Case Studies in Construction Materials 22 (2025) e04915

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Comparative analysis of bio-based insulation materials with

low-carbon binders: Mechanical, hygrothermal, and
durability performance
Houssam Affan a,b,*, Badreddine El Haddaji a,c,d , Soukaina Ajouguim a,e ,
Fouzia Khadraoui a
a
Builders Lab, Builders École d’Ingénieurs, COMUE Normandie Université, 1 Rue Pierre et 6 Marie Curie, Épron 14610, France
b
Groupe Vivialys, 37 Rue de Molsheim, Strasbourg 67000, France
c
Institut de Recherche, ESTP, F, Cachan 94234 Cedex, France
d
ESITC Paris, Arcueil, 94110, France
e
Univ. Artois, IMT Nord Europe, Junia, Univ. Lille, ULR 4515, Laboratoire de Génie Civil et géoEnvironnement (LGCgE), F, Béthune 62400, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The construction industry is known for its significant impact on global energy consumption and
Low-Carbon Binders CO₂ emissions, so there’s a growing need to explore sustainable building materials. In this study,
Bio-based Insulation Materials we explored bio-based insulation materials made from hemp and miscanthus shives combined
Mechanical Properties
with low-carbon binders such as natural prompt cement (NPC) and air lime (CL90-S). We eval­
Hygrothermal Properties
Durability of Bio-based Insulation Materials
uated four different formulations, looking at their physical, mechanical, thermal, moisture con­
trol, and durability properties to assess their potential for use in energy-efficient buildings. Our
results show that the hemp-based insulation with NPC (C100H) offers the best performance in
terms of thermal insulation (λ = 0,12 W/m.K) and compressive strength (0,81 MPa), making it the
most efficient in both thermal and mechanical properties. On the other hand, the miscanthus-
based formulations perform better when it comes to moisture regulation. Specifically, the
L100M formulation showed the highest water vapor permeability (6,38 × 10⁻¹⁴ kg/m³) and the
best resistance to freeze-thaw cycles. These findings highlight the role of bio-based materials and
low-carbon binders in reducing CO₂ emissions and improving building sustainability.

1. Introduction

The construction industry plays a crucial role in the ecological transition, contributing to around 40 % of global energy use and
almost 30 % of CO₂ emissions [1,2]. In light of growing environmental concerns and stricter thermal regulations, there is increasing
interest in developing building materials with a lower carbon footprint. Bio-based materials, in particular, show great promise due to
their ability to capture CO₂, minimal environmental impact, and improved hygrothermal properties [3–5].
Among the most researched bio-aggregates, hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) and miscanthus (Miscanthus giganteus) are notable for their
insulating properties and renewability [6]. Hemp concrete, for instance, is a composite material made from the woody part of the hemp

* Corresponding author at: Builders Lab, Builders École d’Ingénieurs, COMUE Normandie Université, 1 Rue Pierre et 6 Marie Curie, Épron 14610,
France.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Affan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e04915
Received 31 March 2025; Received in revised form 20 May 2025; Accepted 9 June 2025
Available online 10 June 2025
2214-5095/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
H. Affan et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 22 (2025) e04915

plant and a binder, typically lime, whether hydraulic or air-set [7,8]. This material is well-regarded for its light weight, high porosity,
and ability to regulate moisture levels in the environment, making it an excellent choice for both thermal and acoustic insulation
[9–14]. In contrast, miscanthus, a rapidly growing grass, is valued for its lignocellulosic fibers, which create a microporous structure
ideal for construction, especially as an aggregate for insulating mortars [15,16]. However, despite these benefits, both materials still
face certain technical challenges:

• Lower mechanical strength compared to conventional concretes [17,18].

• Sensitivity to humidity and climatic variations, which may affect the material’s durability [17–20].
• Influence of binder choice on final properties, particularly in terms of durability and resistance to freeze/thaw cycles [16].

Bio-based aggregates must be paired with a binder to create a cohesive and functional material. However, traditional binders like
Portland cement are highly energy-intensive and contribute significantly to CO₂ emissions [21,22]. Low-carbon binders, such as air
lime and natural hydraulic lime (NHL), have been introduced as more environmentally friendly alternatives to mitigate this issue [21].
Air lime, for example, facilitates beneficial hygrometric exchanges and helps capture CO₂ during carbonation [23]. NHL, on the other
hand, is recognized for its quick setting time and improved mechanical properties, all while maintaining a lower carbon footprint
compared to Portland cement [24].
Several studies have already examined the performance of bio-based concretes. For instance, Collet and Pretot [25] studied the
thermal behavior of hemp concrete and found that its thermal conductivity ranges from 0,05 to 0,09 W/(m.K), making it highly
effective for insulation. Wu et al. [15] investigated the durability of miscanthus-based concrete and highlighted that its performance in
wet environments requires formulation adjustments to prevent degradation of mechanical properties. However, few studies have
compared the two bio-based mixtures with low-carbon binders, creating a gap in current literature.
This research aims to assess and compare the performance of four insulation materials that combine hemp or miscanthus shives
with natural prompt cement (NPC) and air lime (CL90-S). The objective is to analyze how the choice of aggregate and binder influences
the physical, mechanical, thermal, and hygrothermal properties of the materials. Specifically, this study focuses on:

(1) Physical and thermal characterization of the biomass (Bulk density, Absolute density, Total porosity, Thermal conductivity,
Specific heat capacity, Sorption/desorption and Thermogravimetric analysis);
(2) Mechanical performance (Compressive strength at 28 days);
(3) Hygrothermal properties (Water vapor permeability, sorption/desorption);
(4) Evaluation of the mixture’s durability under freeze/thaw cycles, a key parameter for use in temperate climates.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials

2.1.1. Low carbon binder

In this study, natural prompt cement (NPC) and air lime (CL90-S) were used in the mixtures. As these are industrial materials, no
detailed characterization was performed. Instead, their relevant properties and performance data are provided in the technical data
sheets in Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1 summarizes the chemical and physical properties of air lime (CL90-S) while Table 2 presents the

