compounds of
Nutraceutical Importance
118
Chandana Paul
Madhumita Maitra
Nirmalendu Das
8. A Curtain Raiser on Natural Supplements Being
Targeted Choice of Surveillance As Potential Anti-
Viral Drugs : Neutraceutical Supplementations
Vis-à-Vis Immune Boosters
146
Dipan Adhikari

Section - III
Medicinal Potential of Plant

9. Plants As Antiviral Agents

171
Anubhuti Kawatra
Reema Mishra
Aparajita Mohanty
Pooja Gulati
10. Herbal Drug: A Natural Bioactive Formulation &
its Scope Against Viral Diseases
187
Susmita Nad
Asish Mandal
Pradeep Kumar Das Mohapatra
Arindam Ganguly
11. Medicinal Plants : A Boom Towards Antiviral Drug
Development
231
Smita Ray
Sritama Mukherjee
Seemanti Ghosh
12. Common Indian Medicinal Plants with Antidiabetic
Potential
Samira Chugh
258
Geeta
Preeti Agarwal
Reema Mishra
13. Anti-Inflammatory Activities of the Eudicots in
Triphala
284
Arnab Kumar Ghosh
14. Potential of Gymnosperms As Source of Medicinal
Products
297
Himani Yadav
P. L. Uniyal
15. Ethnobotanical and Medicinal Importance of
Bryophytes
309
Anjana Singh
Shelly Sinha
16. Enigma of Indian Tradition of Healing: A
Phytomedicinal Perspective
334
Dr. Priyanka De
17. Pteridophytes A Treasure Trove of Medicine for
Human Health and Their in Vitro Conservation 352
Ashim Chakravorty
 Section - I
Agriculture and Sustainable
Development
 Priya Mondal
5
Souvik Datta
Debal Deb*
Agronomic and
Centre for Nutraceutical
Interdisciplinary
Studies, Kolkata, West
Bengal, India-700099
Properties of
Indigenous Rice
Varieties
Corresponding Author :
*

Debal Deb.
Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies, 186A, Kalikapur Canal Road, Ekatré 2nd Floor, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India- 700099.

A
Introduction
round 12,000 years ago, Neolithic people began
domestication of several plants and animals, and marked
the Agricultural Revolution, which not only created new
species of animals (like dog and horse) and plants (like rice and
wheat) that never existed before, but also created thousands of
animal breeds and crop landraces (Diamond, 2002; Doebly et al.,
2006; Larson & Fuller, 2014). The cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.)
was domesticated through careful selection from ancestral Oryza
rufipogon in China (O. sativa ssp. japonica) around 12,000 years ago
72 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences
and in India (O. sativa ssp. indica) about 10,000 years ago (Fuller,
2011; Sweeny & McCouch, 2007). Over millennia, indigenous farmers
created thousands of rice landraces through careful selection and
breeding experiments. Until 1970, over 110,000 landraces of rice is
estimated to have existed in India (Deb, 2019a).
Crop genetic diversity is the foundation for adaptation to different
environmental conditions, such as drought, seasonal floods, soil salinity
and resistance to crop pests and pathogens (Vaughan & Chang, 1992;
Bellon, 2017; Deb, 2017). Since the onset of the Green Revolution
in the late 1960s, however, the wealth of crop genetic resources has
been squandered by the process of agricultural industrialization,
which is geared to homogenization of the genetic base, truncation of
agro-ecosystem complexity, and linking food production to external
industrial inputs (Deb, 2004; 2017; 2019b). This has undermined food
sovereignty of farmers and a deepening food insecurity, both on the
farm and the national levels (Deb 2019b). During the period from
1970 to 2000, more than 90% of the indigenous rice landraces has
disappeared from farm fields in India (Deb, 2019a).
The process of rice genetic erosion in Bengal is paradigmatic.
An estimated 15,000 folk landraces are reported to have been
cultivated in undivided Bengal in the 1940s (Bashar et al., 2004).
According to unpublished records of West Bengal State Rice
Research Station, Chuchura, West Bengal, farmers used to grow ca.
5,556 landraces until the late 1960s; of these, 3500 varieties were
shipped to International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines
during the period from 1975 to 1983 (Deb, 2005; Deb, 2019). Since
the late 1960s, with the advent of the Green Revolution, thousands
of traditional landraces have been replaced with a handful of high
yielding varieties (HYVs) and hybrid crops in all Indian States
(Thrupp, 2000; Gao, 2003; Nelson et al., 2019). Bangladesh also has
witnessed a similar process of erosion of rice genetic diversity. In
the 1970s, about 7000 rice varieties in Bangladesh were replaced by
modern HYVs (Thrupp, 2000), and further hundreds disappeared in
the following decades. Most of the old landraces of Bengal, from both
sides of the international border, are now available only in a few
gene banks, not in the hands of farmers (Vengadessan et al., 2016;
Deb, 2017). As of date, less than 700 folk varieties in Bangladesh,
and ca. 400 in West Bengal are extant on farm fields (Deb, 2017;
Deb, 2019a). Currently, less than 6000 varieties are being cultivated
on farms in all the States of India (Deb 2019a).
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 73

Conservation Efforts
In spite of the advices from FAO and IPGRI scientists (Vaughan
& Chang, 1992; Jackson, 1995; FAO, 2002; Bellon et al., 2017) on
conservation of rice genetic diversity for improving crop productivity
and food security, the overall efforts of conservation of genetic
diversity has so far remained confined to collection and preservation
of germplasm accessions in national and international gene banks.
However, because the germination potential of rice seeds in gene
bank storage expires after ca. 35 years, a large proportion of the
gene bank accession is dead. In addition, the accessions of these gene
banks remain out of access for farmers, although seed companies have
easy access to the germplasm (Deb, 2019a). Barring rare initiatives
of a few officials, the Directorate of Agriculture does not have a
statutory agenda to conserve and popularise indigenous crop genetic
diversity. After 2011, a few States began promoting a handful of
heirloom rice varieties among farmers with a lure of premium price.
However, premium price tagging of a few special varieties may act
against conservation, because the varieties that cannot fetch a good
price are soon abandoned.
The extinction of indigenous rice varieties is not only disastrous
to food security, but also implies erosion of local food cultures. The
traditional cultural values associated to the local landraces have
largely disappeared from the modernized farmer communities, so
that farmers willing to grow a few heirloom rice varieties regardless
of high market price are themselves a “rare species”. In the absence of
both cultural motivation and financial incentive, folk rice landraces
are rapidly disappearing from farmers’ fields.
Vrihi folk rice seed bank (www.cintdis.org/vrihi), established in
1997, is the largest open source seed bank of extant folk rice varieties
in India, with an accession of 1440 landraces, many of which are no
longer cultivated by any farmer in the country, nor exist in the gene
bank of the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources. Several of
these landraces are critically endangered, surviving in single farms.
Vrihi cultivates every landrace of its accession every year; maintains
its genetic purity by preventing cross-pollination between varieties on
neighbouring plots, and by ‘rouging’ of the off-types, based on matching
of 56 morphological characters; and distributes the seeds after harvest
among farmers for free. Vrihi’s documentation of folk rice varieties
(Deb, 2005) constitutes the only published record of detailed agronomic
and morphological characters of 416 Indian rice landraces.
74 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences

