CH-2: CONTROL AND COORDINATION BIOLOGY/CLASS-X

CONTROL &
2
COORDINATION
INTRODUCTION
Living organisms respond and react to their external environment. The linking together of various
activities in the living organism is known as coordination. The process of co-ordination must be
carefully controlled.
• Plants do not have any special structure for perception of stimuli. In plants control and coordination is
performed by chemical substances known as plant hormones or phytohormone. Phytohormones are of
five types namely Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscissic Acid (ABA) and Ethylene.
• Multicellular animals except sponge have specialized cells called neurons for responding to stimuli. Neuron
or nerve cell is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. Nervous system includes brain,
spinal cord and nerves. Nervous system and Endocrine or hormonal system control and coordinate
body functions in animals.

CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS

• Plants lack nervous system and muscles so they relay on chemical or hormonal control.

Stimulus and Response:

• Stimulus is the change in the external or internal environment of an organism that provokes a
physiological and behavioral change in the organism. The changes thus caused are termed as
response.
• Tropism : Movement of plant towards the direction of stimulus is called tropism. Eg. Bending of shoot
towards light is called positive phototropism. Root of plants show negative phototropism. Downward
movement is in response to gravitational force is called geotropism. Roots of plants shows positive
geotropisms, stems show negative geotropism.
• Other movements in plants which are caused by external stimuli but are not directional are called nastic
movements (such as in touch-me-not plant).

Type of Plant Movements

• Plants show two types of movements – one dependent on growth and other independent of growth.
Plant Movement
Nastic (Non-directional) Tropic (Directional)
Rapid response to non directional stimuli Slow response to directional stimuli.
(eg temperature)
It is reversible as independent of growth Related to growth so irrevesible
eg. Movement in Mimosa pudica on eg. Bending of shoot towards light (phototropic)
touching (thigmonastic)

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1. Non-directional or Nastic movement :

• The movement of a plant in response to an external stimuli in which the direction of response is not
determined by the direction of stimulus is called nastic movement.
• The nastic movements of plants are induced by stimuli such as heat, light, touch (or contact) etc.
• There are several types of nastic movement: They are:
(i) Photonasty. Plants show sleep movements according to the day and night pattern of the sun light.
There is a circardian rhythm which is followed by the biological clock on earth.
(ii) Thermonasty. This is movement in response to temperature changes e.g. flowers of tulips open at
high temperature and close at low temperature.
(iii) Nyctinasty. This is the response of a plant to darkness. e.g. folding and unfolding of leaflets in
Oxalis, opening and closing of stomata.
(iv) Siesmonasty. This is plant movement brought about by touch or the shock generated by touch e.g.
Mimosa pudica. [Thigmo-nastic movement (Thigmo = touch, Nastic = non directional), growth
independent].
(v) Hyponasty. These are movements or upward bending of leaves and other plant parts due to growth
of lower part of a plant.

Do you Know :
Some plants such as Snapdragons are described as night-neutral or day neutral. Their flowering
does not depend on the night's length.

2. Directional or Tropic Movement :

• It is the directional growth or movement of plant organ in response to an external stimulus. Thus, growth
dependent movement.
• Growth towards the stimulus is positive tropism and growth away from the stimulus is negative tropism.
• Tropic movements are classified as follows, depending on the type of stimulus causing it:
(i) Phototropism is the movement of part of the plant in response to light. The main factor responsible for
it is differential movement of Auxin concentration towards shade area when unidirectional light is provided.
So, the part which is in shade grows more and particular part of plant tilt towards source of light.

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(ii) Geotropism is the upward growth of shoots (Negative) and downward growth of roots (Positive) in
response to the pull of earth or gravity. It is due to accumulation of Auxin in lower half.

(iii) Hydrotropism is the movement of a part of the plant in response to water. It is stronger as compared to
geotropism as shown in the figure that root denies gravity to ensure water availability.

