“We do not learn from experience,we learn from

reflecting on experience.” – John Dewey

ETYMOLOGY: The term "reflection" is derived from the Latin term reflectere -- meaning "to
bend back." Linguistically, the word ‘reflection’ may be seen as a meditative (thoughtful) form
of looking at oneself, and as such may be seen as a form of experiential learning.

OVERVIEW:
Reflection is a mental process which, applied to the act of learning, challenges students to use
critical thinking to examine presented information, question its validity, and draw conclusions
based on the resulting ideas. Reflection is a meta-cognitive process that occurs before, during
and after situation with the purpose of developing greater understanding of both the self and the
situation so that future encounters with the situation are informed from previous encounters.
The process of purposefully thinking back or recalling a situation to discover its purpose or
meaning. It is like rewinding a videotape Involves playing back a situation in your head and
taking time to honestly review everything you remember about it. A conscious process of
thinking, analyzing, and learning from your work situations by way of journaling or regularly
meeting with colleagues to explore work situations and self evaluate (Cirocco, 2007). Reflection
is how health and care professionals can assess their professional experiences – both positive and
where improvements may be needed.
THE BASICS: Action  Experience  reflection

DEFINITION:
It is the process where learners think, aware, explore & examines critically about their
experiences & their selves, analyze them, & apply insights to future actions (often written but
also spoken).
It involves self-evaluation, awareness of one’s learning process, and adapting behavior
(responses) for continuous improvement to gain a deeper understanding and improve future
practice. It reflect consideration with rational,
unemotional (even though it often deals with feelings,
reactions & emotion) & in relation to theory / wider
context / other perspectives.
Reflective learning/ observation/practice transforms
passive learning into an active, thoughtful, and
purpose-driven process. It empowers both students and
educators to learn from every experience, improving
academic performance, personal growth, and

professional competence.
Reflective practice is a process of reconstructing one's experiences and identifying possibilities
for action within a context of professional practice. Reflective practice can be defined as the
process of making sense of events, situations and actions that occur in the workplace. (Oelofsen,
2012; Boros, 2009)

IMPORTANCE OF REFLECTIVE LEARNING IN TEACHING & LEARNING

 Promotes deeper learning by connecting theory to practice.

 To develop understanding / learning / skills.
 Give us a path by which to move forward.
 Encourages self-awareness and lifelong learning skills.
 Helps learners identify strengths and weaknesses.
 Enhances critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving.
 Makes learning personal, meaningful, & transformative.

BASES OF REFLECTIVE LEARNING:

What makes reflective learning possible or effective.

1. Experience: Learning is grounded in real-life events e.g., clinical placements, simulations.

Without an experience, there’s nothing to reflect upon.

2. Observation: Active noticing of what happens, including behaviors, outcomes, & emotions.
Reflection begins with awareness.

3. Self-Awareness: Recognizing one’s own thoughts, biases, emotions, & actions. Crucial for
honest & meaningful reflection.

4. Questioning: Asking why, how, and what if about experiences. Stimulates critical thinking &
deeper analysis.

5. Feedback: Insights from mentors, peers, or supervisors provide new angles for reflection.

6. Theoretical Knowledge: Applying relevant concepts, principles, or frameworks to analyze

experiences e.g., nursing theories, ethics.

7. Time and Space for Reflection: Learners need opportunities to pause and think, away from
constant action.

EVELS/ TYPES OF REFLECTIVE LEARNING

Reflective learning can occur at different depths depending on the learner’s engagement. Several
models describe levels. Below is a combined view:

HATTON & SMITH'S (1995) & MOON (1999) FOUR LEVELS OF REFLECTION,
SUMMARIZED BY GILLETT ET AL. AS:
1. Descriptive writing: A straight forward account of events.

2. Descriptive Reflection (Basic Level): Simply reports what happened, with little or no
interpretation. May include superficial emotions or basic thoughts. Example: “I observed
a wound dressing being changed. The patient looked uncomfortable.”

3. Dialogic Reflection (Intermediate Level): Begins to analyze the experience,

considering different perspectives. Makes connections between theory & practice. May
involve discussion with others (peers, mentors). An account with reasons, justifications &
explanation for the events. Example: “I noticed the patient was uncomfortable. I wonder
if we explained the procedure clearly. Maybe their anxiety was due to lack of
preparation.”

4. Dialogic reflection: The writer begins to stand back from the account and analyze it.

5. Critical Reflection (Advanced/Deep Level): Questions underlying assumptions, values,

ethics, and power dynamics. Reflects on personal beliefs, system issues, and wider social
impact. Leads to transformational learning and change in behavior or attitude. The writer
puts their account into a broader perspective. Example: “I realize that our approach to the
procedure lacked cultural sensitivity. I need to develop communication strategies for
diverse patients to ensure dignity and trust.”

