Advanced

Level Physics
AQA CPAC Workbook

Name: _____________________________________
Surname: ___________________________________
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

2 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Common Practical Assessment Criteria Learner Log

Green (g) = met the criteria fully; Orange (o) = not quite met the criteria; Red (r) = failed to meet the criteria; Black (b) = not assessed in this practical
2. Applies investigative 3. Safely uses a range
1. Follows 4. Makes and 5. Researches,
approaches and methods of practical
written records references and
Date No Title when using instruments and equipment and
procedures observations reports
equipment materials
a a b c d a b a b a b

1 Stationary waves

2 Young’s slit

3 ‘g’ freefall

4 Young’s Modulus

5 Resistivity

6 Internal Resistance

7 SHM – spring/pendulum

8 Boyle’s/Charles’ laws

9 Capacitors

10 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙

11 B (search coil)
1
12 Gamma 𝐼 ∝
𝑟2

3 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

4 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Contents

A-level Physics: AQA - Assessed Practical Work ................................................................................................ 1

Common Practical Assessment Criteria Learner Log ..................................................................................... 3
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 6
The purpose of practical work ....................................................................................................................... 6
Fluency in science practical work .................................................................................................................. 6
Required Practicals For Physics A-Level, With Links to The Scheme and Examination Papers ..................... 8
Learners Who Miss A Required Practical Activity ......................................................................................... 9
Practical Skills Assessment in Question Papers ............................................................................................. 9
Guidelines to supporting you as learners in practical work .............................................................................. 9
Use of Lab Books ......................................................................................................................................... 10
A Summary of How To Record Your Practical Work .................................................................................... 11
Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC) ........................................................................................... 12
Advice for How You Should Lay Out Your Practical Write Up ..................................................................... 13
Evidence for The Endorsement ................................................................................................................... 14
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 1 ............................................................................................ 19
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 2 ............................................................................................ 29
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 3 ............................................................................................ 43
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 4 ............................................................................................ 53
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 5 ............................................................................................ 61
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 6 ............................................................................................ 69
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 7 ............................................................................................ 79
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 8 ............................................................................................ 91
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 9 .......................................................................................... 105
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 10 ........................................................................................ 115
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 11 ........................................................................................ 127
AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No 12 ......................................................................................... 143
Tabulating data .......................................................................................................................................... 155
Significant figures ...................................................................................................................................... 156
Uncertainties ............................................................................................................................................. 157
Graphing .................................................................................................................................................... 166
Testing Relationships ................................................................................................................................. 172
More Complex Relationships..................................................................................................................... 174
Practical Skills Checklist ............................................................................................................................. 176
Glossary of Terms ...................................................................................................................................... 177

5 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Introduction

Practical work brings science to life, helping you make sense of the universe around you. Practical science
allows scientific theory to transform into deep knowledge and understanding – scientific thinking. Through
investigation, you will uncover the important links between your personal observations and scientific ideas.
The new A-level specifications accredited for first teaching in September 2015 bring with them a complete
change in the way practical work is assessed. No longer will teachers have to force you as learners to jump
through hoops set up by exam boards or worry about how much help you are given and whether it’s
allowed or not.

The purpose of practical work

There are three interconnected, but separate reasons for doing practical work at school. They are:

1. To support and consolidate scientific concepts (knowledge and understanding).

This is done by applying and developing what is known and understood of abstract ideas and models.
Through practical work we are able to make sense of new information and observations, and provide
insights into the development of scientific thinking.
2. To develop investigative skills. These transferable skills include:

• devising and investigating testable questions

• identifying and controlling variables
• analysing, interpreting and evaluating data.
3. To build and master practical skills such as:

• using specialist equipment to take measurements

• handling and manipulating equipment with confidence and fluency
• recognising hazards and planning how to minimise risk.

Fluency in science practical work

At the beginning of a Year 12 course, you will need support

and guidance to build your confidence. This could involve,
for example, breaking down practicals into discrete sections
or following more explicit instructions.

Phase 4:

Fluent
Phase 3:
“No problem!
Practise without
Phase 2:
support I can help my friends
Practise with support if necessary.”
“I can have a go and get
Phase 1: “I do it myself but I quite a way without any
may need to ask support or guidance but
Demonstrate
teacher every now and there are times when I
“Teacher shows again and if it goes might need to check a
me and I copy” wrong I’m stuck.” few details.”

6 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

There will be 12 required practical activities, these have been specified by AQA. They cover the apparatus
and techniques for each subject.

These will be assessed in two ways:

7 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Required Practicals For Physics A-Level, With Links to The Scheme and Examination Papers

Physics Paper 1

Section 3. Waves

Practical 1: Investigation into the variation of the frequency of stationary waves on a string with length,
tension and mass per unit length of the string.

Practical 2: Investigation of interference effects to include the Young’s slit experiment and interference by
a diffraction grating.

Section 4. Mechanics and Materials

Practical 3: Determination of g by a freefall method.

Practical 4: Determination of the Young modulus by a simple method.

Section 5. Electricity

Practical 5: Determination of resistivity of a wire using a micrometer, ammeter and voltmeter.

Practical 6: Investigation of the emf and internal resistance of electric cells and batteries by measuring the
variation of the terminal pd of the cell with current in it.

Physics Paper 2

Section 6. Further Mechanics and thermal physics

Practical 7: Investigation into simple harmonic motion using a mass–spring system and a simple pendulum.

Practical 8: Investigation of Boyle's law (constant temperature) and Charles’s law (constant pressure) for a
gas.

Section 7. Fields and their consequences

Practical 9: Investigation of the charge and discharge of capacitors. Analysis techniques should include log-
linear plotting leading to a determination of the time constant, RC

Practical 10: Investigate the relationship between magnetic flux density, current and length of wire using a
top pan balance.

Practical 11: Investigate the effect on magnetic flux density of varying the angle using a search coil and
oscilloscope.

Section 8. Nuclear Physics

Practical 12: Investigation of the inverse square law for gamma radiation.

8 | Page
 A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Learners Who Miss A Required Practical Activity

1. Written exam papers

The required practical activities are part of the specification. As such, exam papers could contain questions
about the activities and assume that learners understand those activities. A learner who misses a particular
practical activity may be at a disadvantage when answering questions in the exams.
It will often be difficult to set up a practical a second time for learners to catch up. Teachers will need to
decide on a case by case basis whether they feel it is important for the learner to carry out that particular
practical. This is no different from when teachers make decisions about whether to re-teach a particular
topic if a learner is away from class when it is first taught.

2. Endorsement

To fulfil the requirements of the endorsement, every learner must carry out 12 practicals. A learner who
misses one of the required practicals must carry out another practical to be able to gain the endorsement.
In most cases, this can be any experiment of A-level standard. However, learners must have experienced
use of each of the apparatus and techniques. In some cases, a particular apparatus and technique is only
covered in one required practical activity. If a learner misses that activity, the teacher will need to provide
an opportunity for the learner to carry out a practical that includes that activity. The list below shows the
apparatus and techniques that are covered by one activity only and alternatives to the required practical.
Note: there is a possibility that the learner could be asked questions about the required activity in written
papers that would not be fully understood by carrying out the alternative. This should be considered when
deciding whether to repeat the required activity.

Practical Skills Assessment in Question Papers

The AS and A-level papers will contain the following types of questions which relate to practical work:

1. Questions set in a practical context, where the question centres on the science, not the practical
work.
2. Questions that require specific aspects of a practical procedure to be understood in order to
answer a question about the underlying science.
3. Questions directly on the required practical procedures.
4. Questions applying the skills from the required practical procedures and the apparatus and
techniques list.
Guidelines to supporting you as learners in practical work

Developed in collaboration with NFER and CLEAPSS

The importance of keeping a lab book or other records of practical work

You will need a record of your achievements and your learning. Lab books also can be an opportunity to
develop a skill used both by scientists and in business. They allow you to accurately and clearly record
information, ideas and thoughts for future reference which is a very useful life skill.

Warning against plagiarism and copying

The use of acknowledged sources is an encouraged and acceptable practice, but trying to pass off other
people’s work as your own is not, and will not help you learn.

9 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Use of Lab Books

The purpose of a lab book

A lab book is a complete record of everything that has been done in the laboratory. As such it becomes
important both to track progress of experiments, but also, in industry and universities, to prove who
developed an idea or discovered something first.

A lab book is a:
• Source of data that can be used later by the experimenter or others;
• Complete record of what has been done so that experiments could be understood or repeated by a
competent scientist at some point in the future;
• Tool that supports sound thinking and helps experimenters to question their results to ensure that
their interpretation is the same one that others would come to;
• Record of why experiments were done.

You will be provided with a hard-backed book with bound pages, which will remain at school.

Style

Notes should be recorded as experiments are taking place. They should not be a “neat” record written at a
later date from scraps of paper. However, they should be written clearly, in legible writing and in language
which can be understood by others.

Many lab books are used in industry as a source of data, and so should be written in indelible ink.

To ensure that an observer can be confident that all data are included when a lab book is examined, there
should be no blank spaces. Mistakes should be crossed out and re-written. Numbers should not be
overwritten, erased, nor should Tippex be used. Pencil should not be used for anything other than graphs
and diagrams.

Each page should be dated

Worksheets, graphs, printed information and photographs can all be stuck into a lab book. They should not
cover up any information so that photocopying the page shows all information in one go. Anything glued in
should lie flat and not be folded.

Content

Generally, lab books will contain:

• Title and date of experiment; • Data and observations input to tables (or
• Notes on the objectives of the similar) while carrying out the
experiment; experiment;
• Notes on the method, including all details • Calculations – annotated to show
(e.g. temperatures, volumes, settings of thinking;
pieces of equipment) with justification • Graphs and charts;
where necessary; • Summary, discussions and conclusions;
• Sketches of how equipment has been set • Cross-references to earlier data and
up can be helpful. Photographs pasted in references to external information.
are also acceptable;

10 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

This list and its order are not prescriptive. Many experiments change as they are set up and trials run. Often
a method will be given, then some data, then a brief mention of changes that were necessary, then more
data and so on.

A Summary of How to Record Your Practical Work

• Use standard laboratory symbols.

• Include the precision of any meters.
• Make notes of any unusual methods or adaptations you made, particularly
those that reduced uncertainties.
DIAGRAM

• Each column should be titled with a quantity and a unit, suitably

separated.
• The independent variable should be in the left hand column.
• Columns may be needed for averages of repeated results or for derived
TABLE values.
• Use a ruler for the columns.

• Each axis should be titled with a quantity and a unit, suitably separated.
• Scales should be in multiples of 1, 2, 5 or 10.
• Plotted points should occupy at least half of each scale.
GRAPH • Draw your straight line or curve of best fit through as many points as
possible, avoiding anomalous results.

• A straight line through the origin shows direct proportion.

• Any straight line shows a relationship of the form y = mx + c.
• Calculate a gradient by drawing a triangle (smallest side ≥ 8cm) on the
graph and extracting values for Δx and Δy.
ANALYSIS
• Use gradient and intercept values with relevant questions.
• Curves show non-linear relationships.

11 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC)

The assessment of practical skills is a compulsory requirement of the course of study for A-level
qualifications in biology, chemistry and physics. It will appear on all your certificates as a separately
reported result, alongside the overall grade for the qualification. The arrangements for the assessment of
practical skills are common to all awarding organisations. These arrangements include:

• A minimum of 12 practical activities to be carried out by each learner which, together, meet the
requirements of Appendices 5b (Practical skills identified for direct assessment and developed
through teaching and learning) and 5c (Use of apparatus and techniques) from the prescribed
subject content, published by the Department for Education. The required practical activities will
be defined by each awarding organisation in their specification;
• Teachers will assess you using Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC) issued jointly by the
awarding organisations. The CPAC are based on the requirements of Appendices 5b and 5c of the
subject content requirements published by the Department for Education, and define the minimum
standard required for the achievement of a pass;
• You will all keep an appropriate record of your practical work, including your assessed practical
activities;
• Learners who demonstrate the required standard across all the requirements of the CPAC will
receive a ‘pass’ grade;
• There will be no separate assessment of practical skills for AS qualifications;
• You will answer questions in the AS and A level examination papers that assess the requirements of
Appendix 5a (Practical skills identified for indirect assessment and developed through teaching and
learning) from the prescribed subject content, published by the Department for Education. These
questions may draw on, or range beyond, the practical activities included in the specification.

In order to achieve a pass, you will need to:

• Develop these competencies by carrying out a minimum of 12 practical activities, which allow
acquisition of the techniques outlined in the requirements of the specification;
• Consistently and routinely exhibit the competencies listed in the CPAC before the completion of the
A-level course;
• Keep an appropriate record of your practical work, including your assessed practical activities;
• Be able to demonstrate and/or record independent evidence of your competency, including
evidence of independent application of investigative approaches and methods to practical work.

The practical activities prescribed in the subject specification will provide opportunities for demonstrating
competence in all the skills identified, together with the use of apparatus and techniques for each subject.
However, you can also demonstrate these competencies in any additional practical activity undertaken
throughout the course of study which covers the requirements of appendix 5c.

12 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Advice for How You Should Lay Out Your Practical Write Up

DATE EVERY PAGE YOU WRITE ON

Suggested Headings you could always use:

• Aim of the Experiment: What relationship are you trying to discover in this experiment?

• Variables: What are your Dependent, Independent and Control Variables in your experiment?

• Changes to Method: Do not write the given method out again but write down any changes you have
made to the method or how you may have adapted or changed your apparatus.

• Safety: Identify any potential hazards in the experiment. What safety equipment have you used.? How
have you minimised risks, e.g. by adjusting your equipment or method?

• Observations: Your observations will take the form of either a table or a description. Make sure that
your table has headings with appropriate units. Use the correct number of significant figures and use a
RULER to draw lines.

• Conclusions: Make any relevant calculations by using equations or information from your graphs.

• Error Analysis: Undertake error analysis in order to discover any uncertainties in your results.

• Evaluation: Discuss your uncertainties in terms of systematic and random errors.

• Further Research: This could be added at any point in your practical write up. Cite sources of
information that have either helped you prepare for the experiment or you have used to compare your
own results against.

13 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Evidence for The Endorsement

Centres will be visited by a monitor who will agree with teachers a date for their visit. They are likely to
watch practical work taking place, and discuss with the teacher present their views of the competencies
exhibited by the learners. There should be no need to coach learners for this visit, as it is the teachers’
abilities to assess practical work that are being monitored, not the learners’ performance.

The following minimum documentation requirements have been agreed by the awarding bodies, and
would be expected to be available to the monitor to view. There is currently no requirement for any of the
following to be sent into the exam board.