Table 1
Physical and chemical properties of air lime (CL90-S).
Units Averages

Chemical properties ​ ​
Calcium oxide % 73,05
Magnesium oxide % 0,34
Iron oxide % 0184
Aluminum oxide % 0188
Silicon dioxide % 0,47
Potassium oxide % 0,01
Fire resistance % 25,66
Carbon dioxide % 1,66
Total sulfur % 0006
Manganese % 0015
Phosphorus % 0,0122
Calcium carbonate % 3,77
Calcium hydroxide % 93,72
Magnesium hydroxide % 0,5
Specific CO2 (CE) % 1,66
Physical properties ​ ​
Expansion EXP (%) 0,2
Bulk Density MVAP (g/L) 450
Blaine specific surface area Sblain (cm²/g) 13,260

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Table 2
Physical properties of natural prompt cement (NPC).
Characteristics Test Standards Units Averages Specifications

Bulk Density Intern Method g/cm2 2,98 -

Blaine specific surface area NF EN 196–6 g/cm2 7000 > 5000
Initial setting time on neat paste NF EN 196–3 minute 1,4 <4
Expansion at 80 ◦ C NF EN 196–3 mm 10 < 15
Shrinkage on 1:1 mortar at 28 days NF P 15–433 µm/m 708 < 1200
Heat of hydration at 1 h NF P 15–436 J/g 115 70 <CHY< 150

specifications of natural prompt cement (NPC) [26,27].

In Table 1 EXP in (%) refers to the expansion of the material when exposed to moisture. It is measured as the percentage increase in
volume after soaking in water for a specific period. MVAP in (g/L) stands for Moisture Vapor Adsorption Potential. It is a measure of the
material’s capacity to adsorb water vapor from the surrounding environment. Sblain in (cm²/g) represents Specific Blain Surface Area,
which quantifies the surface area of the material in relation to its weight, commonly used for fine particles and powders. The chemical
composition of the air lime (CL90-S) used in this study was obtained from the manufacturer’s technical data sheet. All percentage
values provided, such as CaO (73,05 %) and Ca(OH)₂ (93,72 %), are expressed as mass percentages (% by weight) relative to the dry
binder. The CaO value represents the available calcium oxide content, while the Ca(OH)₂ value reflects the degree of purity of the
slaked lime. A "fire resistance" value of 25.66 % is also mentioned in the data sheet; this refers to the mass loss percentage after
exposure to high temperatures under specific testing conditions. As no standardized method or reference is provided for this value, it is
reported here as an indicative property rather than a formal fire rating.
In Table 2 The notation "70 <CHY< 150" refers to the range of values for the Chemical Yield (CHY) of the materials, indicating that
the chemical yield falls between 70 and 150, based on the specific conditions applied in the study. This range is important as it reflects
the chemical properties that influence the performance of the bio-based materials when combined with binders.

2.1.2. Vegetal aggregates

The bio-based aggregates used are hemp shives [28] and miscanthus shives [15,29] which are both lightweight and porous ma­
terials commonly employed in bio-based construction (see Fig. 1). These aggregates contribute to the thermal and hygroscopic per­
formance of the mixtures by enhancing insulation properties and regulating moisture [11,17,30]. Their characteristics, such as particle
size distribution, bulk density, and water absorption capacity, influence the overall behavior of the composite material [3,10,16,31].

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Physical and mechanical properties

This granulometric curve compares miscanthus shives and hemp shives based on particle size distribution (Fig. 2). Miscanthus
shives have a finer and more uniform particle size, with a higher percentage passing through sieves at smaller sizes, reaching 80 % at
around 6 mm. In contrast, hemp shives have a broader distribution with larger particles, reaching the same percentage at around
8 mm. Both materials approach 100 % passing at 10 mm, but miscanthus is generally smaller and more consistent, while hemp shives
have larger and more variable particles, making them suitable for different applications.

Fig. 1. (a) Hemp shives; (b) Miscanthus shives.

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Fig. 2. Granulometric analysis of the studied bio-based aggregates.

2.2.1.1. Bulk density. The bulk density of the natural fibers was measured following the recommendations of RILEM 236-BBM [32].
The steps for preparing the samples and measuring the bulk density are as follows:

(1) Sample Preparation: dry bio-based and binders are placed into a 10 cm diameter glass cylinder, filling it to one-third of its
height;
(2) Inversion: The container is then inverted ten times to ensure an even distribution of the aggregates;
(3) Agitation: Bio-based are agitated to achieve a horizontal surface;
(4) Weighing: Bio-based are then weighed to determine their mass;
(5) Water Filling: The container is emptied of the aggregates and filled with water up to the marked level to measure the volume;
(6) Repetition: The test is repeated three times to ensure the reliability of the measurements.
(7) Calculations: The average and standard deviation of the bulk density are calculated from the three measurements.

2.2.1.2. Absolute density. Accordingly, the determination of the absolute density of bio-based materials is carried out using an
AccuPyc II 1340 helium pycnometer (Fig. 4(a)), in accordance with ASTM B923 [33]. This instrument is used to accurately measure the
volume occupied by the solid phase of bio-based samples with a known weight. Three samples of each bio-based material are weighed
at room temperature using a scale with an accuracy of 0,001 g. Their absolute densities are then measured at the same temperature
using the pycnometer.

2.2.1.3. Total porosity. The total porosity (Φ) in (%) is obtained from the absolute density (ρabs) and the apparent density (ρ) by
applying the following equation:
( )
ρ
Φ = 1− × 100 (1)
ρabs

With ρ representing the apparent density (kg/m³) and ρabs representing the absolute density (kg/m³).

2.2.1.4. Compressive strength. In order to examine this parameter, three cubic samples with dimensions of 15x15x15 cm³ were pre­
pared for each formulation. Compressive strengths tests were carried out on three samples after a curing period of 28 days (Fig. 4(c)).
The tests were performed using an IGM press, operating at a constant speed of 0.3 mm/min following the NF EN 12390–3 standard
[34].

