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Nanocosmos of catalysis: a voyage through

Cite this: Nanoscale Adv., 2024, 6, 2741
synthesis, properties, and enhanced photocatalytic
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degradation in nickel sulfide nanocomposites

Nityananda Sarkar, Soumya Ranjan Mishra, Vishal Gadore, Biswaranjan Panigrahi
and Md. Ahmaruzzaman *

Nanomaterials play a decisive role in environmental applications such as water purification, pollutant
monitoring, and advanced oxidation-based remediation processes, particularly in semiconductor and
metal sulfide-based photocatalysis. Metal sulfides are ideal for photocatalysis because of their unique
optical, structural, and electronic characteristics. These properties enable the effective use of solar
energy to drive various catalytic reactions with potential uses in environmental remediation with
sustainable energy production. Among them, nickel sulfides (NiS) stand out for their narrow band gaps,
high stability, and cost-effectiveness. This review thoroughly analyzes recent advancements in employing
nickel–sulfide-based nanostructures for water decontamination. It begins by addressing environmental
material needs and emphasizing the properties of nickel sulfide. To improve photocatalytic performance,
controlled processes that affect the active structure, shape, composition, and size of nickel sulfide
photocatalysts are examined, along with their synthesis methods. The heart of the review article is
a detailed analysis of the modification of NiS through metal and non-metal doping, heterojunction, and
nanocomposite formation for enhanced photocatalytic performance. The discussion also includes
Received 3rd March 2024
Accepted 6th April 2024
metal-modified nanostructures, metal oxides, and carbon-hybridized nanocomposites. This study
underscores notable advancements in the degradation efficiency of NiS photocatalysts, rivaling their
DOI: 10.1039/d4na00184b
costly noble-metal counterparts. The analysis concludes with potential future directions for nickel
rsc.li/nanoscale-advances sulfide-based photocatalysts in sustainable environmental remediation.

a need for stringent regulations, proper waste management,

1. Introduction and sustainable practices.5 Scientists have proposed various
Water is a vital resource necessary for maintaining life, and its physical, chemical, and biological treatment approaches to
pollution poses a signicant threat to both ecosystems and address these issues.6 Chemicals like dyes, pesticides, and
human well-being. From the moment we wake up to when we go medications can be removed from wastewater using nano-
to bed, water plays an integral part in our daily routines, composites, composite materials made of two or more compo-
impacting our health, hygiene, nutrition, and leisure activities.1 nents, one acts as the basis material and includes the other
Water pollution occurs when harmful substances are intro- ingredients.7 Nickel sulde nanocomposites have gained
duced into various water sources, such as rivers, lakes, oceans, recognition for their remarkable effectiveness in eliminating
and groundwater. These substances include dyes, pharmaceu- dyes, pharmaceuticals, and pesticides from wastewater, with
tical products, and pesticides, which can adversely affect several instances reviewed in this study. These studies also
aquatic life and the environment.2 Industrial discharge of dyes highlight recent advancements in nickel sulde (NiS) nano-
introduces harmful chemicals into water sources, which can composite materials to eliminate organic contaminants.8
negatively impact aquatic life.3 Moreover, pharmaceuticals can Using light energy to catalyze chemical processes is known
contaminate water supplies if not disposed of properly, posing as photocatalysis, which comes from the Greek words “phos”
risks to aquatic organisms and human health.4 Also, pesticides (light) and “katalyo” (catalysis or breakdown). Energy conver-
used in agriculture to control pests oen end up in water bodies sion, environmental cleanup, and the development of sustain-
through runoff, causing ecological imbalances and potentially able technologies all depend on this scientic method.9
harming aquatic ecosystems. To mitigate the negative effects of Photocatalysts play a crucial role in the breakdown of chem-
these substances on water quality and the environment, there is icals, including pesticides, dyes, and medicines, as well as in the
purication of air and water. The creation of solar fuel is
Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Assam, 788010,
a noteworthy use of photocatalysis. When a photocatalyst is
India. E-mail: [email protected] exposed to UV or visible light, electron–hole pairs are created,

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which changes the rate at which a chemical reaction

proceeds.10,11 The photocatalysis process unfolds through
several fundamental steps. Initially, a semiconductor material
rst excites electrons from the valence band to the conduction
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band by absorbing photons. Electron–hole pairs, which func-

tion as the active species in chemical reactions, are produced by
this process. Subsequently, the electrons possess the capability
to reduce specic species, whereas the holes exhibit the ability
to oxidize others. This distinctive dual functionality involving
oxidation and reduction stands out as a dening characteristic
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of photocatalysis. Fig. 1 (ref. 12) illustrates the mechanism of

photocatalytic degradation of dyes.
In aqueous environments, the h+ reacts with water mole-
cules, creating *OH, while e− reacts with O2 molecules, forming
O*2 radicals. These reactive oxygen species play a decisive role
in breaking down pollutants. The intermediate species formed
during photocatalysis react with organic contaminants,
breaking them into more straightforward, less harmful
compounds. This process results in the degradation and
removal of pollutants from the environment.13 The chemical
Fig. 2 Chemical reactions involved in the photocatalytic degradation.7
reactions are depicted in Fig. 2.7

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram showing how NiS/LFO heterostructures photocatalytically degrade MO.12

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Overall, photocatalysis relies on the ability of a semi- 2. Synthesis of nickel sulfides and
conductor material, activated by light, to initiate and drive
redox reactions that lead to the decomposition of pollutants their nanocomposites
and the purication of air or water. The most commonly used Several traditional techniques have been documented for
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semiconductor materials for photocatalysis are titanium producing nanoparticles and nanocomposites made of nickel
dioxide, zinc oxide, and various metal suldes.14 Nickel sulde sulde. Here are several oen-used, straightforward synthesis
(NiS) is a remarkable material in photocatalysis, outperforming techniques in this context. Fig. 3 (ref. 10) presents a schematic
other metal suldes and well-known photocatalysts. NiS representation of the synthesis procedures.
outperforms its competitors in various ways due to its unique
electrical structure and high catalytic activity.15 Unlike certain
2.1 Sol–gel method
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metal suldes, which may have restricted light absorption or

poor charge separation efficiency, NiS has an optimized band Metal suldes may be made quickly and efficiently using the
structure that effectively exploits a larger spectrum of light for sol–gel process. A metal salt precursor is rst dissolved in
improved photocatalytic activity.16 This intrinsic advantage a solvent, and then a sulfur source, typically sodium sulde, is
places NiS at the forefront of solar-driven catalysis.17 added to the mixture to produce a sol. The metal sulde sol
Compared to other well-known photocatalysts, its extraor- condenses into a gel of metal–sulfur–metal bonds aer it forms.
dinary properties become even more apparent. Compared to Aer that, the gel is dried for future use.
traditional photocatalysts like titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc As an example, sol–gel synthesis of the NiS2 nanocomposite
oxide (ZnO), molybdenum disulde (MoS2), cadmium sulde involved the combination of NiCl2 with Na2S$5H2O in water for
(CdS), or tin disulde (SnS2),1,10,14,18–24 NiS exhibits better cata- the subsequent creation of the NiS2/TiO2 composite. The
lytic activity in visible light, accounting for a signicant fraction resulting NiS2 powder was incorporated into a 1 : 4 TNB and
of the solar spectrum. Its ability to capture visible light benzene solution. This mixture underwent homogenization at
broadens its application potential and overcomes a key 80 °C for 10 h using a shaking water bath with a shaking rate set
restriction shared by many photocatalysts that absorb mostly at 120 rpm. Aer homogenization, the composite was subjected
UV light. NiS's high photocatalytic efficiency makes it an to drying at 100 °C. A thermal heat treatment was applied at
attractive contender for tackling environmental issues and 500 °C for 1 h. The catalyst was further processed by grinding in
promoting sustainable energy solutions.17 In addition to their a ball mill and designated sg-NiS2/TiO2. Furthermore, it is
inherent strength, NiS-based composites have a signicant noteworthy that the sol–gel technique is versatile and allows for
advantage in photocatalytic degradation. When combined with adding metal and non-metal dopants to the system.27
other materials, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, or other
metal oxides, synergistic effects improve total photocatalytic 2.2 Hydrothermal method
activity.25 These composites use each component's strengths,
One popular synthesis method for creating nanoparticles with
such as better charge separation, prolonged light absorption,
various surface morphologies and porosities is the hydro-
and more excellent stability, to create a material that outper-
thermal approach. In this procedure, a Teon-lined hydro-
forms the individual capabilities of its parts.20 As a result,
thermal autoclave containing an aqueous solution of metal salt
utilizing NiS-based composites provides a sophisticated way to
and a sulfur source is heated to high temperatures. The nal
obtain greater photocatalytic efficiency, making them highly
product's morphology may be accurately controlled by varying
appealing for applications ranging from wastewater treatment
variables, including temperature, pH, time, and pressure.
to solar fuel production.
In order to create a homogenous solution for the hydro-
Finally, the superiority of NiS as a photocatalyst, both as
thermal production of NiS nanoparticles, a combination of
a standalone material and as part of composite materials, pla-
NiSO4 (10 mmol), NaOH (15 mmol), TAA (12 mmol), and 180 mL
ces it at the forefront of the eld. It is distinguished from other
of distilled, deionized water was stirred. The nal combination
metal suldes and well-known photocatalysts by its optimized
was then heated for 24 h at 160 °C in a hot air oven and sealed in
electronic structure, effective light absorption, and remarkable
a 200 mL autoclave lined with Teon. The reaction mixture then
catalytic activity.26 NiS stands out as a vital participant in
cooled down to room temperature on its own. Centrifugation
expanding photocatalysis science as the scientic community
separated the resultant solution, and ethanol and deionized
continues investigating novel solutions for environmental
water were used repeatedly to wash it. In the last stage, the
concerns and sustainable energy generation. In this review
solution was dried at 70 °C in a dust-free atmosphere, which
article, nickel sulde's synthesis techniques, properties, and
produced a black powder.28
characteristics are discussed. Furthermore, the review paper
analyzes the enhancement in photocatalytic properties due to
several modications to it and discusses the recent advances in 2.3 Solvothermal method
the eld of photocatalytic degradation. The review paper ends Similar in nature to the hydrothermal method, the solvothermal
by giving a future perspective for upcoming research works and approach substitutes an organic solvent—typically N,N-dime-
sheds light on the forthcoming challenges for better thylformamide—for water. To create a homogenous suspen-
performance. sion, a certain amount of metal salt must dissolve in the solvent.
Aer that, the mixture is heated in an autoclave with a Teon

