TRANSPORT OF GASES: OXYGEN AND
CARBON DIOXIDE
INTRODUCTION
The efficient transport of gases, primarily oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide
(CO₂), is fundamental to life, supporting cellular respiration and maintaining
physiological homeostasis. In multicellular organisms, particularly mammals,
a specialized circulatory system is responsible for moving these vital gases
between the external environment (lungs) and the internal environment
(body tissues). This process relies on intricate physiological mechanisms,
leveraging principles of gas exchange and the remarkable properties of blood
components.
This document explores the key principles governing gas transport, detailing
the specific mechanisms by which oxygen is delivered to tissues and carbon
dioxide is removed, highlighting the roles of partial pressures, diffusion, and
specialized carrier molecules.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GAS TRANSPORT
Gas transport in the body is driven by two fundamental principles: partial
pressure gradients and diffusion.
1. PARTIAL PRESSURES
• Dalton's Law: The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the
sum of the partial pressures of each gas in the mixture.
• Partial Pressure Gradients: Gases move from an area of higher partial
pressure to an area of lower partial pressure.
◦ In the lungs, the partial pressure of O₂ (PO₂) is high in the alveoli
(approx. 104 mmHg) and low in deoxygenated blood (approx. 40
mmHg), facilitating O₂ diffusion into the blood.
◦ Conversely, the partial pressure of CO₂ (PCO₂) is high in
deoxygenated blood (approx. 45 mmHg) and lower in the alveoli
(approx. 40 mmHg), promoting CO₂ diffusion out of the blood.
◦ In the tissues, PO₂ is low (approx. 40 mmHg) due to cellular
consumption, while PCO₂ is high (approx. 45 mmHg) due to cellular
production, driving O₂ release from blood and CO₂ uptake into
blood.
2. DIFFUSION
• Fick's Law of Diffusion: The rate of diffusion of a gas across a membrane
is directly proportional to the surface area of the membrane, the
diffusion coefficient of the gas, and the partial pressure gradient, and
inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane.
• The respiratory membrane in the lungs is ideally suited for rapid
diffusion due to its large surface area, thinness, and rich blood supply.
Similarly, the capillary walls in tissues facilitate efficient gas exchange at
the cellular level.
3. KEY PLAYERS IN TRANSPORT
• Blood Plasma: A small amount of O₂ and CO₂ dissolves directly in the
plasma.
• Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): The primary vehicles for gas transport,
containing the protein hemoglobin.
• Hemoglobin (Hb): A specialized metalloprotein responsible for binding
and transporting the vast majority of O₂ and a significant portion of CO₂.
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OXYGEN TRANSPORT
Oxygen is transported in the blood in two main forms, though one vastly
predominates:
1. DISSOLVED IN PLASMA (APPROX. 1.5%)
• A very small fraction of oxygen dissolves directly into the blood plasma.
This dissolved O₂ is crucial for establishing the partial pressure gradient
that drives O₂ diffusion into tissues. However, due to its low solubility in
water, this method alone is insufficient to meet the metabolic demands
of the body.
2. BOUND TO HEMOGLOBIN (APPROX. 98.5%)
• Hemoglobin (Hb): The primary oxygen-carrying molecule, found within
red blood cells. Each hemoglobin molecule is composed of four protein
subunits (globins), each associated with a heme group. At the center of
each heme group is an iron ion (Fe²⁺) to which a molecule of O₂ can
reversibly bind. Therefore, one hemoglobin molecule can bind up to four
O₂ molecules.
• When O₂ binds to hemoglobin, it forms oxyhemoglobin (HbO₂). When O₂
is released, it becomes deoxyhemoglobin (HHb).
THE OXYHEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE
This S-shaped (sigmoidal) curve illustrates the relationship between the
partial pressure of oxygen (PO₂) and the percentage saturation of hemoglobin
with oxygen.
• Steep Portion: At lower PO₂ levels (typical in active tissues, e.g., 20-40
mmHg), the curve is steep, meaning a small drop in PO₂ results in a
significant release of O₂ from hemoglobin. This ensures ample O₂
delivery where it's most needed.
• Plateau Portion: At higher PO₂ levels (typical in the lungs, e.g., 60-100
mmHg), the curve flattens, indicating that hemoglobin remains highly
saturated even with a moderate drop in PO₂. This "safety margin"
ensures efficient O₂ loading in the lungs.
FACTORS AFFECTING HEMOGLOBIN'S AFFINITY FOR OXYGEN
(SHIFTS IN THE CURVE)
Several physiological factors can alter hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen,
causing the dissociation curve to shift:
• Right Shift (Decreased Affinity, More O₂ Released): Occurs in
metabolically active tissues where O₂ is needed.
