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Computer graphics by dr.s.purushothaman

Basics:
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1.1 Interactive computer graphic

Interactive Computer Graphics in a Computer Graphics Course refers to the study and
development of systems that allow users to engage directly with visual content—modifying,
animating, or designing graphics in real time. These systems are foundational in fields like gaming,
simulation, CAD, and UI/UX design.

Core Concepts

Topic Description

Human-Computer Interaction Designing intuitive interfaces for visual problem-solving

2D/3D Modeling Tools Sketch-based systems for creating and manipulating shapes

Animation & Deformation Techniques for simulating motion, texture, and object flexibility

Real-Time Rendering Algorithms for dynamic lighting, shading, and scene updates
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Topic Description

Interactive Design Systems CAD tools with live feedback and physical simulation

GUI Enhancements Innovations like digital ink, voice interaction, and smart scrolling

Practical Applications

• Authoring Tools: For 2D drawings, 3D animations, and dynamic illustrations

• Simulation Systems: For robotics, motion capture, and real-world interaction

• Fabrication Interfaces: Designing plush toys, furniture, and wearable tech

• Educational Platforms: Smart classrooms with gesture-based or voice-driven input

1.2 display devices

Display Devices in Computer Graphics are essential output units that visually present graphical
data. They vary in technology, resolution, refresh rate, and application. Here's a structured overview
of the most common types:

Types of Display Devices

Device Type Description

Uses electron beams to illuminate phosphor dots on a screen. Bulky

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
but vivid.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Thin, energy-efficient screens using liquid crystals and backlighting.

A type of LCD with improved image quality via active matrix

TFT (Thin Film Transistor)
technology.

Uses LEDs for backlighting or direct display. Bright, efficient, and

LED (Light Emitting Diode)
compact.

DVST (Direct View Storage

Stores images without refreshing. Used in legacy systems.
Tube)

Uses ionized gas cells to emit light. Good for large screens, now less
Plasma Display
common.

Provides stereoscopic or volumetric visuals for immersive

3D Displays
experiences.
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Key Characteristics

• Resolution: Number of pixels displayed (e.g., 1920×1080 for Full HD)

• Refresh Rate: Frequency of screen updates (measured in Hz)

• Color Depth: Number of bits used to represent color per pixel

• Viewing Angle: Clarity of image from different angles

• Power Consumption: Varies by technology (LED < Plasma < CRT)

Applications

• Education: Interactive whiteboards, smart displays

• Design & CAD: High-resolution monitors for precision modeling

• Gaming & Simulation: Fast refresh rates and deep color rendering

• Medical Imaging: High-fidelity displays for diagnostics

• Public Displays: LED walls, kiosks, and signage systems

1.3 primitive devices

Primitive Devices in Computer Graphics typically refer to the basic graphical elements or output
primitives used to construct complex images. These are not hardware devices, but rather software-
level building blocks that define how visuals are rendered on screen.

Common Output Primitives

Primitive Description

Point The most basic element—represents a single pixel on the screen

Line Connects two points; drawn using algorithms like DDA or Bresenham

Circle Defined by a center and radius; drawn using midpoint or Bresenham algorithms

Ellipse Generalized circle with two radii; used for more complex shapes

Polygon Closed shape formed by connecting multiple lines (e.g., triangle, rectangle)

Curve Smooth, flowing shapes like Bézier or spline curves

Text Characters rendered as graphical elements

Algorithms Used
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• DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer): For line generation

• Bresenham’s Algorithm: Efficient pixel plotting for lines and circles

• Midpoint Circle Algorithm: For drawing circles with symmetry

• Scan Conversion: Converts geometric primitives into pixel data

Applications

• CAD Systems: Use primitives to model mechanical parts

• Game Engines: Build environments from polygons and curves

• Data Visualization: Graphs and charts use lines, points, and text

• UI Design: Buttons, icons, and layout elements are built from primitives

1.4 Flickering

Flickering in Computer Graphics refers to the rapid, unintended changes in brightness, color, or
image stability on a display screen. It’s often a visual artifact caused by hardware limitations, refresh
rate mismatches, or inefficient rendering techniques.

Causes of Flickering

Cause Explanation

Low Refresh Rate CRTs or older displays with refresh rates below 60 Hz can visibly flicker.

Phosphor Decay In CRTs, phosphor dots lose brightness between refresh cycles.

Interlacing Alternating scan lines can cause flicker if not refreshed fast enough.

Backlight Issues LCDs with PWM dimming or faulty inverters may flicker.

Driver or GPU Problems Incompatible or outdated graphics drivers can cause screen instability.

Software Rendering Poor double buffering or redraw logic can lead to flicker during
Artifacts updates.

Technical Insight

• Refresh Rate (Hz): Number of times the screen is redrawn per second. Higher rates (≥75 Hz)
reduce flicker.