1. Documented plans to carry out sufficient practical activities which meet the requirements of CPAC,
incorporating skills and techniques detailed in appendix 5, over the course of the A level;

2. a record of each practical activity undertaken and the date when this was completed;

3. a record of the criteria being assessed in that practical activity;

4. a record of learner attendance;

5. a record of which learner met the criteria and which did not;

6. learner work showing evidence required for the particular task with date;

7. any associated materials provided for the practical activity e.g. written instructions given.

14 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Competency Practical mastery

To be awarded a Pass a learner must, by the end of the practical science assessment,
consistently and routinely meet the criteria in respect of each competency listed
below. A learner may demonstrate the competencies in any practical activity
undertaken as part of that assessment throughout the course of study.

1. Follows a. Correctly follows written instructions to carry out experimental techniques or

written procedures.
procedures
2. Applies a. Correctly uses appropriate instrumentation, apparatus and materials (including ICT)
investigative to carry out investigative activities, experimental techniques and procedures with
approaches minimal assistance or prompting.
and methods
when using
b. Carries out techniques or procedures methodically, in sequence and in
instruments
combination, identifying practical issues and making adjustments when necessary.
and
equipment
c. Identifies and controls significant quantitative variables where applicable, and
plans approaches to take account of variables that cannot readily be controlled.

d. Selects appropriate equipment and measurement strategies in order to ensure

suitably accurate results.
3. Safely uses a a. Identifies hazards and assesses risks associated with these hazards, making safety
range of adjustments as necessary, when carrying out experimental techniques and
practical procedures in the lab or field.
equipment
and materials
b. Uses appropriate safety equipment and approaches to minimise risks with minimal
prompting.
4. Makes and a. Makes accurate observations relevant to the experimental or investigative
records procedure.
observations
b. Obtains accurate, precise and sufficient data for experimental and investigative
procedures and records this methodically using appropriate units and conventions.

5. Researches, a. Uses appropriate software and/or tools to process data, carry out research and
references report findings.
and reports
b. Cites sources of information demonstrating that research has taken place,
supporting planning and conclusions.

15 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

16 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

17 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

18 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 1

Investigation into the variation of the frequency of stationary waves on a string with length, tension and
mass per unit length of the string

Materials and equipment

• signal generator
• vibration generator
• stand
• 2 kg mass
• 1.5 m length of string (e.g. 1.5 mm thick)
• pulley which can be clamped to the bench
• wooden bridge slightly higher than the pulley
• 100 g masses on a holder
• metre ruler
• an electronic top pan balance with precision 0.1 g or better.

Method

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

2.

3. Adjust the position of the bridge so that l is 1.000 m measured using the metre ruler.
4. Increase the frequency of the signal generator from zero until the string resonates at its fundamental
frequency (as indicated in the diagram with a node at each end and a central antinode).
5. Read the frequency f, on the signal generator dial.
6. Repeat the procedure with l = 0.900, 0.800, 0.700, 0.600 and 0.500 m.
7. Obtain a second set of results by repeating the experiment and find the mean value of f for each value
of l.

19 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

20 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

21 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

1. State the Independent Variable, Dependant Variable and the Control Variables.
2. Plot a graph of mean 1/f against l. Draw the best straight line of fit though the points and find the
gradient. The speed of the travelling waves on the string is 𝑣 = fλ where λ is the wavelength.
3. Show that the gradient is 1/ fl so 𝑣 is given by 2/gradient in ms–1.
4. Use this to find the speed of the wave. The speed is also given by 𝑣 = √(T/𝜇) where T is the tension
in the string in N and 𝜇 is the mass per unit length of the string in kg m–1
5. With a 100 g mass hanging from the string, T = 0.981 N, 𝜇 can be found by weighing the
1.5 m length of string on an electronic balance, converting this into kg, and dividing by 1.5.
These values can then be substituted into the above equation to find another value for 𝑣, which
can be compared to the value obtained from the graph.

Evaluation

1. Calculate the largest percentage uncertainty in your measurements of length. Is your choice of
equipment for measuring length justified?
2. What was the main hazard in the experiment and what did you do to minimise its risk?
3. Describe any difficulties with the method and any adjustments that you made.
4. Calculate the percentage difference between this method of finding the wave speed and the
graphical method

22 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Assessment Date completed _____________

Common Practical I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Assessment Criteria
CPAC 1 - Follows • Follow a set of written instructions to produce a graph of resonant
written instructions frequency against (1/length) of a vibrating string.
This will be judged on • Follow instructions to find mass per unit length of the string (mass and
watching you in length of string measured)
classroom and • Carry out steps in the correct order
whether your write-up • Feel confident to seek clarification when carrying out method steps,
shows you have when using an unfamiliar set of apparatus, particularly with how to use
followed the the signal generator.
instructions on the
sheet.
CPAC 2 - Applies • Experiment with different tensions and frequencies to decide which
investigative a.
combination will enable the most accurate data collection.
approaches and
methods when using • Correctly list the variables: independent (length of vibrating string)
instruments and c. dependent variable (resonant frequency) and control variables (tension
equipment and mass of string per kilogram)
• Generate a set of data that is expected:
Resonant frequency in the approximate range 20-50 Hz (2nd harmonic) or
a 10-25Hz (1st harmonic).
Correctly measure mass and length of the string to give mass per unit
length, µ of about 1.8 g/m
CPAC 4 - Makes and • Design a data table to record their data as they collect it.
records observations • Record raw data in the table: the length of the vibrating string and the
resonant frequency.
b • Collect data points across the full range of lengths (1.000-0.400 m)
• Write headings clearly with quantities and units written in the format as
directed by the practical handbook.
• Present data to the correct number of significant figures.
• Layout work correctly with graphs, calculations, error analysis and
conclusions according to standard formats.
• Produce columns with calculated values of mean resonant frequency and
1/f
CPAC 5 - Researches,
• Correctly calculate wave speed, v (with units) from the gradient.
references and reports
• Correctly calculate µ (with units) from collected data and correctly
This experiment
calculate wave speed from tension, T and linear density, µ.
doesn’t expect any
a • Calculate the percentage uncertainty in v.
research but both
• Identify and reasonably estimate the uncertainty in the dependent
parts require
variables. Calculate the percentage uncertainty of v as calculated from
calculations, errors
and conclusions. the tension formula.
• Compare the two values of v. Calculate the percentage difference.
• Present a valid conclusion which summarises the results, comments on
reliability, discusses most significant error (precision of f) and how this
could be improved in a further experiment.
Target for improvement:

23 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past paper exam practice questions

This question is about an experiment to measure the wavelength of microwaves.

A microwave transmitter T and a receiver R are arranged on a line marked on the bench.

A metal sheet M is placed on the marked line perpendicular to the bench surface.

Figure 1 shows side and plan views of the arrangement.

The circuit connected to T and the ammeter connected to R are only shown in the plan view.

Figure 1

The distance y between T and R is recorded.

24 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

T is switched on and the output from T is adjusted so a reading is produced on the ammeter as
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

M is kept parallel to the marked line and moved slowly away as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

The reading decreases to a minimum reading which is not zero.

The perpendicular distance x between the marked line and M is recorded.

(a) The ammeter reading depends on the superposition of waves travelling directly to R and
other waves that reach R after reflection from M.

State the phase difference between the sets of waves superposing at R when the
ammeter reading is a minimum.
Give a suitable unit with your answer.

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(b) Explain why the minimum reading is not zero when the distance x is measured.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

25 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(c) When M is moved further away the reading increases to a maximum then decreases to a
minimum.

At the first minimum position, a learner labels the minimum n = 1 and records the value
of x. The next minimum position is labelled n = 2 and the new value of x is recorded.
Several positions of maxima and minima are produced.

Describe a procedure that the learner could use to make sure that M is parallel to the
marked line before measuring each value of x. You may wish to include a sketch with
your answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(d) It can be shown that

where λ is the wavelength of the microwaves and y is the distance defined in Figure 1.

The learner plots the graph shown in Figure 4.

The learner estimates the uncertainty in each value of to be 0.025 m and

adds error bars to the graph.

Determine
• the maximum gradient Gmax of a line that passes through all the error bars
• the minimum gradient Gmin of a line that passes through all the error bars.

Gmax = ____________________

Gmin = ____________________
(3)

26 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(e) Determine λ using your results for Gmax and Gmin.

λ = ____________________ m
(2)

Figure 4

27 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(f) Determine the percentage uncertainty in your result for λ.

percentage uncertainty in λ = ____________________ %

(3)

(g) Explain how the graph in Figure 4 can be used to obtain the value of y.
You are not required to determine y.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(h) Suppose that the data for n = 13 had not been plotted on Figure 4.

Add a tick (✔) in each row of the table to identify the effect, if any, on the results you
would obtain for Gmax, Gmin, λ and y.

Result Reduced Not affected increased

Gmax

Gmin

y
(4)
(Total 18 marks)

28 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 2

Investigation of the interference effects by Young’s slit and diffraction by a diffraction grating

Young’s slit experiment

Materials and equipment

• laser – class II optical laser with output 1 mW or less

• darkened slide with double slit ‘rulings’ (usually 1 mm slit separation)
• Vernier callipers to measure slit separation
• adjustable single slit (might be unnecessary with the laser)
• white screen (wall covered with white paper may be suitable but paper must be matt finish or non-
reflective to reduce chances of reflected beams)
• metre ruler.

Method

1. A partially darkened laboratory is required ensuring lasers are used safely.

2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram, with the laser illuminating the double slit and the
screen a distance D of initially about 1 metre. (With the laser the single slit might not be required,
provided the laser beam is wide enough to illuminate across the double slit).

3. Carefully adjust the position of the laser until the light spreads evenly over the two slits. An
interference pattern should be visible on the screen.
4. The fringe width (or fringe spacing), w, can be measured by measuring across a large number of visible
fringes. (Take care when counting – counting from the first bright fringe to the tenth bright fringe
would represent nine fringe widths!).
5. Use the metre ruler to measure D.
6. A measurement of the slit separation, s, is required.
7. The value of D should be changed (from 0.5 – 1.0 m) and the fringe width, w, measured for each value
of D.

29 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

30 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

31 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis
ws
Consider the equation λ= D

1. Plot a graph of w on the y-axis against D (should be a straight line through the origin).
2. Show that the gradient = λ /s.
3. Use your graph to calculate a value for the wavelength of the laser

Evaluation

1. What equipment did you select to measure s and why?

2. Calculate the %uncertainty of your gradient.
3. Calculate the %uncertainty of your value for s.
4. Hence find the %uncertainty in your value for the wavelength.
5. Calculate the percentage difference between your value for the wavelength and the value quoted
by the manufacturer. What does this tell you about the method to find the wavelength?

32 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Diffraction with a plane transmission diffraction grating at normal incidence

Materials and equipment

• laser – class II optical laser with output 1 mW or less

• plane transmission diffraction grating
• white screen (wall covered with white paper may be suitable but paper must be matt finish or non-
reflective to reduce chances of reflected beams)
• metre ruler.

Method

1. A partially darkened laboratory is required. Please ensure lasers are used safely.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram, with the laser illuminating the diffraction grating and
the screen a distance D of initially about 1 metre.

3. Carefully adjust the position of the diffraction grating so that the diffraction grating is perpendicular to
the beam of light from the laser. (A large set square might be useful).
4. The diffraction pattern should be visible on the screen. The number of orders shown will depend on
the line spacing of the diffraction grating.
5. The angles Ɵ1 and Ɵ2 can be determined by measuring the distances h1 , h2 and D.

33 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

34 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

State the Independent Variable, Dependant Variable and the Control Variables.

The formula nλ = d sinƟ can be used to determine the wavelength of the laser light.
n is the order of the diffraction pattern
d is the grating spacing = 1/number of lines per metre
λ is the wavelength of light

1. The values of Ɵ for each order, both above and below the zero order, should be measured. A mean
value for λ can be calculated from the data.

Evaluation

1. How did you reduce the risk of using a laser?

2. What range of values of D did you use and why?

35 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

36 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Assessment Date completed _____________

Common Practical Assessment I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Criteria (CPAC)
CPAC 1 • Set up the Young’s double slit experiment correctly
Follows written instructions • Follow a set of written instructions to measure w and D
This will be judged on watching correctly (leading to a wavelength value close to 650 nm)
you in classroom and whether 1 • Set up the apparatus for measurement of wavelength with a
your write-up shows you have diffraction grating correctly
followed the instructions on the • Follow a set of written instructions to measure D and h for
sheet. at least two orders
• Set up both experiments correctly and use the apparatus
correctly
• Ensure that the double slit/diffraction grating is at 90
2a
degrees to the laser beam
CPAC 2
• Ensure that the screen is at 90 degrees to the zero-order
Applies investigative
beam
approaches and methods when
2b • Identify the need for a large D with a double slit
using instruments and
equipment • Select an appropriate diffraction grating (80 lines per mm)
for the size of the screen and distance from laser
2d • Measure across many fringes to find w for Young’s double
slit
• Measure h for at least 2 orders
CPAC 3
Safely uses a range of practical
equipment and materials 3b • Use the laser with due care following the safety precautions
This will be judged on watching
you in classroom
CPAC 4 • Record the measurement of D, and distance across n fringes
Makes and records 4b with units.
observations • Record D, and h for at least two orders with units
• Calculate the wavelength stating correct units (double slit)
CPAC 5
• Calculate the average wavelength stating correct units
Researches, references and
(diffraction grating)
reports
• Compare the wavelength from both experiments
This experiment doesn’t expect 5a
• Compare the wavelength with the value quoted on the laser
any research but both parts
require calculations, errors and • Present a valid conclusion which summarises the results,
conclusions. comments on reliability, discusses most significant error and
how this could be improved in a further experiment.

Target for improvement:

37 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

This question is about the measurement of the wavelength of laser light. The light is shone onto a
diffraction grating at normal incidence. The light transmitted by the diffraction grating produces five spots
on a screen. These spots are labelled A to E in Figure 1.

Figure 1

A learner uses a metre ruler with 1 mm divisions to take readings. He uses these readings to
obtain measurements a, b and c, the distances between centres of the spots as shown in
Figure 1. Table 1 shows his measurements and his estimated uncertainties.

Table 1

Measurement Distance / mm Uncertainty / mm

a 289 2

b 255 2

c 544 2

(a) Explain why the learner’s estimated uncertainty in measurement a is greater than the
smallest division on the metre ruler.
You should refer to the readings taken by the learner in obtaining this measurement.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

38 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(b) The distance between the centres of spots A and C and the distance between the centres
of spots C and E are equal.
That is:

a+b=c

Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the sum of a and b.

percentage uncertainty = ____________________

(2)

(c) Discuss why the experimental measurements lead to a different percentage uncertainty
in c compared to that in a + b.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(d) Eye protection should be used to prevent eye damage when using a laser.

Describe one other safety measure to minimise the risk of eye damage when using a
laser in the laboratory.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

39 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(e) Figure 2 shows the experimental arrangement with y, the perpendicular distance
between the diffraction grating and the screen, equal to 1.280 m.