GOODMAN’S 3 LEVELS (1984) OFTEN REFERRED TO – ROUGHLY EQUATE TO:

1. Largely Descriptive: looking at practical things in terms of responsibility, accountability,

efficiency.
2. Moving out from your particular experiences: Relationship between theory & practice;
broader implications, issues, values.
3. Broadening out to consider implications in context of ethical/ social/ political influences
(Goodman, 1984, cited in Jasper, 2003, pp.72-75)

Level Focus Depth Nursing example:

A student nurse observes poor hand hygiene:
Descriptive Reporting facts Low
Notices the violation.
Exploring reasons,
Dialogic Medium
considering alternatives Wonders why the nurse skipped the step
Questioning values, ethics, Questions the unit culture & plans to raise
Critical High
assumptions awareness in team meetings.

THEORIES & MODELS OF REFLECTIVE LEARNING

1. KOLB’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY (1984)

Learning is a process where knowledge is created through transformation of experience.

FOUR-STAGE LEARNING CYCLE

1. Concrete Experience (CE): Being involved in a new experience or actively

experiencing an event (e.g., a classroom activity or clinical duty).
2. Reflective Observation (RO): Reflecting on that experience, what happened and why or
watching others or developing observations about one’s own experience
3. Abstract Conceptualization (AC): Drawing conclusions and learning from the
experience or creating theories to explain observations
4. Active Experimentation (AE): Applying learning to new situations or using theories to
solve problems, make decisions

Application in Teaching:
Helps structure activities to cycle through doing, reflecting, theorizing, and testing.
Example in nursing:
The student reflects, reads about patient rights (AC), and practices active listening next time
(AE).

2. GIBBS' REFLECTIVE CYCLE (1988)

Purpose: Provides a structured framework for learners to reflect on experiences.

Six Stages:
1. Description – What happened?
2. Feelings – What were you thinking and feeling?
3. Evaluation – What was good and bad?
4. Analysis – Why did it happen?
5. Conclusion – What have you learned?
6. Action Plan – What will you do next time?

Application: Widely used in nursing education for clinical reflection and skill improvement.
The student uses all stages to analyze the emotional and ethical aspects

3. SCHÖN’S THEORY Of REFLECTIVE PRACTICE (1983)

Reflection-in-Action: Thinking during the activity e.g., adjusting while teaching or

treating a patient.
Reflection-on-Action: Reflecting after the event to evaluate and learn.

Use in Teaching: Encourages real-time adaptation during lessons or patient care, and
post-event learning.
Use in nursing: Considers how to respond differently next time (Reflection-on-Action)
4. JOHNS’ MODEL FOR STRUCTURED REFLECTION (1995)
Purpose: Encourages deep, ethical, and structured reflection.

Guided Questions (Core areas):

 Description of the experience
 What was I trying to achieve?
 Why did I act as I did?
 What were the consequences?
 What knowledge informed my actions?
 How could I handle it better next time?
Application: Often used in nursing portfolios, encouraging deeper personal and professional
learning. Uses guided questions to consider professionalism and advocacy.

5. BOUD, KEOGH, AND WALKER’S MODEL Of REFLECTION (1985)

Focus: Emotional response to experiences.

Three Stages:
1. Returning to the Experience → Recalling and describing it in detail.
2. Attending to Feelings → Understanding how feelings affected the experience.
3. Re-evaluating the Experience → Integrating new knowledge into practice.
Application: Useful for emotional processing and holistic learning.

6. BROOKFIELD’S FOUR LENSES (1995)

Approach: Reflective practice using four different perspectives.
Lens Description
Autobiography Reflecting on one’s own experiences as a learner
Students’ Eyes Getting feedback from learners
Colleagues’ Perceptions Peer observation or discussion
Theoretical Literature Using educational theories or research to inform practice
Application: Encourages well-rounded reflection for educators.

7. BORTON,S (1970) CUE

QUESTIONS:
The simplest model of Reflection was
developed by Driscoll in 1994, 2004 and
2007.
Driscoll studied the three stem questions:
1.What? 2.So what? 3.Now what?