Folk Rice Varieties and Traditional Knowledge

Traditional farmers developed, bred, and maintained different
folk varieties that were fine tuned to the local soil and climatic
conditions. Until the advent of industrial agriculture at the behest
of the statutory institutions and seed industry, most of the marginal
farmers used to remember the unique agronomic properties and
cultural uses. The traditional knowledge related to folk rice varieties
consisted of the following.
Adaptation to Soil and Climatic Conditions
Different landraces are adapted to different local climatic and soil
conditions. Different genes for resistance to pests and pathogens are
found in a large number of local landraces, which are the greatest
arsenal for breeding improved cultivars. Hundreds of farmer landraces
are capable of withstanding too much rain, too late rain, too scanty
rain, prolonged inundation, and soil salinity – properties which are
conspicuously absent in modern HYVs (Deb, 2000; 2005; 2017). These
are also the traits that transgenic research is aspiring to incorporate
in modern rice genome. Many of these landraces from Vrihi’s accession
have rescued hundreds of farmers from droughts, cyclones and sea
water incursion in coastal farms over two decades. All these landraces
were developed by serendipitous selection and breeding experiments
by unknown farmer-breeders to ensure food production across a range
of environmental vagaries. Indian folk rice landraces can be classified
into 5 categories according to the topography and physical characters
of the land of their cultivation, as given in Table 1.
Cultural Values
Apart from agronomic properties, different other qualities of rice
also have different cultural values in all food cultures. The presence
of 2-acetyl 1-pyroline, the substance which gives aroma, and the
amylose content that determines the degree of stickiness in cooked
rice are important in local culinary delicacies. Different landraces
are preferred for crisped rice, puffed rice, beaten rice, as well as
for making rice pudding and other sweets. For instance, Raghu-
sal, Dahar nagra, Nalpai, Moul, etc. are preferred for crisped rice;
Manik kalma, Nikunja, Katki nona and Chandrakanta are preferred
for beaten rice; Lakshmichura, Jhinga-sal and Patnai are preferred
for puffed rice (Deb, 2000; Deb, 2005). A special Bengal rice sweet,
Jaynagarer moa, was traditionally made from the puffed rice of
Kanakchur in South 24 Parganas district of West Bengal. As this
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 75
landrace is no longer in cultivation on modern farms, the special
aroma of this delicacy is lost in modern versions of Jaynagarer moa.
Until the 1990s, Jamainadu and Jamai-sal were grown in a few
villages only to make a special treat for the son in law (jamai) on the
jamaisasthi ceremony in summer (Deb, 2005).
Visual aesthetics is another driver of selection and breeding of
different landraces with gold, brown, purple, and black hull, purple
apex, black and red awn, purple, brown and black pericarp, and so
on (Deb, 2017). Many farmers in Eastern India take pride in the
beauty of the wing-like extensions of sterile lemma in Moynatundi of
southern Odisha and Ramigali of Chattisgarh (Deb, 2019a).
Medicinal Values
Many rice varieties are known to have a range of folk medicinal
uses. For instance, Laicha rice from Chattisgarh and Nyavara from
Kerala are medicinal rice, used in treating chronic gastritis and peptic
ulcer for a long time. Nyavara is also traditionally valued in treatment
of neurotic disorders. Pichchavari, Neelam samba and Karthigai from
Tamil Nadu, Dudheswar from West Bengal, Jongasrihati from Bihar,
Maharaji and Bhejri from Chhattisgarh, are believed to increase
lactation in women after childbirth. Kelas and Bhutmoori from West
Bengal are prescribed to cure peri-partum anemia in women (Das et al.,
2000; Deb, 2017; Deb, 2019a). Parmai-sal has nutritive properties for
improving general health, and traditional medicine prescribed Kabiraj-
sal as diet for convalescing patients. Garib-sal, used in folk medicine to
cure gastroenteric infections, is the only rice variety so far known to
science to contain silver in its grains (Deb et al., 2015; Sen Gupta et
al., 2017); the high amount of silver on the pericarp of its grains likely
serves to kill gut pathogens (Kyaw et al., 2017; Sen Gupta et al., 2017).
Other south Indian varieties namely Mappillai samba is reported to
have medicinal values like anti-diabetic and anti-cancerous properties,
containing steroidal bioactive compounds and anti-oxidants (Sulochana
et al., 2015). In Bihar and Jharkhand, rice paste of Karanga variety
is fed to patients suffering from dysentery. The starchy water of Bora
variety of Assam is used for jaundice patients (Rahman et al., 2006).
In Karnataka, the red paste of Akkacchu variety is used as ointment
for skin allergies (Hegde et al., 2013).
Biochemical Properties of Grains of Folk Rice Varieties
All the folk rice varieties in Vrihi’s accession are assessed for
their nutritional properties through quantification of carbohydrate,
76 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences
protein, lipids and micronutrients like vitamins, metals and secondary
metabolites. A recent collaborative mapping of metabolites in various
rice landraces using DESI-MS revealed an invariable distribution
of choline, sugar molecules, linoleic acid, gluconic acid, phospholipid
intermediate molecules on the rice grain surface (Suganya et al.,
2019). This study reports an accumulation of sucrose and gluconic acid
in the endosperm of Garib-sal, Gazepxali, Kataribhog, Kala nuniya,
Radhatilak and Tike churi varieties. SEM-EDS (Scanning Electron
Microscopy-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy) showed that
chromium is dispersed on the surfaces of the bran and the embryo of
Garib-sal rice. Fatty acids such as linoleic acid or omega-6-fatty acid,
isoschaftoside and C-glycosylflavonoids are localized in the starchy
endosperm of Gazepxali, Kataribhog, Kala nuniya and Radhatilak
varieties. Moreover, two components of lipid γ-oryzanol, oryzanol A
(cycloartenylferulate) and oryzanol C (24-methyl cycloartenylferulate)
have been mapped in the bran of these varieties (Suganya et al., 2019).
Garudan samba, an important folk rice variety from Tamil Nadu
also contains medicinally important compounds like caryophyllene,
ethyl oleate, squalene, γ-tocopherol, lup-20(29)-en-3-ol, acetate,
and phyto-sterols like campesterol, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol
(Sulochana et al., 2016). Some varieties such as Tulsa, Khasdhan
and Tulasi contains high quantity of omega-3 fatty acids (Ray et
al., 2014). Volatiles such as hexanol, 2-heptanone, furan-2-pentyl,
1-hexanol, 1-octen-3-ol were identified in 12 folk rice varieties
conserved at Basudha (Ray et al., 2016).
Macronutrients in Rice Varieties
Since rice is always consumed as cooked, we are examining
macronutrient contents of cooked rice. In Table 2, we present a
representative sample of 15 traditional varieties, accessed from
Basudha and other authors, for their nutritional properties through
quantification of macronutrients such as total starch, total protein
and total lipid.
Starch
Rice grains contain starch as the principle component. Starch
content in modern cultivars ranges from 80 to 90 % (Deepa et al.,
2010). However this content is variable in different landraces. In
Indica varieties, there are very few investigations on macronutrient
content. Fauziya et al., (2015) examined Indica varieties for starch