• Persistence of Vision: Human eyes retain images briefly; slow refresh exposes gaps, causing
flicker.

• Double Buffering: A technique to eliminate flicker by rendering off-screen before displaying.

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Solutions

• Use progressive scan instead of interlacing for smoother visuals.

• Upgrade to flicker-free monitors with high refresh rates and stable backlighting.

• Implement double buffering in graphics programming.

• Update or roll back graphics drivers if flicker appears after system changes.

1.5 Interlacing

Interlacing describes how the picture is created in the system's display unit. An interlaced display
creates an image by scanning each line, and in the next scan, it scans the line opposite the previous
line. The screen refreshes information at a relatively less cost. It provides a faster refresh rate. The only
issue with that method is that the content displayed on the screen can flicker or have noticeable lines
in it.

We also have interlaced videos and GIFs. The interlaced GIF is displayed by loading odd or even
numbers of lines. Then it loads the next cycle of lines. It may seem faded when the user has a slow
internet connection.

Interlaced Video

It is a method that doubles the video's frame rate. It captures two fields of a video frame
simultaneously. This increases the motion perception and reduces the flickering of the content by using
the phi phenomenon. The benefit of using this method is that the user is not required to add extra
bandwidth to increase the frame rate.

Phi Phenomenon

It refers to the phenomenon that creates an illusion of movement. It is done by placing two images
simultaneously and lighted one by one.

This time resolution of an interlaced video is almost double that of a non-interlaced video. Interlaced
signals need a display that can project the content by displaying them as individual fields in an orderly
manner. CRT and ALiS plasma displays are the real-world application of interlaced screens.

The interlaced scan is a technique that paints a video image on the system's display unit. The display
is represented by representing each row of pixels one after another. A field consists of an odd number
of lines, while the other contains even-numbered lines. The two fields are used to create a single image
or video.

Another application of the interlaced scan is PAL-based television. PAL stands for Phase Alternating
Line. The television can scan 50 field lines in a single scan (25 odd lines and 25 even field lines). These
two sets are combined and thus forming a single frame of an image or the video every 1/25 of a second.
This means that the television creates 25 frames each second. But when you use interlacing in the
television it creates an additional half frame every 1/50 second. It creates 50 fields each second. If the
user wants to show an interlaced video on the displays, the playback must first deinterlace the video
or the image.
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The European Broadcasting Union has spoken against using interlaced video in production or
broadcasting; instead, they preferred 720p 50 frames per second for the production or broadcasting
of the video. They were developing the 1080p 50fps to introduce the resolutions as the new standard
for video production. The resolutions were higher in the 1080p 50fps. The user can easily change the
video format from 1080p 50 fps to 720p 50. It provides better quality video even at lower bit rates. It
also makes it easier for the user to convert the video format.

They were against the idea of using interlacing for video production because no matter how complex
the algorithm used for interlacing is, the artifacts in the interlaced signal can not be completely
removed. Thus, there will always be some loss between the frames in the video.

The new video standards were modified to be implemented with the progressive scan videos, but they
often support interlaced videos. But the organizations still used continued interlacing techniques in
producing and broadcasting the videos. The technique is implemented in the DV and DVB formats of
videos.

Interlaced Scans and Progressive Scans

In interlaced scanning, the display unit represents the content in the green and red lines. The green
lines represent the odd field lines, while the red represents the even field lines. It returns blanking
lines.

The video or the image is captured, transmitted, or displayed line by line. It is done from the top to
the bottom of the image. In Progressive scanning, the image is captured, transmitted, and then
displayed in the same path as the text is represented on the page of the document.

In the CRT displays, the interlaced scan finishes the scan two times. The first time the odd-numbered
lines are represented. They are represented from the top left corner to the bottommost right corner.
The second scan represents the even-numbered lines in the same sequential order. Thus, completing
the same scan.

The technique of alternate scanning lines is known as interlacing, and the fields are the image
formed by either odd-numbered or even-numbered lines combined to complete the picture.

It uses the persistence of the eyes to make the viewer believe that the combined images are
continuous. When the CRT displays were still used, the phosphorus used in the display helped to
interlace.

In both techniques, the image returned has the complete vertical detail with the same bandwidth.
But the frame and refresh rate are twice as in the case of interlacing than the progressive scan.
Interlacing eliminated flickering and therefore was used in analog televisions.

Advantages of Using Interlacing

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1. An important characteristic of analog television was that it had a specific bandwidth, and the
bandwidth was computed in megahertz. As the bandwidth of the device increases, the
production and broadcasting of the video or the image become more difficult and expensive.
The devices include cameras, storage broadcast, and reception systems that the cable or the
satellite, internet, or any other user display units used to transmit the video or image.

2. If the bandwidth is fixed for a device, the interlacing offers a video signal that has double the
frame and refreshes rate compared to a progressive scan with the same line count.