Table 2 shows some of the data from Table 1.

Table 2

Measurement Distance / mm

a 289

b 255

c 544

Figure 2

Calculate the angle θ shown on Figure 2.

θ = ____________________ degrees
(1)

(f) Spot E is the second-order maximum.

40 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

The diffraction grating has 3.00 × 105 lines per metre.

Calculate the wavelength of the laser light.

wavelength = ____________________ m
(1)

(g) The learner plans to repeat the experiment using the same diffraction grating and laser.

State and explain one way the learner can change the experimental arrangement to
reduce the percentage uncertainty in the measurement of the wavelength.

Assume the percentage uncertainty in sin θ is the sum of the percentage uncertainties in
y and c.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 12 marks)

41 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

42 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 3

Determination of g by a free-fall method - Materials and equipment

• stand and clamp
• electromagnet
• low voltage variable DC supply (to power the electromagnet)
• 2 kg mass
• steel ball bearing
• two light gates with bosses to attach them to the stand
• an electronic clock or data logger with precision 1 ms or better.
• a pad (e.g. of felt) to protect the bench when the ball bearing lands.
• metre ruler.

Method
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

• The height between the starting position of the ball bearing and the upper light gate should be kept
constant, so that the velocity, u, with which the ball bearing reaches this light gate is also constant.
• Adjust the position of the lower light gate so that h is 0.500 m measured using the metre ruler (If a
taller stand is available, h could be set at a higher starting value).
• Switch on the supply to the electromagnet, and hang the ball bearing from it (or fit the ball bearing
into the clamp if a mechanical release mechanism is being used).
• Reset the clock or data logger to zero and switch off the electromagnet (or open the clamp).
• Read the time on the clock or data logger once the ball bearing has passed through the light gates.
• Take repeat readings to find the mean time, t.
• Reduce h by 0.050 m and repeat the procedure down to a value of 0.250 m (lower values than this
make it difficult to obtain accurate timings).

43 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

44 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

45 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

Consider the equation:

h = ut + gt2/2

1. Plot a graph of 2h/t against t.

2. Draw the best straight line of fit though the points and find the gradient (the graph should be a straight
line with intercept 2u).
3. Show that the gradient of the graph gives g in ms–2 and the intercept will be 2u. Hence calculate a value
for g.

Evaluation

1. Calculate the %uncertainty in your smallest value of t.

2. Calculate the %uncertainty in your smallest vale for h.
3. Calculate the %uncertainty of your gradient.
4. Calculate the percentage difference between your value for g and the known value of 9.81 ms-2.
What does this tell you about the method to find the wavelength?

Assessment

Date completed _____________

46 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Common Practical Assessment I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Criteria (CPAC)
CPAC 1 • Follow a set of written instructions to produce the graph of
Follows written instructions velocity squared against distance.
This will be judged on watching you • Carry out steps in the correct order
in classroom and whether your Feel confident to seek clarification when carrying out method
write-up shows you have followed steps, when using an unfamiliar set of apparatus, particularly with
the instructions on the sheet. how to use the timer for the light gates.
• Generate a set of data that is expected. A gradient of graph in
a
the range 18 – 21 ms-2 (this gradient is twice g) is satisfactory.
• Design a data table to record their data as they collect it
• Record raw data in their table (if using raw data this should
CPAC 4 be retained).
Makes and records • Put data in columns recording the displacement and the time
observations b for at least 5 values
• Repeat timings for each height.
• Write headings clearly and units are written in the format as
directed by the practical handbook
• Present data to the correct number of significant figures
• Layout work correctly with graphs, calculations, error analysis
and conclusions according to standard formats.
• Produce columns with calculated values (v2).
• Produce correct calculation of g (with units) from the
gradient.
• Calculate the percentage difference between their value of g
CPAC 5
and the accepted value.
Researches, references and a
reports • Calculate the experimental uncertainty in their measurement
of g.
• Give a valid conclusion which summarises the results,
comments on reliability (from scatter of results and
consistency of repeats) discusses most significant error
(measurement of t) and how this could be improved in a
further experiment.

Target for improvement:

47 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

This question is about measuring the acceleration of free fall g.

A learner undertakes an experiment to measure the acceleration of free fall.

Figure 1 shows a steel sphere attached by a string to a steel bar. The bar is hinged at the top and acts as a
pendulum. When the string is burnt through with a match, the sphere falls vertically from rest and the bar
swings clockwise. As the bar reaches the vertical position, the sphere hits it and makes a mark on a sheet
of pressure-sensitive paper that is attached to the bar.

Figure 1

The learner needs to measure the distance d fallen by the sphere in the time t taken for the
bar to reach the vertical position.

To measure d the learner marks the initial position of the sphere on the paper. The learner
then measures the distance between the initial mark and the mark made by the sphere after
falling.

To measure t the learner sets the bar swinging without the string attached and determines the
time for the bar to swing through 10 small-angle oscillations.

(a) Figure 2 shows the strip of paper after it has been removed from the bar. The initial
position of the sphere and the final mark are shown.

48 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Mark on Figure 2 the distance that the learner should measure in order to determine d.

Figure 2

(1)

(b) The learner repeats the procedure several times.

Data for the experiment is shown in the table below.

d/m

0.752

0.758

0.746

0.701

0.772

0.769

Time for bar to swing through 10 oscillations as measured by a stop clock = 15.7 s

Calculate the time for one oscillation and hence the time t for the bar to reach the
vertical position.

time____________________s
(1)

49 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(c) Determine the percentage uncertainty in the time t suggested by the precision of the
recorded data.

uncertainty =____________________ %
(2)

(d) Use the data from the table to calculate a value for d.

d = ____________________m
(2)

(e) Calculate the absolute uncertainty in your value of d.

uncertainty =____________________ m
(1)

(f) Determine a value for g and the absolute uncertainty in g.

g =____________________ ms–2

uncertainty =____________________ ms–2

(3)

50 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(g) Discuss one change that could be made to reduce the uncertainty in the experiment.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(h) The learner modifies the experiment by progressively shortening the bar so that the time
for an oscillation becomes shorter. The learner collects data of distance fallen s and
corresponding times t over a range of times.

Suggest, giving a clear explanation, how these data should be analysed to obtain a value
for g.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 15 marks)

51 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

52 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 4

Determination of the Young Modulus by a simple method

Method

• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Ensure all the wire clamps are fully tightened. A 0.1 kg
mass hanger is initially attached to each wire, to ensure both wires are initially stretched taught.

• Measure and record the diameter of the wire at several places using a micrometer screw gauge. Take
an average.
• Measure the initial length of the test wire, l, with the metre ruler to the marker.

• Add an additional 0.5 kg mass to the test wire and take the new scale reading. The extension of the
wire can be calculated by subtracting the two scale readings.

• Repeat the process, adding an extra 0.5 kg mass each time, take the new scale reading and calculate
the corresponding extension. A total mass of up to 3.5 kg should be adequate.

• With the wire full loaded remove a0.5 kg mass and take the scale reading.

• Continue to unload the wire, 0.5 kg at a time, taking the scale reading each time.

• The extension of the wire for each mass during the unloading process can then be calculated. If the
extension during unloading is greater than during loading, the elastic limit for the wire might have
been exceeded. If the extension values are similar a mean extension for loading /unloading can be
calculated for each mass.

53 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

54 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

55 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

Consider the equation:

tensile stress mg/A mgL
Young modulus E = tensile strain = e/L
= Ae

1. Rearrange the equation above in terms of extension, e.

2. Plot a graph of mean extension, e, on the y-axis against load, mg. (where g = 9.81 N/kg)
3. Calculate the gradient of your graph.
4. Use the gradient to determine a value for the Young’s Modulus for the material of the wire (steel).

Evaluation

1. What is the main hazard and risk in the practical and how did you reduce it?
2. Estimate the uncertainty and therefore percentage uncertainty in your values of the gradient, A
and L.
3. Use these values to estimate the overall percentage uncertainty in the value obtained for Youngs
Modulus.

Research

Research the use of ‘Searle’s Method’ for determining the Young’s modulus of a material. Include: How the
method is performed, including equipment and its advantages.

Give a citation for the resource you use.

56 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Assessment Date completed _____________

Common Practical
I am looking for my learners to be able to…
Assessment Criteria CPAC)
CPAC 1: Follows written
instructions This will be • Follow a set of written instructions to produce the graph of stress
judged on watching you in against strain.
classroom and whether • Carry out steps in the correct order
your write-up shows you • Feel confident to seek clarification when carrying out method steps,
have followed the when using an unfamiliar set of apparatus
instructions on the sheet.
CPAC 3: Safely uses a range
of practical equipment and
• Wear safety glasses throughout.
materials This will be b
• Mind the feet (heavy mass falling)
judged on watching you in
classroom
• Generate a set of data that is expected. The graph should show
a a linear section to about 6 – 7 N, then curve steeply and
eventually break (12 – 18 N)
• Record raw data in the table (if using raw data this should be
retained).
CPAC 4: Makes and records
• Record Elastic, Plastic, Creep and UTS.
observations
• Put data in columns recording the extension and the force for
b
at least 12 values
• Record length and diameter of wire
• Write headings clearly (quantity/unit)
• Present data to the correct number of significant figures
• Layout work correctly with graphs, calculations, error analysis
and conclusions according to standard formats.
• Produce columns with calculated values (stress and strain).
• Produce a graph and a correct calculation of the Young’s
modulus (with units) from the gradient.
CPAC 5: Researches, • Identification of at least one systematic error (e.g. length of
references and reports a wire). Identification and reasonable estimation of the error in
Use a text book or a the independent variable for at least one part.
website to check accepted • A valid conclusion which summarises the results, comments on
values plus calculations, reliability (from scatter of results and consistency of repeats)
errors and conclusions. discusses most significant error (measurement of extension)
and how this could be improved in a further experiment
(longer wire / travelling microscope).
• Reference to an accepted value of Young’s modulus for copper
b and the source is given (e.g. textbook or website).
• A correct referencing format.

Target for improvement:

57 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

A learner does an experiment to determine the Young modulus of a metal.

Figure 1 shows a wire made from the metal clamped at points A and B so that the wire is horizontal. The
horizontal distance between A and B = 3.00 m.

C is the mid-point on the wire between A and B.

Figure 1

A mass of weight W is suspended at C to extend the wire. Figure 2 shows that C moves
vertically downwards by a distance y.

Figure 2

(a) When W is 1.0 N, y is 6.34 cm.

Show that the wire extends by approximately 3 mm.

(1)

58 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(b) Calculate the tension in the wire when W is 1.0 N.

tension = _______________ N
(2)

It can be shown that

where E = Young modulus of the metal

A = 1.11 × 10−7 m2
x = 1.50 m
k = a constant.

A learner measures y for different values of W and plots the graph shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

(c) Determine E using Figure 3.

59 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

E = _______________ Pa
(4)

(d) Deduce the fundamental base units for k.

fundamental base units for k = _______________

(1)
(Total 8 marks)

60 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 5

Determination of resistivity of a wire using a micrometer, ammeter and voltmeter

Materials and equipment

• 1 metre length of constantan wire of thickness 0.25 mm, for example

• low voltage variable DC supply (e.g. 0–6 V)
• ammeter (e.g. 0–1 A with 0.02 A precision or better)
• voltmeter (e.g. 0–5 V with 0.1 V precision or better)
• two crocodile clips
• five connecting leads
• metre ruler
• micrometer.

Method

1. Measure the thickness of the constantan wire using the micrometer in at least 3 places and find the
mean diameter d. Convert this to metres.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

3. Attach the crocodile clips so that l = 0.100 m measured on the meter ruler.
4. Set the voltage, V, to 0.5 V and measure the current, I in A.
5. Calculate the resistance R = V/I in Ω
6. Repeat the procedure for l = 0.200, 0.300, 0.400, 0.500, 0.600, 0.700 and 0.800 m, increasing V by 0.5
V each time to maintain the current at about 0.5 A. (This will allow a reasonably accurate
measurement of the current, without it being so large that the wire is warmed. Switching off the
power supply between readings will also keep any heating to a minimum.)
7. Obtain a second set of results by repeating the experiment and find the mean value of R for each value
of l.

61 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

62 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

RA
Consider the equation: ρ=
l

1. State the Independent Variable, Dependant Variable and the Control Variables.
2. Plot a graph of the mean R against l.
3. Draw the best straight line of fit though the points and find the gradient (the graph should be a
straight line through the origin).
4. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire A = πd2/4 in m2.
5. Show that ρ = gradient × A in Ωm (the accepted value is 4.9 × 10–7 Ωm) and use the this formula to
find the resistivity of the wire.

Evaluation

1. Why is it important to control the temperature of the wire and how did you do it?
2. Calculate the %uncertainty in the gradient
3. Calculate the %uncertainty in A.
4. Hence give the %uncertainty in your value for the resistivity.
5. Research and reference a third-party result for the resistivity of the wire that you used (e.g.
textbook or website)

63 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

64 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Assessment Date completed _____________

Common Practical Assessment I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Criteria (CPAC)
• Follow a set of written instructions to produce the graph of
CPAC 1 - Follows written
resistance against length
instructions
• Carry out steps in the correct order
This will be judged on watching
• Work well as in team in their pair and able to carry out
you in classroom and whether
practical steps
your write-up shows you have
followed the instructions on the • Feel confident to seek clarification when carrying out
sheet. method steps, when using an unfamiliar set of apparatus,
particularly with the multimeter range setting
CPAC 2 - Applies investigative
• Correctly list the variables: independent dependent
approaches and methods when c.
variable and control variables
using instruments and equipment
• Generate a set of data that is expected. Resistance
a
per m in the range 11 – 13 Ω
• Design a data table to record their data as they
collect it
• Record raw data in their table (if using raw data this
should be retained
CPAC 4 - Makes and records
• Put data in columns for voltage and length with a
observations
b column for resistance
• Collect data points across the full range
• Write headings clearly and units are written in the
format as directed by the practical handbook
• Present data to the correct number of significant
figures
• Layout work correctly with graphs, calculations,
error analysis and conclusions according to standard
formats.
• Produce correct calculation of resistivity (with units)
from the gradient.
• Identify at least one systematic error (e.g. contact /
CPAC 5 - Researches, references wire resistance).
and reports a • Identify and reasonably estimate the error in the
Use a text book to check method independent variable.
plus calculations, errors and • Write a valid conclusion which summarises the
conclusions. results, comments on reliability (from scatter of
results) discusses most significant error (lack of
linearity of the wire) and how this could be
improved in a further experiment (wire under
tension).
• Reference a third-party result for the resistivity of
b the wire used (e.g. textbook or website)
• A correct referencing format.