(iv) Chemotropism is the movement of a part of the plant in response to a chemical stimulus.
If the plant part shows movement or growth towards the chemical, it is called positive chemotropism
and if the plant part shows movement or growth away from the chemical, it is called negative
chemotropism.
For example, the growth the pollen tube towards a chemical which is produced by cells of ovule
during the process of fertilization in a flower.

PLANT HORMONE
• Plant Hormones or Phytohormones can be defined as chemical substances which are produced
naturally in plants and are capable of translocation and regulate one or more physiological processes
when present in low concentration.
• Plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the environment.
• They are synthesized at places away from where they act and simply diffuse to the area of action.

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Types of Phytohormones
• The major types of plant hormones that are involved in the control and coordination are as follows :

(1) Auxins : Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) is major Auxin in plants.

Important function :
(i) Responsible for tropic movement. Plants bend towards sunlight (Positive Phototropism).
(ii) Help in increasing length of plant as these are synthesized at the tip of roots and shoots. Cell
elongation is the primary and chief function of auxin in plants. By removing tips we can make the
plants bushy. As apical bud suppresses growth of lateral buds in plants. It is called apical
dominance.
(iii) These induce parthenocarpy to obtain seedless fruits eg. seed less grapes, papaya etc.
(iv) Prevent falling of unripen fruits.
(v) Help in removal of weeds eg. 2, 4–D.

(2) Gibberellins :
(i) These stimulate the elongation of stem particularly at the internodal region.
(ii) These induce germination of dormant seeds.
(iii) Help in removing genetic dwarfism.
(iv) Help in flowering and development of fruits.

(3) Cytokinins :
(i) These compounds are synthesized in the seeds and the roots of the plants.
(ii) These promote cell division by activating DNA synthesis and protein synthesis.
(iii) They are present in large concentration in areas of rapid cell division (such as fruits and seeds).
(iv) Break dormancy.
(v) Delay senescence.

(4) Abscisic acid (ABA) :

(i) Commonly known as stress hormone because the production of hormone is stimulated by drought,
water logging and other adverse environmental conditions.
(ii) It reverses the promotory effects of Auxins and gibberellins.
(iii) Abscisic acid is primarily a growth Inhibitor responsible for wilting of leaves. It is found in leaves,
dormant seeds, buds and other parts of the plant.
(iv) ABA promotes abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits.
(v) It also promotes the senescence of leaves.
(vi) Helps in reducing transpiration rates by closing stomata.

(5) Ethylene
(i) Ethylene is a gaseous plant hormone that stimulates transverse growth but retards the longitudinal
one.
(ii) It is formed in almost all plant parts – roots, leaves, flowers and seeds.
(iii) Ethylene promotes fruit growth and its ripening.
(iv) Normally reduces flowering in plants except pineapple.
(v) It behaves as growth inhibitor.
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Character Auxin GA CK ABA C2H4

No effect
Stem elongation   or No effect 

Cell division

&    No. effect
with auxin
cell elongation
No effect
Root initiation  or  No effect 
inhibit
Seed germination     
Seed germination     
Dormancy maintain Break Break maintain Break
Abscission  No effect   
Senescence delay No effect delay Promote Promote
Apical dominance  No effect  No effect No effect
Parthenocarpy   No effect No effect No effect

PHOTOPERIODISM
Flowering and germination of seeds in plants is controlled by duration of day light (photoperiod). This
phenomenon is called photoperiodism.
On the basis of length of photoperiod requirements of plants, they have been classified into.

(i) Short day plants — Xanthium, Sugarcane

(ii) Long day plants — Spinach, Radish
(iii) Day neutral plants — Cotton, Sunflower

Response of plants to photoperiodic stimulus is due to a specialized pigment phytochrome.

W
Requirement of light and dark periods during 24 hours
for flowering in short day, long day and day neutral plants.
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CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN ANIMALS

Animals receive external information through specialized structure called sense organs (receptors). These
are photoreceptors for light, phonoreceptors for sound and olfactoreceptors for smell. Control and
coordination is achieved by two systems (a) nervous system (b) endocrine system.

A. NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS OF ANIMALS

• In animals, control and co-ordination is achieved with
the help of nervous and muscular tissues. Nervous
system is made up of specialized cells called neurons.
Structure of neuron
• A neuron (nerve cell) consists of cyton and processes :
(a) Cell body / Cyton / Soma
• Cyton or cell body has a central nucleus and surrounding
cytoplasm.
• Around the nucleus there are granules called Nissles
granules, which are made up of RNA and Protein
(exact function unknown, they are believed to convert
a nerve impulse into an electrical impluse). It transfers
impulse to axon.
(b) Two types of processes namely dendrites and axon.
Dendrites:
• These are hair like processes connected to the Cyton
through dendrone.
• They receive sensation or stimulus, which may be
physical, chemical, mechanical or electrical.
• The information received at dendrite tip sets up a
chemical reaction that creates an electric impulse.
• This impulse travels from dendrite to cell body
Axon
• It is the longer part of the neuron.
• It transmits the impulse from Cyton to the tip of the axon called axon bulb.
• The plasma membrane of an axon may be covered by a sheath of lipid and protein called the myelin
sheath.
• The sheath is formed by the Schwann cells, and is broken into constrictions called the nodes of Ranvier.
• The ending of axon is called synaptic terminals or nerve endings.
• The impulse on reaching terminal releases some chemicals or neuro-hormones i.e. Acetyl Choline (Ach)
or glutamic acid which crosses the synapse (The physical gap between a synaptic terminal and the
dendrite of another neuron or an effector cell) and transfer impulses to next neurons.
• These chemicals start a similar electrical impulse in dendrite of next neuron and in same manner impulses
are transmitted to effectors, such as muscles (Neuromuscular junction) and/or glands.

Knowledge Enhancer :
Synapse is the point of contact between the terminal branches of the axon of a neuron with one
dendrites of another neuron. Here the nerve impules "jumps" into the next neuron. This is a
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chemical process. As the impulse reaches the terminal end of an axon, a chemical acetylcholine
or glutamic acid is released. This chemical sets a new impulse in the dentrites of the adjacent
(next) neuron. The chemical is soon broken down by an enzyme to make the synapse ready for
the next tranmission.

Do you Know :
Impulse is an electrical disturbance received by the dendrite and passed through the cyton to
the axon. Messages are transmitted in the form of electrical impulses along the fibre of the
neurons. It flows only unidirectionally.

• A nerve may terminate in one of the given three ways :

(i) Synapse
(ii) Neuromates junction / Neuroglandular junction
(iii) Sensory nerve ending

Types of Nervous System in Animals

• In all vertebrates including humans the nervous system may be divided into the Central nervous
system and peripheral nervous system. Peripheral nervous system may be somatic or autonomous.
(A) Central nervous system (CNS) consisting of brain and spinal cord.There are 12 pairs of cranial and
31 pairs of spinal nerves in humans.
(B) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of cranial nerves and spinal nerves. It connects CNS to
the body organs.PNS may be somatic and autonomic as defined below:
• PNS that connects CNS and voluntary muscles is Somatic and that connects CNS to involuntary
muscles is Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) may be further of two types

(A) Sympathetic:The sympathetic division typically functions when quick responses to stimulus is require. It
dialates pupil, Inhibits flow of saliva and contract bladder but acclerates heart beat.
(B) Parasympathetic:The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate
reaction.It constricts pupil, increases flow of saliva, relaxes bladder but slows down heart beat.
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions are typically antagonistic to each other. The sympathetic
division work as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division works as a brake.
• A useful acronym to summarize the functions of the autonomous nervous system is STUDD (salivation,
tear, urination, digestion and defecation).

FUNCTIONS OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Function of Function of
Organ
sympathetic system parasympathetic system
Heart Accelerates heart beat Slows heart beat
Constricts arteries Dilates arteries
Arteries
& raises blood pressure & lowers blood pressure
Urinary bladder Relaxes bladder Constricts bladder
Muscles of iris Dilate pupil Constricts pupil

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The arrangement of the nerves of the body into vertebrate nervous system
Vertebrate nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Brain Spinal cord Autonomic NS Somatic NS

Sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS

Spinal nerves Spinal Cranial

only Spinal Cranial nerves nerves
nerves nerves

SENSE ORGANS / RECEPTORS

• Information from environment is gained by specialized tips of the nerve cells or receptors. These receptors
are located in our sense organs like
(i) Photoreceptors for light eg. eye. (ii) Phonoreceptors for sound eg. ear.
(iii) Olfactory receptors for smell eg. nose. (iv) Gustatory receptor for taste eg. tongue.
(v) Tango receptor for touch eg. skin.

REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC

• Reflex action is a spontaneous, automatic, mechanical response to a stimulus.
• It is involuntary response of effectors (glands or muscles) to stimuli, mediated by spinal cord. (The spinal
cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue. It is part of CNS mainly concerned with reflex
action.)
• Thinking is a complex activity which involves a complicated interaction of many nerve impulses from
many neurons.
• This interaction requires time. In case of urgent situation like touching hot plate, body needs quick
system which takes immediate action to minimize damage.
• Such system is reflex system and it is mediated by spinal cord. (Ian Pavlov is regarded as the father of
reflex action).
• Nerve from all over the body meets in bundle in spinal cord on their way to brain.
• Since spinal cord is the first point where nerves meet each other, so reflex action is mediated by spinal
cord.
• After action is complete, the input information reaches brain. Brain has no direct role in reflex action.
Examples of reflex action
• Withdrawal of hand when it touches hot object.
• Knee jerk reflex (on tapping Patella leg move forward).
• Constriction of pupil when strong light is flashed.
• Sneezing, coughing and yawning.
• Path followed by an impulse in reflex action is known as reflex arc. Reflex always travels in one direction
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in the following sequence

Stimulus  Receptor organ  Sensory nerves  spinal cord  Motor nerve  Effector organ  Response

Significance of Reflex Action

(i) It enables the body to give quick responses to threatening stimuli and thus protects our body.
(ii) It helps to minimize the overloading of brain.
(iii) Thinking process of brain is not fast enough.
(iv) Many lower groups of animals have very little or none of the complex neuron network needed for
thinking. In them the reflex arcs have evolved as efficient ways of functioning in the absence of true
thought processes.
Do you know?
• As per definition reflex actions are purely instinctive. Such reflex are unconditioned reflex.
• Ian Pavlon however demonstrated that some reflex can be learnt by training. Such reflexes are termed as
Conditioned reflex.

HUMAN BRAIN
• It is the highest coordinating centre in the body. Complex processes like thinking, memory etc. are
concerned to brain.

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The brain is broadly divided into three regions : Fore-brain, mid-brain and hind-brain.
Brain

Fore Brain Mid Brain Hind Brain

(Breathing reflexes
Cerebrum Cerebellum
(Voluntary activities, and (Maintaining Body Posture)
Memory etc) Swallowing reflexes)
Pons
Optic lobes Crura cerebri (Respiratory Center, transfers messages
between various parts of the brain and
Anterior Posterior Superior Inferior the spinal cord.)
vision hearing vision vision
Diencephalon Medulla
(Involuntary activities)
Thalamus Hypothalamus
(Emotions,regulating states (Master of Pituitary, Thermostat)
of sleep and wakefulness)

I. FORE-BRAIN
Its includes Cerebrum and Diencephalon (Thalamus and hypothalamus) .

A. Cerebrum
• The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought
and action.
• The cerebrum is divided into four sections, called “lobes”: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe,
and temporal lobe.
(a) Occipital lobe is the regions for sight, i.e., visual reception.
(b) Temporal lobe is the region for hearing, i.e. auditory reception.
(c) Frontal lobe is the region for speech, facial muscular activities and higher mental activities.
(d) Parietal lobe is the region for taste, smell, touch and conscious association.
• The cerebrum has sensory areas where information is received from the sense organs called receptors.
• Similarly, cerebrum has motor areas from where instructions are sent to the various muscles of the body
called effectors to do the various jobs.
• Areas of association are present in cerebral cortex.
• They are neither sensory nor motor.
• They receive information from sensory areas and is involved in “higher” functions such as perception,
thoughts and decision-making, etc.