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Fig. 3 Graphical depiction of the (a) sol–gel, (b) hydrothermal, (c) precipitation, and (d) green synthesis methods.10

lining and a sulfur source. The precipitate is next put through allows the simultaneous precipitation of two or more metal
centrifugation, careful washing, and drying procedures to get suldes. Inorganic metal salts undergo precipitation during
the nished product. this procedure by introducing sodium sulde with vigorous
To make NiS/rGO nanocomposite, sonication combined 1 stirring. The resultant particles exhibit a broad size distribu-
gm of graphene oxide (GO) with 40 mL of ethylene glycol to tion, ranging from nanometers to micrometers. Achieving
generate a homogenous slurry. The GO dispersion was a consistent particle size may necessitate milling the nal
constantly stirred while 0.2 gm of lab-synthesized NiS nano- product.
particles were added. These had been made using the sol- The synthesis of NiS/Ag2MoO4 required ultrasonication in
vothermal process and dissolved in 20 mL of ethylene glycol. a water/ethanol combination at a 1 : 1 ratio. While the sonica-
Subsequently, 0.1 M NaOH solution to 5 mL of distilled water tion was going on, 0.1 M AgNO3 was added. Following that,
was added and vigorously mixed the blend for 30 min. The 0.05 mol of sodium molybdate (Na2MoO4$2H2O) solution was
solution was placed in an autoclave and heated to 160 °C for created. The Na2MoO4$2H2O solution was rapidly added aer
48 h aer full dispersion. The nal mixture was dried for 24 h at the 2 h sonication, and the mixture was vigorously stirred for an
60 °C aer being repeatedly cleaned with ethanol and deionized additional half-hour. To get the nal result, the collected
water. A black powder was obtained.29 sample was repeatedly cleaned with ethanol and water before
being dried at 80 °C.30

2.4 Precipitation and co-precipitation method

The precipitation method is considered the most straightfor- 2.5 Green synthesis method
ward synthesis technique, eliminating the need for high Researchers have recently emphasized the environmentally
temperatures and following standard procedures. This method friendly synthesis of nickel suldes, prioritizing using plant or
is benecial for producing metal sulde nanocomposites, as it microbial extracts as a source of sulfur. These extracts serve as

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both capping and stabilizing agents, aligning with the princi- 3. Structural properties
ples of green chemistry. The green synthesis approach for nickel
suldes has demonstrated improved photocatalytic and anti- Nanostructured materials, encompassing nanowires, nano-
bacterial properties. The biological process, known as “green tubes, nanobelts, and nanorods, have captured considerable
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synthesis,” is gaining popularity as an eco-friendly, cost- scientic interest due to their distinctive physicochemical
effective, and non-toxic alternative for producing NiS nano- properties and versatile applications across diverse domains.
particles (NPs). This method leverages natural ingredients like The investigation of these nanostructures' magnetic, electronic,
plant extracts and microbes, contributing to improved stability and optical features has emerged as a central focus, driven by
in the synthesis process. the unique attributes that set them apart from their bulk
To illustrate this method, a solution containing L-cysteine (L- counterparts.32
cys, 7.5 mmol) and NiCl2$6H2O (1.5 mmol) in 50 mL of deion-
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In this context, metal suldes, including nickel sulde, are

ized water was introduced to a 30 mL suspension of graphene notable for their captivating electronic properties, opening
oxide sheets (3 mmol) under vigorous stirring for 2 h. The avenues for various technological applications. Nickel sulde
mixture was then put into a 100 mL stainless steel autoclave that has garnered signicant interest due to its potential role as
was rmly sealed, lined with Teon, and heated to 200 °C for a transformation toughening agent in semiconductors, cata-
24 h. Aer that, the autoclave was le to cool naturally to lysts, and cathodes for rechargeable lithium batteries.10
ambient temperature. Aer centrifugation, the resultant black Binary Ni–S systems, including Ni3+xS2, Ni3S2, Ni4S3+x, Ni6S5,
precipitate was collected and repeatedly cleaned with ethanol Ni7S6, Ni9S8, NiS, Ni3S4, and NiS2, have also piqued interest due
and deionized water. Lastly, the NiS2/graphene composites were to their multi-phase nature. Depending on temperature, nickel
dried for a period of 12 h at 80 °C in a vacuum oven.31 sulde can adopt two crystal structures, a, and b.33
In conclusion, sol–gel, hydrothermal, precipitation, and Fig. 4a (ref. 34) shows that a-NiS has an arsenide-like
green synthesis methods are diverse approaches to fabricating hexagonal structure. In this conguration, six sulfur atoms
nanomaterials, each offering distinct advantages. Sol–gel encircle each nickel atom octahedrally. A considerable degree of
methods provide precise control over composition and metal–metal bonding is indicated by the proximity of two
morphology, while hydrothermal processes facilitate the growth additional nickel atoms to each nickel atom, resulting in a Ni–
of well-dened nanostructures. Precipitation methods are Ni distance of around 2.68 Å. Cubic NiS2, which has a pyrite
valued for their simplicity and scalability. Using environmen- structure, is another common form of nickel sulde (Fig. 4b).34
tally friendly routes, green synthesis techniques stand out for Discrete S units are present in this structure, and the S–S
their sustainable and eco-friendly characteristics. The choice of distance inside these units is very similar to the S–S distance of
method depends on specic application requirements, a single S–S bond. The overall structure may be considered
emphasizing the importance of tailoring synthesis approaches a deformed NaCl structure, with nickel atoms occupying Na-like
to achieve desired nanomaterial properties. The benets and places and S2 groups arranged so that the Cl positions corre-
drawbacks of the various synthesis techniques discussed above spond to the cores of the groups. The structure of Ni3S2 is
are shown in Table 1 below. rhombohedral, as seen in Fig. 4c.34 Each nickel atom in this