Target for improvement:

65 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

Conductive paper, sometimes called Teledeltos paper, is produced by coating one surface of
the paper with a thin layer of graphite paint. To investigate its electrical properties, pieces of
the paper can be joined to a conventional wired circuit using copper electrodes and bulldog
clips, as shown below.

It is known that the paper obeys Ohm’s Law providing the current through it does not exceed
200 mA. The company that manufactures it estimates that under typical laboratory conditions,
the resistivity of the paint is between 1.0 × 10−5 Ωm and 5.0 × 10−5 Ωm.

Design an experiment that investigates some characteristic of the conductive paper.

You should consider the following in your answer.

• The variables you intend to measure and how to ensure that they are measured
accurately.

• The factors you will need to control and how you will do this.

• The expected outcome of the experiment that you design.

• How any difficulties in performing the experiment could be overcome.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

66 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 8 marks)

67 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

68 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 6

Investigation of the emf and internal resistance of electric cells and batteries

Materials and equipment

• cell or battery whose internal emf and internal resistance is being investigated. Avoid using
rechargeable cells or batteries as these have a very low internal resistance, making it difficult to
measure and they can deliver high currents on short circuit
• Cell holder (or suitable connectors for cell/battery used)
• variable resistor (e.g. a large wire wound rheostat is suitable)
• digital voltmeter (e.g. 0–10 V)
• digital ammeter (e.g. 0–1 A)
• switch
• connecting leads.

Method

• Sketch a circuit diagram for the arrangement to measure the current and terminal potential difference
when a variable resistor is connected to a cell.

• With the switch open record, the reading, V, on the voltmeter.

• Close the switch and take the readings of pd, V, on the voltmeter and current, I, on the ammeter.
• Adjust the variable resistor to obtain pairs of readings of V and I, over the widest possible range.
• Open the switch after each pair of readings. Only close it for sufficient time to take each pair of
readings.

69 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

70 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

71 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

Consider the equation: ε = V+I r

1. State the Independent variable, Dependant variable and the control Variable.
2. Plot a graph of V on the y-axis against I.
3. Determine the gradient and y-intercept from your graph and what these represent according to the
equation above.

Evaluation

1. What is the advantage of using a multimeter over a regular voltmeter to measure the voltage?
2. Research the theoretical internal resistance of the battery used. Use correct referencing technique
3. Find the %uncertainty in your value for the emf of the cell.

72 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Assessment Date completed _____________

Common Practical I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Assessment Criteria (CPAC)
CPAC 1 - Follows written • Follow a set of written instructions to produce the graph of
instructions terminal pd against current.
This will be judged on • Carry out steps in the correct order.
watching you in classroom and • Feel confident to seek clarification when carrying out method
whether your write-up shows steps, when using an unfamiliar set of apparatus, particularly
you have followed the with the settings on multimeters.
instructions on the sheet.
CPAC 2 - Applies investigative
approaches and methods • Correctly list the variables: independent dependent
c.
when using instruments and variable and control variables
equipment
• Generate a set of data that is expected. The graph should
a
be linear, repeats should be consistent.
• Design a data table to record their data as they collect it
• Record raw data in their table (if using raw data this
should be retained).
CPAC 4 - Makes and records
• Put data in columns recording the p.d. and current for a
observations
b range of rheostat resistances
• Repeat values recorded (if repeats done).
• Write headings clearly with quantities and units written in
the format directed by the practical handbook.
• Present data to the correct number of significant figures.
• Layout work correctly with graphs, calculations, error
analysis and conclusions according to standard formats.
• Produce a correct calculation of the internal resistance
(with units) from the gradient.
• Identify a reasonable estimation of the error using
CPAC 5 - Researches,
instrument precision for a typical value, in the
references and reports
a independent variable.
Calculations, errors and
conclusions. • Formulate a valid conclusion which summarises the
results, comments on reliability (from scatter of results
and consistency of repeats) discusses most significant
error (measurement of p.d. and current have similar
precision) and how this could be improved in a further
experiment (meter with more digits).

Target for improvement:

73 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

Figure 1 shows a partly-completed circuit used to investigate the emf ε and the internal resistance r
of a power supply. The resistance of P and the maximum resistance of Q are unknown.

Figure 1

(a) Complete Figure 1 to show a circuit including a voltmeter and an ammeter that is suitable
for the investigation.
(1)

(b) Describe

• a procedure to obtain valid experimental data using your circuit

• how these data are processed to obtain ε and r by a graphical method.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

74 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Figure 2 shows a different experiment carried out to confirm the results for ε and r.

Figure 2

Initially the power supply is connected in series with an ammeter and a 22 Ω resistor. The
current I in the circuit is measured. The number n of 22 Ω resistors in the circuit is increased as
shown in Figure 2. The current I is measured after each resistor is added. It can be shown that

Figure 3 shows a graph of the experimental data.

Figure 3

75 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(c) Show that ε is about 1.6 V.

(2)

(d) Figure 4 shows the circuit when four resistors are connected.

Figure 4

Show, using Figure 3, that the current in the power supply is about 0.25 A.
(1)

(e) Deduce, for the circuit shown in Figure 4,

• the potential difference (pd) across the power supply

• r.

pd = _______________ V

r = _______________ Ω
(4)

76 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(f) Figure 5 shows the plots for n = 1 and n = 14

Figure 5

Three additional data sets for values of n between n = 1 and n = 14 are needed to
complete the graph in Figure 5. Suggest which additional values of n should be used.
Justify your answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(g) The experiment is repeated using a set of resistors of resistance 27 Ω. The relationship
between n and I is now

Show on Figure 5 the effect on the plots for n = 1 and n = 14. You do not need to do a
calculation.
(2)
(Total 17 marks)

77 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

78 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 7

Investigation into simple harmonic motion using a mass-spring system and a simple pendulum

Simple pendulum to investigate how the time period varies with length and to measure g

Materials and equipment

• pendulum bob
• approximately 1.5 m string or thread
• two small wooden blocks to clamp the string
• stand, boss and clamp
• pin and Blu-Tack to use as fiducial mark
• metre ruler
• stopclock (reading to 0,01 s)

Method

• Attach the pendulum bob to the string and clamp it between two small wooden blocks.

• Measure the length, L, of the pendulum from the point of suspension to the centre of mass of the
pendulum bob. (It might be easier to measure to the top of the pendulum bob and then add on the
radius of the bob to give L.)
• The pendulum should be suspended from the stand as shown, with a pin and Blu-Tack acting as a
fiducial marker, placed immediately below the pendulum bob. This will be at the centre of the
oscillation when the pendulum oscillates.
• Carefully pull the pendulum bob to the side and release it. The pendulum should oscillate with small
amplitude and in a straight line. Check that it continues in a straight line by viewing the oscillation
from the side – if not stop it and start the oscillation again.
• Determine the time period of the simple pendulum by timing 10 complete oscillations.
• Take repeat readings of the time for 10 oscillations, T10.
• Change the length of the pendulum and repeat the process to determine the time period.
• Determine the time period of the pendulum for at least seven different lengths, L.
• Tabulate your data, including columns for L, T10, repeat values of T10, mean value of T10, time period for
one oscillation T, and an additional column for T2.

79 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

1. Plot a graph of T2 on the y-axis against L.

2. Write out the equation for the time period of a pendulum in terms of T2. Determine what the
gradient of your graph represents.
3. Measure the gradient of the graph and use it to determine a value for the acceleration due to
gravity, g.

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

80 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

81 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Evaluation

1. Explain what your graph tell you about the relationship between T2 and L.

Consider the results for your smallest value of L and T

2. Estimate the uncertainty in your values of L and T.

3. Determine the value of g from these results.
4. Hence determine the uncertainty in the value of g.

82 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Mass-spring system

Materials and equipment

• helical spring
• 50g or 100g slotted mass hanger
• 50g or 100g slotted masses
• stand, boss and clamp
• pin and Blu-Tack to use as fiducial mark
• metre ruler
• stopclock (reading to 0,01 s)

Method

8. Hang the spring from a clamp and attach the 50g or 100gmass hanger. Ensure the spring is securely
attached from its support.

9. Position the Blu-Tack and pin, acting as a fiducial marker, at the bottom of the mass as a reference
point. This will represent the centre of the subsequent oscillations.
10. Pull the mass hanger vertically downwards a few centimetres and release. The spring should oscillate
vertically up and down.
11. Determine the time period of the mass-spring system by timing 10 complete oscillations.
12. Take repeat readings of the time for 10 oscillations, T10. Use the values of T10 to find the time period
for one oscillation, T.
13. Add a 50g or 100g mass to the mass hanger and repeat the timing process to enable the time period of
the oscillations to be found.
14. Repeat the experiment with a range of different masses, m, and for each mass determine the
corresponding time period, T.

83 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

84 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

85 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

1. Plot a graph of T2 on the y-axis against m.

2. Starting with the equation for the time period of an oscillating mass on a spring, determine what
the gradient of your graph represents.
3. Use the gradient of the line to determine the spring constant, k.

Evaluation

1. Explain why each of the following increases the accuracy in measuring the time period, T.
a. Recording the time for 10 oscillations.
b. Taking repeats and averages.
c. Placing a fiducial marker at the equilibrium point.

86 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Assessment Date completed _____________

Common Practical I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Assessment Criteria (CPAC)
CPAC 2 a. • Correctly use pin and Blu-Tack as fiducial mark to carry out
Applies investigative investigative activities with minimal assistance or
approaches and methods prompting.
when using instruments and b. • select the most appropriate apparatus to carry out this
equipment investigation (from observation)
c. • Correctly list the variables: independent, dependent
variable and control variables
d. • identify what might be improved to allow the collection of
more accurate data and note these in their lab records (use
of the fiducial mark, simple pendulum length
measurement, possible measurement of mass of slotted
weights, small amplitude and straight-line oscillations)
• take repeat readings for the time of 10 or 20 oscillations

CPAC 4 a • k and g values within 10%

Makes and records
observations b • record raw data in their data table
• choose appropriate ranges for data to be collected
(between 20 cm-100 cm or more for a simple pendulum;
appropriate range depending on the spring)
• collect data at specific points across the full range in
sequence to enable a pattern to be identified. (every 20 cm,
every 50 g or 100 g as appropriate)
• write headings clearly with units written in the format
directed by the Practical handbook
• present data to the correct number of significant figures
• take an appropriate number of repeats, based on the
equipment used

CPAC 5 a • write a short, concise report, inclusive of data tables,

Researches, references and calculations, graphs, conclusion (g and k calculated from
reports the gradients) and evaluation (uncertainty of g and k
calculated)
• give enough detail that someone else could repeat the
work
• process data using software/tools and present calculations
logically

Target for improvement:

87 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

In this experiment you will investigate how the time between two pendulums moving in phase depends
on their relative lengths. No description of the experiment is required. You should devote your time to
making and recording observations, and giving only the specific information requested. You are provided
with the apparatus shown in the diagram.

(a) (i) Adjust the horizontal separation of the strings, s, by moving clip A so that, with each
pendulum bob at the same height above the floor, the longer pendulum has a
length, L, of about 1.00 m.

(ii) Adjust the height of clamp C until the distance, y, defined in the diagram, is about
0.20 m. Ensure that the part of the string between clip B and the clamped circuit
board is vertical.

(iii) Measure and record the distances, s, y and L.

(b) (i) Displace and release one of the pendulums so that it performs small-amplitude
oscillations in a plane which is parallel to the edge of the bench. Set the other
pendulum in motion so that it performs oscillations in a plane that is parallel to the
edge of the bench.

(ii) Start the stopwatch at the instant when the two pendulum motions are seen to be
exactly in phase.

88 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(iii) Measure and record, T, which is the time until the pendulums are next seen to
move exactly in phase.

(iv) By adjusting clamp C and ensuring that the values of s and L remain unchanged,
measure and record further values of T, which correspond to four larger values of
y.

(c) (i) Plot a graph of on the vertical axis against on the horizontal axis.

(ii) Measure and record the gradient, G, of your graph.

(iii) Evaluate .
(16)

(d) (i) Describe the measures that you took to ensure that the part of the string between
clip B and the clamped circuit board was vertical.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) Describe and explain the factors you considered when choosing your additional
values for y.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(iii) A learner suggests that in order to extend the enquiry, additional measurements of
T should be made using values of y that were much smaller than 20.0 cm. Discuss
briefly whether you think that such additional readings would improve the quality
of the evidence obtained from the experiment.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 22 marks)

89 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

90 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 8

Investigation of Boyle’s (constant temperature) law and Charles’s (constant pressure) law for a gas

Boyle’s law

Materials and equipment

• stand and clamp

• 10 ml syringe with 0.5 ml divisions
• 5 cm length of thin-walled rubber or silicone tubing to fit nozzle of syringe
• pinch clip
• 2 kg mass
• loop of string
• 9 × 100 g masses on a 100 g mass holder
• micrometer.

Learner sheet

Method

1. Remove the plunger from the syringe and measure the diameter of the rubber seal, d, using the
micrometer. Convert this into metres.
2. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the seal A = πd2/4 in m2.
3. Replace the plunger and draw in 4.0 ml of air.
4. Fit the rubber tubing over the nozzle, fold the tubing over and clamp it with the pinch clip as close to
the nozzle as possible.

91 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

5. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram initially with the 100 g mass holder carrying one 100 g
mass. Ensure that the string is securely attached to the plunger handle. The clamp should be above
the plunger so that the scale can be read. Clamping the syringe barrel can distort it, making it more
difficult for the plunger to move freely. Consequently, ensure the clamp is high enough on the barrel
above the position where the plunger moves. There should be sufficient room below the masses so
that the plunger can move down as masses are added.
6. Gently move the plunger up and down a few millimetres to ensure it is not sticking.
7. Read the new volume on the syringe scale (fractions of a division should be estimated).
8. Repeat the procedure with an extra two 100 g masses added to the holder each time, up to a total
mass of 1000 g.
9. The whole experiment should then be repeated to obtain a second set of results, and the mean
volumes found.
10. The force exerted by the masses can be calculated using F = mg where m is the mass in kg and g, the
gravitational field strength, is 9.81 Nkg–1.
11. The pressure exerted by this force on the air sample is then F/A in Pascals (Pa). Convert this into kPa.
12. This should be subtracted from standard atmospheric pressure, 101 kPa, to obtain the pressure of the
air sample, P. (Note: the initial volume of the air with no masses hung on the loop will be at standard
atmospheric pressure).

Analysis

1. A graph of 1/V against P should then be plotted (where V is the mean volume of the air sample for
each value of P), with a line of best fit.
2. According to the gas equation, what should the gradient of the line represent?

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

92 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

93 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Evaluation

1. What was the main source of random error in your measurements and what did you do to reduce
it?
2. Taking the smallest value for volume that you measured, calculate the %uncertainty.