2.2.2. Hygrothermal properties

2.2.2.1. Thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity was studied using a NETZSCH heat flow meter (HFM 446 Lambda model). The
sample, with parallelepiped dimensions of 20 × 20 × 4 cm³ , (Fig. 4(b)) was placed between the cooling plate and the heating plate in

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accordance with ISO 8301 [35].

The machine used to assess thermal conductivity is shown in (Fig. 4(d)) attached. Heat transfers from the heating plate through the
sample to the cooling plate, where it is dissipated. The cooling and heating plate temperatures were controlled by a Peltier cryostat to
create a temperature gradient ranging from 10 ◦ C to 30 ◦ C, from the heating plate towards the cooling plate.

2.2.2.2. Specific heat capacity. The specific heat capacity (Cp) is a critical parameter indicating the material’s ability to store heat. The
test involved monitoring temperature changes and the heat flow entering or leaving the studied material compared to a reference. In
this study, the specific heat capacity of the samples was tested within a temperature range of 15 ◦ C to 25 ◦ C according to NF EN ISO
11357–4 [36], with a heating rate of 1 ◦ C/min (Fig. 4(d)).
The difference in power is related to the specific heat capacity (Cp) at constant pressure by the equation below:
Q = M × Cp × ΔT (4)

Where:
Q: Quantity of heat (kJ)
M: Mass (kg)
Cp: Specific heat capacity (kJ/kg ◦ C)
ΔT: Temperature change ( ◦ C)

2.2.2.3. Water vapor permeability. The water vapor permeability of the different formulations was measured according to the NF EN
ISO 12572 standard [37] using the dry cup method. The shape and slope of the isotherm curves, particularly in the hygroscopic range,
suggest that vapor diffusion is the dominant mechanism of moisture transfer under the tested conditions. This dry method requires
establishing a humidity gradient between the inside of the cup (≈ 0 % relative humidity) and the outside (≈ 50 % relative humidity)
through the sample (Fig. 4(e)).
The samples were sealed onto a test cup containing a desiccant (dry cup), specifically silica gel. The assembly was then placed in a
controlled environment chamber set to 23 ◦ C and 50 % relative humidity (RH). Due to the vapor pressure difference between the cup
and the chamber, water vapor diffused through the permeable test samples. Periodic weightings of the assembly were conducted to
determine the steady-state water vapor transmission rate. All samples were preconditioned at 23 ◦ C and 50 % RH for a sufficient period
to stabilize their weight until three consecutive daily readings differed by no more than 5 %.
In steady-state conditions, the water vapor flow rate (G) through the sample was determined by the slope of the mass of the cup-
sample assembly over time after eliminating the initial non-linear phase of the test. The vapor flux density (or transmission rate in kg/
m².s) g is calculated using the equation below, where A is the exposed surface area in (m²) of the sample and G is the water vapor flow
rate in (kg/s).
G
g= (5)
A
Water vapor resistance (Z) can be calculated from the water vapor permeance (W) using this equation, which also depends on the
vapor pressure difference ΔPv in (Pa) across the sample.
1 A × ΔPv
Z= =1 + (6)
W G
Next, the water vapor resistance of the air layer in the cup Za in (m².s.Pa/kg) is obtained using the following equation, where da is
the thickness of the air layer in (m), and δa is the water vapor permeability of air at atmospheric pressure, which equals 2 × 10− 10 kg.
m− 1.s− 1.Pa− 1.
da
Za = (7)
δa
The corrected water vapor permeance Wc in (kg/m².s.Pa) is then calculated using the following equation:
1
Wc = (8)
Z − Za
The water vapor permeability δ in (kg/m⋅s⋅Pa) of the sample is determined using the following equation, where e is the thickness of
the sample in (m).
δ = Wc × e (9)
Finally, the water vapor resistance factor μ (dimensionless) of the sample is obtained from the following equation:

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δa
μ= (10)
δ
Determining moisture sorption isotherms and water vapor permeability helps evaluate the impact of plant aggregates on the
hygroscopic behavior of the materials.

2.2.2.4. Sorption/desorption isotherm. Bio-based materials have real potential for improving thermal comfort and regulating humidity
within buildings. The reaction of cement/biomass and lime/biomass mixtures to ambient humidity is examined.
To do this, the dynamic vapor sorption/desorption (DVS) technique is used. In this study, the sorption/desorption isotherms of raw
materials (hemp shives, miscanthus shives) and mixtures are studied according to the NF EN ISO 12571 standard [38].
For this purpose, a ProUmid SPSx-1μ sorption/desorption analyzer was used (Fig. 4(f)). as illustrated in the equipment. This
equipment allows for precise measurement of the sample mass and sorption kinetics with an integrated precision balance and strict
control of temperature and humidity. The sorption/desorption isotherm curves are determined based on the moisture content of the
samples for various successive (ascending and descending) levels of ambient relative humidity.
For the adsorption analysis, specimens were dried in an oven until they reached a constant weight (weight variation of less than
0.1 %). This drying process typically took [insert time range, 21–28 days. Additionally, to achieve conditions of ≈ 0 % relative hu­
midity, the specimens were placed in a sealed container with silica gel, which effectively absorbed moisture and maintained a low-
humidity environment.
In the ProUmid SPSx-1μ analyzer, the samples were exposed to five distinct relative humidity (RH) levels: 10 %, 30 %, 50 %, 70 %,
and 90 % while maintaining the test temperature at 23 ◦ C At each level, the samples were kept until mass equilibrium was reached
before proceeding to the next. The NF EN ISO 12571 standard [38], which requires the use of at least four different atmospheres
between 30 % and 90 % relative humidity, has been adhered to. According to this standard, the sample is in equilibrium when the
variation in its mass is less than 0,1 % for three consecutive weighings performed at intervals of at least 24 h.