content alone. Landraces from Jharkhand such as Dahiya, Danigoda,
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 77
Karheni and Neta contain total starch ranging from 42.2% to 62.03
%. Uncooked rice of C14, W01 varieties contain >25% of starch,
while after cooking, the soluble starch content increases to >30%,
which indicates an increase in starch content after cooking. This
may be due to the fact that, cooking causes swelling of complex
starch granules which fragments the starch chains and converts
much of the resistant starch into soluble starch (Deepa et al., 2010).
Representative varieties are shown in Table 2.
The presence of labile starch in traditional varieties is a significant
factor of nutrition. As reported in our previous study, varieties
like Parmai-sal have a high amount of labile starch in addition to
antioxidants and micronutrients (Deb, 2019a).
Total Protein
Among cereals, rice has a very low content of proteins. A study of
evaluation of total protein of 17 rice landraces from Assam, such as
Borchakua, Bora chakua, Lahichakua reported total protein content
ranging between 0.08% and 15.41% (Das et al., 2018). Total protein
protein content of uncooked grains of 15 folk landraces from Kerala
ranges from 5.3% to 11.8% (Pillai et al., 2020). So far there is no
published data available for protein contents in cooked rice. Our ongoing
investigation at Basudha Laboratory reveals that some uncooked
varieties contain total protein ranging from 5% to 7%, whereas after
cooking, the protein contents of the same varieties decreases to <1%
(Datta et al. (in preparation). Total protein content of cooked and
uncooked rice grains from representative landraces is given in Table 2.
Total Lipid
Total lipid content of 15 indigenous varieties from Kerala such
as Cheruvellari, Chettadi, Kuttadan, Vellari, Kanchana ranges
between 21.9 and 47.8 mg/g (Pillai et al., 2020). So far there is no
published record of lipid contents in cooked rice. Our ongoing work
at Basudha Laboratory indicates that total lipid content decreases
after cooking. However, some landraces, such as M17 and W01, do
not show any significant difference in total lipid contents before and
after cooking (Table 2). Highest amount (>35 mg/g) of total lipid
content was recorded in uncooked grains of K05 and K50. In cooked
samples, the highest amount of crude lipid was seen in V01.
Micronutrients in Rice
All the varieties stored at Basudha farm are analyzed for
micronutrients which include nutritionally important heavy
78 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences
metals, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC),
antioxidant activity and B vitamins.
Nutritionally Important Metals
Pigmented rice varieties are considered more nutritious and are
found to be rich in iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium (Savitha &
Kumari, 2016). Anandan et al. (2011) examined 92 folk rice varieties
with known medicinal properties, including Kalabhat, Nyavara and
Norungan, for contents of Fe and other metal micronutrients.
Deb and coworkers (Deb et al., 2015; Sen Gupta et al., 2017), using
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS), examined
the contents of 12 metals in over 500 folk rice landraces, which was
never examined before. Representative samples of 26 landraces of
Basudha and from other authors, containing high amounts of Fe, Cu,
Zn and Mn are given in Table 3. Das et al. (2018) reported Fe content
ranging from 1.04 to 643.5 mg/100g in the grains of 17 varieties from
Assam. Mudoi & Das (2019) analyzed Fe, Zn and Mn contents in 16
landraces from Assam. Longvah et al. (2020) analyzed Fe, Zn, Cu
and Mn contents of 32 landraces from Meghalaya and Pillai et al.
(2020) examined 15 landraces from Kerala.
Total Phenol and Total Flavonoid Content
Traditional varieties contain a good amount of therapeutic
phytochemicals and antioxidant compounds. Considerable amount
of phenolic compounds such as ferulic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid,
4-hydroxybenzoic acid and vanillic acid has been identified in 32 folk
rice varieties of Basudha (Ray et al., 2018). TPC of 20 folk rice of
Karnataka such as Anandi, Kagisaale, Gajagunda, Nagabatta etc. was
estimated, which ranges between 47.8 and 160.7 mg GAE/100g dry
weight (Muttagi & Ravindra, 2020). TFC of 16 folk varieties of Assam
including Betu, Biroi, Dal bao, Kolaguni, Kotiabao ranges from 252.1
to 1000.8 mg QE/100 g dry weight (Mudoi & Das, 2019). Rajendran
et al. (2018) examined 10 landraces, and reported TPC, ranging from
10.2 to 43.2 mg/100g and TFC, ranging from 2 to 7.2 mg/100g.
Our ongoing investigation of 1440 landraces indicates a wide
range of both TPC and TFC in cooked rice. TPC and TFC of 21
representative samples of Basudha and other authors are given in
Table 4. The uncooked grains of W01, V01, K05, with pigmented
pericarp, have TPC of >110 mg GAE/100 g dry weight. After
cooking, their TPC decreases to <50 mg/100 g. Similarly, TFC was
high (>390 mg QE/100 g dry weight) in uncooked grains of C14 and
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 79
W01, whereas after cooking, the TFC decreases to <50 mg/ 100g
(Mondal et al. communicating). Upon cooking, the hydroxyl group of
phenolic compounds transforms into smaller molecules, leading to
a deterioration of phenolic and flavonoid compounds (Saikia et al.,
2012; Patras et al., 2010).
Antioxidant Activity
A small number of workers have reported antioxidant activities
of folk rice varieties. Rajendran et al. (2018) reported that the
reducing power of 10 folk rice varieties ranges between 112.1 and
231 µM AAE/100g and radical scavenging activity ranges between
284.8 and 897.1 µM AAE/100 g dry weight. The scavenging activity
ranging between 257.9 and 800.3 µM AAE/100 g dry weight was
further reported in uncooked grains of 20 landraces from Karnataka
(Muttagi & Ravindra, 2020).
Folk rice varieties from Basudha’s collection consists of pigmented
varieties such as Kelas, Bhutmoori, Ghasraiz etc. (Deb, 2005),
which are replete with antioxidants (Ray et al., 2014). Our ongoing
investigation shows the radical scavenging activity of these landraces
ranges between 441.5 and 2096.5 µM AAE/100g, and reducing
power ranges from 2327.1 to 18422.9 µM FeSO4/100g after 6 hours
of extraction with methanolic water (Ray et al., 2021; Mondal et al.,
2020). Our analysis shows that antioxidant activities dramatically
decrease after cooking (Table 5). The cooking process breaks down
the cell matrix and facilitates the bound phenolics to release and then
transform into free phenolics, which eventually decompose under
high temperature. The pyrylium ring of anthocyanin opens upon
cooking, which causes the cleavage of glycoside linkage, resulting
in the formation of a colorless chalcone structure which eventually
slows down the antioxidant activity (Saikia et al., 2012).
B Vitamins
Reports of B vitamins of medicinally important folk rice varieties,
namely, Njavara from Kerala and Jyothi from Karnataka (Deepa et
al., 2008) and 32 folk rice varieties from Meghalaya (Longvah et al.,
2020) are available in published literature. Our ongoing work on
1440 landraces indicates the presence of considerable amount (1.18
mg/g) of thiamin in K50; high concentration (>3 mg/g) of Pantothenic
acid in C14 and K131 and of Pyridoxine (1.07 mg/g) in V01. Selected
B vitamin contents of representative folk rice varieties, assessed by
Basudha’s workers and other authors are shown in Table 6.
80 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences

Discussion
Food security involves total nutritional assurance and easy access
to healthy food. Food security is strengthened by the yield stability of
the crop, and zero (or near-zero) dependence on external inputs for crop
production (Deb, 2019b). All traditional crop landraces have greater
yield stability over long term than modern cultivars (Cleveland et al.,
2007; Deb, 2017). Furthermore, crop landraces out-yield all modern
cultivars in marginal farm conditions (Ficiciyan et al., 2018; Deb,
2019a), ensuring food security of poor and marginal farmers, who
can remain independent of external inputs. In the face of climatic
vagaries like too much rain, too scanty rain, too late rain, flash floods
and sea water incursion, drought tolerant, flood tolerant and salinity
tolerant landraces are the best bet for farmers (Table 1).
Crop loss due to pest and disease outbreaks is a frequent experience
of most farmers, who cultivate modern HYVs. Employment of rice
genetic diversity, incorporating resistant genotypes in rice fields
is a traditional and effective method of disease control (Bottrell &
Schoenly, 2012; Gallet et al., 2014; Raboin et al., 2012; Zhu et al.,
2000). Numerous traditional varieties have been reported to have
resistance to various pests and pathogens like worms, virus, bacteria
and fungi (Vasudevan et al., 2014; Deb, 2020). Varieties such as
Kalonunia, Kalanamak, Kartik-sal and Tulsi manjari are resistant
to blast. Bishnubhog and Rani kajal are blight resistant (Deb, 2017;
2019a). A recent meta-analysis shows that polyculture of rice with
different landraces builds trait heterogeneity, which suppresses pest
incidents, by regulating effects on arthropod diversity on several
trophic levels in agroecosystems, and reduces damage by generalist
herbivores (Koricheva & Hayes, 2018).
Most of the landraces do not require irrigation in excess of normal
rainwater, nor any agrochemical inputs. In addition, farm saved folk
variety seeds obviate the need of periodical purchase of seeds from seed
suppliers. Thus, cultivation of these landraces ensures yield stability
and can establish farmers’ sovereignty over their materials and means
of food production.
Cultivation of multiple cropping, involving rice, maize, millets and
legumes, is known to reduce pest pressure (Lin et al., 2011; Yao et
al., 2012), and integrated farming including domesticated animals
also provides for all dietary micronutrients including iron, zinc and
vitamins. In the absence of appropriate agro-biodiversity on modern
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 81
farms, biofortification of HYVs of rice with micronutrients like folic
acid, vitamin A, iron and zinc is being promoted as a means to ensuring
nutrient security. However, biofortification has little or no observable
effects on health of patients with anemia and vitamin A deficiency
if intestinal infections like diarrhoea and dysentery persist in the
consumer population or if the diet is deficient in zinc and polyglycerols
(Castenmiller & West, 1998; Nutting et al., 2002). Thousands of folk
rice varieties need to be sought for providing enhanced nutrition in
terms of micronutrients (Deb et al., 2015; Sen Gupta et al., 2017),
which also have a clear edge over artificially biofortified rice.
With a single focus on increasing grain yield by modern
breeders, many traditional varieties were disdained, although they
are having various micronutrients, which are found at negligible
levels in modern varieties. Our on-going study on folk rice varieties,
conducted at Basudha Laboratory for Conservation (http://cintds.
org/labotatory/) indicates substantial contents of micronutrients in
traditional varieties (Table 3, Table 6). At least 80 traditional rice
varieties showed iron content in the range of 20 to 151 mg /kg, which
is 2 to 15-fold higher than that in genetically modified iron-fortified
rice IR-68144-2B-2-23 (9.8 mg/kg) (Deb et al., 2015). Similarly,
considerable amount of pro-vitamin A is found in the bran of a number
of landraces of Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines (Frei
& Becker, 2004; 2005), and some Indian landraces with brown and
black pericarp (Renuka et al., 2016; Roy & Deb, mss in preparation). It
is feasible and scientifically more sensible to make these rice varieties
widely available for regular consumption throughout the country,
especially among the rural poor, than to invest in developing and
importing transgenic vitamin A-enriched rice.
There is crucial need for detailed research in indigenous rice
landraces for a deeper understanding of the diverse nutraceutical
properties of rice landraces. While folk crop varieties are usually not
on any priority list of agronomic research and development agenda,
available literature and our on-going research indicate that most of
the folk rice varieties are superior to any modern rice cultivar, in
terms of nutritional and therapeutic properties. An obvious policy
recommendation that transpires from the data presented here,
drawn on different published as well as ongoing research findings,
is that it is imperative to conserve and promote consumption of folk
rice varieties, particularly in marginal environmental conditions.
Widespread cultivation in order to enhance availability and
82 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences
accessibility of nutritious folk rice varieties would be a scientifically
more reasonable means to ensure food and nutritional security of
the masses, than instituting and investing in expensive and capital
intensive extraneous biofortification programs.
References
Anandan, A., Rajiv, G., Eswaran, R., & Prakash, M. (2011).Genotypic variation and
relationships between quality traits and trace elements in traditional and
improved rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes. Journal of Food Science, 76(4),
H122-H130.http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02135.x
Bashar, K. M., Haque, M. M., & Zaman, H. M. S. (2004). Rice biodiversity and genetic
wealth of flood-prone environments of Bangladesh. In S. I. Bhuiyan, M. Z.
Abedin, V. P. Singh,& B. Hardy (Eds.), Rice research and development in the
flood-prone ecosystem (pp. 129-149). International Rice Research Institute,
Los Baños, Philippines.
Basudha 2020. Macronutrients in uncooked and cooked unpolishedgrains of selected
indigenous rice (Oryza sativa ssp. indica) varieties.Basudha Working Paper
#20.1 http://cintdis.org/laboratory/working paper#6
Bellon, M. R., Dulloo, E., Sardos, J., Thormann, I., & Burdon, J. J. (2017). In situ
conservation―harnessing natural and human derived evolutionary forces to
ensure future crop adaptation. Evolutionary applications, 10(10), 965-977.
http://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12521
Bottrell, D. G., & Schoenly, K. G. (2012). Resurrecting the ghost of green revolutions
past: the brown planthopper as a recurring threat to high-yielding rice
production in tropical Asia. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 15(1), 122-
140. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2011.09.004
Castenmiller, J.J. & West, C.E. 1998.Bioavailability and bioconversion of carotenoids.
Annual Review of Nutrition 18, 19-38. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.
nutr.18.1.19
Cleveland, D. A., & Soleri, D. (2006). Farmer knowledge and scientist knowledge in
sustainable agricultural development: ontology, epistemology and praxis. In
Paul Sillitoe (Ed.), Local Science vs Global Science: Approaches to Indigenous