94 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Charles’s law

Materials and equipment

• 25 cm length of glass capillary tubing (e.g. outer diameter 5 mm and bore 1 mm – whilst other sizes
will work the bore should not exceed 1 mm)
• 5 cm length of thin-walled rubber tubing to fit over the end of the capillary tubing
• contact adhesive
• concentrated sulfuric acid
• 30 cm ruler
• 2 elastic bands
• thermometer (e.g. –10 to 110 °C)
• 2 litre beaker
• 250 ml glass beaker
• paper towels
• kettle.

Method

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram with the open end of the capillary tube at the top. Allow
the boiled water from the kettle to cool a little before pouring it into the beaker. The hot water should
cover the air sample.

2. Stir the water well using the thermometer, read the value of its temperature, θ, and the length of the
air sample, l, on the 30 cm ruler (see diagram above).
3. Allow the water to cool by 5 °C and repeat the procedure until room temperature has been reached.
(The cooling process can be speeded up by pouring a little water out of the beaker and topping it up
with cold water.)

95 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

96 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

97 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

1. Plot a graph of l against θ. Start the axes at a convenient value, and use a scale which will give a
spread of points over at least half the graph paper in both directions.
2. Draw the best straight line of fit though the points and find the gradient, m.
The form of the graph is l = mθ + c, where c is the value of l when θ = 0 °C.

3. The value of c can be found by reading a pair of values for length and temperature for a point on the
straight line (l1 and θ1, say).
4. Estimate of the value of absolute zero, θ0 by substituting l = 0 into the equation for the form of the
graph.

Assessment

Date completed _____________

98 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Common Practical I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Assessment Criteria (CPAC)
CPAC 1 - Follows written • Correctly follows written instructions to carry out
instructions experimental techniques or procedures.
This will be judged on
watching you in classroom and
whether your write-up shows
you have followed the
instructions on the sheet.
CPAC 4 a • Makes accurate observations relevant to the experimental
Makes and records or investigative procedure.
observations b • Obtains accurate, precise and sufficient data for
experimental and investigative procedures and records this
methodically using appropriate units and conventions.
Target for improvement:

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

This question is about an experiment to estimate absolute zero. Figures 1a to 1d show the stages in the
procedure carried out by a learner. An empty flask fitted with a tube and an open valve is placed in water
bath H containing hot water. The air inside the flask is allowed to come into thermal equilibrium with the
water. The valve is then closed, trapping a certain volume of air, as shown in Figure 1a.

Figure 1a

The flask is inverted and placed in water bath C in which the water is at room temperature. The air inside
the flask is again allowed to come into thermal equilibrium with the water, as shown in Figure 1b.

Figure 1b

99 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

The valve is opened and some water enters the flask, as shown in Figure 1c.

Figure 1c

The depth of the inverted flask is adjusted until the level of water inside the flask is the same
as the level in the water bath. The valve is then closed, trapping the air and the water inside
the flask, as shown in Figure 1d.

Figure 1d

100 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(a) Explain why the volume of the air in the flask in Figure 1c is less than the volume of the
air in the flask in Figure 1d.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b) Explain why Charles’s Law can be applied to compare the air in the flask in Figure 1a with
the air in the flask in Figure 1d.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(c) The flask is removed from water bath C and the valve and stopper are removed.

The volume of the water in the flask is V1

The flask is then completely refilled with water and the valve and stopper replaced.

The volume of the water now in the flask is V2

The volumes V1 and V2 are shown by the shaded parts in Figure 2.

Figure 2

101 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Explain how V1 and V2 can be determined.

In your answer you should

• identify a suitable measuring instrument

• explain a suitable procedure to eliminate possible systematic error.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(d) Plot on Figure 3 points to show the volume V and the temperature θ of the air in the
flask when
• the flask is as shown in Figure 1a
• the flask is as shown in Figure 1d.

The temperature of the hot water bath is 86 °C

Room temperature is 19 °C

V1 = 48 cm3

V2 = 255 cm3

Figure 3

102 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(3)

103 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(e) Add a best fit line to your graph in Figure 3 to show how V should vary with θ according
to Charles’s Law.
(1)

(f) Determine the value of absolute zero in °C using your graph in Figure 3.

value of absolute zero = ______________ °C

(3)
(Total 14 marks)

104 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 9

Investigation of the charge and discharge of capacitors.
Research the materials and methods. Create an equipment list which you will give to your teacher

Materials and equipment

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Discharging a capacitor through a resistor

Method
Equipment diagram

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

105 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

106 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

107 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis
–t/RC
Consider the equation for the voltage of a discharging capacitor: V = V0 e

1. State the Independent Variable, Dependant Variable and the Control Variables.
2. Plot a graph of pd across the capacitor, V, on the y-axis against time, t.
3. To confirm that this is an exponential, plot a graph of Ln(V/V) on the y-axis against t and calculate
the gradient.
4. Use the equation above to determine what the gradient of the graph represents.
5. Use the graph to find the time constant of the circuit and therefore the capacitance of the
capacitor.

Evaluation

1. What was the main source of random error in your measurements and what did you do to reduce
it?
2. Why would a data logger that automatically records voltages at a set time be more accurate?

108 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Assessment Date completed _____________

Common Practical I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Assessment Criteria (CPAC)
• Devised and followed an appropriate method for setting up
CPAC 2
both circuits, ensuring correct component orientation (e.g.,
Applies investigative
capacitor polarity), and justified choices based on
approaches and methods
a investigative aims.
when using instruments and
• Set up a circuit correctly, including correct polarity of the
equipment
electrolytic capacitor, demonstrating understanding of
circuit function and investigative purpose.
CPAC 2
b • By observation
Applies investigative
approaches and methods • Correctly list the variables: independent (time) dependent
when using instruments and variable (p.d. across the capacitor) and control variables
equipment (resistance, capacitance)
CPAC 3 c • Calculate time constant RC with different resistances and
Safely uses a range of practical capacitances to decide which combination will enable the
equipment and materials most accurate data collection with the time constraints of a
lesson.
• Draw a Ln (V/V) vs. time, t graph (a good straight line)
d • Calculate RC from the gradient (within the experimental
error = same as RC calculated from measured R & C values)
• Take care to connect the electrolytic capacitor correctly in
the circuit
b
• Carry equipment to the work station carefully and put it
away neatly and in an orderly fashion.
CPAC 4 • Generate a set of data that is expected: p.d. vs time for
Makes and records a discharging and charging of a capacitor
observations
• Design a data table
• Put data in columns recording the p.d. and time.
• Collect data points for the length of time equal to 3RC at
b
least
• Write headings clearly with quantities and units in the
appropriate format
CPAC 4
• Produce columns with calculated values of ln(V/V)
Makes and records
• Plot V-t graphs for discharging and charging and a ln(V/V) vs.
observations
t graph for discharging.
CPAC 5
Researches, references and • Correctly calculate the time constant RC from the gradient.
reports • Calculate the percentage uncertainty in RC from measured
a values of R and C.
• Compare the two values of RC. Calculate the percentage
difference.
• Present a valid conclusion which summarises the results,
comments on reliability, discusses most significant error and
how this could be improved in a further experiment.
• Carry out a research to determine the tolerance of the
CPAC 5 resistor and capacitor used in this experiment. Cite the
b
Researches, references and source of information correctly.
reports
•
Target for improvement:

109 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

An analogue voltmeter has a resistance that is much less than that of a modern digital voltmeter.
Analogue meters can be damaged if the full-scale reading is exceeded. Figure 1 shows a dual-range
analogue voltmeter with a zero error.

Figure 1

(a) The voltmeter is set to the more sensitive range and then used in a circuit. What is the
potential difference (pd) between the terminals of the voltmeter when a full-scale
reading is indicated? Tick (✓) one box.

2.7 V

3.3 V

13.5 V

16.5 V

(1)

(b) Explain the use of the mirror when reading the meter.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

110 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(2)

A learner corrects the zero error on the meter and then assembles the circuit shown in
Figure 2. The capacitance of the capacitor C is not known.

Figure 2

The output pd of the power supply is set to zero.

The learner connects the flying lead to socket X and adjusts the output pd until the voltmeter
reading is full scale (15 V).
She disconnects the flying lead from socket X so that C discharges through the voltmeter.

She measures the time T½ for the voltmeter reading V to fall from 10 V to 5 V.

She repeats this process several times.

Table 1 shows the learner’s results, none of which is anomalous.

Table 1

T½ / s 12.00 11.94 12.06 12.04 12.16

(c) Determine the percentage uncertainty in T½.

percentage uncertainty = _______________ %

(2)

111 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(d) Show that the time constant for the discharge circuit is about 17 s.

(1)

(e) The learner thinks that the time constant of the circuit in Figure 2 is directly proportional
to the range of the meter.
To test her theory, she repeats the experiment with the voltmeter set to the 3 V range.
She expects T½ to be about 2.5 s.

Explain:

• what the learner should do, before connecting capacitor C to the 0 V and 3 V
sockets, to avoid exceeding the full-scale reading on the voltmeter
• how she should develop her procedure to get an accurate result for the time
constant
• how she should use her result to check whether her theory is correct.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

The learner wants to find the resistance of the voltmeter when it is set to the 15 V range.
She replaces C with an 820 µF capacitor and charges it to 15 V.
She discharges the capacitor through the voltmeter, starting a stopwatch when V is 14 V.
She records the stopwatch reading T at other values of V as the capacitor discharges.

112 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Table 2 shows her results.

Table 2

V/V 14 11 8 6 4 3 2

t/s 0.0 3.1 7.2 11.0 16.2 19.9 25.2

(f) Suggest two reasons why the learner selected the values of V shown in Table 2.
Explain each of your answers.

1 _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2 _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

113 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Figure 3 shows a graph of the experimental data.

Figure 3

(g) Show, using Figure 3, that the resistance of the voltmeter is about 16 kΩ.

(3)

(h) Determine the current in the voltmeter at t = 10 s.

current = _______________ A
(2)
(Total 19 marks)

114 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 10

Investigation of the relationship between magnetic flux density, current and length of wire using a top
pan balance

Materials and equipment

• a 25 cm length of straight bare copper wire of thickness 1.5 mm, for example
• low voltage variable DC supply (e.g. 0–6 V)
• ammeter (e.g. 0–10 A with 0.1 A precision or better)
• two crocodile clips
• two clamps on stands
• three connecting leads
• four magnadur magnets with a metal cradle
• an electronic top pan balance with precision 0.1 g or better
• 30 cm ruler.

Method

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagrams (3 views of the apparatus have been given to make
the arrangement clear). With no current flowing through the wire, the electronic balance should be
set to zero.

115 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

1. Set the voltage of the supply to 6 V and adjust the variable resistor so that the current, I, flowing
through the wire about 1.0 A as measured on the ammeter.
2. Read the top pan balance display, m, in grams.
3. Reducing the current, repeat the procedure for a range of values of I.
4. Obtain a second set of results by repeating the experiment once more and find the mean value of m
for each value of I.
5. Measure and record the length of the magnadur magnets, L, in metres. (This will be the length of wire
in the magnetic field, ignoring edge effects). Repeat this three times and take an average.

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

116 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

117 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

1. State the Independent Variable, Dependant Variable and the Control Variables.
2. Plot a graph of the mean m against I.
3. Draw the best straight line of fit though the points and find the gradient.
4. Show that the B = gradient × g/(L ×1000)
5. Use your graph to obtain a value for the magnetic field strength.

Evaluation

A typical magnetic field strength for the magnets used in this setup would be around 0.05 T.

1. Calculate the percentage difference between your value and this.

2. Calculate values for the %uncertainty in your gradient and value for L.
3. Hence state the %uncertainty in your value for the magnetic field strength.
4. Comparing your answers to i. and iii. describe whether you believe that your field strength
‘could’ be the typical value of 0.05 T.

Assessment Date completed _____________

118 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Common Practical I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Assessment Criteria (CPAC)
• Sets up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
CPAC 1 • Follow a set of written instructions to produce a graph of
Follows written instructions mass/force against current

• Correctly measures magnetic flux using a Hall probe

a
• Correctly measures current, mass and length
b • By observation
CPAC 2
Applies investigative • Correctly list the variables: independent (current)
approaches and methods c dependent variable (mass/force) and control variables
when using instruments and (length of wire in the field)
equipment • Mass/force-current graph is a good straight line
• Mass/force-current graph for double length has about
d twice the gradient
• Magnetic flux density measured with a Hall probe and that
found from the graph are similar
CPAC 3
• Carries equipment to the work station carefully and puts it
Safely uses a range of practical b
away neatly and in orderly fashion.
equipment and materials

• Generate a set of data that is expected: mass/force against

a
current

CPAC 4 • Put data in columns recording the current and mass.

Makes and records • Collect data points for the whole range of current provided
observations by the 6V battery
b • Write headings clearly with quantities and units written in
the format as directed by the practical handbook.
• Write correct units for all the quantities in the table.
• Present data to the correct number of significant figures.
• Using Excel plot m-I or F-I graphs for wire in magnetic field
CPAC 5 • Correctly calculate the magnetic flux density, B, from the
Researches, references and gradient.
reports • Calculate the percentage uncertainty in B found from the
This experiment doesn’t expect gradient.
a
any research but requires • Compare the two values of B (from gradient and from Hall
calculations, errors and probe). Calculate the percentage difference.
conclusions. • Present a valid conclusion which summarises the results,
comments on reliability, discusses most significant error
and how this could be improved in a further experiment.

Target for improvement:

119 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

This question is about using a digital balance to investigate the force on a wire placed in a magnetic field
when there is an electric current in the wire.

A learner carries out the procedure shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. A metre ruler is pivoted at the 1.0 cm
mark and a prism is placed on a digital balance. The free end of the ruler is raised and the balance is
turned on and then set to zero, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

The ruler is then supported by the prism with the apex of the prism at the 30.0 cm mark as
shown in Figure 2. The height of the pivot is adjusted so that the ruler is horizontal.

Figure 2

(a) Deduce the mass of the ruler.

State one assumption you make.

mass of ruler = ____________________ g

assumption _________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

120 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(b) The learner attaches a uniform wire to the upper edge of the ruler, as shown in Figure 3.

The ends of the wire are connected to terminal blocks P and Q which are fixed firmly to
the bench. A power supply and an ammeter are connected between P and Q.

These modifications cause the balance reading to increase slightly.

A horizontal uniform magnetic field is applied, perpendicular to the wire, between the
85 cm and 90 cm marks, as shown in the close-up diagram in Figure 3.

Figure 3

121 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

The balance reading M is recorded for increasing values of current I.

A graph of these data is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4

State and explain the direction of the horizontal uniform magnetic field.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

122 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(c) It can be shown that B, the magnitude of the magnetic flux density of the horizontal
uniform magnetic field, is given by

where
σ = change in force acting on the prism per unit current in the wire
L = length of the region where the magnetic field cuts through the wire.

Determine B.