2.2.3. Freeze/thaw test

Understanding the durability of construction materials is crucial for ensuring the longevity of structures [39,40]. This involves
evaluating the mechanisms affecting the durability of the material and monitoring the evolution of its physical and mechanical
properties throughout its service life.
In the absence of a standard determining the freeze-thaw resistance of concretes based on plant aggregates, the protocol from the
EN 15304:2010 standard [41] has been adopted, initially designed for a highly porous material, autoclaved concrete. Three samples
measuring 15 × 15 × 15 cm³ were prepared for each formulation and subjected to 20 freeze-thaw cycles in a refrigeration chamber
(Fig. 3), with temperature variations between − 15 and 30 ◦ C. The freeze/thaw phase lasts 16 h.
Preliminary tests indicated that bio-based concrete undergoes material dissolution and significant mass loss when immersed in
water for 24 h. To evaluate its behavior under freeze-thaw conditions, the samples were subjected to freeze-thaw cycles. Each cycle
involved partial water saturation by immersing the samples in water at 20 ◦ C for 1 h, followed by freezing and thawing according to the
temperature variations shown in Fig. 3. Mass variation measurements were taken at 0 cycles (initial mass before the start of the freeze-
thaw test), as well as at 3, 6, 10, 13, 16, and 20 cycles. After completing the cycles, the samples were dried at approximately 45 ◦ C until

Fig. 3. Temperature variation for a freeze-thaw cycle.

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mass stabilization to accelerate the drying process before performing compression tests using the IGM machine at a speed of 3 mm/
min.
The procedure followed in this study is in accordance with that conducted by Ismail et al. [42]. The samples are stored at a
temperature of 20 ◦ C and a relative humidity of 50 % for a period of 60 days, until the mass of the samples stabilizes (the difference in
mass between two successive measurements over 24 h was less than 0.1 %) (Fig. 4(g)).

2.2.4. Mix design

In this study, two types of binders (natural prompt cement (NPC), Air lime (CL90-S) and two biomasses (hemp shives and mis­
canthus shives) are used. A total of four formulations have been developed and studied (Table 10). The mix ratios presented in Table 10
were optimized based on preliminary trials using hemp shives. In this study, these same ratios were retained when substituting hemp
with miscanthus to ensure that only the biomass type varied, thereby allowing for a direct comparison of their influence on the
composite properties without the interference of multiple changing parameters.
First, the binder and biomass are mixed manually for 30 s. Then, half of the water is added, and the mixture is stirred manually for
another 30 s. Finally, the remaining water is introduced, and the mixing process is repeated for an additional 30 s before filling the
molds (Fig. 5).
The fabrication of cubic and prismatic samples follows a consistent procedure. Initially, the mold is filled to one-third of its capacity
to form the first layer. A wooden stick is then used to compact this layer along with the next two layers, making 30 passes. To achieve a
smooth surface, horizontal compaction is performed during the last layer of the casting process.
In this study, manual mixing was intentionally chosen to ensure precise control over the preparation of each formulation and to
accommodate the specific challenges associated with bio-based composites. This decision stems from the low volumes of materials

Fig. 4. (a) Pycnometer for the absolute density measurements. (b) Mold geometry for thermal properties measurements. (c) Mechanical testing
apparatus during a compressive strength measurement. (d) HFM 446 heat flow meter apparatus used for the measurement of thermal conductivity
and specific heat capacity (Cp), showing the specimen placed between the heating and cooling plates. [43]. (e) Water vapor permeability design and
measurements by the dry cup testing method [37]. (f) DVS testing apparatus with samples for dynamic sorption/desorption during a measurement.
(g) Freeze-thaw testing apparatus containing samples.

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Fig. 5. Steps for mixtures preparation: (A) Introduction of biomass and binder; (B) Dry mixing; (C) Addition of water and mixing; (D) Molding.

involved in the experiments and the sensitivity of biomass-based mixtures to handling. Manual mixing allows for better observation of
the blending process, ensuring that all components—binders and biomass—are evenly distributed before casting. This method also
enables immediate adjustments, such as ensuring optimal water distribution, which is critical for achieving homogeneity in such
formulations (Fig. 5).
Manual mixing was chosen due to the small-scale nature of the experimental campaign and the particular challenges associated
with handling bio-based materials. To ensure reproducibility and control, a standardized protocol was applied: the binder and biomass
were dry-mixed for 30 s, followed by the gradual addition of water in two steps, with 30 s of mixing after each addition. This timing
was rigorously followed using a stopwatch, and the same operator conducted all mixing procedures to reduce operator variability.
While the blending process was visually monitored, consistency in bulk density measurements across specimens served as a quanti­
tative check to verify homogeneity. Manual mixing also allowed close observation of material behavior and immediate correction of
dry zones or clumps, enhancing uniformity. Given the low volume of each batch and the sensitivity of bio-based aggregates, this
approach offered an effective balance between control and material-specific adaptability.
To validate the homogeneity of the mixtures, the density of the prepared 15 × 15 x 15 cm³ cube samples was measured system­
atically and compared against commercial reference formulations (C100H). This reference formulation, developed and validated by
Vicat for use as a bio-based insulation material, served as a benchmark in this study. The same component ratios were adopted,
replacing cement with air lime (CL90-S) and hemp shives with miscanthus shives to assess the performance of the alternative com­
posite. Manual mixing was carefully employed, resulting in bulk density values within a 5 % deviation from the commercial reference,
indicating good consistency. Furthermore, to improve reproducibility and minimize variability, a separate mix was prepared for each
individual test specimen, allowing precise control over compaction and bulk density.
After casting, all samples were cured at ambient conditions, specifically at a temperature of 20 ± 1 ◦ C and a relative humidity of
approximately 50 %. The curing duration varied between 21 and 28 days depending on the sample constituents, such as the type of
binder (cement or air lime) and the type of biomass used (hemp or miscanthus). No specific curing chamber was used; the samples were
stored in a controlled laboratory environment.
Additionally, the chosen mixing protocol (30-s stages for binder-biomass blending and water addition) was designed to optimize
the interaction between the hydrophobic biomass particles and the hydrophilic binders. Given the delicate balance required for bio-
based composites, mechanical mixing could introduce excessive shear forces, potentially damaging the structural integrity of the
biomass. Manual mixing avoids such risks while maintaining a high level of control, making it a suitable choice for small-scale
experimental setups focused on bio-based materials.