B. Diencephalon : Smallest part of brain

Epithalamus : roof of brain
• Thalamus
It is essentially a relay station that receives sensory information and passes it on to the cerebral cortex. It
is related to emotions and controlling state of wakefulness and sleep.
• Hypothalamus
It is master of master endocrine gland which is mainly responsible for maintaining body temperature
(Thermostat). It also regulates desires, Food and Water Intake, Sleep & Wake Cycle etc.

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II. MID-BRAIN
It connects the fore-brain to hind-brain. It controls reflex movement of the head, neck and trunk in
response to visual and auditory stimuli. It is also related to audio and visual response.

III. HIND-BRAIN
It consists of three centers called Cerebellum, Pons and Medulla oblongata.
• Cerebellum lies at the roof of the hind-brain. This region controls the coordination of body movements
and posture. It is second largest part of brain.
• Pons lies just above the medulla and take part in regulating respiration.
• Medulla oblongata lies at the floor of the hind-brain and continues into the spinal cord. It is also the
regulating centre for swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomiting. Medulla contains respiratory center.
• Thus, pons and medulla both regulate involuntary activities of body.
• It comes out of cranial cavity through foramen magnum and after coming out it is called spinal cord.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

PARTS OF
SUB-DIVISIONS FUNCTIONS
BRAIN
1. Fore Brain (a) Olfactory lobes Sense of smell.
(b) Cerebrum (largest and Centre for memory and intelligence.
most complex part of brain).
(c) Diencephalon : Thalamus Centre for emotions, sweating, fatigue,
& Hypothalamus sleep, thirst, pain, hunger, body
temperature, fear etc.
2. Mid Brain Cerebral peduncles or Crura Receive sensory impulses from eyes,
cerebri (fibre tracts) ears and muscles of head.
Relay impulses back and forth between
the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and
medulla.
3. Hindbrain a) Cerebellum Controls the rapid muscular activities
such as running, typing etc.
Controls body posture
b) Pons varolii Relay impulse between medulla
oblongata and upper parts of brain. It
contains centres that work with those of
medulla oblongata to regulate respiratory
rate.
c) Medulla oblongata i) It controls various involuntary
movements of the body.
ii) It has a respiratory centre to regulate
respiration.
iii) It has reflex centre for swallowing,
vomiting, peristalsis, salivation,
coughing, sneezing etc.

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Knowledge Enhancer :
(i) Electroencephalogram :
It is graph made by an instrument called encephalograph that records the waves of the brain. The minute
electrical waves produced by the nerve cells of the brain are transmitted to the instrument, which amplifies
and records them on strip of paper.
(ii) Spinal Cord :
It lies in the mid-dorsal region along the longitudial axis of the body. It is a slender, cylindrical structure,
about 45 cm long, originating from medulla oblongata and extending downwards upto the lumber region.
It then extends to the end of vetebral column as fibrous connective called filum terminals. Spinal cord is
enclosed in the vertebral column, which protects it. Internally, the spinal cord possesses a narrow fluid-
filled cavity called central canal. Spinal cord is also covered by three meninges, like the brain, in between
which is the cerebrospinal fluid.
Spinal cord acts as a centre for reflex actions, thus, reduces brain's work. It also conducts sensory and
motor impulses to and from the brain.
Thirty–one pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord and twelve pairs of nerves arise from the
brain.

Protection of Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal Cord)

• Owing to function and importance of Central Nervous System it is well protected inside the body.
• Brain is protected inside brain box or cranium.
• Brain is covered by layers known as meninges (Outer Dura-mater, Arachnoid, and Pia-mater)
• Spinal cord is protected by Vertebral column & meninges.
• Brain has grey matter on the outer side and white matter in the centre while the spinal cord has the
reverse i.e., grey matter in the central core and white matter on the outer side.

How does the Nervous Tissue cause Action on Effector (Muscles).