Table 1 Pros and Cons of the synthesis methods for fabrication of nickel sulfide

Synthesis methods Advantages Disadvantages

Sol–gel  Homogeneous and pure products  Lengthy processing time and intricate
methodology
 Control over composition and low-  Shrinkage and cracking
temperature processing
Hydrothermal  Easy and cost-effective  High energy consumption due to long reaction
time
 Fabrication of high-quality nanomaterials  Instrumental and material incompatibility
with excellent morphology, particularly
nanorods
Solvothermal  Synthesis of narrow-size distributed  Complex equipment requirements
nanomaterials
 Versatility to a wide range of materials,  Limited to certain solvents
including metals, metal oxides, and organic-
inorganic hybrids
Precipitation and co-precipitation method  Simple, cost-effective, and used for large-scale  Difficulty in controlling stoichiometry leads to
production the formation of unwanted phases
 Less reaction times  Difficulty in controlling particle size
Green synthesis  Environmentally friendly due to the use of  Slower reaction rates
non-toxic reagents
 Low energy consumption  Limited control over particle size

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Fig. 4 The unit cell structures, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of three nickel sulfides— (a) a-
NiS, (b) NiS2, and, (c) Ni3S2. The red vertical lines in each XRD panel indicate the theoretical pattern.34

conguration is located in a pseudo-tetrahedral site inside molecular procedures, and precipitation routes. Nevertheless,
a cubic sulfur lattice that is about body-centered. There are the impact of nanoparticle morphologies on their physico-
noteworthy metal–metal bonding interactions between nickel chemical behavior underscores the pressing necessity for
atoms due to the short Ni–S (2.29 Å) and Ni–Ni (2.53 Å) lengths additional endeavors in attaining a tunable synthesis of
that connect the Ni3S2 units. Fig. 4c also shows the highlighted uniformly shaped nickel sulde nanoparticles.19
trigonal bi-pyramidal core of Ni3S2.34 Nickel sulde (NiS) stands out among metal sulde-based
Additionally, the rhombohedral unit cell structure, photocatalysts because it possesses the smallest bandgap
morphology, and XRD patterns of b-NiS are depicted in Fig. 5a– (1.92–2.41 eV, Fig. 6),36 making it a favorable choice for prepa-
d, with all peaks corresponding to b-NiS. The X-ray diffraction ration, as lower band gaps enhance light absorption, charge
(XRD) (Fig. 5a) analysis did not detect any discernible diffrac- separation efficiency, and redox activity, thereby improving
tion peaks arising from additional impurities such as Ni2S3, photocatalytic properties. The structural characteristics of NiS
Ni3S4, or Ni9S8. The observed space group for the prepared contribute to its distinctive properties in the eld of photo-
materials is R3m, with cell parameters approximately a = 9.62 Å catalysis.10 NiS typically adopts a crystalline structure, and its
and c = 3.15 Å, consistent with literature values (card no. 12- narrow bandgap allows NiS to efficiently absorb light in the
0041). Moreover, Fig. 5c and d showcases the overall visible spectrum, promoting enhanced photoexcitation and
morphology of the product, indicating that the morphology facilitating photocatalytic reactions under sunlight.37
retains nanorod-based ower-like architectures. A closer To validate the elemental composition, XPS analysis was
examination of the high-magnication SEM image reveals that carried out. The typical survey spectra of NiS are shown in
the nanorods grow more compactly, resembling a sphere, with Fig. 5a, where the binding energies are calibrated using the
some utes appearing at the side planes of the nanorods.35 reference value of the C (1s) peak at 284.6 eV. Ni 2p3/2 and Ni
A diverse array of nickel sulde nanoparticles, including 2p1/2 are responsible for the notable peaks at 853.0 and
nanospheres, nanorods, nano prisms, nanoneedles, hollow 873.2 eV, respectively. Peaks at 162.4 and 167.7 eV are associ-
spheres, ower-like architectures, urchin-like nanocrystalline, ated with S 2p3/2 and S 2p1/2 binding energies. The system
and layer-rolled structures, has been successfully produced exhibits electron correlation as seen by the two strong satellite
using various methods such as hydrothermal, solvothermal, peaks for Ni 2p3/2 and Ni 2p1/2, located at around 860.6 and

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Fig. 5 (a) X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns, (b) unit cell structures, and (c and d) scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of b-NiS.35

878.9 eV, respectively. This discovery further conrmed the morphologies of Ni7 and Ni8 are more like networks. Ni9 and
elemental makeup and electrical structure of the NiS sample. All Ni10 samples heated to 80 °C show irregular shapes and sizes
sample's UV-visible absorption characteristics were measured. and aggregated particle morphologies. Notably, Ni12 exhibits
The gure (inset in Fig. 6b) revealed that the band gaps for a sponge-like morphology. Hydrophilic interactions, van der
Ni6, Ni9, and Ni12 were 2.05, 1.92, and 2.4 eV, respectively. Waals forces, electrostatic and dipolar elds inside the aggre-
Notably, the band gap was observed to be dependent on the gate, crystal-face attraction, and hydrogen bonds signicantly
concentration of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Diffuse reec- impact the changes in sample morphology when varying the
tance spectra (DRS) were measured to examine the photo- capping agents. These elements probably function in concert to
absorption properties, with barium sulfate as the reference. control the process of self-assembly that results in the nal
All samples exhibit high absorption in the UV-visible region structure. The self-assembly process leading to the nal struc-
(200–800 nm).36 ture is likely governed by a combination of these factors. TEM
Following the second and fourth runs, the recycled Ni12's analysis conrms that Ni12 has a sponge-like morphology
DRS spectrum showed almost little change in absorption composed of tiny nanoparticles, but Ni9 and Ni2 have hetero-
characteristics. With more catalytic cycles, there was a trend geneous shapes (Fig. 7b–e). EDX results for all samples conrm
toward decreased reectance intensity, which might be related the presence of Ni and S. Spatial regularity in the elemental
to sample thickness (during DRS sample preparation), catalyst distribution of Ni12 reveals a composition of Ni0.82S1.00. The Ni
loss (8–10%), and the adsorption of photodegraded dye on and S homogenous distribution throughout the Ni12 sample is
nanoparticles.36 further shown by EDX elemental mapping and line scanning
The morphological characteristics of nickel sulde nano- (Fig. 7a).36
particles are illustrated in Fig. 7.36 Distinct morphologies In conclusion, nickel sulde nanoparticles' diverse crystal
emerge based on varied reaction conditions during sample structures and morphologies, ranging from hexagonal to
preparation. Ni1, Ni3, Ni4, and Ni5 exhibit a spherical structure, sponge-like, highlight their versatility and tunable synthesis
while Ni2 displays a mixed morphology with network and capabilities. The unique electronic properties of nickel sulde,
sphere-like structures. Ni6 has bigger-sized particles, but the especially its small bandgap, make it a promising material for

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Fig. 6 (a) XPS spectra of NiS; (b) Uv-visible spectroscopy and band gap determination (inset) for nickel sulfide nanoparticles.36

various technological applications, including photocatalysis composition, electronic structure, and morphological features
and rechargeable lithium batteries. The comprehensive char- of different nickel sulde nanoparticles. Further exploration of
acterization through XPS, UV-visible spectroscopy, and electron these nanostructures holds great potential for advancing their
microscopy provides valuable insights into the elemental applications in emerging elds.

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Fig. 7 (a) Field-emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) images of nickel sulfide nanoparticles (NPs) with compositions Ni9, Ni10, and
Ni12; (b) energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), mapping, and line scanning specifically for Ni12; transmission electron microscope (TEM) images
showcase (c) Ni2, (d) Ni9, and (e and f) Ni12.36

