Non - Destructive Testing is the Technology of assessing the Soundness and Acceptability of an

actual component without affecting the functional properties of the component.

Non Destructive Testing Technique is the Technology in general.

Non Destructive Inspection is use of the Technology for inspecting materials to known standards.

Non Destructive Evaluation is the art of developing NDT Techniques, Arriving at acceptance
standard for components for which nothing is available to start with.

Development and Improvement Of Material and Process for Fabrication.

Determining quantitative influence of flaws and properly variables.

Determining critical (weak) Spots in manufacturing operations.

Establishing and Measuring quality and acceptance limits.

In service Inspection.

Failure Analysis.

Manufacturing
Product OR Process Possible Defects Produced
Operation
Center line pipe, Inclusion voids,
Cast Ingots
Porosity.
Foundry
Shrink cracks, Inclusion voids,
Sand Or Dye Casting
Porosity, Cold shuts etc.

Burts, Laps, Cracks, Inclusions,

Forge shop Billet Forging
Flash line cracks etc.

Inclusions, Pipes, Seams, Laps,

Extrusions
Die drag etc.
Segregation, Laminations,
Plate or Sheet
Mill Shearing separation of edges.
Inclusions, Pipes, Seams, Laps,
Bar, Wire, Rod
Cracks.
Tubing & Pipe Inclusions, Seams, Cracks.
Assembly OR Porosity, Voids, Cracks,
Finishing Welding Incomplete fusion, and
Penetration.
Grinding Cracks.
Tears, Cracks, Thickness
Machining
variation.
Heat Treating Cracks,Grain size or metallurgic
variations, Surface oxidation etc.
 Plating, Cracks, Embrittlement, Peeling.
Bonding(adhering,
Lack of bond, Voids, Cracks.
Braze, diffusion)
Forming, Pickling Cracks, Folds, Stress cracks.
Fatigue cracks, Overload cracks,
In Service Cycle All Products Stress corrosion, Galling pits,
Debends, Torsional overload etc.

NDT tests are made directly upon the objects to be in service and hence there is no doubt that
the tests were made on representative test objects.
Tests can be made on every unit to be used in service (If Economically Justified); consequently
they may be used validly even when great differences from unit to unit occur in production lots.
Tests are made if desired on the entire production parts; consequently the evaluation applies to
the part as a whole.
Many Non Destructive tests, each sensitive to different properties of the material or part, may be
applied simultaneously or sequentially to measure as many properties correlated with service
performance as may be desired.
NDT may be applied to parts in service often without interruption of service and with no loss of
serviceable parts.
Acceptable parts of very high fabrication costs are not lost in testing, consequently, extensive
testing during service is possible.
Little or no specimen preparation is required in many NDT tests. Several forms of NDT equipments
are portable and are capable of rapid sorting and testing. The cost of NDT in most cases is far less
than the cost of adequate Destructive tests except X-Ray inspection of low fabrication cost items.
Most NDT methods are much more rapid and require far fewer man hours than typical Destructive
tests and hence economical.

Visual Testing is very important, though neglected by many NDT Personnel.

Visual Inspection is a nondestructive testing technique that provides a means of detecting and
examining a variety of surface flaws, such as corrosion, contamination, surface finish, and surface
discontinuities on joints(for example, welds, seals, solder connections, and adhesive bonds). Visual
inspection is also the most widely used method for detecting and examining surface cracks, which
are particularly important because of their relationship to structural failure mechanisms.
Even when other nondestructive techniques are used to detect surface cracks, visual inspection
often provides a useful supplement. For example, when the eddy current examination of process
tubing is performed, visual inspection is often performed to verify and more closely examine the
surface disturbance.
Given the wide variety of surface flaws that may be detectable by visual examination, the use of
visual inspection may encompass different techniques, depending on the product and type of
surface flaw being monitored.
The methods of visual inspection involve a wide variety of equipment, ranging from examination
with the naked eye to the use of interference microscopes for measuring the depth of scratches in
the finish of finely polished or lapped surfaces.
Some of the equipments used to aid visual inspection includes :
Flexible or rigid borescopes for illuminating and observing internal, closed or otherwise
inaccessible areas.
Image sensors for remote sensing or for the development of permanent visual records in the form
of photographs, videotapes, or computer-enhanced images.
Magnifying systems for evaluating surface finish, surface shapes(profile and contour gagging),
and surface microstructures.
 Dye and fluorescent penetrants and magnetic particles for enhancing the observation of surface
cracks (and sometimes near-surface conditions in the case of magnetic particle inspection).