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(1) In order to measure the physical, mechanical, thermal, and hygroscopic properties, Samples were prepared according to the
dimensions specified in the corresponding standard for each test method::Samples ranging from 50 to 200 cm³ were prepared in
accordance with NF EN ISO 5017 [44] for testing water-accessible porosity.
(2) Cubic samples measuring 15 x 15 x 15 cm³ were used to assess the compressive strength of bio-based concrete made with
mineral binders (NPC and CL90-S).
(3) Prismatic panels measuring 20 × 20 x 4 cm³ were employed for thermal tests, following ISO 8301 [35] for thermal conductivity
measurement and NF EN ISO 11357–4 [36] for specific heat capacity measurement.
(4) Samples measuring 3 × 3×3 cm³ were prepared in compliance with NF EN ISO 171 [19] for dynamic vapor sorption.
(5) A cylindrical sample with a diameter of 11 cm and a thickness of 4 cm was prepared according to NF EN ISO 12572 [20] for
water vapor permeability test.

3. Literature review and comparison of the studied materials

3.1. Physical properties of raw materials

3.1.1. Bulk density

The results indicate that the bulk densities of hemp shives (129,51 ± 3,6 kg/m³) and miscanthus shives (124,42 ± 2,6 kg/m³) are
quite similar. These values align with those reported in the literature (Table 3), confirming the comparable packing behavior and
structural arrangement of both materials. The slight difference in bulk density may be attributed to variations in particle shape, size
distribution, and compaction characteristics.

3.1.2. Absolute density

The absolute densities measured for hemp (1653 ± 38 kg/m³) and miscanthus (1281 ± 29 kg/m³) reflect the specific character­
istics of the raw materials used in this study (Table 4). These values were obtained using helium pycnometry (ASTM B923), ensuring
accurate assessment of the solid phase density. As with many bio-based materials, density values can vary significantly depending on
plant origin, harvesting and processing conditions. Therefore, these measurements are considered representative of the specific batch
and supply chain used in this work.

3.1.3. Total porosity

The total porosity is slightly higher for hemp shives (92,16 ± 1,68 %) compared to miscanthus shives (90,28 ± 0,54 %). These
values agree with those reported in the literature (Table 5), highlighting the similar packing behavior and structural organization of
both materials. Despite this small variation, both values remain consistent with literature data. The high porosity observed in both
materials suggests their potential for applications requiring good thermal and acoustic insulation properties. The slightly greater
porosity of hemp may result in higher water absorption and permeability, which could influence its behavior in humid environments.

Table 3
Bulk density of studied biomass.
​ Hemp shives Miscanthus shives
Bulk density (kg/m3) 129,51 ± 3,6 124,42 ± 2,6
Literature ~100–155 [45] ~100–180 [12]

Table 4
Absolute density of studied biomass.
Hemp shives Miscanthus shives

Absolute density (kg/m3) 1653 ± 38 1281 ± 29

Literature ~1450 [32,45] ~1550 [12,15]

Table 5
Total porosity of studied biomass.
Hemp shives Miscanthus shives

Total porosity (%) 92,16 ± 1,68 90,28 ± 0,54

Literature ~90 [35] ~88–90 [12]

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3.2. Thermal properties of raw materials

3.2.1. Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity (λ) and specific heat capacity (Cp) of the bio-based raw materials are determined using the HFM 446 device
[32]. The protocol followed in this study is based on the RILEM 236-BBM recommendations. This protocol involves filling the sample
with uncompacted bio-based material to achieve a bulk density equivalent to that measured by RILEM 236-BBM and covering it with a
plastic film (Fig. 4(b)).
The results indicate that the thermal conductivity of hemp shives (0,0529 ± 0,0023 W/(m.K)) and miscanthus shives (0,0522
± 0,0017 W/(m.K)) are very similar. These values are consistent with those reported in the literature (Table 6), demonstrating the
similar thermal conductivity of both materials. The small difference observed suggests that both hemp and Miscanthus shives can be
effectively used as bio-based insulating materials with similar thermal performance.

3.2.2. Specific heat capacity (Cp)

Hemp shives exhibit a higher specific heat capacity (2925,67 ± 111,15 J/kg.K) compared to miscanthus shives (2582 ± 136,36 J/
kg.K). These values are consistent with those reported in the literature (Table 7), demonstrating the similar specific heat capacity of
both materials. This indicates that hemp shives can store more thermal energy per unit mass, potentially leading to better thermal
inertia in building applications. Despite this difference, both values remain consistent with literature data, reinforcing their suitability
for thermal regulation in bio-based construction materials.

3.2.3. Thermogravimetric analysis

Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) were performed to examine the decomposition of binder hydration products under the effect of
temperature. The device used in this study, NETZSCH STA 449 F5, is equipped with a microbalance located inside a controlled-at­
mosphere furnace. Measurements were carried out on biomass samples stored at 20 ◦ C, as well as on all mixtures, with a sample
quantity of 10 mg. The temperature ranges from 25 to 1000 ◦ C, increasing at a rate of 5 ◦ C per minute. Helium gas is used in the
machine’s pycnometer [48]. The obtained thermograms illustrate mass loss as a function of temperature, revealing several stages
corresponding to the release of free water or the loss of functional groups.
The results for the different bio-based materials used in this study are presented in Table 8 and Fig. 6. During the retting process, the
composition of the biomass evolves, and its constituents may degrade at specific temperatures [48]:

✓ Between 100 ◦ C and 250 ◦ C: loss of water and volatile compounds.

✓ Between 250 ◦ C and 300 ◦ C: degradation of hemicelluloses.
✓ Between 350 ◦ C and 500 ◦ C: degradation of cellulose.

Table 8 presents the bio composition of each studied biomass.