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4. Enhancement of photocatalytic Doping with metal introduces impurity band energy levels,
causing a reduction in the gap between the valence band and
efficiency conduction band, as illustrated in Fig. 8.
4.1 Doping For instance, Manikandan et al.42 synthesized Mn2+ doped
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Doping is a technique that involves the insertion of impurities NiS and found that the concentration of metal doping inu-
into a semiconductor to improve conductivity. This process ences the average size and form of MnxNi1−xS nanocrystals. The
introduces defect states into the band gap, which helps prevent Eg of the undoped NiS is 2.05 eV, and when Mn2+ ions (x = 0.3–
fast charge recombination while allowing visible light absorp- 0.5) are added, it rises from 2.19 to 2.31 eV. Additionally, the
tion. Two scenarios arise in this situation, where charge produced materials showed remarkable catalytic and opto-
magnetic characteristics. The MnxNi1−xS nanocrystals
recombination is slowed in the rst case, and interfacial charge
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transfer is increased by trapping valence band (VB) holes or produced have demonstrated modest ferromagnetic activity in
conduction band (CB) electrons at defect sites. In the second their M − H loop. Because Mn2+ ions have a greater magnetic
case, sub-bandgap irradiation facilitates electronic transitions moment (5mB) than Ni2+ ions (2mB), the Ms values rise as the
from defect states to CB or VB to defect states.38 concentration of Mn2+ ions increases. Furthermore, it has been
There are various doping types, such as metal doping, non- shown that the samples' surface area rises with increasing Mn
metal doping, co-doping, and metalloid-halogen doping. The concentration (x = 0.0–0.5), with Mn0.5Ni0.5S having a greater
principal dopants are metal ions, including transition metals, surface area (69.47 m2 g−1) than undoped NiS. Consequently,
Mn0.5Ni0.5S's large surface area improves its photocatalytic
noble metals, and nonmetal ions. Selective metals are oen
picked for their ability to transport electrons and lower the band capabilities. Photocatalysts provide more excellent surface-
gap energy level.39 When metal ions are activated in the pres- active sites with a high specic surface area, which enhances
ence of a light source, electron holes are generated in doped photocatalytic activity. The dispersion of particles per volume in
catalysts. Metal ion dopants in the photocatalyst matrix the solution rises as the particle size decreases. Photon absor-
considerably improve interfacial electron transport and bance is improved due to increased active surface sites and
decrease charge carrier recombination rates, increasing photo photoactive centers.42
reactivity.40 Incorporating transition metal dopants, such as Mn2+, in NiS
photocatalysts is crucial in modifying their band structure,
Doping was required to improve conductivity in the case of
pure nickel sulde, which had low efficiency because of limited reducing the band gap, and enhancing visible light absorption.
light absorption and signicant charge separation. Overall, This improves photocatalytic efficiency through increased
photodegradation efficiency was enhanced with doping by
slowing the recombination of photo-generated charges and
broadening the visible light absorption spectrum.41
4.1.1 Metal doping. The enhancement of binding functions
in a doped system by metallic impurities is critical for reducing
bandgap and improving visible light absorption, boosting effi-
ciency. As a result, charge carriers are more efficiently trans-
ferred, transported, and separated, which is essential for
causing a spatial distribution of charge carriers that promotes
photocatalytic processes.40
The production of electron–hole pairs is essential for reac-
tions involving species adsorbed on the surface of the photo-
catalyst in terms of photocatalytic efficiency.32 Doped catalysts
produce electron holes by using activated metal ions and a light
source. Thus, by reducing charge carrier recombination rates
and increasing interfacial electron transfer rates, adding metal
ion dopants to the photocatalyst matrix increases photo-
reactivity. It's important to remember that metal dopants also
help doped NiS exhibit improved morphology.38
Different transition metals are utilized as dopants in nickel
sulde (NiS) photocatalysts to modify the semiconductor's
characteristics. Transition metals such as iron (Fe), cobalt (Co),
chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), barium (Ba), platinum (Pt),
zinc (Zn), cerium (Ce), vanadium(V), gold (Au), and silver (Ag)
are frequently utilized for metal doping in NiS photocatalysts.
These metal dopants improve photocatalytic activity by raising
light absorption, lowering the bandgap, speeding up charge
mobility, and lengthening the lifespan of charge carriers.40 Fig. 8 Schematic illustration of band structure modification due to
metal doping.

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charge carrier mobility, reduced recombination rates, and

extended carrier lifespans. The concentration of metal dopants
also inuences nanocrystal size, catalytic characteristics, and
magnetic properties, with Mn0.5Ni0.5S exhibiting notable
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enhancements in surface area, photocatalytic capabilities, and

ferromagnetic activity, demonstrating the multifaceted impact
of metal doping on NiS-based materials.
4.1.2 Nonmetal doping. Because of the advantages of non-
metal doping, such as its high ionization energies and electro-
negativity, researchers are growing more and more interested in
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this technique. Covalent bonds are formed when non-metals

interact with other molecules and pick up an electron. These
covalent bonds provide thermal stability. Non-metal doping is
preferred over metal doping because metal doping exhibits
thermal uctuations of chemical states, while non-metal
doping does not.32
Doping nickel sulde (NiS) with non-metal elements like
phosphorus (P), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), boron (B), and carbon
(C) introduces a range of modications to the semiconductor's
properties, which signicantly affect its photocatalytic behavior.
For instance, phosphorus doping can alter the electronic
structure and bandgap, affecting light absorption in the visible
range. Oxygen doping can generate O2 vacancies concerning the
material's surface reactivity and charge carrier dynamics.43 Schematic illustration of the band structure modification due to
Fig. 9
Nitrogen doping is the most signicant of all non-metal non-metal doping.
dopants because it increases light absorption into the visible
range by widening the bandgap's energy range. This increases
the activity of photocatalysis, especially when exposed to light. catalytic activity. The strategic incorporation of these non-metal
Boron doping modies the electrical structure of nickel–silver dopants allows tailored enhancements in NiS, optimizing its
and enhances charge separation efficiency, whereas carbon efficiency as a photocatalyst for sustainable energy and envi-
doping can modify surface properties and boost charge carrier ronmental applications. The band structure modications due
mobility.44 to non-metal doping illustrate the potential for expanding the
Strategic incorporation of these non-metal dopants in NiS light response range and tuning band edge potentials, further
can facilitate tailored enhancements in its catalytic perfor- enhancing the versatility of these materials.
mance, making it more versatile for applications such as solar- 4.1.3 Halogen and metalloid doping. Metalloids are
driven water splitting and environmental pollutant degrada- elements that exhibit properties of both metals and nonmetals.
tion. These modications impact the material's optical and They have limited electrical conductivity and intermediate
electronic properties and play a crucial role in minimizing melting points. Halogens, such as uorine and chlorine, are
charge carrier recombination, ultimately optimizing the effi- highly reactive elements found in group 17, which form
ciency of NiS as a photocatalyst for sustainable energy and diatomic molecules.40
environmental applications.45 Non-metal doping operates by For instance, Ni–Fe–P–B is a metalloid-doped catalyst that
introducing a new valence band above the original, narrowing exhibits remarkable electrocatalytic activity and stability for the
the gap between the conduction and valence bands, as illus- oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reac-
trated in Fig. 9. tion (HER). At low overpotentials of 220 mV and 269 mV,
For example, introducing doped S atoms or creating C and N- respectively, it can achieve a current density of 10 mA cm−2.
vacancies in g-C3N4 can broaden the light response range by When the Ni–Fe–P–B@CFP electrode is integrated into carbon
either narrowing the band gap or generating gap states. ber paper (CFP) as a bifunctional catalyst, it exhibits effective
Simultaneously, the coupling effect at the interface of g-C3N4/ overall water splitting at a low cell voltage of 1.58 V. For 60 h, it
MoS2 allows for tuning the band edge potentials of g-C3N4.46 sustains a steady 10 mA cm−2 current density with very little
So, the increasing interest in non-metal doping arises from deterioration. The remarkable catalytic efficacy of Ni–Fe–P–B is
the advantageous properties of high ionization energies and principally attributed to the modication of the combined
electronegativity, forming stable covalent bonds and enhanced metal–metalloid composition and its distinct amorphous
thermal stability. Non-metal dopants, such as phosphorus, structure.47 Fig. 10 (ref. 47) illustrates the overall water-splitting
oxygen, nitrogen, boron, and carbon, induce diverse modica- performance of Ni–Fe–P–B@CFP.
tions in the semiconductor properties of NiS, crucially inu- Doping nickel sulde (NiS) with halogens (e.g., chlorine,
encing its photocatalytic behavior. Nitrogen doping, in uorine) and metalloids (e.g., silicon, phosphorus) signicantly
particular, widens the bandgap, boosting light absorption and modies its properties and enhances its photocatalytic activity