B = ____________________ T
(3)

(d) The experiment is repeated with the ruler pivoted at the 99.0 cm mark.
Nothing else is changed from Figure 3. This arrangement is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5

Tick (✔) one box in row 1 and one box in row 2 of the table to identify the effect, if any, on the
magnitude of the forces acting on the apparatus as a certain current is passed through the wire. Tick (✔)
one box in row 3 and one box in row 4 of the table to identify the effect, if any, on the graph produced for
this modified experiment compared with the graph in Figure 4.

Reduced No effect Increased

Force acting on the current-carrying wire due to the

1
horizontal uniform magnetic field

2 Force acting on the prism due to the pivoted ruler

3 Gradient of the graph

4 Vertical intercept of the graph

(3)

123 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(e) Figure 6 shows the balance being used to measure the forces between two wires.
The connections joining these wires to the power supply are not shown.

The pan of the balance moves a negligible amount during use and it supports a straight
conducting wire X of horizontal length L.
Terminal blocks are used to connect X into the circuit. The weight of these does not
affect the balance reading.
A second conducting wire Y is firmly supported a distance d above X.

Show, by adding detail to Figure 6, the wire connections that complete the circuit.
The currents in X and Y must have the same magnitude and be in the directions
indicated.

Figure 6

(2)

124 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(f) The vertical force F on wire X due to the magnetic field produced by wire Y is given by

where

k is a constant
d is the perpendicular distance between X and Y
I is the current in the wires

and
L is the horizontal length of wire X.

A learner wants to measure k using the arrangement in Figure 6.

The learner is told that the following restrictions must apply:

• L is fixed
• I must not exceed 5.0 A
• the result for k must be obtained using a graphical method
• the experimental procedure must involve only one independent variable.

Explain what the learner could do to find k.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(5)
(Total 19 marks)

125 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

126 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No. 11

Investigation of the effect on magnetic flux linkage of varying the angle using a search coil and
oscilloscope

Materials and equipment

• oscilloscope
• large circular coil
• stand (or support) for circular coil
• low voltage 50 Hz AC supply (or AF signal generator)
• connecting leads
• protractor
• axial or lateral search coil
• stand, boss and clamp to support search coil.

127 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Method

1. The search coil is clamped so that the plane of the coil is initially parallel to the plane of the large
circular coil, and therefore perpendicular to the B-field lines produced by the circular coil, as shown in
the diagram. This position will produce maximum flux linkage and maximum induced emf in the search
coil.

2. A preliminary experiment will be necessary to determine the appropriate voltage (and frequency) to
use on the circular coil. (An ammeter might be required to ensure the current through the circular coil
does not exceed the manufacturer’s specifications.) Select suitable voltage sensitivity and time base
settings on the oscilloscope, to establish that the induced emf produced in the search coil is large
enough to be easily measured.

3. With the search coil in the initial position, as shown, record the induced emf in the search coil from the
CRO display – e.g. by measuring peak to peak value of the induced AC voltage.

4. Tilt the angle of the search coil and use a protractor to measure the angle between the plane of the
circular coil and the plane of the search coil. (It might be possible to clamp a large protractor behind
the search coil support rod, although learners could be set the task of devising a suitable method to
measure this angle). Measure the corresponding induced emf in the search coil from the CRO display.

5. Repeat for a range of angles from 0° to 90° between the search coil and the circular coil, and in each
case measure the corresponding induced emf in the search coil.

128 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

Analysis

1. Plot a graph to show the variation of induced emf against the angle of the search coil in the field.
This should be maximum where the angle between the plane of the circular coil and the plane of
the search coil is 0°.
The induced emf should be zero when the plane of the search coil is at an angle of 90° to the plane
of the circular coil.

129 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

130 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Evaluation
1. State the independent, dependent and control variables in the experiment.

2. A learner sets up the experiment and adjusts the frequency and amplitude of the signal generator
along with the y-gain and time base of the oscilloscope until at least one full cycle of the induced
alternating emf is displayed on the screen.

y-gain = 5 mV/div

a. Determine the peak-to-peak value of the emf induced in the search coil and its uncertainty.
b. The frequency of the alternating current is 50 Hz. Determine the time base.

3. The value of x can be measured to determine a value for the angle. Distance x is measured along
the half-metre rule from a point in line with the centre of the search coil to a point in line with the
end of the search coil’s plastic handle,

131 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

A learner undertakes the experiment and measures distance x as 21.2 cm and the distance from the centre
of the search coil to the end of the handle as 22.8 cm.

a. Determine a value for the angle with an uncertainty and percentage uncertainty.
b. Compare this to the uncertainty and %uncertainty if the angle had been used using a regular
protractor.

132 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Assessment Date completed _____________

Common Practical I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Assessment Criteria (CPAC)
CPAC 1
Follows written instructions
This will be judged on • Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
watching you in classroom and • Follow a set of written instructions to produce a graph of
whether your write-up shows peak-to-peak induced voltage against angle.
you have followed the
instructions on the sheet.
CPAC 2 • Correctly measure the peak-to peak voltage using the
Applies investigative oscilloscope
a.
approaches and methods • Correctly measure the angle between the search coil and
when using instruments and the plane of the large coil.
equipment
• Voltage vs. angle ϑ line is a reasonable cosine curve
This will also be judged on d.
watching you in classroom • Voltage- cos (ϑ) graph is a reasonable straight line
• Generate a set of data that is expected: induced voltage
a
against angle
• Put data in columns recording the angle and voltage.
CPAC 4
• Collect data points for the whole range of angles from 0 to
Makes and records
90 degrees
observations b
• Write headings clearly with quantities and units written in
the appropriate format
• Present data to the correct number of significant figures.
• The report includes the graph of induced emf vs angle and
the graph of the induced emf vs. cosine of the angle,
CPAC 5 a conclusion, comment on reliability, comment on the
Researches, references and systematic error and source of the systematic error
reports identified.
• Any sources used in research supporting the conclusion are
b
correctly cited.

Target for improvement:

133 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past Paper Exam Practice Questions

This question is about experiments to investigate the magnetic flux density around a current−carrying
conductor. A learner is provided with apparatus shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

The apparatus consists of a circular frame on which is wound a coil of wire. This arrangement is mounted
inside a rectangular frame. The learner clamps a search coil so it is co−axial with the circular coil then
arranges the apparatus so that both frames and the search coil lie in the same vertical plane. The coil of
wire is connected to a signal generator and the search coil is connected to an oscilloscope. When a
sinusoidal alternating current is passed through the coil an alternating emf is induced in the search coil. The
induced emf displayed on the oscilloscope is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

134 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(a) Determine, using Figure 2, the frequency of the current in the coil.

Time−base setting of the oscilloscope is 0.2 ms cm−1.

frequency = __________________ Hz
(2)

(b) Determine, using Figure 2, the root mean square (rms) voltage of the emf induced in the
search coil.

y−voltage gain of the oscilloscope = 10 mV cm−1

rms voltage = _________________ V

(2)

(c) Figure 3 and Figure 4 show the search coil and Bpeak, the peak magnetic flux density
produced by the current in the circular coil, when the apparatus is viewed from above.

Figure 3 shows the direction of Bpeak when the search coil is arranged as in Figure 1.

Figure 4 shows the direction of Bpeak when the circular frame is rotated through an angle
θ.

135 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

The shaded area in these diagrams shows how the flux linked with the search coil
changes as the circular coil is rotated.

Figure 3

Figure 4

Explain why the flux linked with the coil is directly proportional to cosθ.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

136 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(d) The learner clamps the rectangular frame so that it remains in a vertical plane. Without
changing the position of the search coil she rotates the circular frame about a vertical
axis so that it is turned through an angle, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5

She turns off the time−base on the oscilloscope so that a vertical line is displayed on the
screen. Keeping the y−voltage gain at 10 mV cm−1 she records the length l of the vertical
line and the angle θ through which the circular frame has been rotated. She measures
further results for l as θ is increased as shown in the table below.

θ/degree l/cm cosθ

10 6.7

34 5.6

50 4.4

60 3.4

72 2.1

81 1.1

137 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Plot on Figure 6 a graph to test if these data confirm that l is directly proportional to
cosθ. Use the additional column in Table 1 to record any derived data you use.

Figure 6

(4)

(e) State and explain whether the graph you have drawn confirms the suggestion that l is
directly proportional to cosθ.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

138 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(f) When the time−base is switched off, the trace on the oscilloscope appears as shown in
Figure 7.

Figure 7

Describe two adjustments the learner should make to the trace to reduce the
uncertainty in l.

You should refer to specific controls on the oscilloscope. You may use Figure 7 to
illustrate your answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

139 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(g) The learner adjusts the signal generator so that the frequency of the current in the
circular coil is doubled.

State and explain any changes she should make to the settings of the oscilloscope in part
(f) so that she can repeat the experiment.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(h) The apparatus is re−arranged as in Figure 1 so that both coils lie in the same vertical
plane and are co-axial along a line PQ.

The search coil is then moved a distance x along PQ, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8

140 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

The values of l corresponding to different values of x are recorded. A graph of these data
is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9

It is suggested that l decreases exponentially as x increases.

Explain whether Figure 9 supports this suggestion.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 20 marks)

141 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

142 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

AQA A-Level Physics Required Practical No 12

Investigation of the inverse-square law for gamma radiation

Materials and equipment

• gamma source (e.g. 185 kBq (5 µCi) Cobalt 60 ‘closed’ source)

• source holder or retort stand, boss and clamp
• scaler with integral power supply for GM tube
• Geiger muller tube suitable for gamma detection
• metre ruler
• stopclock.

Method

• Plug the GM tube into the scaler and set at the appropriate voltage (according to manufacturer’s
instructions). Start the scaler to check it is counting - there will be sufficient background radiation to
register a count.
• Before bringing the source into the laboratory, a background count must be taken. Simultaneously
start the scaler and stopclock. Stop the scaler after 10 minutes. Record the time, t, and the total count,
N, on the scaler.
• Set up the arrangement as shown in the diagram.

Clamps and source holder not shown. (Some stands with integral source hold, GM tube holder
and mm scale are available.)

• Put the source in its holder (observing safety procedures).

• A few preliminary readings would be advantageous at this point, to establish the maximum distance at
which a meaningful count can be taken – a count significantly above background is required to give
useful data. Additionally, a count rate taken near to the source will enable counting times to be
decided for smaller source-detector distances.
• Set the distance from the front of the source to the front of the GM tube window, X, to 600 mm.
(Assuming this distance gives a satisfactory count rate.)
• Simultaneously start the timer and scaler, and take the count, N, after t = 5 minutes
(or 10 minutes if the total count is below 400).

143 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

• Re-set the source position so that X = 500 mm from the GM tube and take the new total count after t =
5 minutes.
• Repeat for source - GM tube distances X of 400 mm, 300 mm, 200 mm, 100 mm. (As the source is
placed closer to the detector, a shorter timed counts will be satisfactory).
• Record N, t, X in a suitable table, allowing columns for count rate C = N/t and corrected count rate C’
(obtained by subtracting background count rate from C) and a final column for 1/√C’.

Results table (refer to page 10 on how to draw the table and the format of the graph)

144 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

145 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Analysis

1. State the Independent Variable, Dependant Variable and the Control Variables.
2. Plot a graph with 1/√C’ on the y-axis and X on the x-axis.

Evaluation

A straight line graph would verify the inverse square law relationship for gamma rays. The data is plotted
this way around (rather that plotting C’ against 1/x2), to eliminate the systematic error in distance
measurement. The exact position of the gamma material inside the sealed source and the position inside
the GM tube where ionisation takes place is not known.

Actual distance between source and detector, d, is given by d = x + e , where e is the systematic error in
the distance measurement.

Find this distance e from the intercept on the x-axis of the graph.

Assessment

Date completed _____________

146 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Common Practical I am looking for my learners to be able to…

Assessment Criteria (CPAC)
CPAC 2
Applies investigative
• Does the learner identify all variables?
approaches and methods
• Does the learner identify the unavoidable systematic error?
when using instruments and c
• Does the learner highlight the difficult task ensuring the
equipment. This will also be
source points precisely in the same location each time?
judged on watching you in
classroom
• Can the learner identify risks of handling radioactive
a
sources? Do they reference CLEAPSS?
• Does the learner provide procedures for dealing with any
CPAC 3 accidents?
Safely uses a range of practical • Does the learner highlight the possible risks of a radioactive
b
equipment and materials source being in close proximity to a possible pregnant
female learner/teacher/technician/support staff?
• Learner not expected to know the correct procedure.
• Does the learner construct a table with suitable headings
a
e.g. background count and corrected count?
• Has the learner constructed a table and filled in as they go?
CPAC 4 • Is there suitable headings/units? Suitable SF? Suitable
Makes and records range of measurements used?
b
observations • Graph work can also tick off CPAC 4b. Have they carried out
error analysis?
• Are error bars included?
• Can the learner identify issues in the experiment?
• Did the learner produce the correct graph? Including error
a bars?
• Has the learner mentioned sources?
CPAC 5
• Is there a conclusion?
Researches, references and
• Learner must have cited their sources?
reports
• Have they used the Harvard Referencing?
b
• Did they use a range of sources?
• Is there an evaluation suggesting improvements?

Target for improvement

147 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Past paper Exam Practice Questions

Figure 1 shows a sealed radioactive source used in schools and colleges.

Figure 1

(a) State two safety procedures to reduce risk when using this type of source.

Safety procedure 1 ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Safety procedure 2 ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

148 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(b) A sealed source contains radium-226 ( ).

decays by emitting α and β– particles to produce which is stable.

Figure 2 is a graph of neutron number N against proton number Z, showing the different
ways that can decay into .

Points A to M represent all the unstable nuclei that may be formed as decays into
.

Figure 2

Determine the number of routes by which B can change into K.

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) Identify which of the nuclei A to M are common to all the possible ways that
decays into .

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

149 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(d) The sealed source emits γ radiation in addition to α and β– particles.

A learner uses the sealed source to investigate the inverse-square law for γ radiation.
The learner begins by making measurements to find the count rate Ab for the
background radiation.

State and explain procedures

• to eliminate systematic error in the measurements used to find Ab
• to reduce the percentage uncertainty in Ab.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(e) Figure 3 shows an aluminium absorber placed between the sealed source and a radiation
detector. This is to make sure that only γ radiation from the source reaches the
detector.

Figure 3

The sealed source emits:

• α particles with energy Ek between 3.8 MeV and 7.8 MeV

• β– particles with energy Ek between zero and 5.5 MeV.

150 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Figure 4 shows how the range of β– particles in aluminium depends on Ek.

Figure 4

Deduce the minimum thickness of the aluminium absorber that should be used in the
experiment.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

minimum thickness = ____________________ mm

(3)

151 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(f) Ionisation takes place inside the detector. The effective distance travelled by γ radiation
from the source is (d + e).