3.3. Hygroscopic properties of raw materials

3.3.1. Water absorption

To assess the water absorption capacity of the aggregates, measurements are taken on four samples, each containing 25 g of
aggregate prior to testing, according to the RILEM TC 236-BBM recommendation [32]. The plant aggregates undergo a drying process

Table 6
Thermal conductivity of studied biomass.
Hemp shives Miscanthus shives

Thermal conductivity W/(m.K) 0,0529 ± 0,0023 0,0522 ± 00017

Literature 0,05–0,07 [25] 0,05–0,08 [46]

Table 7
Specific heat mass of studied biomass.
Hemp shives Miscanthus shives

Specific heat capacity (J/kg. K) 2925,67 ± 111,15 2582 ± 136,361

Literature ~2900–3000 [47] ~2500 [46]

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Fig. 6. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) studied biomass.

Table 8
Chemical compositions (%) of studied biomass.
Biomass Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Others
Hemp shives 72–74 14–16 13–15 2,5–3,5
Literature [49,50] 70,2–74,4 17,9–22,4 3,5–5,7 6,1
Miscanthus shives 75–78 17–19 10–12 0,8–1
Literature [51,52] 50,34 24,83 12,02 13,49

in an oven set at 60 ◦ C until the mass variation is less than 0,1 % over three consecutive weightings at 24-h intervals. The water content
is determined after 1, 15, 60, and 240 min (4 h), as well as at 2880 min (48 h) of immersion. This meticulous procedure ensures an
accurate evaluation of the water absorption characteristics of the material.
The mass of the sample at time "t" allows for the calculation of the water content, denoted as w(t) , expressed as the ratio of the mass
gain of the sample at time "t" to its initial dry mass.
m(t) − m(0)
w(t) = × 100 (2)
m(t)

With

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Table 9
Water absorption at 48 h (%) of studied biomass.
Hemp shives Miscanthus shives

Water Absorption at 48 h (%) 363,54 ± 4,86 272,14 ± 8,67

References 300–350 [54] 200–300 [15,16]

Table 10
Formulations studied and their components (kg/m³).
Mixtures NPC CL90-S Hemp shives Miscanthus shives Water

C100H 250 - 116 - 271

L100H - 250 116 - 271
C100M 250 - - 116 271
L100M - 250 - 116 271

C#L#H/F/M → C = Cement, L = Lime, # = Binder Content C or L, H = Hemp shives, M = Miscanthus shives

w(t): Water content at time t (%)

m(t): Mass of the sample at time (g)
m(0): Initial mass of the aggregates before immersion in water (g)
In this study, it is observed that hemp shives exhibit a higher water absorption capacity compared to miscanthus shives (Table 9).
These results corroborate the enhanced water absorption and retention capabilities of hemp shives, which can be attributed to their
extensive porosity and capillary structure. The high porosity facilitates effective water absorption, while the capillary structure
contributes to the material’s ability to retain water over time [53].

3.3.2. Sorption/desorption isotherms

The dynamic vapor sorption/desorption (DVS) technique is employed to study the biomass sorption/desorption isotherms. A
ProUmid SPSx-1μ sorption/desorption analyzer was used in accordance with the recommendations of the NF EN ISO 171 standard
[19]. The results of the study for all raw materials are presented in Fig. 7. The graph shows the relationship between relative humidity
(RH in %) and dry matter content (dm in %) for hemp and miscanthus shives. Both materials exhibit a non-linear increase in dry matter
content as humidity rises, with the steepest growth occurring between 60 % and 100 % RH. While their trends are similar, hemp shives
appear slightly more absorbent in some humidity ranges. This suggests that both materials have comparable moisture retention
properties, making them relevant for applications in construction and agriculture where humidity sensitivity is crucial.

Fig. 7. Sorption/desorption isotherm of the studied biomass.

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Fig. 8. Accessible water porosity and density of the mixtures studied.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Physical and mechanical properties

Fig. 8 presents the accessible water porosity measurements for the examined mixtures. C100H exhibits the highest open porosity at
~70 %, while the L100H mixture shows a reduction to 67 %. Similarly, C100M mixture has a slightly higher porosity (~69 %)
compared to L100M (~67 %). The observed variations in open porosity between cement-based and lime-based formulations, as well as
between different bio-based materials, can be attributed to several factors. Differences in biomass particle size distribution and the
specific surface area of the binders cement (7000 cm²/g) and lime (13,260 cm²/g) [26,27] affect binder-biomass interactions. Addi­
tionally, drying duration plays a crucial role in regulating the final open porosity of each mixture.
The compressive strength results (Table 11) indicate that the C100H exhibits the highest compressive strength among all mixtures,
reaching 0,81 MPa, compared to 0,20 MPa for C100M. Similarly, L100H demonstrates a higher compressive strength (0,40 MPa) than
L100M (0,21 MPa).
These variations in compressive strength can be attributed to the distinct mechanical properties of the materials used. Natural
prompt cement, with a compressive strength of 20 MPa at 28 days, sets faster and provides higher early strength compared to CL90-S
air lime, which has a lower initial compressive strength of 2,5 MPa at 9 months due to its slower setting and hardening process [31,43].
Additionally, the difference in compressive strength between hemp-based and miscanthus-based mixtures is influenced by the inherent
mechanical properties of the biomasses. Hemp fibers have higher stiffness and tensile strength, contributing to better mechanical
performance in hemp-based mixtures, whereas miscanthus fibers, which are more flexible, may lead to slightly lower mechanical
strength but offer better moisture regulation and durability.
The higher cellulose and hemicellulose content in miscanthus shives, compared to hemp shives, slows hydration reactions, thereby
reducing the compressive strength of the composite. This effect is evident in the comparison between C100H (hemp-based) and C100M
(miscanthus-based) mixtures, where C100M exhibits lower strength [44,45,55]. Moreover, miscanthus has inherently lower me­
chanical properties, with a Young’s modulus typically below 2 GPa and tensile strength under 20 MPa, whereas hemp shives have a

Table 11
Compressive strength of the mixtures studied.
Mixtures C100H L100H C100M L100M

Compressive strength [MPa] 0,81 ± 0,04 0,40 ± 0,02 0,20 ± 0,05 0,22 ± 0,61

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Young’s modulus ranging from 2 to 5 GPa and a tensile strength between 30 and 50 MPa [14,44]. These disparities explain the
observed differences in compressive strength among the bio-based composites.