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photocatalysts with improved band structure and stability for

environmentally friendly dye degradation applications.
4.1.4 Co-doping. Co-doping is a technique commonly used
in materials science and chemistry that involves simultaneously
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introducing two or more dopant elements into materials like

semiconductors or catalysts for specic applications.
Researchers use this technique to attain synergistic effects that
enhance properties beyond what single-element doping ach-
ieves. Key aspects of co-doping include the ne-tuning of
material properties, the precise control of characteristics
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through dopant concentration adjustments, and its applica-

tions in semiconductor technology and catalysis. Co-doping
semiconductor materials, for example, can improve photo-
catalysis by optimizing visible light absorption and charge
separation. However, co-doping strategies pose challenges,
requiring careful consideration of dopant selection, concen-
Fig. 10 The overall water-splitting performance of Ni–Fe–P–
[email protected] trations, and their impact on material structure. Co-doping is
a versatile tool for tailoring materials with enhanced or novel
properties in electronics, energy storage, and catalysis.50
for dye degradation. Halogen doping modies the electronic For instance, Co–NiS2/CoS2 exhibited exceptional catalytic
structure, while metalloid doping allows for bandgap engi- performance in the hydrogen evolution reaction. The over-
neering, optimizing light absorption and charge carrier potential dramatically dropped to −133.3 mV when the Co
dynamics.48 Combining both dopants may synergistically (cobalt) doping content was increased to 27%. Compared to the
impact factors like band structure and stability, which can lead non-doped case, where the overpotential was −214.3 mV, this
to the design of efficient photocatalysts for environmental indicates an 81 mV reduction.51
applications. The ultimate goal is to create photocatalysts that Similar to the ndings in Mo, Co–NiO/NF, Mo, Co–NiS/NF-
can effectively degrade dyes in an environmentally friendly 350 (Fig. 11a) showed a comparatively at NF surface with
way.49 small bulks (about 300 nm) evident (Fig. 11b and inset). Dense
Chemical doping, for instance, is a well-known technique for bulks ranging from 3 to 7 mm were seen on the NF surface in
band gap engineering that modies the electrical and surface Mo, Co–NiS/NF-400 (Fig. 11c and d). The morphology of Mo,
properties of carbon nanomaterials by substituting foreign Co–NiS/NF-450 (Fig. 11e and f) was comparable to that of Mo,
heteroatoms for carbon atoms. As effective chemical dopants Co–NiS/NF-400, although it was smaller (about 10 mm) and had
for carbon nanomaterials, boron (B), phosphorus (P), and specic characteristics disturbed. Because of the low sulfuri-
halogens such as uorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and zation temperature, a lm-like substance with small bulks
iodine(I) are proposed. By producing an induced polarization formed on the NF surface for Mo, Co–NiS/NF-350, indicating
network and positive/negative charges on neighboring carbon a lack of active sites for water splitting. Both the number and
atoms, the differential in electronegativity between carbon and size of bulks grew as the temperature rose. However, the bulks
heteroatoms amplies the oxygen reduction process (ORR). The shattered around 450 °C, leading to overly large sizes that
doped carbons' optical, electrical, and magnetic characteristics impeded electron transport and active site exposure during
are also inuenced by this polarization network. By introducing water splitting. It was noted that HER and OER's electro-
different charge and spin densities to nearby carbon atoms, chemical activity had decreased. The bulk morphology and
heteroatom doping produces surface active spots that effectively unique fringe spacings (0.198 nm and 0.480 nm) that matched
aid electron transport.48 Co0.5NiS2 (102) and NiS (110), respectively, were revealed by the
So, the combination of metalloid and halogen doping in TEM and HRTEM images of Mo, Co–NiS/NF-400 (Fig. 11g and
catalysts, such as Ni–Fe–P–B, demonstrates exceptional elec- h). The HRTEM image showed a thin lm of carbon wrapping
trocatalytic activity and stability for the oxygen evolution reac- around Co0.5NiS2, improving electrical contact and speeding up
tion (OER) and the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). This electron transmission. The uniform distribution of Co, Ni, Mo,
multifunctional catalyst, integrated into carbon ber paper, S, C, and N elements in the SEM element mapping of Mo, Co–
achieves efficient overall water splitting at low cell voltages, NiS/NF-400 (Fig. 11i) suggested that these components were
sustaining a steady current density for an extended period. converted from ZIF-67, which is consistent with the benets of
Furthermore, doping nickel sulde (NiS) with halogens and employing ZIF-67 as a precursor.52
metalloids enhances its photocatalytic activity for dye degra- Co-doping involves the simultaneous introduction of two or
dation by modifying the electronic structure and enabling more dopant elements, a versatile technique in materials
bandgap engineering. The synergistic effects of combining science with applications in semiconductors and catalysis. The
these dopants offer promising prospects for designing efficient precise control of material properties through dopant concen-
tration adjustments allows for synergistic effects, as demon-
strated by the outstanding electrocatalytic performance of Co–

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Fig. 11 (a and b) Mo, Co–NiS/NF-350, (c and d) Mo, Co–NiS/NF-400, and (e and f) Mo, Co–NiS/NF-450 are the synthesized materials' SEM
pictures. Furthermore, bulks from Mo, Co–NiS/NF-400 are shown in (g) as TEM pictures, and bulks from the same sources are shown in (h) as
HRTEM images. Lastly, (i) shows the Mo, Co–NiS/NF-400 EDS mapping image.52

NiS2/CoS2 in the hydrogen evolution reaction. The morpholog- promising avenues for tailoring materials with enhanced
ical and structural variations observed in Mo, Co–NiS/NF cata- properties across various applications, including electronics,
lysts illustrate the temperature-dependent changes impacting energy storage, and catalysis.
electrochemical activity. Additionally, the formation of nickel In conclusion, metals are usually shiny, malleable, and
sulde composite powders with metal oxides through solution conductive elements. On the other hand, non-metals lack these
combustion synthesis reveals the signicance of heating modes properties and oen exhibit various reactivity levels. Halogens
in determining material phases and properties, inuencing refer to a group of highly reactive non-metals, while metalloids
photocatalytic degradation rates. Co-doping strategies offer possess characteristics of both metals and non-metals. Doping

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Table 2 Pros and Cons of the doping methods for fabrication of nickel sulfide

Doping type Pros Cons

Metal doping  Enhances electrical conductivity  May introduce impurities affecting properties
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 Improves mechanical properties  Limited applicability due to crystal structure mismatch

 Introduces specic functionalities  Decreased material stability
Non-metal doping  Enhances optical properties  May introduce defects affecting the performance
 Cost-effective compared to metal doping  Challenging to control doping concentration
 Modies electronic properties  Limited dopant solubility
Halogen/metalloid doping  Offers tunability of material properties  Potential for introducing deep-level effects
 Enables ne-tuning of band structures  Requires careful processing conditions
 Improves electronic and optical properties  Limited compatibility with certain host materials
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Co-doping  Synergistic effects  Increased complexity in doping processes

 Greater control over properties  Challenges in achieving optimal doping ratios
 Mitigates drawbacks of single-element doping  Risk of dopant segregation or phase separation

is introducing impurities into a material to modify its proper- So, solution combustion synthesis, employing both conven-
ties, commonly done in semiconductors. Halogen or metalloid tional and microwave heating, proves pivotal in tailoring nickel
doping involves adding elements from these groups to modify sulde composites with metal oxides. The choice of heating
material conductivity or reactivity, which is crucial in semi- mode inuences the resulting phases, with traditional heating
conductor manufacturing. Co-doping combines multiple favoring a-NiS and microwave heating leading to NiO forma-
dopants to ne-tune material properties synergistically, tion. The distinct microstructures produced under each method
enhancing conductivity or other desired characteristics, which
is pivotal in semiconductor research and electronics develop-
ment. Each doping strategy has advantages and limitations, and
the choice depends on the specic material requirements and
desired application. The pros and cons of metal, non-metal,
halogen/metalloid, and co-doping are outlined in Table 2.