• The nervous tissue collects information from receptors and sends it to the brain (CNS), brain
processes information and makes decision.
• Decision is conveyed to muscles for action.
• When a nerve impulse reaches the muscles, the muscle fibers move by changing the shape of the
muscle cells with the help of special proteins (actin and myosin).
• This process require certain chemical massenger (Neuro-hormones) to transmit impulses to muscles
and also ATP and Ca++ ions. Impulse is transmitted in electrochemical form.
• The overall pathway is:
Ner vous t i ssue  Collect information  Transfer information  Brain Process
information  Interpretation  Action (By muscle & glands)

B. HORMONES IN ANIMALS
Chemical Messengers
• Hormones are the chemical substances which coordinate and control the activities of living
organisms and also their growth.
• The term hormone was introduced by Bayliss and Starling. Hormones are chemically made up of
proteins or lipids.

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Characteristics and Functions of Hormones

(i) Hormones are the secretions of endocrine (ductless) glands.
(ii) They are poured directly into the blood and carried through out the body by blood circulatory
system.
(iii) Hormones have their effect at the sites different from the sites of there origin. So, they are also called
‘chemical messengers’.
(iv) They act on specific tissues or organs called ‘target organs’ or ‘target site’.
(v) They coordinate the activities of the body and also its growth.
(vi) They are secreted in extremely minute quantities.
(vii) Hormones are non-nutrient chemical which act as inter-cellular messengers.

DIFFERENCES BETW EEN EXOCRINE & ENDOCRINE GLANDS.

S.NO. EXOCRINE GLANDS ENDOCRINE GLANDS
1. Exocrine glands have ducts . Endocrine glands are ductles s .
2. Thes e glands dis charge Thes e glands dis charge
their s ecretions into the ducts . their s ecretions directly into the blood.
3. Thes e glands are pres ent near the s ite of action. Thes e glands are pres ent far away from the
Exam ples : Sweat and oil glands s ite of action.e.g.Pituitary, thyroid,
of s kin, s alivary glands , etc. hypothalam us , etc.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• These are the structures or group of cells or tissue which manufacture hormones and secrete them
directly into the bloodstream to act at distant sites in the body known as target organs or cells.

Male Female

• They lack ducts and pour their secretion in blood.

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• Thus, are also known as ductless glands.

• The following are the major endocrine glands in human body:
• Hypothalamus, pituitary (hypophysis), pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, adrenal, testes
(in males) and ovaries (in females).
• Some endocrine glands like pancreas, testis and ovary are, both exocrine and endocrine in function.
So, these are called mixed glands or heterocrine glands.

(i) Hypothalamus
• It is present in the fore brain.
• It regulates the secretion of hormones from pituitary gland and it produces releasing hormones, so it
is also known as ‘Master of master endocrine gland’. Hypothalamus secretes ADH
(vasopressin) and Oxytocin (Birth Hormone).
• Vasopressin hormone regulates water and electrolyte balance in the body. Its deficiency causes
diabetes incipidus.
• Oxytocin hormone regulates the ejection of milk during lactation. It is also known as birth hormone
as it cause contraction of smooth muscles of uterus during child birth.

(ii) Pituitary gland (Hypophysis)

• It is present at the base of the fore brain. It is also known as the master endocrine gland as it
controls all the other endocrine glands of the body. The pituitary gland mainly secretes following
hormones.
• Growth Hormone (GH) regulates the growth and development of bones and muscles. Excess
secretion of GH causes ‘gigantism’ while less secretion causes ‘dwarfism’.
• Trophic hormones regulate the secretion of hormones from other endocrine glands like adrenal
glands, thyroid gland, testes and ovaries.
• Prolactin hormone regulates the function of mammary glands in females.

(iii) Pineal gland

• It is known as biological clock of the body.
• It is present in the brain near to the pituitary gland.
• It secretes melatonin hormone which delays sexual development and induce sleep.