Knowledge in International Development (pp. 209-229). Retrieved from
https://geog.ucsb.edu/~soleri/2007a_fk&sk.pdf
Das, G. K., & Oudhia, P. (2000).Rice as a medicinal plant in Chhattisgarh, India. Plant
Genetic Resources Newsletter, 122, p. 46.Retrieved from https://www.
bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/PGR/article-issue_122-art_11-lang_
en.html
Das, P., Singha, A. D., Goswami, K., & Sarmah, K. (2018).Detection of nutritionally
significant indigenous rice varieties from Assam, India. Bulletin of
Environment, Pharmacology and Life Science, 7(4), 59-64.
Datta, S., Mondal, P. & Deb, D.An quantitative estimation of macronutrients in selected
indigenous rice (Oryza sativa ssp. indica) landraces. (in preparation).
Deb, D. (2004). Industrial vs Ecological Agriculture.Research Foundation for Science,
Technology and Ecology. New Delhi. Retrieved from https://indecentbazaar.
wordpress.com/2010/05/23/organics-and-poverty/
Deb, D. (2005). Seeds of Tradition, Seeds of Future: Folk rice varieties of Eastern India.
Research Foundation for Science, Technology, and Ecology. New Delhi.
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 83
Deb, D. (2017). Folk rice varieties, traditional knowledge and nutritional security
in South Asia. In G. Poyyamoli (Ed.), Agroecology, Ecosystems, and
Sustainability in the Tropics,(pp. 117-134).Studera Press. New Delhi.
Deb, D. (2019a). Restoring rice biodiversity. Scientific American, 321(4), 54-61.
Deb, Debal (2019b). Food Sovereignty: opposing the enclosure of land, seeds and
knowledge commons, pp. 1-48. In Stefan Mentschel (ed), Can Hunger be
Defeated? Yoda Press. New Delhi. Retrieved from: https://www.rosalux.
in/library-details/book-can-hunger-be-defeated-advancing-food-security-in-
south-asia.html
Deb, D. (2020). Is the system of rice intensification (SRI) consonant with agroecology?
Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems,1-32. http://doi.org/10.1080/2168
3565.2020.1779165
Deb, D., Sengupta, S., & Pradeep, T. (2015).A profile of metals in rice (Oryza sativa ssp.
indica) landraces.Current Science, 109(3), 407–409.
Deepa, G., Singh, V., & Naidu, K. A. (2008). Nutrient composition and physicochemical
properties of Indian medicinal rice – Njavara.Food Chemistry, 106(1), 165–
171. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.05.062
Deepa, G., Singh, V., & Naidu, K. A. (2010). A comparative study on starch digestibility,
glycemic index and resistant starch of pigmented (‘Njavara’and ‘Jyothi’)
and a non-pigmented (‘IR 64’) rice varieties. Journal of food science and
technology, 47(6), 644-649.http://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-010-0106-1
Diamond, J. (2002). Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal
domestication. Nature, 418, 700-707.http://doi.org/10.1038/nature01019
Doebley, J. F., Gaut, B. S., & Smith, B.D.(2006). The molecular genetics of crop
domestication. Cell, 127(7), 1309-1321.
FAO.(2002). Genetic Diversity in Rice Production- Case studies from Brazil, India and
Nigeria. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.Rome.
Retrieved fromhttp://www.fao.org/3/y4348e/y4348e00.htm
Fauziya, B., Sharma, H. P., Paras, J., & Geeta, M. (2015).Grain quality and starch
evaluation of local varieties of rice (Oryza sativa L.) growing in Jharkhand
state, India. International Journal of Current Research, 7(1), 11895-11900.
Retrieved from https://1library.net/document/y4w9560q-grain-quality-
starch-evaluation-varieties-sativa-growing-jharkhand.html
Ficiciyan, A., Loos, J., Sievers-Glotzbach, S., & Tscharntke, T. (2018). More than
yield: Ecosystem services of traditional versus modern crop varieties
revisited. Sustainability, 10(8), 2834.http://doi.org/10.3390/su10082834
Frei, M., & Becker, K. (2004). On rice, biodiversity and nutrients.Institute of Animal
Production in the Tropics and Subtropics. University of Hohenheim,
Stuttgart, Germany.Retrieved from https://www.greenpeace.de/sites/www.
greenpeace.de/files/StudieRiceBiodiversity_1.pdf
Frei, M., & Becker, K. (2005). Fatty acids and all-trans-β-Carotene are correlated
in differently colored rice landraces. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, 85, 2380-2384. http://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2263
Fuller, D. Q. (2011). Pathways to Asian civilizations: Tracing the origins and spread
of rice and rice cultures. Rice, 4, 78–92. http://doi.org/10.1007/s12284-011-
9078-7
Gallet, R., Bonnot, F., Milazzo, J., Tertois, C., Adreit, H., Ravigné, V., & Fournier, E.
(2014). The variety mixture strategy assessed in a G× G experiment with
84 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences
rice and the blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Frontiers in genetics, 4, 312.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2013.00312
Gao, L-Z. (2003). The conservation of Chinese rice biodiversity: Genetic erosion,
ethnobotany and prospects. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 50, 17-
32. http://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022933230689
Hegde, S., Yenagi, N. B., & Kasturiba, B. (2013). Indigenous knowledge of the traditional
and qualified ayurveda practitioners on the nutritional significance and use of
red rice in medications.Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge,12(3), 506-
511. Retrieved from http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/19450/1/
IJTK%2012(3)%20506-511.pdf
Jackson, M.T. (1995). Protecting the heritage of rice biodiversity. Geo Journal,35(3),pp. 264-
274.Retrieved from: https://mikejackson1948.files.wordpress. com/2015/07/52.
pdf
Koricheva, J., & Hayes, D. (2018). The relative importance of plant intraspecific
diversity in structuring arthropod communities: A meta‐analysis. Functional
Ecology, 32(7), 1704-1717. http://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13062
Kyaw, K., Harada, A., Ichimaru, H., Kawagoe, T., Yahiro, K., Morimura, S., & Niidome,
T. (2017). Silver nanoparticles as potential antibiofilm agents against
human pathogenic bacteria. Chemistry Letters, 46(4), 594-596. http://doi.
org/10.1246/cl.161198
Larson, G. & D.Q. Fuller.(2014). The Evolution of animal domestication.Annual
Revolution of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 66, 115–36.http://doi.
org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091620
Lin, S., You, M. S., Yang, G., & Chen, L. L. (2011). Can polycultural manipulation
effectively control rice planthoppers in rice-based ecosystems? Crop
Protection, 30(3), 279-284.http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2010.11.013
Longvah, T., Prasad, V. S. S., Ananthan, R., Kharkhonger, G. C., & Rangad, C. (2020).
In situ nutrient variability in rice landraces from Garo Hills, Meghalaya in
North East India. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 103543.http://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2020.103543
Mondal, P., Datta, S. & Deb, D. (2020). An examination of contents of phenolics and
flavonoids, and antioxidant potentials of uncooked vs cooked grains of
selected rice landraces. Basudha Data Paper #5. Available at: http://cintdis.
org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Data-Paper-2.pdf
Mudoi, T., & Das, P. (2019).A Study on phytochemicals and mineral content of indigenous
red rice of Assam, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and
Applied Sciences, 8(4), 1-12. http://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2019.804.001
Muttagi, G. C., & Ravindra, U. (2020).Phytochemical and antioxidant capacity of