Comparison
 Model/Theory Key Focus Best Used For
Kolb Learning through experience Designing active, cyclical lessons
Gibbs Structured reflection Clinical learning, writing reflective journals
Schön Thinking in and after action Real-time teaching/clinical decision-making
Johns Deep ethical inquiry Professional development in healthcare
Boud et al. Emotional reflection Processing difficult experiences
Brookfield Multiple perspectives Teaching self-evaluation

STAGES (PROCESS) OF REFLECTION:

 Awareness of uncomfortable feelings and thoughts.
 Critical analysis of the situation.
 Development of a new perspective.
 Experience of surprise, inner discomfort, judgmental reflectivity…
 Reflection and criticism, openness to new information and perspectives, making
connections, validating.
 Acknowledging the self with past, present and future deciding whether and how to change
and move forward (Freshwater 2007 p58)

REFLECTIVE MODELS & EDUCATION

 Provide structured thinking
 Promote professional growth
 Encourage critical analysis and emotional awareness
 Link theory with practice
 Enhance learner autonomy
GIBBS’ STAGES REFLECTIVE CYCLE - 1988
1. Description: What happened? (Facts of the experience)
2. Feelings: What were your reactions and emotions?
3. Evaluation: What was good or bad about the experience?
4. Analysis: Why did things happen the way they did? What sense can you make of it?
5. Conclusion: What have you learned from this experience?
6. Action Plan: How will you apply this learning in the future?

DESCRIPTION:

 In this section, you need to explain what you are reflecting on to your reader.
 Perhaps include background information, such as what it is you’re reflecting on and tell the
reader who was involved.
 It’s important to remember to keep the
information provided relevant and to-the-
point.
 Don’t waffle on about details that aren’t
required – if you do this, you’re just using
up valuable words that you’ll get minimal
marks for.
 Ability to give effective account others understand what happened as you saw it Pick
relevant, significant detail in right amount, Writing = clear, concise, well structured
 Objective rather than emotional: thoughts & feelings are recorded rather than coloring
account

FEELINGS
 Discuss your feelings and thoughts about the experience. You can discuss your emotions
honestly, but make sure to remember at all times that this is an academic piece of writing, so
avoid ‘chatty’ text.
 Consider questions such as:
• How did you feel at the time? What did you think at the time?
• What did you think about the incident afterwards?

EVALUATION
 For your evaluation, discuss how well you think things went. Perhaps think about:
 How did you react to the situation, and how did other people react?
 What was good and what was bad about the experience?
 If you are writing about a difficult incident, did you feel that the situation was resolved
afterwards?
 Why/why not?
 This section is a good place to include the theory and the work of other authors.
 Remember it is important to include references in reflective writing.

ANALYSIS
 In your analysis, consider what might have helped or hindered the event.
 You also have the opportunity here to compare your experience with the literature you have
read.
 This section is very important, particularly for higher level writing.
 Many students receive poor marks for reflective assignments for not bringing the theory and
experience together.

ACTION PLAN
 Action plans sum up anything you need to know and do to improve for next time.
 Perhaps you feel that you need to learn about something or attend some training.
 Could you ask your tutor or placement supervisor for some advice?
 What can you do which means you will be better equipped to cope with a similar event?

REFLECTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES IN TEACHING

 Reflective Journals /Diaries: Encourage students to write thoughts, reactions, & progress.
 Learning Logs: Structured entries focusing on what was learned, how, and future goals.
 Peer Reflection: Students reflect with or give feedback to each other.
 Portfolios: Collection of work with reflective commentary.
 Group Discussions / Debriefings: Reflect on shared activities or case studies.
 Case-Based Learning: Apply reflection to real-life scenarios and clinical cases.
 Mentorship Feedback: Students reflect on feedback received from teachers/mentors.
 Self-Assessment Rubrics: Help learners evaluate their own work against criteria.

SELF-ASSESSMENT RUBRIC

A Self-Assessment Rubric is a structured tool that helps learners evaluate their own
performance, skills, or progress against predefined criteria. It encourages students or
professionals to reflect on their strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement in a
systematic and honest way.

FEATURES OF A SELF-ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Criteria-Based: Includes clear, specific performance criteria.

Rating Scale: Often uses levels like “Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor” or numerical scales.
Self-reflective: Learners rate themselves and justify their rating with evidence/examples.
Development-Oriented: Focuses on progress, growth, and setting future goals.
Flexible Format: Can be used in academics, clinical practice, group projects, presentations.

Example in Nursing Education: Let’s say a nursing student uses a self-assessment

rubric after a clinical skill lab on wound dressing.
The rubric may include:

Needs
Excellent Good Fair
Criteria Improvement Self-Reflection
(4) (3) (2)
(1)
“Consistently
Hand hygiene compliance ✅
followed protocol.”
“Missed minor step;
Aseptic technique used ✅ ✅
will practice.”
“Was nervous, but
Patient communication ✅ ✅
gave instructions.”
“Left out time; must
Documentation completeness ✅ ✅
revise notes.”

PURPOSE OF USING SELF-ASSESSMENT RUBRICS:

 Enhances reflective learning

 Encourages accountability
 Supports learner autonomy
 Improves meta-cognitive skills (thinking about one’s own thinking)

WHY IT’S VALUABLE IN REFLECTIVE LEARNING

 Self-assessment rubrics foster critical thinking, help students monitor their own
progress, and provide a foundation for reflective journaling, goal-setting, and
discussions with instructors.