4.2. Hygrothermal properties

4.2.1. Thermal properties

4.2.1.1. Thermal conductivity. Fig. 9 presents the thermal conductivity results for the examined mixtures. The thermal conductivity
increases progressively from 0,12 W/(m.K) for C100H to 0167 W/(m.K) for C100M mixture. A more pronounced increase is observed
for the lime-based mixtures, with L100M reaching 0185 W/(m.K) and L100H further rising to 0,20 W/(m.K). The low thermal con­
ductivity of C100H can be attributed to several factors, including the inherently low thermal conductivity of hemp shives (0,0529 W/
(m.K)), their relatively low density, and high porosity (~70 %). In contrast, the higher thermal conductivity of L100H is primarily due
to its lower porosity compared to the other mixtures [56,57]. Regarding the miscanthus-based mixtures, their thermal conductivity
values are generally higher than those of hemp-based mixtures. This difference can be explained by the higher porosity of hemp-based
formulations (~70 % for C100H and 67 % for L100H) compared to miscanthus-based ones (~69 % for C100M and ~67 % for L100M),
which enhances their insulating properties.

4.2.1.2. Specific heat capacity. Fig. 10 illustrates the variation in specific heat capacity across the different mixtures. The values follow
gradual progression, starting at 1313 J/(kg.K) for C100H and increasing to 1375 J/(kg.K) for L100H. However, a notable decrease is
observed for C100M, where the specific heat capacity drops to 1196 J/(kg.K), before rising again to 1343 J/(kg.K) for L100M. The
specific heat capacity of each mixture is influenced by several factors, including density, porosity, and the thermal properties of the
individual components [20,58]. The high specific heat capacity of L100H can be attributed to the elevated specific heat capacity of
lime (1103 J/(kg.K)), which is further influenced by its significant density.

4.2.2. Hygrothermal Behavior

4.2.2.1. Water vapor permeability. The results of the permeability tests for the formulations studied with natural prompt cement and
lime (C100H, C100M, L100H, and L100M) are presented in Table 12. Water vapor permeability and resistance are inversely

Fig. 9. Thermal conductivity and Accessible water porosity of the mixtures studied.

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Fig. 10. Specific heat capacity and porosity of the mixtures studied.

Table 12
Water vapor permeability of the mixtures studied.
14
Mixtures Water vapor permeability x 10− [kg/m.s.Pa] Water vapor resistance x 103
[-]

C100H 5 ± 0,1 4,25 ± 0,08

L100H 9,49 ± 0,28 2,35 ± 0065
C100M 4,45 ± 0137 4,46 ± 0127
L100M 6,38 ± 0185 3,06 ± 0081

proportional: as permeability increases, resistance decreases, and vice versa.

The results indicate notable differences among the mixtures. C100H exhibits a water vapor permeability of 5 × 10⁻¹ ⁴ kg/m.s.Pa,
while C100M has the lowest permeability at 4,45 × 10⁻¹ ⁴ kg/m.s.Pa, with a corresponding resistance of 4,46 × 103. In contrast, the
lime-based mixtures show higher permeability. L100H reaches 9,49 × 10⁻¹ ⁴ kg/m.s.Pa, exceeding that of C100H, whereas L100M
records 6,38 × 10⁻¹ ⁴ kg/m.s.Pa, which, although lower than L100H, remains higher than the cement-based C100M formulation, with
a resistance of 3,06 × 103.
These variations can be attributed to several factors. First, the higher permeability of C100H compared to C100M results from the
greater water absorption capacity of hemp shives relative to miscanthus. Similarly, L100H exhibits greater permeability than L100M
for the same reason. Additionally, the porosity of the mixtures plays a crucial role. Formulations with higher porosity, such as C100H
(~70 %) and L100H (67 %), facilitate greater vapor diffusion, whereas lower-porosity formulations like C100M (~69 %) and L100M
(~67 %) exhibit reduced permeability. Furthermore, lime-based formulations demonstrate higher water vapor permeability than
those with natural prompt cement, as lime has a greater water absorption capacity. This property explains the increased permeability
observed in the lime-based mixtures.

4.2.2.2. Sorption/desorption isotherms. Fig. 11 illustrates the sorption/desorption isotherms of the mixtures at a constant temperature
of 23 ◦ C. These isotherms represent the variation in the moisture content of each material as a function of the relative humidity of the
surrounding air. Significant variations in the amount of water vapor absorbed are observed between the different mixtures depending
on the type of biomass used. For instance, at a sorption state of 90 % RH, the C100H absorbs 11,5 % water vapor, while C100M absorbs
9 %. On the other hand, the L100H absorbs 12,2 % water vapor, while L100M only absorbs 9,25 %. Biomasses are known for their
strong ability to absorb water [17]. Their integration into cement-based mixtures enhances the hydrophilic nature of these mixtures,
leading to an increase in their capacity to retain atmospheric moisture.
It is also notable that mixtures made with lime exhibit a higher sorption rate than those made with cement, due to the increased

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H. Affan et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 22 (2025) e04915

Fig. 11. Sorption /Desorption of the mixtures studied.

water absorption by the lime [27]. After a sorption/desorption cycle, it is observed that cement/biomass mixtures do not fully return to
their initial moisture state, failing to release the entire amount of moisture initially absorbed. This phenomenon could promote mold
growth, which is a drawback for these materials [59]. Moreover, the desorption segment does not follow exactly the same path as the
sorption segment, indicating a hysteresis effect. However, this hysteresis effect is significantly reduced in the C100H mixture, likely
due to the porosity of the mixtures.