traditional rice varieties of Karnataka, India. International Journal
of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 9(5), 67-75. http://doi.
org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.905.006
Nelson, A.R.L. E., Ravichandran, K. & Antony, U. (2019). The impact of the Green
Revolution on indigenous crops of India. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 6, 8. http://
doi.org/10.1186/s42779-019-0011-9
Nutting, D.F., Kumar, N.S., Siddiqui, S.A. & Mansbach, C.M. II (2002). Nutrient
absorption. Current Opinion in Gstroenterology 18(2), 168-175. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1097/00001574-200203000-00003
Patras, A., Brunton, N. P., O‘Donnell, C., & Tiwari, B. K. (2010). Effect of thermal
processing on anthocyanin stability in foods; mechanisms and kinetics of
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 85
degradation. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 21(1), 3–11. http://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tifs.2009.07.004
Peña‐Rosas, J. P., Mithra, P., Unnikrishnan, B., Kumar, N., De‐Regil, L. M., Nair, N.
S., & Solon, J. A. (2019). Fortification of rice with vitamins and minerals for
addressing micronutrient malnutrition. Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews, 10, Art. No. CD009902. http://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009902.
pub2
Pillai, C., Faseela, K. V., & Thampi, H. (2020).Nutritional composition of selected
traditional rice varieties of Kerala. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 58(1),
33-43.
Raboin, L. M., Ramanantsoanirina, A., Dusserre, J., Razasolofonanahary, F., Tharreau,
D., Lannou, C., & Sester, M. (2012). Two‐component cultivar mixtures reduce
rice blast epidemics in an upland agrosystem. Plant Pathology, 61(6), 1103-
1111. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2012.02602.x
Rahman, S., Sharma, M. P. & Sahai S. (2006).Nutritional and medicinal values of
indigenous rice varieties.Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 5(4), 454-
458.Retrieved from http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/6939/1/
IJTK%205(4)%20(2006)%20454-458.pdf
Rajendran, V., Sivakumar, H. P., Marichamy, I., Sundararajan, S., & Ramalingam,
S. (2018). Phytonutrients analysis in ten popular traditional Indian
rice landraces (Oryza sativa L.). Journal of Food Measurement and
Characterization, 12(4), 2598-2606.http://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-018-9877-2
Ray, S., Tripathi, S., Deb, D., & Sarkar, M. P. (December 04-06, 2014). Assessment
of nutritional potentiality of indigenous rice landraces from the perspective
of germplasm preservation.Poster presentation in Frontiers in Chemical
Science 2014 in IIT Guwahati.
Ray, S., Sarkar, M. S., & Deb, D. (30 October- 01 November, 2016). The diversity of
volatiles in rice genetic diversity: An exploratory study. Poster presentation
in 1st Food Chemistry Conference- Shaping the Future of Food Quality,
Health and Safety in Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Ray, S., Deb, D., & Sarkar, M. S. (2021).Colour based nutraceutical potentiality of
some traditional rice (Oryza sativa ssp. indica L.) varieties of India. Indian
Journal of Natural Products and Resources, 12 (1), 153-157.
Renuka, N., Mathure, S. V., Zanan, R. L., Thengane, R. J., & Nadaf, A. B. (2016).
Determination of some minerals and β-carotene contents in aromatic indica
rice (Oryza sativa L.) germplasm. Food chemistry, 191, 2-6. http://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.05.045
Roy, P., Deb, D. & Saha, T. (2020).An analysis of B vitamins in selected indian rice
landraces. Basudha Data Paper #4. Available at: http://cintdis.org/wp-
content/uploads/2021/01/Data-Paper4-Roy.pdf
Saikia, S., Dutta, H., Saikia, D., & Mahanta, C. L. (2012).Quality characterisation
and estimation of phytochemicals content and antioxidant capacity of
aromatic pigmented and non-pigmented rice varieties. Food Research
International, 46(1), 334-340. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.12.021
Savitha, P., & Kumari, R. U. (2016). Indigenous knowledge of traditional landraces
in rice (Oryza sativa L.) in situ conservation of Tamil Nadu, India.Indian
Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 15(2), 321-329. Retrieved from http://
nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/33986/1/IJTK%2015%282%29%20
321-329.pdf
86 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences
Sen Gupta, S., Baksi, A., Roy, P., Deb, D., & Pradeep, T. (2017).Unusual accumulation
of silver in the aleurone layer of an Indian rice (Oryza sativa) landrace
and sustainable extraction of the metal. ACS Sustainable Chemistry &
Engineering, 5(9), 8310-8315.http://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b02058
Suganya, A., Deb, D., & Pradeep, T. (2019). Spatial distribution mapping of molecules in
the grains of different rice landraces, using desorption electrospray ionization
mass spectrometry. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 33(7),
727-736. http://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.8397
Sulochana, S., Meyyappan, R. M., & Singaravadivel, K. (2016). Phytochemical screening
and GC-MS analysis of Garudan samba traditional rice variety. International
Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Research, 2(4), 44-7. Retrieved
fromhttps://ijoear.com/Paper-April-2016/IJOEAR-APR-2016-24.pdf
Sweeny, M. & McCouch, S.(2007). The complex history of the domestication of rice.
Annals of Botany, 100, 951–957. http://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcm128
Thrupp, L. A. (2000).Linking agricultural biodiversity and food security: the valuable
role of sustainable agriculture. International Affairs, 76(2), 265-281. http://
doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.00133
Vasudevan, K., C. Vera Cruz, W. Gruissem, & N. K. Bhullar. 2014. Large scale
germplasm screening for identification of novel rice blast resistance sources.
Frontiers in Plant Science, 5, 505.
Vaughan, D. A., & Chang, T. T. (1992). In situ conservation of rice genetic
resources. Economic Botany, 46(4), 368-383.http://doi.org/10.1007/
BF02866507
Vengadessan, V., Ramapriya, S., & Selvarajeswari, N. (2016).Morpho-molecular
diversity analysis of traditional and improved cultivars in rice. International
Journal of Multidisciplinary Education and Research, 1(4), 59-65.
Yao, F. L., You, M. S., Vasseur, L., Yang, G., & Zheng, Y. K. (2012). Polycultural
manipulation for better regulation of planthopper populations in irrigated
rice-based ecosystems. Crop Protection, 34, 104-111.http://doi.org/10.1016/j.
croprp.2011.12.003
Zhu, Y., Chen, H., Fan, J., Wang, Y., Li, Y., Chen, J., & Mew, T. W. (2000). Genetic
diversity and disease control in rice. Nature, 406(6797), 718-722.http://doi.
org/10.1038/35021046
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 87
Table 1: Representative Rice Landraces Adapted to Marginal Environmental Conditions
Rainfed upland Rainfed medium land Lowland Deepwater Saline
Ashu Bans phul Agni-Sal Bajal Kalo nuniya
Bhutmoori Betichikon Bara kalma Banya-sal Karpur kranti
Chakramala Kali jira Kalomanik Hugli Korgut khari
Gorah Lahia Koya badam Jal kamini Lalgetu
Guruji Lahara Malabati Kumrogorh Matla
Jirkudi Lotal Nona baran Lal jabra Nona bokra
Kali ashu Moynagiri Rani kajal Lakshmi dighal Nona khirish
Kalomanik Patnai Sada chamor Pantara Pokkali
Kelas Sapra Sindur mukhi Paniduba Surakuruvai
Kinari Tulsimukul Sita-sal Sada jabra Tal mugur
Source: Deb, 2000; Deb, 2005