3. This time resolution of an interlaced video is almost double that of a non-interlaced video.
Interlaced signals need a display that can project the content by displaying them as
individual fields in an orderly manner. CRT and ALiS plasma displays are real-world
applications of interlaced screens.

4. For Example, there are two screens with the following specification 1080i at 60half frames
per sec and 1080p at 30 full frames per sec, respectively.
Then, the screen with a higher refresh rate will provide the user with a better picture quality
of the object in transition. It is because the object's position will be updated more frequently
on the screen with a higher refresh rate. But if the object is stationary, the human vision
takes information from several similar half frames to build the image of the image with the
same resolutions as it will be built by the progressive full frame.

5. The above technique only works if the source material has higher refresh rates. The movies
at that time were recorded at 24 fps. This was why the interlaced video did not affect the
display quality much. If the video has a fixed bandwidth and the refresh rate is high, the
interlaced video will have a higher spatial resolution than the video that is a progressive
scan.

6. The spatial resolution for the low-motion scenes will be twice as high in the interlaced video
than in the progressive scan video. This means the definition of the interlaced video will be
better than the progressive scan video. For Example, the interlaced video with 1920X1080
pixel resolution with a refresh rate of 60 Hz has comparable bandwidth to the 1280×720
pixel progressive scan HDTV video with a refresh rate of 60 Hz.

7. In all the present television standards, the digital video or compressed interlaced video
caused several issues. EBU performed several tests and proved that the bandwidth saved
using interlacing on the video instead of progressive video is very small even if the video's
frame rate is twice as high as the progressive scanned video.

8. The benefit associated with the bandwidth of the video is only applicable to the analog or
uncompressed digital video signal. The 1080p50 signal video will have a bit rate similar to the
1080i50 video. The video with 1080p50 needs less bandwidth to be perceived and is better
than the 1080i/25 equivalent.

9. The user can use the interlacing if they want to exploit the programming of the 3D television.
This could be specially done in the CRT displays that have color-filtered glasses. It transmits
the color-keyed picture for each eye in the changing fields. This method does not require
performing any change in the current system equipment. The user can also use the shutter
glass instead of the color-filtered glass. The shutter glass can achieve a higher
synchronization rate than it.
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10. Suppose a progressive scan display enabled the user to the programming. Every field line in
the display must be lined, doubled, and represented in different frames. If the user tries to
deinterlace the image or video, all the effects will become useless.

11. If the user wants to use color-filtered glass, then the picture has to be either buffered or can
be viewed if the image or video is progressive with alternate color-keyed lines. The user must
use the above method to effectively use the shutter glass in the progressive display.

Problems with using interlacing

1. Suppose the user wants to view the interlaced video using a progressive monitor without
deinterlacing the video or with poor deinterlacing. In that case, the user can use the combing
at the moment between the fields in a frame instead.

2. In the image of a moving car tire, interlace combing can reduce the realignment between the
even and odd field on the X-axis. If the fields are moved by 16 pixels to the right, this will
reduce the combing on the bumper and the outlining of the tire. But on the car's hub cap,
there will still be some notable combing because it is turned in between the field.

3. The purpose of using the interlaced video was to record, store, share, and display in the
same interlaced format. In interlaced video, the video frame is divided into two separate
fields that are recorded in different instances.

4. Suppose the objects recorded in the video move at a certain speed. The interlaced video
frames can show certain motion artifacts. These artifacts are referred to as interlacing effects
or combing. These artifacts are visible when the interlaced video is placed slower.
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1.6 Picture analysis

Picture Analysis in Computer Graphics refers to the process of examining, interpreting, and
extracting meaningful information from digital images using computational techniques. It bridges the
gap between raw visual data and intelligent understanding—whether for design, simulation, or
machine perception.

Core Components of Picture Analysis

Aspect Description

Image Acquisition Capturing images via scanners, cameras, or sensors

Preprocessing Enhancing image quality (e.g., noise reduction, contrast adjustment)

Segmentation Dividing an image into regions or objects for focused analysis

Feature Extraction Identifying patterns like edges, textures, shapes, or colors

Object Recognition Detecting and labeling objects using templates or AI models

Interpretation Understanding the image context, message, or aesthetic value

Techniques Used

• Thresholding: Separates objects from background based on pixel intensity

• Edge Detection: Highlights boundaries using algorithms like Sobel or Canny

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• Morphological Processing: Refines shapes using dilation, erosion, etc.

• Pattern Recognition: Identifies recurring structures or symbols

• Machine Learning & AI: Enables smart classification and scene understanding

Applications

• Medical Imaging: Tumor detection, organ segmentation

• Remote Sensing: Satellite image interpretation for agriculture or urban planning

• Multimedia Design: Enhancing visual storytelling through composition analysis

• Security & Surveillance: Facial recognition, motion tracking

• Education & Research: Visual data analysis in scientific studies