◦ Increased PCO₂ (Bohr Effect): Higher CO₂ levels lead to increased
H⁺ concentration.
◦ Decreased pH (Increased Acidity/Bohr Effect): H⁺ ions bind to
hemoglobin, reducing its O₂ affinity.
◦ Increased Temperature: Higher temperatures (e.g., during
exercise) reduce O₂ affinity.
◦ Increased 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG): A byproduct of red
blood cell metabolism; increased levels reduce O₂ affinity.
• Left Shift (Increased Affinity, Less O₂ Released): Occurs in the lungs,
facilitating O₂ loading.
◦ Decreased PCO₂
◦ Increased pH (Decreased Acidity)
◦ Decreased Temperature
◦ Decreased 2,3-BPG
These shifts represent a crucial homeostatic mechanism, ensuring that
oxygen is readily picked up in the lungs and efficiently delivered to tissues
with high metabolic demands.
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CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
Carbon dioxide (CO₂), a waste product of cellular respiration, is transported in
the blood from the tissues back to the lungs in three primary forms:
1. DISSOLVED IN PLASMA (APPROX. 7-10%)
• CO₂ is about 20 times more soluble in plasma than O₂. A small but
significant portion of CO₂ dissolves directly in the blood plasma and is
transported in this form. This dissolved CO₂ contributes directly to the
PCO₂ of the blood, which is essential for establishing the diffusion
gradient at the lungs and tissues.
2. BOUND TO HEMOGLOBIN (CARBAMINOHEMOGLOBIN)
(APPROX. 20-23%)
• CO₂ can reversibly bind to the amino groups of hemoglobin (and other
plasma proteins) to form carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO₂).
• Unlike O₂, CO₂ does not bind to the heme iron; it binds to the globin
protein part of the hemoglobin molecule.
• The binding of CO₂ to hemoglobin is enhanced when hemoglobin is
deoxygenated (i.e., has released its O₂). This phenomenon is known as
the Haldane Effect.
3. AS BICARBONATE IONS (HCO₃⁻) (APPROX. 70%)
This is the most significant mechanism for CO₂ transport and involves a series
of reactions primarily occurring within red blood cells:
1. CO₂ Entry: CO₂ diffuses from tissue cells into the red blood cells.
2. Carbonic Acid Formation: Inside the red blood cell, CO₂ rapidly reacts
with water (H₂O) to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃). This reaction is catalyzed
by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which is abundant in red blood cells.
CO₂ + H₂O ←→ H₂CO₃
3. Dissociation into Bicarbonate: Carbonic acid quickly dissociates into a
hydrogen ion (H⁺) and a bicarbonate ion (HCO₃⁻).
H₂CO₃ ←→ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻
4. Hydrogen Ion Buffering: The released H⁺ ions are largely buffered by
binding to deoxyhemoglobin, preventing a drastic drop in blood pH. This
buffering action is also part of the Bohr effect (H⁺ binding to Hb reduces
O₂ affinity).
5. Chloride Shift (Hamburger Phenomenon): To maintain electrical
neutrality, as HCO₃⁻ ions diffuse out of the red blood cell into the
plasma, chloride ions (Cl⁻) move from the plasma into the red blood cell.
This exchange is mediated by an antiport protein on the red blood cell
membrane. This process reverses in the lungs, allowing HCO₃⁻ to re-
enter the RBC.
THE HALDANE EFFECT
The Haldane effect describes the increased capacity of deoxygenated blood to
carry CO₂. When hemoglobin releases O₂ in the tissues, its affinity for CO₂ and
H⁺ increases. This facilitates the uptake of CO₂ and the buffering of H⁺ in the
tissues. Conversely, in the lungs, O₂ binding to hemoglobin reduces its affinity
for CO₂ and H⁺, promoting the release of CO₂. The Bohr and Haldane effects
are thus complementary, ensuring efficient gas exchange.
CONCLUSION
The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide is a sophisticated physiological
process, finely tuned to meet the body's dynamic metabolic demands. It relies
on the interplay of partial pressure gradients, diffusion, and the remarkable
properties of hemoglobin. Oxygen is primarily transported bound to
hemoglobin, with its release regulated by factors that shift the
oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve. Carbon dioxide is transported
predominantly as bicarbonate ions, with significant contributions from
carbaminohemoglobin and dissolved CO₂. The synergistic actions of the Bohr
and Haldane effects further optimize gas exchange, ensuring the continuous
supply of O₂ for cellular respiration and the efficient removal of metabolic
waste CO₂, thereby maintaining the delicate balance of life.
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