(iv) Thyroid gland

• It is present in the neck on either side of trachea. It consists of two lobes joined by isthmus. It
produces thyroxine.
• Regulate BMR or Basal Metabollic Rate in body.
• Iodine is necessary for the thyroid gland to make thyroxin, so lack of Iodine cause swelling in thyroid
gland (Goiter).
• Soil of hilly areas is deficit of iodine. So, hilly areas are regarded as goiter belt.
• Thyroxin regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the body so as to provide
the best balance for growth.
• It also regulates metamorphosis in tadpole larvae of frogs.

(v) Parathyroid glands

• These are four in number and are embedded in the thyroid gland.
• They secrete a hormone called calcitonin or parathormone.

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• It regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood (moves calcium from bones to blood). Hence,
increases calcium level in blood.

(vi) Thymus
• It is paired structure present in chest.
• It secretes the hormone thymosin which activates immune responses and helps in the production of
antibodies.
• This gland degenerates when sexual maturity is attained.
(vii) Adrenal glands
• These are two in number, they are located one on top of each kidney. So are also called supra-
renal glands.
• Internally these consist of two parts outer cortex and inner medulla which secretes corticoids
and adrenaline hormone respectively.
• Corticoide hormones regulate carbohydrate metabolism, mineral balance and sexual development in
the body.
• Adrenaline hormone is secreted in emergency or stress condition and regulate heart beat, breathing
rate, blood pressure etc. in the body. It works on the principle of flight, fright and fight. So the gland
is also known as 3F gland.
• This gland is related with sex, sugar, salt, stress, so also called as 4S gland.

(viii) Pancreas
• It is present just below the stomach in between both limbs of duodenum in the body.
• Pancreas is mixed gland (exocrine as well as endocrine gland). The endocrine parts are called islets
of langerhans.
• It secretes two hormones-insulin and glucagon.
• The function of insulin hormone is to lower the blood glucose as it converts sugar into glycogen.
• The function of glucagon hormone is to increase the blood glucose as it converts glycogen into sugar.
Insulin
Sugar Glycogen
Glucagons

(ix) Testes
• In males, testes are present outside the abdomen cavity in scrotum. These produce male hormone
and male gametes.
• They secrete male sex hormone called testosterone.
• The function of testosterone is to regulate development of male accessory sex organs and secondary
sexual characters of male like moustache, beard and voice.

(x) Ovaries
• In female, ovaries are present in the lower abdomen. These perform dual function of producing
female gametes as well as female sex hormones.
• They secrete two female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone.
• The function of estrogen hormone is to regulate the development of female accessory sex organs and
secondary sexual characters of female such as mammary glands, soft skin, hair pattern and feminine

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voice.
• The function of progesterone hormone is to control the changes in uterus during menstrual cycle. It
also helps in the maintenance of pregnancy.

DIFFERENT ENDOCRINE GLANDS, THEIR LOCATION IN THE BODY & THE HORMONES
SECRETED BY THEM.

S.NO. DIFFERENT LOCATION HORMONES SECRETED

ENDOCRINE
GLANDS

(A) Pituitary Located below Anterior Somatotropic hormone(SH/GH)

Hypothalamus lobe (Growth Hormone)

Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH)

Leutinizing hormone(LH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH)
Thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)
Prolactin
Middle Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)

Posterior Vasopressin/Anti Diuretic Hormone

lobe (ADH)
Oxytocin

(B) Pineal gland Located between Melatonin

cerebral hemispheres.
Serotonin

(C) Thyroid Thyroxine

Calcitonin
(D) Parathyroid Situated on lobes of the Parathormone
thyroid gland.

(E) Thymus Located in the upper part of the Thymosin

gland thorax near heart.
(F) Pancreas lies below the Insulin,Glucagon and Somatostatin
Pancreas stomach in a bend of the (Islets of Langerhans)
duodenum.
Mineralo corticoids
(G) Adrenal Located on the
gland top of kidneys. Adrenal cortex Sex hormones
Gluco corticoids
Adrenal medulla