The distance e, shown in Figure 5, cannot be measured directly.

Figure 5

From the inverse-square law for γ radiation, it can be shown that

where A is the count rate, corrected for background radiation

k is a constant.

The learner plots the graph of d against shown in Figure 6.

Deduce k using Figure 6.

Explain your reasoning.
Give a suitable unit for your result.

k = ____________________ unit _______

(5)

Figure 6

152 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

(g) Determine e using Figure 6.

e = ____________________ mm
(2)
(Total 19 marks)

153 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

[THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK]

154 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Tabulating data

It is important to keep a record of data whilst carrying out practical work. Tables should have clear headings
with units indicated using a forward slash before the unit.
pd Current
/V /A
2.0 0.15
4.0 0.31
6.0 0.45

Although using a forward slash (solidus) is the standard format, other formats are generally acceptable. For
example:
Length Time for 10 Distance Count
in m oscillations (cm) rate
in s (s–1)
0.600 15.52 10.0 53
0.700 16.85 15.0 25
0.800 17.91 20.0 12

It is good practice to draw a table before an experiment commences and then enter data straight into the
table. This can sometimes lead to data points being in the wrong order. For example, when investigating
the electrical characteristics of a component by plotting an I – V curve, a learner may initially decide to take
current readings at pd values of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 V . On discovering a more significant change in
current between 1.5 and 2.0 V, the learner might decide to take further readings at 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9 V to
investigate this part of the characteristics in more detail. Whilst this is perfectly acceptable, it is generally a
good idea to make a fair copy of the table in ascending order of pd to enable patterns to be spotted more
easily. Reordered tables should follow the original data if using a lab book.

It is also expected that the independent variable is the left hand column in a table, with the following
columns showing the dependent variables. These should be headed in similar ways to measured variables.
The body of the table should not contain units.
Tabulating logarithmic values

When the logarithm is taken of a physical quantity, the resulting value has no unit. However, it is important
to be clear about which unit the quantity had to start with. The logarithm of a distance in km will be very
different from the logarithm of the same distance in mm. These should be included in tables in the
following way:

Reading
time / s log (time / s)
number
1 2.3 0.36
2 3.5 0.54
3 5.6 0.75

155 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Significant figures

Data should be written in tables to the same number of significant figures. This number should be
determined by the resolution of the device being used to measure the data or the uncertainty in
measurement. For example, a length of string measured to be 60 cm using a ruler with mm graduations
should be recorded as 600 mm, 60.0 cm or 0.600 m, and not just 60 cm. Similarly, a resistor value quoted
by the manufacturer as 56 kΩ, 5% tolerance should not be recorded as 56.0 kΩ.

There is sometimes confusion over the number of significant figures when readings cross multiples of 10.
Changing the number of decimal places across a power of ten retains the number of significant figures but
changes the accuracy. The same number of decimal places should therefore generally be used, as
illustrated below.

0.97 99.7
0.98 99.8
0.99 99.9
1.00 100.0
1.10 101.0

It is good practice to write down all digits showing on a digital meter.

Calculated quantities should be shown to the number of significant figures of the data with the least
number of significant figures.
Example:
Calculate the size of an object if the magnification of a photo is ×25 and it is measured to be 24.6 mm on the
photo.
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 =
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

24.6 ×10−3
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 =
25

𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 9.8 × 10−4

Note that the size of the real object can only be quoted to two significant figures as the magnification is
only quoted to two significant figures.

Equipment measuring to half a unit (e.g. a thermometer measuring to 0.5 °C) should have measurements
recorded to one decimal place (e.g. 1.0 °C, 2.5 °C). The uncertainty in these measurements would be ±0.25,
but this would be rounded to the same number of decimal places (giving measurements quoted with
uncertainty of (1.0 ± 0.3) °C etc).

156 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Uncertainties

Sources of uncertainties
Learners should know that every measurement has some inherent uncertainty.
The important question to ask is whether an experimenter can be confident that the true value lies in the
range that is predicted by the uncertainty that is quoted. Good experimental design will attempt to reduce
the uncertainty in the outcome of an experiment. The experimenter will design experiments and
procedures that produce the least uncertainty and to provide a realistic uncertainty for the outcome.

In assessing uncertainty, there are a number of issues that have to be considered. These include
• the resolution of the instrument used
• the manufacturer’s tolerance on instruments
• the judgments that are made by the experimenter
• the procedures adopted (e.g. repeated readings)
• the size of increments available (e.g. the size of drops from a pipette).

Numerical questions will look at a number of these factors. Often, the resolution will be the guiding factor
in assessing a numerical uncertainty. There may be further questions that would require candidate to
evaluate arrangements and procedures. Learners could be asked how particular procedures would affect
uncertainties and how they could be reduced by different apparatus design or procedure
A combination of the above factors means that there can be no hard and fast rules about the actual
uncertainty in a measurement. What we can assess from an instrument’s resolution is the minimum
possible uncertainty. Only the experimenter can assess the other factors based on the arrangement and
use of the apparatus and a rigorous experimenter would draw attention to these factors and take them
into account.

Readings and measurements

It is useful, when discussing uncertainties, to separate measurements into two forms:

Readings Measurements
the values found from a the values taken as the
single judgement when difference between the
using a piece of judgements of two
equipment values.

Examples:
When using a thermometer, a learner only needs to make one judgement (the height of the liquid). This is a
reading. It can be assumed that the zero value has been correctly set.
For protractors and rulers, both the starting point and the end point of the measurement must be judged,
leading to two uncertainties. The following list is not exhaustive, and the way that the instrument is used
will determine whether the learner is taking a reading or a measurement.

157 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Reading (one judgement only) Measurement (two judgements required)

thermometer ruler
top pan balance Vernier calliper
measuring cylinder micrometer
digital voltmeter protractor
Geiger counter stopwatch
pressure gauge analogue meter

The uncertainty in a reading when using a particular instrument is no smaller than plus or minus half of the
smallest division or greater. For example, a temperature measured with a thermometer is likely to have an
uncertainty of ±0.5 °C if the graduations are 1 °C apart.

Learners should be aware that readings are often written with the uncertainty. An example of this would be
to write a voltage as (2.40 ± 0.01) V. It is usual for the uncertainty quoted to be the same number of
decimal places as the value. Unless there are good reasons otherwise (e.g. an advanced statistical analysis),
learners at this level should quote the uncertainty in a measurement to the same number of decimal places
as the value.

Measurement example: length

When measuring length, two uncertainties must be included: the uncertainty of the placement of the zero
of the ruler and the uncertainty of the point the measurement is taken from. As both ends of the ruler
have a ±0.5 scale division uncertainty, the measurement will have an uncertainty of ±1 division.

area of uncertainty
object

ruler

For most rulers, this will mean that the uncertainty in a measurement of length will be ±1 mm. This “initial
value uncertainty” will apply to any instrument where the user can set the zero (incorrectly), but would not
apply to equipment such as balances or thermometers where the zero is set at the point of manufacture.

158 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

In summary

• The uncertainty of a reading (one judgement) is at least ±0.5 of the smallest scale reading.
• The uncertainty of a measurement (two judgements) is at least ±1 of the smallest scale reading.

The way measurements are taken can also affect the uncertainty.

Measurement example: the extension of a spring

Measuring the extension of a spring using a metre ruler can be achieved in two ways.

1. Measuring the total length unloaded and then loaded.

Four readings must be taken for this: The start and end point of the unloaded
spring’s length and the start and end point of the loaded spring’s length.
The minimum uncertainty in each measured length is 1 mm using a meter ruler
with 1 mm divisions (the actual uncertainty is likely to be larger due to parallax in
this instance). The extension would be the difference between the two readings so
the minimum uncertainty would be 2 mm.

2. Fixing one end and taking a scale reading of the lower end.

Two readings must be taken for this: the end point of the unloaded spring’s length and
the end point of the loaded spring’s length. The start point is assumed to have zero
uncertainty as it is fixed.
The minimum uncertainty in each reading would be 0.5 mm, so the minimum
extension uncertainty would be  1 mm.

Even with other practical uncertainties this second approach would be better.
Realistically, the uncertainty would be larger than this and an uncertainty in each reading of 1 mm or would
be more sensible. This depends on factors such as how close the ruler can be mounted to the point as at
which the reading is to be taken.

159 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Other factors

There are some occasions where the resolution of the instrument is not the limiting factor in the
uncertainty in a measurement.

Best practice is to write down the full reading and then to write to fewer significant figures when the
uncertainty has been estimated.

Examples:

A stopwatch has a resolution of hundredths of a second, but the uncertainty in the measurement is more
likely to be due to the reaction time of the experimenter. Here, the learner should write the full reading on
the stopwatch (e.g. 12.20 s), carry the significant figures through for all repeats, and reduce this to a more
appropriate number of significant figures after an averaging process later.

If a learner measures the length of a piece of wire, it is very difficult to hold the wire completely straight
against the ruler. The uncertainty in the measurement is likely to be higher than the ±1 mm uncertainty of
the ruler. Depending on the number of “kinks” in the wire, the uncertainty could be reasonably judged to
be nearer ± 2 or 3 mm.

The uncertainty of the reading from digital voltmeters and ammeters depends on the electronics and is not
strictly the last figure in the readout. Manufacturers usually quote the percentage uncertainties for the
different ranges. Unless otherwise stated it may be assumed that 0.5 in the least significant digit is to be
the uncertainty in the measurement. This would generally be rounded up to 1 of the least significant digit
when quoting the value and the uncertainty together. For example (5.21 0.01) V. If the reading fluctuates,
then it may be necessary to take a number of readings and do a mean and range calculation.

Uncertainties in given values

The value of the charge on an electron is given in the data sheet as 1.60 × 10–19 C.

In all such cases assume the uncertainty to be 1 in the last significant digit. In this case the uncertainty
0.01 × 10–19 C. The uncertainty may be lower than this but without knowing the details of the experiment
and procedure that lead to this value there is no evidence to assume otherwise.

Example: If the number of lines per m is quoted as 3.5 × 103 (as in AS Physics specimen Paper 2 (set 1)
Q1.1) then it is usual to assume that the uncertainty is 1 in the last significant figure,  0.1 × 103 since
there is no indication of the uncertainties in the measurements from which that figure came.

160 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Multiple instances of measurements

Some methods of measuring involve the use of multiple instances in order to reduce the uncertainty. For
example, measuring the thickness of several sheets of paper together rather than one sheet, or timing
several swings of a pendulum. The uncertainty of each measurement will be the uncertainty of the whole
measurement divided by the number of sheets or swings. This method works because the absolute
uncertainty on the time for a single swing is the same as the absolute uncertainty for the time taken for
multiple swings, but there is a lower percentage in the time taken for multiple swings.

For example:
Time taken for a pendulum to swing 10 times: (5.1 ± 0.1) s
Mean time taken for one swing: (0.51 ± 0.01) s

Repeated measurements
Repeating a measurement is a method for reducing the uncertainty.
With many readings one can also identify those that are exceptional (that are far away from a significant
number of other measurements). Sometimes it will be appropriate to remove outliers from measurements
before calculating a mean. On other occasions, particularly in Biology, outliers are important to include. For
example, it is important to know that a particular drug produces side effects in one person in a thousand.

If measurements are repeated, the uncertainty can be calculated by finding half the range of the measured
values.
For example:
Repeat 1 2 3 4
Distance / m 1.23 1.32 1.27 1.22

1.32 – 1.22 = 0.10 therefore

Mean distance: (1.26 ± 0.05) m

Percentage uncertainties

The percentage uncertainty in a measurement can be calculated using:

𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑥 100%

161 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

The percentage uncertainty in a repeated measurement can also be calculated using:

𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑥 100%

Further examples:

Example 1. Some values for diameter of a wire

Repeat 1 2 3 4
Diameter / mm 0.35 0.37 0.36 0.34

The exact values for the mean is 0.355 mm and for the uncertainty is 0.015 mm

This could be quoted as such or recorded as 0.36 0.02 mm given that there is a wide range and only 4
readings. Given the simplistic nature of the analysis then giving the percentage uncertainty as 5% or 6%
would be acceptable.

Example 2. Different values for the diameter of a wire

Repeat 1 2 3
Diameter / mm 0.35 0.36 0.35

The mean here is 0.3533 mm with uncertainty of 0.005 mm

The percentage uncertainty is 1.41% so may be quoted as 1% but really it would be better to obtain further
data.

Uncertainties in exams

Wherever possible, questions in exams will be clear on whether learners are being asked to calculate the
uncertainty of a reading, a measurement, or given data.

Where there is ambiguity, mark schemes will allow alternative sensible answers and credit clear thinking.

It is important that teachers read the Reports on the examination following each series to understand
common mistakes to help their learners improve in subsequent years.

162 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Uncertainties in practical work

Learners are expected to develop an understanding of uncertainties in measurements through their

practical work. Teachers may use learners’ assessments of uncertainties in measurements, and their
recording, as evidence towards several of the endorsement criteria. Teachers will decide on each occasion
what acceptable uncertainty values are, and the ways in which they expect learners to record these.

Examples:

CPAC 2: Learners should be attempting to reduce the uncertainties in experiments. This could be by
choosing appropriate equipment (CPAC 2d), or by choosing procedures such as repeating readings that
reduce overall uncertainties (CPAC 2c).

CPAC 4: Learners’ records should take into account uncertainties. For example, learners should be making
sensible decisions about the number of significant figures to include, particularly in calculated values.

CPAC 5: Learners could comment on the uncertainties in their measurements. For example, learners could
comment on whether the true value (e.g. for a concentration, or the acceleration due to gravity) lies within
their calculated range of uncertainty. With some measurements, learners may compare their value with
those from secondary sources, contributing evidence for CPAC 5b.

Error bars in Physics

There are a number of ways to draw error bars. Learners are not expected to have a formal understanding
of confidence limits in Physics (unlike in Biology). The following simple method of plotting error bars would
therefore be acceptable:
• plot the data point at the mean value
• calculate the range of the data, ignoring any anomalies
• add error bars with lengths equal to half the range on either side of the data point.

Uncertainties from gradients

To find the uncertainty in a gradient, two lines should be drawn on the graph. One should be the “best” line
of best fit. The second line should be the steepest or shallowest gradient line of best fit possible from the
data. The gradient of each line should then be found.

The uncertainty in the gradient is found by:

|best gradient−worst gradient|
percentage uncertainty = best gradient
× 100%

163 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Note the modulus bars meaning that this percentage will always be positive.