Flaw detection process utilizing dye penetrants are extensively used in Aircraft industry.
This is a logical development of the oil and chalk method popular in the early days. Briefly the
method consists of immersing the part to be tested in a liquid penetrant wiping the excess panetrant
and then applying a developer to bring back the dye which seeped into the flaw open to surface.
The basic principle of penetrant inspection is that when a penetrant is applied over a clean surface
to be inspected by the combined action of surface tension and capillary action penetrant seeps into
defect which when developed, by the blotting action of the developer powder clearly shows up on a
white back ground and can be conveniently inspected.
The following are the basic stages on dye-penetrant method:
Surface preparation: The surface on the part to be tested is thoroughly cleaned to remove dirt.
Application of penetrant: The penetrant is a liquid of a very low viscosity, carrying a dye -
generally red or a fluorescent penetrant which easily inters into flaws because of low surface tension
and capillary action.
The dye - penetrant may be applied on the parts by the following methods:
a. Dipping or immersing,
b. Spraying,
c. Brushing,
d. Pouring.
Excess penetrant removal: After the parts stand in the penetrant for desired time it is washed
in clean running water & dried with air.
Developer application: The developer (dry or wet) is applied by evenly spreading or dusting
over the part.
The developer may be chalk powder of very fine grade or wet developer which is a fine chalk powder
suspended in alcohol or spirit.
Inspection: As the alcohol or spirit in the developer evaporates, the chalk powder draws back
penetrant to the surface because of blotting properties of the chalk. This shows up as a red line on a
white background.
In case of fluorescent penetrant inspection, the part is inspected in a dark enclosure under ultra
violet or black light. The blotted out fluorescent particles will give a visible glow under ultra violet
light.
Fluorescent penetrant inspection is very effective for machined machined and finished parts.
Dye penetrant inspection is suitable for rough cast surfaces and finished surfaces.

Magnetic Particle Inspection is a method of locating surface and subsurface

discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
It depends on the fact that when the material or part under test is magnetized, magnetic
discontinuities that lie in a direction generally transverse to the direction of the magnetic field will
cause a leakage field to be formed at and above the surface of the part. The presence of this
leakage field, and therefore the presence of the discontinuity, is detected by the use of finely
divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the surface, with some of the particles being gathered
and held by the leakage field.
This magnetically held collection of particles forms an outline of the discontinuity and generally
indicates its location, size, shape, and extent. Magnetic particles are applied over a surface as dry
particles, or as wet particles in a liquid carrier such as water or oil.
Ferromagnetic materials include most of the iron, nickel, and cobalt alloys. Many of the precipitation-
hardening steels, such as 17-4 PH, 17-7 pH, and 15-4 pH stainless steels, are magnetic after aging.
These materials lose their ferromagnetic properties above a characteristic temperature called the
Curie point. Although this temperature varies for different materials, the Curie point for most
ferromagnetic materials is approximately 760 degree C (1400 degreeF).
Advantages :
The magnetic particle method is a sensitive means of locating small and shallow surface cracks in
ferromagnetic materials. Indications may be produced at cracks that are large enough to be seen
with the naked eye, but exceedingly wide cracks will no produce a particle pattern if the surface
opening is too wide for the particles to bridge.
Discontinuities that do not actually break through the surface are also indicated in many cases by
this method, although certain limitations must be recognized and understood. If a discontinuity is
fine, sharp, and close to the surface, such as a long stringer of nonmetallic inclusions, a clear
indication can be produced. If the discontinuity lies deeper, the indication will be less distinct. The
deeper the discontinuity lies below the surface, the larger it must be to yield a readable indication
and the more difficult the discontinuity is to find by this method.
Magnetic particle indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute
magnetic pictures of actual discontinuities. There is no electrical circuitry or electronic readout to be
calibrated or kept in proper operating condition. Skilled operators can sometimes make a reasonable
estimate of crack depth with suitable powders and proper technique. Occasional monitoring of field
intensity in the part is needed to ensure adequate field strength.
There is little or no limitation on the size or shape of the part being inspected. Ordinarily, no
elaborate precleaning is necessary, and cracks filled with foreign material can be detected.