ROLE OF EDUCATORS

Role Function
Facilitator Create a safe environment for honest reflection
Model Demonstrate reflective practices through own behavior
Guide Provide prompts or questions to stimulate reflection
Feedback Giver Offer constructive feedback to deepen insights
Evaluator Assess reflective tasks with clarity and fairness

CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLECTIVE LEARNERS

 Open-minded and inquisitive

 Accept feedback positively
 Willing to challenge own assumptions
 Capable of linking theory and practice
 Committed to self-improvement
BENEFITS OF REFLECTIVE LEARNING:
For Nurses
 Improves clinical judgment and decision-making. Promotes self-awareness and emotional
intelligence. Strengthens evidence-based practice.
 Encourages accountability and ethical care. Enhances patient safety and satisfaction.
For Students
 Improves retention and understanding. Builds confidence and independence
 Enhances meta-cognitive skills. Connects personal experience with academic content
For Teachers
 Helps tailor instruction to learner needs. Encourages continuous professional development
 Improves classroom engagement. Facilitates better assessment of learning impact

TIPS FOR ENHANCING REFLECTIVE LEARNING

 Use open-ended questions like: “What surprised you?”, “What would you do differently?”
 Integrate reflection before, during, and after learning activities.
 Encourage honesty without judgment. Make reflection a regular habit.
 Connect reflections to goals or professional standards.

APPLICATION OF REFLECTIVE LEARNING IN NURSING:

Reflective learning is a key component of nursing education and professional development.
It helps nurses grow personally and professionally by analyzing clinical experiences and
improving their future responses.

COMMON APPLICATIONS IN NURSING PRACTICE:

Area Application
Reflecting on patient care to identify what went well and what
Clinical Practice
could be improved.
Understanding causes of mistakes or near-misses and planning
Error Analysis
strategies to avoid them.
Evaluating interactions with patients, families, and team
Communication Skills
members for effectiveness.
Analyzing moral dilemmas and understanding personal and
Ethical Decision-Making
professional values.
Continuing Professional
Guiding lifelong learning and identifying learning needs.
Development (CPD)
Documentation and Case
Reviewing records to recognize learning points and gaps.
Reviews

Examples:

1. Post-Procedure Reflection: A nurse reflects after inserting an IV line, noting anxiety,

reviewing correct technique, and planning confidence-building measures.
 2. End-of-Shift Debrief: A team reflects on a critical incident in a debrief, discussing
emotions, reactions, and improvements for next time.

PRINCIPLES OF REFLECTIVE LEARNING

Principle Description
Self-Awareness Understanding your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Analyzing situations deeply, questioning assumptions, and making
Critical Thinking
sense of experiences.
Purposeful Reflection Reflecting with an intent to learn and improve.
Honesty and Openness Being truthful about strengths, weaknesses, and areas of growth.
Active Engagement Reflection is an ongoing, intentional, and participatory process.
Feedback Integration Using feedback constructively for self-improvement.
Lifelong Learning Committing to continuous personal and professional development.

TOOLS & TECHNIQUES FOR REFLECTIVE LEARNING

Tool Usage
Reflective
Daily or weekly written reflection on clinical experiences.
Journals/Diaries
Learning Logs Structured records focusing on what was learned and how.
Portfolios Collection of work with reflection on learning progress.
Peer Discussion Sharing reflections with colleagues for different perspectives.
Case Reviews Analyzing clinical cases or incidents to draw lessons.
Mentor Feedback Reflecting on feedback received from mentors/supervisors.
SWOT Analysis Identifying Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, & Threats in a situation.
Reflective Models Using frameworks like Gibbs, Schön, Kolb, Johns for structured thinking.

BARRIERS TO REFLECTIVE LEARNING

Barrier Description
Lack of Time Busy clinical schedules leave little room for reflection.
Limited Awareness Nurses may not recognize the value or method of reflection.
Poor Writing / communication
Discomfort with written reflection limits effective expression.
Skills
 Barrier Description
Negative Emotions/ Fear of
Shame, fear of judgment, or defensiveness can block honesty.
criticism or failure
Lack or Insufficient Support &
No encouragement from mentors or educators.
guidance.
Superficial Reflection Focusing only on facts rather than deeper learning.
Cultural & Organizational Workplaces that discourage vulnerability or critique hinder
discourage reflection.

NURSING EXAMPLE:

After a failed IV insertion, a nurse reflects:

 Stage 1: Describes what happened and emotions involved.
 Stage 2–4: Evaluates technique, identifies anxiety, and lack of preparation.
 Stage 5–6: Concludes better preparation is needed and plans to review IV training
materials.