Table 2: Total starch, protein and lipid content of cooked and uncooked folk rice varieties
Uncooked rice Cooked rice
Landraces/
Basudha % % Total Total % Total % Total Total Reference
Accession Code Total protein lipid starch protein lipid
starch (mg/g) (mg/g)
Thekkan - 5.3 37.2 - - - Pillai et al., 2020
Vellari - 7.9 37.2 - - - Pillai et al., 2020
Kanchana - 7.9 21.9 - - - Pillai et al., 2020
Thavalakannan - 11.8 47.8 - - - Pillai et al., 2020
Datta et al. (MS in
C14 25.1 4.7 22 35.5 0.6 8
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
K05 13.2 3.4 40 25.7 0.9 8
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
K10 23.3 5.5 12 26.3 0.6 8
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
K131 13.8 1.9 22 29.7 0.6 8
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
K39 24.2 0.5 14 26.5 0.3 8
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
K50 19.6 7.5 38 20.1 0.7 16
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
M17 15.6 5.8 16 31.8 0.6 16
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
P40 13.5 2.4 10 13.6 0.5 8
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
V01 26.1 1.3 22 27.7 0.9 20
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
W01 28.5 0.9 10 36.7 0.3 10
preparation)
Datta et al. (MS in
BPT 5204# 27.6 2.3 14 - - -
preparation)
# - Modern cultivar
 88 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences
Table 3: Nutritionally important metal content in grains of selected folk rice varieties
Landraces/ Basudha Fe Zn Cu Mn
Reference
Accession Code (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
Kalabath 39.2 26.8 7.1 5.7 Anandan et al., 2011
Pusa Basmati 1 29.9 33.3 7.1 8.3 Anandan et al., 2011
Norungan 24.2 31.4 10.6 11.8 Anandan et al., 2011
Kelas 34.6 44.9 2.9 44.9 Deb et al., 2015
Kurai 54.4 23.0 1.8 27.9 Deb et al., 2015
Kabiraj-sal 31.4 20.3 0.4 28.3 Deb et al., 2015
Champa 25.7 27.5 7.2 43.1 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Baid dhusuri 150.8 21.7 2.8 232.4 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Dudhe bolta 130.9 24.8 0.7 26.0 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Garib-sal 11.9 155.3 19.3 35 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Kundapullan 28.9 32.8 3.0 47.8 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Kali shankar 20.2 27.9 1.9 43.3 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Madraraj 56.3 23.6 3.8 38.7 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Pusabadh 20.9 31.5 7.4 49.1 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Bhutmoori 24.4 38.5 7.8 27 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Ghasraiz 21.9 0.9 0.0 36.8 Sen Gupta et al., 2017
Biroi 38.7 63.1 - 37.2 Mudoi & Das, 2019
Boga buni 55.5 121.6 - 6.5 Mudoi & Das, 2019
Ixojoy 60.9 52.2 - 28.1 Mudoi & Das, 2019
Gopalbhok 9.2 19.7 2.7 47.7 Longvah et al., 2020
Jahagipok 10.6 23.8 2.5 42.8 Longvah et al., 2020
Maigothi 21.8 19.3 3.3 24.8 Longvah et al., 2020
Cheru vellari 32.4 26.4 5.9 33.6 Pillai et al., 2020
Chettadi 19.4 34.1 6.2 29.1 Pillai et al., 2020
Gandhakasala 29.2 29.6 3.9 34.8 Pillai et al., 2020