4.2 Nanocomposite formation

4.2.1 With metal oxides. Solution combustion synthesis is
used to prepare nickel sulde composite powders with metal
oxides. This process utilizes both conventional and microwave
heating for ignition. Phases such a-NiS, NiS2, Ni3S2, and NiO are
generated depending on the ratio of urea and thiourea in the
mixed fuel. The heating mode chosen plays a crucial role in
determining the resulting phases and properties of the
synthesized materials. In conventional heating mode, achieving
an optimal combustion temperature and sulfur content in the
precursor is possible. This requirement makes it easier to
synthesize a sample with the most a-NiS phase, particularly
when utilizing a fuel mixture with a urea-to-thiourea molar ratio
of 2 : 1.75. On the other hand, NiO is formed, and sulfur-rich
phases oxidize to sulfur-lean sulde phases aer microwave
heating. The development of a bulky microstructure with larger
sintered particles is caused by the raised combustion temper-
ature during microwave heating. Because the powders burned
using traditional methods had smaller particles, they were
better at adsorbing substances. In contrast, the powders com-
busted through microwave heating achieved heightened pho-
todegradation rates owing to their increased crystallinity.8
Fig. 12a illustrates the photocatalytic degradation rates, while
Fig. 12b displays the degradation kinetic curves of methylene
Fig. 12 (a)The degradation rates for photocatalysis and (b) the kinetic
orange (MO) when subjected to pure TiO2 nanosheets arrays curves of methyl orange (MO) degradation for both pure TiO2 nano-
(NSAs) and x-NiS/TiO2 p–n heterostructured NSAs with varying sheets arrays (NSAs) and x-NiS/TiO2 p–n heterostructured NSAs with
NiS content.53 varying NiS content.53

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impact adsorption and photodegradation rates. Specically, In Fig. 13a, the photocatalytic performance of CdS-T180 is
composites generated through microwave heating exhibit depicted, revealing the inuence of different concentrations of
heightened photodegradation rates attributed to increased NiS loading on its efficacy. The graph provides valuable insights
crystallinity. The presented gures highlight the photocatalytic into how varying NiS content affects the overall performance of
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degradation rates and kinetic curves, emphasizing the potential the photocatalytic system, shedding light on the optimal
of x-NiS/TiO2 p–n heterostructured nanosheet arrays for effi- loading conditions for CdS-T180. Moving on to Fig. 13b,
cient degradation of methylene orange. These insights a comprehensive analysis of the photocatalytic activities of CdS-
contribute to understanding synthesis techniques for tailored Tx samples is presented. This gure captures the performance
materials with enhanced photocatalytic properties. of the samples both before and aer the introduction of 1.5 wt%
4.2.2 With metal suldes. Metal sulfates, especially those NiS loading. The comparison allows for a detailed examination
Open Access Article. Published on 09 April 2024. Downloaded on 1/13/2025 10:39:07 AM.

based on cadmium sulde, are highly appreciated for their of the impact of NiS dosage on the photocatalytic behavior of
suitable energy band alignment and low band gap (∼2.4 eV), CdS-Tx, offering crucial information about the enhancement or
which makes them useful for photodegradation reactions.54 alteration of the photocatalytic activities under the inuence of
Unfortunately, low solar energy use and the quick recombina- NiS.
tion of photogenerated electron–hole pairs limit the efficiency In conclusion, synthesizing a ower-like 3NiS/ZCS composite
of cadmium sulde. The addition of more metals to create solid catalyst presents a promising strategy to enhance the efficiency
solutions is thought to be a workable solution to this problem.55 of cadmium sulde-based materials for photodegradation
By changing the metal ratio, this method enables accurate reactions. Incorporating nickel sulde (NiS) as a co-catalyst
valence band (VB) and conduction band (CB) level results in a substantial improvement, achieving an impressive
modication.56 99.1% conversion efficiency and demonstrating robust cycling
In a study conducted by Zhang et al.,57 a ower-like 3NiS/ stability. The study highlights the potential of metal sulde
Zn0.5Cd0.5S composite catalyst is synthesized using a straight- nanocomposites in overcoming limitations associated with
forward two-step method. Nickel sulde (NiS) behaves as a co- conventional cadmium sulde, offering valuable insights into
catalyst, signicantly improving the photocatalytic efficiency optimizing NiS loading conditions for enhanced photocatalytic
of Zn0.5Cd0.5S. The ultimate conversion efficiency of 3NiS/ZCS performance. The depicted photocatalytic activities of CdS-Tx
attains a remarkable 99.1% upon adding NiS, signifying samples underscore the signicance of carefully tuning NiS
a signicant enhancement in both conversion rate and effi- dosage for improved hydrogen production in the quest for
ciency. Moreover, the catalyst demonstrates robust cycling efficient and stable photocatalysts.
stability, establishing itself as a reliable and promising photo- 4.2.3 With 2D layered materials. Nickel sulde (NiS)
catalyst with broad potential for industrial applications. This composites, integrated with various 2D materials such as
work underscores the signicance of metal sulde nano- hydroxyapatite (HAP),59 graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4),60
composites in overcoming limitations associated with conven- biochar,61 and thiosemicarbazide (SCN), have shown improved
tional cadmium sulde-based materials. properties for diverse applications. The integration of NiS with
HAP enhances biocompatibility while coupling it with g-C3N4

Fig. 13 (a) The photocatalytic efficacy of CdS-T180 with varying concentrations of NiS (b) photocatalytic activity of CdS-Tx samples before and
after the addition of 1.5 wt% NiS for H2 production.58

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improves photocatalytic performance. The incorporation of dynamics, light absorption, and superior photocatalytic activi-
biochar enhances stability and pollutant removal efficiency. ties for Rhodamine B degradation and H2 evolution. These
Combining NiS with SCN improves electrocatalytic activity. ndings underscore the potential of 2D material-NiS compos-
These 2D material-NiS composites showcase versatile func- ites for diverse applications, ranging from environmental
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tionalities, making them promising candidates for a wide range remediation to energy catalysis.
of applications, from biomedicine to environmental remedia- 4.2.4 With 3D layered materials. Nickel sulde (NiS)
tion and energy conversion.62 Fig. 14 (ref. 63) represents the composites, which incorporate metal–organic frameworks
photocatalytic performance of Co–NiS/g-C3N4. (MOFs) and spinels, have distinctive properties when synthe-
Zhou et al.64 introduced a facile one-pot hydrothermal sized innovatively. Fig. 15a displays the UV-vis spectra, while
method for synthesizing S-doped carbon nitride (CN) loaded Fig. 15b illustrates the Tauc plot, showcasing a comparison
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with NiS nanoparticles. Compared to pure CN, the sulfur (S) against bare MOF-5 and TMS@MOF-5. The study signies the
doping improved charge carrier separation and transfer effi- enhanced optical properties of MOF-5 when combined with NiS.
ciency under visible light irradiation and increased light In a recent study, Wang et al.12 synthesized a NiS/LFO het-
absorption. The combination of NiS with SCN further facilitated erostructured nano-photocatalyst using modied NiS nano-
these processes. Consequently, S-doping and NiS loading sheets on LFO nanoparticles through a simple two-step
signicantly improved the photocatalytic activities of CN for hydrothermal method. The 5.0%-NiS/LFO system demon-
RhB degradation and H2 evolution. Optimal loading contents of strated superior photocatalytic activity for degrading methyl
S and NiS were identied for optimal photocatalytic perfor- orange (MO), achieving a 90.9% removal rate in 120 min. The
mance. The SCN/NiS composite demonstrated outstanding matched energy band and nanosheet structure of NiS contrib-
photocatalytic activity and stability in RhB degradation and H2 uted to enhanced light harvesting and efficient transfer of
evolution. This method offers a straightforward approach to photogenerated carriers, leading to signicantly improved
fabricating multifunctional, highly active modied carbon photocatalytic performance. In a separate study, Nezamzadeh-
nitride photocatalysts for environmental remediation and Ejhieih et al.66 synthesized NiS-incorporated zeolite P, demon-
energy catalysis applications. strating efficient degradation of E.B.T. dye under UV light. The
So, the integration of nickel sulde (NiS) with various 2D results show the potential of NiS in zeolite structures for effi-
materials such as hydroxyapatite (HAP), graphitic carbon cient dye decolorization. The ideal settings were pH 9.1, 0.8 g
nitride (g-C3N4), biochar, and thiosemicarbazide (SCN) yields L−1 catalyst loading, and 40 ppm dye concentration.
versatile composites with enhanced properties. These compos- Thus, the innovatively synthesized nickel sulde (NiS)
ites exhibit improved biocompatibility, photocatalytic perfor- composites, incorporating metal–organic frameworks (MOFs)
mance, stability, and electrocatalytic activity. The Co–NiS/g- and spinels, exhibit distinctive properties, as illustrated by UV-
C3N4 nanocomposite, as depicted in Fig. 14, exemplies vis spectra and Tauc plots in Fig. 15. Wang et al.'s study intro-
enhanced photocatalytic performance.63 Additionally, the one- duces a superior NiS/LFO heterostructured nano-photocatalyst,
pot hydrothermal synthesis of S-doped carbon nitride loaded showcasing remarkable efficiency in degrading methyl orange.
with NiS nanoparticles demonstrates improved charge carrier The matched energy band and nanosheet structure of NiS