35

30
Best gradient

25 Worst gradient could be either:

Steepest gradient possible

20

or
15

Shallowest gradient possible

10

5
0 20 40 60 80 100

In the same way, the percentage uncertainty in the y-intercept can be found:

|best 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 − worst 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡|

percentage uncertainty = × 100%
be𝑠𝑡 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡

164 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Combining uncertainties
Percentage uncertainties should be combined using the following rules:
Combination Operation Example
Adding or subtracting Add the absolute Object distance, u = (5.0 ± 0.1) cm
values uncertainties
Image distance, v = (7.2 ± 0.1) cm
𝒂 = 𝒃+𝒄 Δa = Δb + Δc
Difference (v – u) = (2.2 ± 0.2) cm
Multiplying values Add the percentage Voltage = (15.20 ± 0.1) V
uncertainties
Current = (0.51 ± 0.01) A
𝒂= 𝒃 ×𝒄
εa = εb + εc Percentage uncertainty in voltage = 0.7%
Percentage uncertainty in current = 1.96%
Power = Voltage × current = 7.75 W
Percentage uncertainty in power = 2.66%
Absolute uncertainty in power = ± 0.21 W
Dividing values Add the percentage Mass of object = (30.2 ± 0.1) g
uncertainties
𝒃 Volume of object = (18.0 ± 0.5) cm3
𝒂= 𝒄
εa = εb + εc Percentage uncertainty in mass of object = 0.3
%
Percentage uncertainty in volume = 2.8%
Density = 30.2 = 1.68 g cm–3
18.0
Percentage uncertainty in density = 3.1%
Absolute uncertainty in density = + 0.05 g cm–3
Power rules Multiply the Radius of circle = (6.0 ± 0.1) cm
percentage
Percentage uncertainty in radius = 1.6%
𝒂 = 𝒃𝒄 uncertainty by the
power Area of circle = πr2 = 113.1 cm2
Percentage uncertainty in area = 3.2%
εa = c × εb
Absolute uncertainty = ± 3.6 cm2
(Note – the uncertainty in π is taken to be zero)
Note: Absolute uncertainties (denoted by Δ) have the same units as the quantity. Percentage uncertainties
(denoted by ε) have no units. Uncertainties in trigonometric and logarithmic functions will not be tested in
A-level exams.

165 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Graphing

Graphing skills can be assessed both in written papers for the A-level grade and by the teacher during the
assessment of the endorsement. Learners should recognise that the type of graph that they draw should be
based on an understanding of the type of data they are using and the intended analysis of the data. The
rules below are guidelines which will vary according to the specific circumstances.
Labelling axes
Axes should always be labelled with the quantity being measured and the units. These should be separated
with a forward slash (solidus):

time / seconds

length / mm

Axes should not be labelled with the units on each scale marking.

Data points
Data points should be marked with a cross. Both  and  marks are acceptable, but care should be taken
that data points can be seen against the grid.
Error bars can take the place of data points where appropriate.
Scales and origins
Learners should attempt to spread the data points on a graph as far as possible without resorting to scales
that are difficult to deal with. Learners should consider:
• the maximum and minimum values of each variable
• the size of the graph paper
• whether 0.0 should be included as a data point
• whether they will be attempting to calculate the equation of a line, therefore needing the y intercept
(Physics only)
• how to draw the axes without using difficult scale markings (e.g. multiples of 3, 7, 11 etc)
• In exams, the plots should cover at least half of the grid supplied for the graph.

166 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Please note that in sections L and M, many generic graphs are used to illustrate the points made. For
example, the following three graphs are intended to illustrate the information above relating to the spread
of data points on a graph. Learners producing such graphs on the basis of real practical work or in
examination questions would be expected to add in axes labels and units.

35
This graph has well-spaced marking
points and the data fills the paper.
30 Each point is marked with a cross (so
points can be seen even when a line of
best fit is drawn).
25

20

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

167 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

35
This graph is on the limit of
acceptability. The points do not quite
fill the page, but to spread them
30
further would result in the use of
awkward scales.

25

20

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

35
At first glance, this graph is well
34 drawn and has spread the data out
33 sensibly.

32 However, if the graph were to later

be used to calculate the equation
31 of the line, the lack of a y-intercept
could cause problems. Increasing
30
the axes to ensure all points are
29 spread out but the y-intercept is
also included is a skill that requires
28
practice and may take a couple of
27 attempts.

26

25
20 40 60 80 100

168 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Lines of best fit

Lines of best fit should be drawn when appropriate. Learners should consider the following when deciding
where to draw a line of best fit:

• Are the data likely to be following an underlying equation (for example, a relationship governed by a
physical law)? This will help decide if the line should be straight or curved.
• Are there any anomalous results?
• Are there uncertainties in the measurements? The line of best fit should fall within error bars if drawn.

There is no definitive way of determining where a line of best fit should be drawn. A good rule of thumb is
to make sure that there are as many points on one side of the line as the other. Often the line should pass
through, or very close to, the majority of plotted points. Graphing programs can sometimes help, but tend
to use algorithms that make assumptions about the data that may not be appropriate.

Lines of best fit should be continuous and drawn as a thin pencil that does not obscure the points below
and does not add uncertainty to the measurement of gradient of the line.

Not all lines of best fit go through the origin. Learners should ask themselves whether a 0 in the
independent variable is likely to produce a 0 in the dependent variable. This can provide an extra and more
certain point through which a line must pass. A line of best fit that is expected to pass through (0,0), but
does not, would imply some systematic error in the experiment. This would be a good source of discussion
in an evaluation.

Dealing with anomalous results

At GCSE, learners are often taught automatically to ignore anomalous results. At A-level, learners should
think carefully about what could have caused the unexpected result and therefore whether it is anomalous.
A learner might be able to identify a reason for the unexpected result and so validly regard it as an
anomaly. For example, an anomalous result might be explained by a different experimenter making the
measurement, a different solution or a different measuring device being used. In the case where the reason
for an anomalous result occurring can be identified, the result should be recorded and plotted but may
then be ignored.

Anomalous results should also be ignored where results are expected to be the same.
Where there is no obvious error and no expectation that results should be the same, anomalous results
should be included. This will reduce the possibility that a key point is being overlooked.
Please note: when recording results, it is important that all data are included. Anomalous results should
only be ignored at the data analysis stage.
It is best practice whenever an anomalous result is identified for the experiment to be repeated. This
highlights the need to tabulate and even graph results as an experiment is carried out.

169 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Measuring gradients

When finding the gradient of a line of best fit, learners should show their working by drawing a triangle on
the line. The hypotenuse of the triangle should be at least half as big as the line of best fit.

35
The line of best fit here has an
34 equal number of points on
both sides. It is not too wide so
33
points can be seen under it.
32
The gradient triangle has been
31 drawn so the hypotenuse
includes more than half of the
30
line.
Δy
29
In addition, it starts and ends
28 on points where the line of
best fit crosses grid lines so the
27
points can be read easily (this
26 is not always possible).
Δx
25
20 40 60 80 100

∆𝒚
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
∆𝒙

When finding the gradient of a curve, e.g., the rate of reaction at a time that was not sampled, learners should
draw a tangent to the curve at the relevant value of the independent variable (x-axis).
Use of a set square to draw a triangle over this point on the curve can be helpful in drawing an appropriate
tangent.

170 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

The equation of a straight line

Learners should be able to translate graphical data into the equation of a straight line.

y = mx + c

Where y is the dependent variable, m is the gradient, x is the independent variable and c is the y-intercept.

35

30

25

20
Δy

15

10
Δx Δy

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Δy = 28 – 9 = 19

Δx = 90 – 10 = 80

gradient = 19 / 80 = 0.24 (2 sf)

y-intercept = 7.0

equation of
1 7 1line:
| Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Testing Relationships

Sometimes it is not clear what the relationship between two variables is. A quick way to find a possible
relationship is to manipulate the data to form a straight line graph from the data by changing the variable
plotted on each axis.
• Raw data and graph

11
x y 10
0 0.00 9
8
10 3.16 7
20 4.47 6
y 5
30 5.48 4
3
40 6.32
2
50 7.07 1
0
60 7.75
0 20 40 60 80 100
70 8.37 x
80 8.94 This is clearly not a straight line graph. The relationship between x and y is
90 9.49 not clear.

100 10.00 • Manipulated data and graphs

A series of different graphs can be drawn from these data. The one that is
closest to a straight line is a good candidate for the relationship between x
and y.
2 3
x y √y y y
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4

10 3.16 1.78 10.00 32 3

20 4.47 2.11 20.00 89
√y 2
30 5.48 2.34 30.00 160
1
40 6.32 2.51 40.00 250
0
50 7.07 2.66 50.00 350 0 20 40 60 80 100
60 7.75 2.78 60.00 470 x

70 8.37 2.89 70.00 590

80 8.94 2.99 80.00 720
90 9.49 3.08 90.00 850
100 10.00 3.16 100.00 1000

172 | Page
 A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

100

90

80

70

60

y2 50

40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
x
This is an idealised set of data
to illustrate the point.

1000 The straightest graph is y2

against x, suggesting that the
900
relationship between x and y is
800

700 y2 ∝ x
600

y3 500

400

300

200

100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
x

173 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

More Complex Relationships

Graphs can be used to analyse more complex relationships by rearranging the equation into a form similar
to y=mx+c.

Example one

When water is displaced by an amount l in a U tube, the time period, T, varies with the following
relationship:

l
T = 2π√
2g

This could be used to find g, the acceleration due to gravity.

• Take measurements of T and l.

• Rearrange the equation to become linear:

𝑙
𝑇 2 = 4π2 2𝑔

• Calculate T2 for each value of l.

• By re-writing the equation as:

4π2
𝑇2 = 2𝑔
l

4π2
it becomes clear that a graph of T2 against l will be linear with a gradient of 2𝑔
.
• Calculate the gradient (m) by drawing a triangle on the graph.

4π2 4π2 2π2

• Find g by rearranging the equation 𝑚 = 2𝑔
into 𝑔 = 2𝑚
= 𝑚

174 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Example two: testing power laws

A relationship is known to be of the form y=Axn, but n is unknown.

Measurements of y and x are taken.

A graph is plotted with log(y) plotted against log(x).

The gradient of this graph will be n, with the y intercept log(A), as log(y) = n(log(x)) + log(A)

Example three

The equation that relates the pd, V, across a capacitor, C, as it discharges through a resistor, R, over a period
of time, t.

𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶

Where Vo = pd across capacitor at t = 0

This can be rearranged into

𝑡
ln 𝑉 = − + 𝑙𝑛𝑉o
𝑅𝐶

1
So, a graph of 𝑙𝑛𝑉 against t should be a straight line, with a gradient of − and a
𝑅𝐶

y-intercept of 𝑙𝑛𝑉o

Use of mirrors

It is possible to use mirrors in class to draw lines of best fit. However, mirrors are not allowed to be used in
exams.

175 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Practical Skills Checklist

Spec
Checklist questions from the AQA specification
Points
Can you design experiments, including ones to solve problems set in a practical
1.1.1 a
context?

1.1.1 b Can you identify the variables that must be controlled in an experiment?

Can you evaluate whether an experimental method is appropriate to meet expected

1.1.1 c
outcomes?

1.1.2 a Can you use a wide range of practical apparatus and techniques correctly?

1.1.2 b Can you use appropriate units to take measurements?

1.1.2 c Can you present observations and data in an appropriate format?

Can you process, analyse and interpret qualitative and quantitative experimental
1.1.3 a
results?

1.1.3 b Can you use appropriate mathematical skills for analysis of quantitative data?

1.1.3 c Can you use significant figures appropriately?

1.1.3 d Can you plot and interpret suitable graphs from experimental results?

1.1.3 d i Can you select and label axes with appropriate scales, quantities, and units?

1.1.3 d ii Can you measure gradients?

1.1.4 a Can you evaluate results and draw conclusions?

1.1.4 b Can you identify anomalies in experimental measurements?

1.1.4 c Can you explain the limitations in experimental procedures?

Can you be precise and accurate with measurements and data, including margins of
1.1.4 d
error, percentage errors and uncertainties in apparatus?
Can you refine experimental design by suggesting improvements to the procedures
1.1.4 e
and apparatus?

176 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Glossary of Terms

Accuracy
A measurement result is considered accurate if it is judged to be close to the true value.

Calibration
Marking a scale on a measuring instrument. This involves establishing the relationship between indications
of a measuring instrument and standard or reference quantity values, which must be applied. For example,
placing a thermometer in melting ice to see whether it reads 0 °C, in order to check if it has been calibrated
correctly.

Data
Information, either qualitative or quantitative, that has been collected.

Errors
See also uncertainties.

measurement error
The difference between a measured value and the true value.

anomalies
These are values in a set of results which are judged not to be part of the variation caused by random
uncertainty.

random error
These cause readings to be spread about the true value, due to results varying in an unpredictable way
from one measurement to the next. Random errors are present when any measurement is made, and
cannot be corrected. The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more measurements and
calculating a new mean.

systematic error
These cause readings to differ from the true value by a consistent amount each time a measurement is
made. Sources of systematic error can include the environment, methods of observation or instruments
used. Systematic errors cannot be dealt with by simple repeats. If a systematic error is suspected, the
data collection should be repeated using a different technique or a different set of equipment, and the
results compared.

zero error
Any indication that a measuring system gives a false reading when the true value of a measured quantity
is zero, e.g. the needle on an ammeter failing to return to zero when no current flows. A zero error may
result in a systematic uncertainty.

Evidence
Data that have been shown to be valid.

Fair test
A fair test is one in which only the independent variable has been allowed to affect the dependent variable.

177 | Page
A-Level Physics CPAC Workbook D. Adams

Hypothesis
A proposal intended to explain certain facts or observations.

Interval
The quantity between readings e.g. a set of 11 readings equally spaced over a distance of 1 mere would
give an interval of 10 centimeters.

Precision
Precise measurements are ones in which there is very little spread about the mean value. Precision
depends only on the extent of random errors – it gives no indication of how close results are to the true
value.

Prediction
A prediction is a statement suggesting what will happen in the future, based on observation, experience or
a hypothesis.

Range
The maximum and minimum values of the independent or dependent variables. For example, a range of
distances may be quoted as either: 'from 10 cm to 50 cm' or 'from 50 cm to 10 cm'.

Repeatable
A measurement is repeatable if the original experimenter repeats the investigation using same method and
equipment and obtains the same results.

Reproducible
A measurement is reproducible if the investigation is repeated by another person, or by using different
equipment or techniques, and the same results are obtained.

Resolution
This is the smallest change in the quantity being measured (input) of a measuring instrument that gives a
perceptible change in the reading.

True value
This is the value that would be obtained in an ideal measurement.

Uncertainty
The interval within which the true value can be expected to lie, with a given level of confidence or
probability e.g. “the temperature is 20 °C ± 2 °C, at a level of confidence of 95%”.

Validity
Suitability of the investigative procedure to answer the question being asked. For example, an investigation
to find out if the rate of a chemical reaction depended upon the concentration of one of the reactants
would not be a valid procedure if the temperature of the reactants was not controlled.

178 | Page