Ultrasonic denotes high frequency sound waves beyond the audible range generally above 20,000
cycles per second.
Generation of Ultrasonic waves is done by means of Magnetostriction, or Piezoelectric Effect.
The waves are made to pass the material under checking through a coupling media. The waves
propagate into the material in the form of bean resembling a solid cone diverging steadily from the
source of generation.
If the material is perfectly homogenous, the energy travels up back to the surface of specimen and
is reflected and returns to the transducer. The transducer at once changes this mechanical energy
into electrical energy which after amplification is routed through different electronic circuits. It
ultimately reaches a vertical plate of cathode-ray tube in the form of unidirectional voltage. This is
indirected by a pipe on the time base which is incorporated in between the horizontal plates of CPT
to reckon the time of travel of the Ultrasonic energy into the material.
A part of the electrical pulse is fed into the vertical plates of the CRT simultaneously with the same
being applied to the transducer. This gives the transmission echo on the time base which the
starting point for measuring time of interval on the calibrated scale.
If now a discontinuity exists on the path of the Ultrasonic energy, part of it will be reflected and part
of it will be transmitted depending upon the acoustic impendances of the material and the flaw. The
energy reflected from the flaw and that from the back surface, having traveled different path lengths
shall be indicated on the CRT screen by the two different echoes on the time base, the space
between the echoes giving the difference of path traversed.
Graduations on the time base scale when calibrated with reference to the material under checking
shall therefore readily give us the depth of flaw as well as thickness of the material.

Radiographic examination involves using the property of rectilinear propagation of electro magnetic
waves such as both X - rays and Gamma Rays.
In aeronautic industry only X - ray examination find good application. The quality or penetrating
power of X - rays increases with kilovoltage applied across the filament and target and this depends
purely on the density and thickness of the material to be penetrated.

Principle of (X - ray) Radiographic Examination :

The intensity of a beam of X - rays or rays undergoes local attenuation as it passed through a
heterogeneous body, due to the absorption and scattering of radiation by the object concerned.
As a result the beam emerging from the object forms at the surface of the film areas of differing
intensity which together make up the radiation image.
The image obtained when the film is developed is a negative reproduction of the radiation image.
The film produces a two dimensional shadow graphic projection of three dimensional part under
examination.

Interpretation of X - ray film is only distinguishing between areas of different density or film
blackness.
Black areas represent less absorption of X - rays due to presence of defects compared to adjacent
homogeneous areas of less black areas.
Whereas light areas in a homogeneously back area show some foreign metals of high absorption.
The shadow graph is purely due to selective absorption of X - rays by matters in its path.

Radiographic examination finds many application in inspecting casting, welding, structures etc. for
internal soundness, process control checks, development of new casting and process technology, in
evaluation of internal assemblies like electronic circuitry, injection nozzle continuity of filament
inside assay.
X - rays inspection plays vital role in inspecting areas without disassembly which otherwise warrants
disassembly involving labour and time.