Fig. 14 Pictorial representation of the photocatalytic performance of Co–NiS/g-C3N4 nanocomposite.63

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Fig. 15 (a) UV-vis spectrum (b) Tauc plot of bare MOF-5 and [email protected]

contribute to enhanced light harvesting and efficient carrier particles dispersed in solvents or make porous lms to improve
transfer, underlining its potential for advanced photocatalytic the surface area. Because of their distinct physical characteris-
applications. Additionally, Ejhieih et al.'s work demonstrates tics in comparison to bulk materials, nanostructured materials
the efficiency of NiS-incorporated zeolite P in degrading E.B.T. with crystallite or grain sizes smaller than 20 nm are very
dye under UV light, highlighting the promising role of NiS in fascinating. This creates new opportunities for applying pho-
zeolite structures for effective dye decolorization under opti- tocatalysis in numerous domains.62 The surface morphology of
mized conditions. the photocatalyst, including the size of particles and agglom-
erates, plays a signicant role in the photocatalytic degradation
4.3 Surface area and morphology process. The interaction between organic molecules and the
photocatalyst surface coverage directly affects the reaction rate,
The efficiency of chemical reactions largely depends on a pho- which is controlled by the number of photons that strike the
tocatalyst's surface area. Researchers frequently utilize small

Fig. 16 The band structure and hydrogen evolution mechanism of CoS/CN/NiS composites are under consideration.67

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photocatalyst. Defect-rich morphologies are generally associ- disciplined arrays and small dimensions of the nanoparticles,
ated with increased photocatalytic activity.10 and had a smaller band gap than the bulk material. This
As an example, the improved photocatalytic performance resulted in an enhanced efficiency. In another work, nickel
observed in NiS/MoS2/g-C3N4 hybrids was attributed to several sulde (NiS) nanoowers have been successfully synthesized
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factors, including increased surface adsorption, enhanced light using a simple polyol reuxing method at room temperature.
absorption, and more efficient charge separation and transfer.67 The thickness of these nanoowers ranges from 5 to 10 nm,
The proposed mechanism for electron–hole separation and while their size can reach several hundred nm. The photo-
transport in these ternary NiS/MoS2/g-C3N4 hybrids under catalytic efficiency of these NiS nanoowers has been evaluated
visible light irradiation is illustrated in Fig. 16.67 and found to be excellent. Aer 3 h of exposure to visible light,
Thus, the efficiency of chemical reactions in photocatalysis is the decomposition rate of methylene blue (MB) reached nearly
98%. This nding highlights the potential of NiS nanoowers as
Open Access Article. Published on 09 April 2024. Downloaded on 1/13/2025 10:39:07 AM.

closely tied to the surface area of the photocatalyst, with

nanostructured materials offering unique opportunities due to high-performance photocatalysts. The band structure analysis
their distinct physical characteristics. The surface morphology, has revealed that charge transfer occurs from the S 3p orbital to
including particle size and agglomerates, signicantly inu- the unoccupied Ni orbital during photoexcitation.22
ences the photocatalytic degradation process, with defect-rich Soovand et al.68 successfully synthesized nickel sulde
morphologies generally associated with increased activity. In (NiS2) nanostructures by employing a simple hydrothermal
the case of NiS/MoS2/g-C3N4 hybrids, the enhanced photo- process and a novel nickel source. The reaction of an organo-
catalytic performance is attributed to factors such as improved metallic precursor achieved the formation of these nano-
surface adsorption, enhanced light absorption, and more effi- structures, [Ni(pht)(H2O)2], with several sources of sulfur, such
cient charge separation and transfer, as illustrated in the as thiourea, CS2, (NH4)2S, and cysteine. The nal product's
proposed mechanism in Fig. 16. These insights underscore the band gap of around 2.2 eV has veried that it is a semi-
importance of tailored nanostructures in optimizing photo- conductor. The fact that the measured band gap was more
catalytic processes for various applications. signicant than that of bulk NiS2 was fascinating, perhaps
because of the quantum effects present in nanomaterials.
Furthermore, nickel sulde (NiS) nanoparticles were success-
5. Recent advancements in NiS-based fully synthesized by Fazil et al.33 using an economical, low-
nanocomposites temperature chemical method that didn't require templates.
They optimized the chemical precipitation process by employ-
The increasing need for effective and sustainable energy tech- ing Taguchi's robust route to achieve nickel sulde nano-
nologies has led to a notable upsurge in NiS nanocomposite- particles with the smallest size and consistent morphology.
related research and development in recent years. These Ardebilchi Marand et al.8 produced nickel sulde composite
nanocomposites, which usually consist of different materials powders by solution combustion with mixed urea–thiourea
mixed with nickel sulde (NiS), have attracted interest due to fuels in different proportions, with nickel nitrate acting as an
their excellent qualities and potential uses in energy storage oxidant and source of nickel. The greater combustion temper-
and conversion systems. The requirement for NiS nano- ature in the microwave heating process led to the oxidation of
composites stems from the necessity to enhance advances in the sulde phase to nickel oxide. The most NiS phase was
renewable energy technology while addressing the issues produced by the traditional synthesis method, which had
related to traditional energy sources. Because of its distinct a urea-to-thiourea molar ratio of 2 : 0.75 and a maximum
electrical and catalytic characteristics, NiS is a viable option for methylene blue (MB) elimination effectiveness of about 52%. In
improving the efficiency of energy-related equipment. Improved another research work, a new photocatalyst called NiS/BiVO4,
surface reactivity, optimized electrocatalytic activity, and which is a p–n heterostructure, has been developed by Li et al.11
improved charge transport are made possible by the synergistic Integrating p-type NiS nanoparticles with n-type decahedral
effects of nanocomposite engineering. These developments nd nanostructured BiVO4 results in improved light absorption,
use in various industries, including batteries, solar cells, and boosted photocurrent response, and effective photo-generated
electrocatalytic systems for hydrogen evolution. The search for electron–hole pair separation and transfer.
NiS nanocomposites underscores their critical role in inu- In a study, Arumugam et al.6 successfully created a hetero-
encing the direction of next-generation energy technology and junction photocatalyst by synthesizing NiS/rGO using a one-step
is a calculated reaction to the worldwide need for clean and hydrothermal process. This method enabled a close interaction
sustainable energy solutions. The investigations conducted to between NiS and rGO, enabling the quick transition of photo-
investigate and analyze the characteristics and uses of these generated electrons from rGO to NiS. Consequently, the
nanocomposites are detailed in Table 3. recombination of charged particles was reduced, which
The study by Khosravi et al.14 led to the synthesis of nickel improved photocatalytic efficiency.
sulde nanoparticles in an eco-friendly manner using a hydro- Furthermore, in a study, Wang et al.12 used a straightforward
thermal process. An innovative sulfur source, 1-benzylidene two-step hydrothermal process to generate a unique NiS/LaFeO3
thiosemicarbazide, was used along with nickel sulde to create heterostructure with the morphology of LaFeO3 nanoparticles
the nanoparticles. The resulting cauliower-like structures xed NiS nanosheets. Extensive experiments show that the
showed a blue shi in the band gap, attributed to the enhanced photocatalytic performance of NiS/LaFO3 is

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Table 3 Recent developments in NiS-based catalysts for photocatalytic contaminant degradation

Catalyst dose Pollutant concentration Efficiency

Review

Nanocomposite Synthesize method Pollutants Source of light (g L−1) (g L−1) Time (min) (%) Ref.