BPT 5204 #
8.9 37.9 12.9 34.1 Sen Gupta et al., 2017

# - Modern cultivar
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 89
Table 4: Total phenol content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) of cooked
and uncooked folk rice varieties
Landraces/ Uncooked rice Cooked rice
Basudha TPC (mg
TPC (mg TFC (mg TFC (mg Reference
Accession GAE/100
Code GAE /100 g) QE/100 g) QE/100 g)
g)
Kala namak 43.2a 7.2 - - Rajendran et al., 2018
Poongar 10.2a 2.2 - - Rajendran et al., 2018
Ixojoy 762.5b 252.1 - - Mudoi & Das, 2019
Dal bao 2215.7b 1000.7 - - Mudoi & Das, 2019
Jul bao 1145.1b 466.1 - - Mudoi & Das, 2019
Kolaguni 1850.9b 647.7 - - Mudoi & Das, 2019
Muttagi & Ravindra,
Nagabatta 47.8a - - -
2020
Muttagi & Ravindra,
Kagisaale 98.2a - - -
2020
Muttagi & Ravindra,
Karimundaga 160.7a - - -
2020
Muttagi & Ravindra,
Gajagunda 152.3a - - -
2020
C14 105a 451.6 22.2 36.3 Mondal et al., 2020
K05 98.7a 90.8 15.7 27 Mondal et al., 2020
K10 32.2a 79.1 3 20 Mondal et al., 2020
K131 21.5a 48.9 0.7 23.3 Mondal et al., 2020
K39 31.3a 40.7 0.8 19.5 Mondal et al., 2020
K50 15.2a 14.9 1.7 26.5 Mondal et al., 2020
M17 68a 327.1 37.3 43.3 Mondal et al., 2020
P40 51.8a 67.5 14.2 37.7 Mondal et al., 2020
V01 153.3a 134.6 42.8 65.2 Mondal et al., 2020
W01 115.5a 396.9 18.8 40 Mondal et al., 2020
BPT 5204# 29.5a 34.3 - - Mondal et al., 2020
a -Gallic acid equivalent; b-Catechol equivalent; # - Modern cultivar.
 90 Hand Book of Agriculture & Plant Sciences
Table 5: Antioxidant activity of cooked and uncooked folk rice varieties
Uncooked rice Cooked rice

Landraces/ Ferric Ferric

DPPH
Basudha reducing DPPH radical reducing
radical Reference
Accession antioxidant scavenging antioxidant
scavenging
Code power (µM/ activity (µM power (µM
activity(µM
FeSO4 /100 AAE/100 g) FeSO4/100
AAE/100 g)
g) g)
Rajendran et al.,
Kala namak 897.1 231a - -
2018
Salem Rajendran et al.,
284.8 112.1a - -
sannam 2018
Muttagi &
Kagisaale 622.5 - - -
Ravindra, 2020
Muttagi &
Gajagunda 703.8 - - -
Ravindra, 2020
Muttagi &
Karimundaga 800.2 - - -
Ravindra, 2020
Muttagi &
Gandhasaale 313.1 - - -
Ravindra, 2020
Mondal et al., 2020;
C14 2,016.5 18,422.9b 776.5 7,834.6
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
K05 871.5 9,133.9b 681.5 7,214
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
K10 1,566.5 3,607b 836.5 1,687.1
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
K131 961.5 2,811.9b 861.5 2,191.4
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
K39 441.5 2,676.2b 341.5 2,656.8
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
K50 646.5 2,327.1b 526.5 1,842.3
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
M17 1,556.5 15,882.5b 871.5 9,424.8
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
P40 586.5 6,787.4b 566.5 5,332.9
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
V01 2,096.5 16,599.9b 1,421.5 10,898.6
Ray et al., 2021
Mondal et al., 2020;
W01 2,066.5 14,835.3b 1,501.5 8,183.6
Ray et al., 2021
a- Ascorbic acid equivalent; b- Ferrous sulphate equivalent.
 Agronomic and Nutraceutical Properties ... 91
Table 6: B vitamins of uncooked folk rice varieties
Landraces/ Thiamin
Basudha (mg/g) Riboflavin Niacin Pantothenic Pyridoxine
Reference
Accession (mg/g) (mg/g) acid (mg/g) (mg/g)
Code
Njavara 0.005 0.0007 0.073 - - Deepa et al., 2008
Jyothi# 0.003 0.005 0.071 - - Deepa et al., 2008
Gopalbhok 0.0026 0.0007 0.03 0.03 0.0005 Longvah et al., 2020
Jahagisim 0.002 0.0006 0.03 0.03 0.001 Longvah et al., 2020
Khisore 0.002 0.0006 0.02 0.02 0.0006 Longvah et al., 2020
C14 0.7 0.0 0.03 3.28 0.09 Roy et al., 2020
K05 0.0 0.03 0.38 0.0 0.0 Roy et al.,, 2020
K10 1.02 0.16 0.19 0.93 0.11 Roy et al.,, 2020
K131 0.93 0.32 0.13 3.27 0.09 Roy et al.,, 2020
K39 1.06 0.21 0.08 0.54 0.1 Roy et al.,, 2020
K50 1.18 0.31 018 1.56 0.21 Roy et al.,, 2020
M17 0.43 0.07 0.09 0.5 0.02 Roy et al.,, 2020
P40 0.99 0.25 0.13 0.73 0.14 Roy et al.,, 2020
V01 0.0 0.0 0.27 0.0 1.23 Roy et al.,, 2020
W01 0.73 0.3 0.14 1.07 0.12 Roy et al.,, 2020
BPT 5204# 0.37 0.02 0.05 0.0 0.0 Roy et al.,, 2020
#- Modern cultivar

www