Adrenaline Noradrenaline

(H) Gonads Ovaries (Female) - Located Estrogen

in pelvic cavity in Progesterone
abdomen. Relaxin

Testes (Male) extra- Testosterone

abdominal in position

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CH-2: CONTROL AND COORDINATION BIOLOGY/CLASS-X

HOMEOSTASIS AND FEED BACK

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of steady state inside the organism irrespective of changes in the
environment.
• Hormones maintain homeostasis by their integrated action and feed back control.
Example: – Hormone thyroxin regulates the rate of chemical activities of the cells or regulate BMR
of the body. It is produced by thyroid gland and is passed into blood.
• Thyroxin is produced under the influence of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) produced by
anterior pituitary gland.
• Anterior Pituitary in turn is stimulated by thyrotrophic releasing hormone (TRH) produced by
the hypothalamus.
• The level of thyroxin is guard by hypothalamus.
• If the level of thyroxine is higher in blood it gives negative feed back to the hypothalamus.
• Which stops forming TRH which stops production of TSH by pituitary.
• No thyroxine is secreated by Thyroid untill its level becomes normal.
• When level of thyroxine is lower in blood, positive feed back is given to hypothalamus.
• Hypothalamus starts forming more thyrotrophic releasing hormones, which stimulates the production
of TSH by the pituitary.
• So, now thyroid is stimulated by TSH to produce more thyroxin in blood untill its level becomes
normal in blood.

Hypothalamus
Produce TRH No TRH

Pituitary gland
Produce TSH No TSH
Positive Negative
Feedback Thyroid gland Feedback
Produce Thyroxine No Thyroxine

Thyroxine
Lower Higher
concentration concentration

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CH-2: CONTROL AND COORDINATION BIOLOGY/CLASS-X

POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. A system of control and coordination is essential in living organisms so that the different body parts can
function as a single unit to maintain homeostasis as well as respond to various stimuli.
2. In animals, the nervous system and hormonal system are responsible for control and coordination.
3. Neurons are specialized cells of the nervous system. They use electrical and chemical signals for transferring
information.
4. Receptors are specialized tips of the nerve fibres that collect the information to be conducted by the
nerves.
5. Nerve impulses travel in the following manner from one neuron to the next :
Dendrites  Cell body  Axon  Nerve endings at the tip of axon  Synapse  Dendrite of next
neuron.
6. Chemicals released from axon tip of one neuron, cross the synapse or neuromuscular junction to reach
the next cell (neuron or muscle fibre).
7. Nerve impulses from many neurons interact to carry out the complex process of thinking.
8. Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are parts of our nervous system.
9. Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. Get the Power of Visual Impact on your
side
10. Spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conducts messages between different parts of the body and
brain.
11. Reflex action is an automatic, rapid and immediate reaction to a stimulus and is below the level of
consciousness. No thinking is involved in reflex action.
12. Reflex arc is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex action.
Pathway of reflex arc :
Receptor  Sensory neuron  Relay neuron  Motor neuron  Effector
13. The sensory neurons of reflex arcs synapse in the spinal cord which then activates the spinal motor
neurons without delay to execute a quick action, especially in case of emergencies. The brain also
receives the information while the reflex action occurs.
14. The 3 main parts of the brain are forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
15. The largest part of the brain, the forebrain, is the main thinking region. It is made up of cerebrum,
hypothalamus and thalamus. Cerebellum, pons and medulla constitute the hindbrain.
16. Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain whereas the cerebellum is the second largest part.
17. Part of brain Function
Cerebrum Governs intelligence, thinking, memory and other mental abilities,
voluntary actions, sensations, emotions and speech
Hypothalamus Coordinates messages from the autonomous nervous system, controls
certain involuntary actions, as well as the sexual and emotional
behaviour and forms an axis with the pituitary
Thalamus Functions as major coordinating center for sensory and motor signaling.
Midbrain Acts as the coordinating centre between forebrain and hindbrain; also
controls certain involuntary movements
Cerebellum Responsible for precision and fine control of voluntary movements as
well as maintaining posture and equilibrium of the body
Pons Relays impulses between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord, and higher
parts of the brain like the cerebrum and mid brain; also regulates respiration
Medulla Contains vital centres for controlling blood pressure, respiration,
swallowing, salivation, vomiting, sneezing and coughing.
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