NiS Hydrothermal Acid red UV light 0.4 0.01 150 90 14

Acid brown 96
Methyl red 85
Methyl orange 81
Methylene blue 72
NiS Polyol reuxing Methylene blue 500 W xenon lamp 1 0.008 180 98 22
Rhodamine B 75
NiS2 Hydrothermal Erythrosine UV light 0.02 0.02 75 57 68
Phenol red 71
Ni3S2 and NiS Chemical precipitation, Methylene blue 250 W UV lamp 0.04 0.05 160 98.5 33
optimized by Taguchi robust route
NixSy/NiO Solution combustion Methylene blue 100 W xenon lamp 0.35 0.005 300 28 8
NiS/BiVO4 Hydrothermal Methyl orange 300 W xenon lamp 0.001 0.01 90 95.6 11
NiS/rGO Modied Methylene blue Sun light 10 0.03 100 95 6
Hummer's
Method
NiS/LaFeO3 Hydrothermal Methyl orange Sun light 0.005 0.02 120 90.9 12
NiS/CdS Hydrothermal Quinoline 500 W xenon lamp 0.002 0.05 600 68.2 23
NiS/TiO2 Sol–gel Sunset yellow Sun light 4 3 × 10−4 M 80 98.9 1

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry

NiS/TiO2 Hydrothermal Methyl orange 500 W xenon lamp 0.001 0.01 20 98 24
ZnS–NiS Precipitation 2-Nitro toluene 55 W medium 0.75 0.055 160 63 69
Pressure
Hg lamp (Philips)
3NiS/Zn0$5Cd0$5S Co-precipitation/solution Methylene blue 300 W xenon lamp 2.5 0.012 120 99.1 57
impregnation
NiS/Ag2MoO4 Precipitation Methylene blue 55 W halogen-Tungsten lamp 0.3 0.01 140 91 70
NiS2/rGO Hydrothermal Congo red Sunlight (680 W m−2) 0.3 10 40 97.03 3
NiS/Zeolite Precipitation Erichrome black T 75 W Hg lamp 0.8 0.02 120 78 66
SCN/NiS Hydrothermal Rhodamine B 10 W LED lamp — — 15 71.6 64
a-Ag2WO4/NiSx Hydrothermal Lomeoxacin Visible light — — 60 98.4 71
BiVO4/NiS/Au Hydrothermal Tetracycline 300 W xenon lamp 2 0.03 25 82 72
Cu–NiS/ZnS Precipitation Methyl green Sunlight 0.5 0.02 60 98 38
Methylene blue 92
Congo red 85
ZnS–NiS/Zeolite — Metronidazole 35 W moderate 3 0.004 150 96.41 73
Pressure
Hg lamp
SGCN/Te@NiS Hydrothermal Methylene blue Sunlight 2 2 70 97 39
b-Ni(OH)2/NiS/TiO2 Precipitation Methyl orange 500 W Xe lamp 1 0.01 15 98 74
Ce2S3/NiS2/rGO Hydrothermal Methyl orange Sunlight 0.6 0.02 120 89.1 75
Bromophenol blue 84.2
NiS2/TiO2/Cu Microwave irradiation Rhodamine B Visible light 0.005 0.005 120 92 76
Methyl orange 86
Acid brown 87
Acid black 88
FTO/BiVO4/NiS Hydrothermal Rhodamine B Sunlight — 0.01 120 73 77
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attributed to the matched energy band of NiS and LaFeO3,

Ref.

78

79
41
13
which permits better interfacial electron separation and trans-
fer, and the nanosheet structure of NiS, which allows photo-
Efficiency

generated electrons to be transported without obstruction.

96.98
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99.8
97.8
91.6

99.3
In another study, Wu et al.23 produced NiS/CdS nano-
(%)

composites using microwave or hydrothermal techniques.

When exposed to visible light, the resultant NiS/CdS nano-
Time (min)

composites demonstrated strong photocatalytic activity in the

destruction of quinoline. This is because a p-NiS/n-CdS-m het-
160
100
150
120
45

erojunction forms a catalyst to lower electron–hole pair

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recombination and provides remarkable photocatalytic char-

Pollutant concentration

acteristics and high quantum efficiency. Moreover, BiVO4, NiS,

and Au ternary-nanocomposites were manufactured using
a simple two-step approach, including hydrothermal treatment
and photo-reduction. When compared to pure BiVO4 photo-
catalysts or binary combinations like BiVO4/NiS or BiVO4/Au,
(g L−1)

the prepared BiVO4/NiS/Au composites exhibit a remarkable

0.01
—

—
—

enhancement in the degradation of organic pollutants. This is

because the method uses Au's electron-collecting properties to
Catalyst dose

form a p to n junction between NiS and BiVO4. Interestingly,

compared to pure BiVO4, the ideal ternary BiVO4/NiS/Au
(g L−1)

composites had a 4.25-fold greater photodegradation effi-

0.4
—

ciency for tetracycline (TC).72

So, the extensive research on NiS nanocomposites reveals
their signicant potential in various applications, particularly
in energy storage, conversion systems, and environmental
500 W halogen lamp

remediation. The innovative synthesis methods, such as

300 W xenon lamp
200 W LED lamp

hydrothermal processes, polyol reuxing, and solution

Source of light

combustion, enable the production of diverse NiS nano-

materials with enhanced properties. These nanocomposites
Sunlight

exhibit remarkable photocatalytic activities, improved charge

transport, and optimized electrocatalytic performance. The
studies highlight the crucial role of NiS nanocomposites in
advancing clean and sustainable energy technologies. Future
Methylene blue

work may further optimize synthesis techniques, explore novel

Methyl orange
Rhodamine B

Rhodamine B
Ciprooxacin

nanocomposite combinations, and scale up production for

Pollutants

practical applications in diverse industries.

6. Future prospects
Due to their effective light-harvesting capabilities and excep-
tional photocatalytic activities—particularly in the area of dye
degradation—nickel sulde has gained popularity. The neces-
sity of choosing an appropriate photocatalyst depending on the
One-pot sulfurization
Facile impregnation

pollutant present in the application is highlighted by the fact

Synthesize method

that the usefulness of these catalysts is contingent upon the

Hydrothermal
Precipitation

operational parameters. The instability of nickel sulde nano-

particles, which can lead to agglomeration and decreased effi-
cacy, is one of their problems.80 Researchers have created
creative solutions to this issue and improved the stability and
effectiveness of nickel sulde photocatalysts. Among these
S-scheme NiS@ZrO2
CoNiO2–BiFeO3–NiS

g-C3N4/MnWO4/NiS

approaches, heterojunction generation and doping techniques

(Contd. )

Nanocomposite

have demonstrated the potential to mitigate the inherent

NiS–Mg/S-BC

drawbacks of pure nickel sulde.64 Recent research aims to

develop innovative photocatalysts based on nickel sulde with
Table 3

distinct properties such as high reusability, low electron–hole

recombination rates, and more extensive surface areas. These

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elements are essential for maximizing the overall performance broader applicability to diverse industrial wastewater contami-
of photocatalytic materials. For photocatalytic stability to be nants necessitate continued research to rene structural prop-
achieved and maintained, it is crucial to manipulate the crys- erties, photostability, and regeneration processes for nickel
tallite's size, shape, and surface area. Despite advancements in sulde-based photocatalysts.
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improving nickel sulde photocatalysts' characteristics, several

obstacles still exist. One major drawback is the possibility of 7. Conclusion
photo corrosion, which could cause the metal to ionize in the
water sample. To lessen the likelihood of secondary pollution, The exceptional visible light photocatalytic activity of nickel
more research is needed to determine whether metal ions are sulde depends on the surface area, bandgap, and surface
seeping into the water supply. In an effort to improve the long- shape of the produced composite. However, their utility is
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term practical application of nickel sulde-based photo- severely limited by their charge recombination rates and
catalysts, researchers are actively investigating the creation of stability. In order to get beyond these restrictions, scientists are
stable heterojunctions that successfully avoid photo corro- investigating doping strategies and heterojunction production.
sion.64 The surface area and adsorption efficiency of nickel New developments in synthesis methods have made it possible
sulde control their photocatalytic activity. Scientists are to create a variety of nanocomposites with improved water
investigating novel manufacturing methods to generate metal remediation capabilities. As research advances, it is critical to
sulde photocatalysts with increased surface areas. Adding comprehend how variables like dopant concentration and
nickel sulde to y ash or charcoal may be an excellent way to shape affect the photocatalytic activity of nickel sulde.
increase surface area and boost photocatalytic efficiency.81 This Furthermore, the formation of nanocomposites and hetero-
is a subject that needs more research. Specic contaminants— junctions has steered the research in this eld in a positive
especially articial dye solutions—are the main focus of the direction. The effective commercialization of nickel sulde-
investigation. However, since industrial wastewater usually based photocatalysts in various water treatment applications
contains a variety of contaminants, it's critical to comprehend will depend on resolving these issues and deepening our
how nickel sulde functions as photocatalyst when combined understanding of these catalysts.
with different dyes. In order to employ nickel sulde-based
photocatalysts efficiently for wastewater treatment, more Conflicts of interest
investigation into the various natures of contaminants in
industrial wastewater is required. Actual wastewater samples There are no conicts to declare.
must be used instead of fake dye solutions to commercialize
photocatalytic processes. Beyond colors, industrial wastewater References
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