4.3. Effect of freeze/Thaw on compressive strength

To evaluate the effect of freeze-thaw cycles on the mechanical performance of bio-based insulation materials, compressive strength
tests were conducted on samples measuring 15 × 15 x 15 cm³ after undergoing freeze-thaw cycles. The samples were dried at 45 ◦ C for
two weeks to accelerate the drying process, as bio-based materials typically take a long time to dry at room temperature. Thus, they
were placed in an oven for two weeks in accordance with the study by Ismail et al. [42]. The aim of this approach was to assess the

Fig. 12. Influence of freeze/thaw cycles on the compressive strength of the mixtures studied.

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ability of the insulation materials to maintain their structural integrity under the effects of temperature and humidity variations
induced by freeze-thaw cycles [11]. By subjecting the samples to these controlled conditions, we sought to determine the extent to
which the mechanical resistance of the insulation was affected and how this could impact their potential use in real-world applications
[60].
The bio-based insulators experienced a decrease in their compressive strength after 20 freeze-thaw cycles, although the rates of
reduction varied (Fig. 12). The C100M showed the lowest decrease, with a loss of strength of 21 %, while C100H exhibited the highest
reduction, with a 46 % loss. In contrast, the lime-based mixtures demonstrated a smaller decrease compared to the natural cement
mixture, with reductions of 15 % and 30 % for the L100M and L100H mixtures, respectively.
The observed variation in compressive strength loss among these mixtures can be attributed to differences in the hydration process
and material properties. Miscanthus shives (C100M) exhibited a lower mass loss compared to hemp shives (C100H), indicating a
slower and more prolonged hydration reaction. This behavior aligns with the higher cellulose and hemicellulose content in mis­
canthus, which delays the completion of the hydration process and contributes to the sustained development of compressive strength
over time [44,45,55,61]. In contrast, the hydration reaction in C100H is nearly complete, leading to a more pronounced reduction in
its compressive strength due to the natural degradation mechanisms associated with fully hydrated systems.
Furthermore, the greater decrease in compressive strength observed in the L100H samples can be explained by their higher water
absorption and porosity levels. Elevated water absorption increases the material’s susceptibility to degradation processes, such as
freeze-thaw cycles and long-term moisture interactions, which weaken the microstructure and reduce mechanical performance.
Similarly, higher porosity exacerbates this effect by creating pathways for water ingress, further compromising the durability of the
material. These factors collectively contribute to the relatively lower loss of compressive strength in L100H samples compared to the
other mixtures.

5. Conclusion

This study explores the development of bio-based insulating materials using low-carbon binders —Natural Prompt Cement and
CL90-S lime—combined with two types of plant-based aggregates: hemp shives and miscanthus shives. The goal was to evaluate their
physical, mechanical, thermal, hygric, and durability properties.
The results of this study demonstrate that hemp-lime composites exhibit superior thermal performance, while lime-miscanthus
formulations show increased durability and resistance to freeze-thaw cycles. These findings emphasize the potential of combining low-
carbon binders with plant-based aggregates for sustainable building materials that meet both thermal and durability requirements.
This comparison highlights that hemp-based materials are more suitable in contexts where thermal insulation is prioritized, while
miscanthus-based formulations offer better performance in moisture regulation and freeze–thaw resistance—key considerations in
humid or cold climates.
A comparative analysis with existing literature confirms that combining prompt cement and lime with bio-based aggregates
supports sustainable construction principles. However, this study provides specific advancements, particularly in the detailed
assessment of hygrothermal and mechanical performance. Notably, miscanthus-based formulations exhibited higher water vapor
permeability and sorption capacity than their hemp-based counterparts, consistent with previous research on biomass behavior in
similar binders.

Key findings

• Thermal Performance: The hemp-based C100H mixture showed the best insulation, with low thermal conductivity (0,12 W/(m.K))
and a high specific heat capacity (1313 J/kg.K).
• Moisture Management: The miscanthus-based L100M formulation had the highest water vapor permeability (6,38 × 10⁻¹⁴ kg/m³)
and sorption capacity (8,93 kg/m³), making it more effective at regulating moisture.
• Durability & strength: Freeze-thaw tests revealed that hemp-based C100H lost more strength over time (dropping from 0,81 MPa to
0,45 MPa), whereas the lime-miscanthus L100M mixture was more durable, with a smaller decrease (0,22 MPa to 0,18 MPa).

Hemp-based materials offer excellent thermal insulation, while lime-miscanthus formulations provide better moisture control and
long-term mechanical stability. This balance is critical when selecting materials for eco-friendly building projects.

Final remarks & future work

This research underscores the potential of bio-based materials to make construction more sustainable without compromising
performance. However, striking the right balance between thermal efficiency, mechanical strength, and durability remains a chal­
lenge. Future research should focus on developing hybrid formulations that offer both strong insulation and durability. It should also
look into how bio-based materials perform over time in real-world conditions, especially when exposed to humidity changes and
biological aging.
Future work should also explore hybrid formulations that combine both hemp and miscanthus shives in varying proportions. Given
that hemp-based mixtures demonstrated superior thermal insulation, while miscanthus-based ones performed better in moisture
management and freeze-thaw durability, a mixed aggregate approach could yield an optimized balance across key performance
metrics. Evaluating such combinations experimentally would provide further insight into their potential for use in diverse climate

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zones and sustainable construction applications.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

AFFAN houssam: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Methodology, Data curation, Conceptualization.
Soukaina Ajouguim: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Supervision, Data curation. Badreddine El Haddaji: Writing – review
& editing, Validation, Supervision, Data curation, Conceptualization. Fouzia Khadraoui: Writing – review & editing, Visualization,
Validation, Supervision, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Institutional review board statement

Not applicable.

Informed consent statement

Not applicable.

Funding

The author gratefully acknowledges the support of Builders École d’Ingénieur, where the research was conducted. This work was
financially supported by Groupe Vivialys, which also covered the publication fees. The author thanks all colleagues and collaborators
who contributed to this work.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing in­
terests: The research work was carried out at Builders École d’Ingénieur. The publication fees will be covered by Groupe Vivialys, the
company in which the author is currently employed. The authors declare that this support does not influence the scientific content of
the manuscript. The authors have no other competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to in­
fluence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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