FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, DUTSIN-MA

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTEMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MTH 101

COURSE GUIDE

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS I

(ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY)

(2 UNITS)

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COURSE DESCRIPTION

The course "MTH 101: Elementary Mathematics I (Algebra and Trigonometry)" is designed
to provide students with a solid foundation in algebra and trigonometry. It covers a wide
range of fundamental mathematical topics, including:

1. Elementary Set Theory: Introduction to basic set theory, including concepts like
subsets, union, intersection, and complements. Visualization of sets using Venn
diagrams.
2. Number Systems and Mathematical Induction: Exploration of real numbers,
including, naturals, integers, rational numbers, and irrational numbers.
Understanding the properties and relationships among these number types. Learning
the principles of mathematical induction, how to proof a mathematical statements or
proposition by induction.
3. Real Sequences and Series: Study of sequences and series of real numbers,
including Arithmetic Progression and Geometric Progression.
4. Theory of Quadratic Equations: Understanding the properties and solutions of
quadratic equations, including the quadratic formula.
5. Binomial Theorem: Introduction to the binomial theorem, which provides a formula
for expanding powers of binomials.
6. Complex Numbers: Exploring complex numbers, their properties, and algebraic
operations involving them. Visualization using the Argand diagram. Learning about
De Moivre's theorem, which relates complex numbers to trigonometric functions,
and is useful for dealing with powers and roots of complex numbers. Understanding
the concept of nth roots of unity in the context of complex numbers.
7. Circular Measure: Exploring circular measure, including trigonometric functions of
angles measured in radians.
8. Trigonometric Functions: Introduction to trigonometric functions, covering their
properties, addition and factor formulae, and their applications in solving problems
related to angles and triangles.
This course aims to equip students with essential mathematical skills that can be applied in
various fields and serve as a strong foundation for more advanced mathematics courses.

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 CHAPTER ONE
1 ELEMENTARY SET THEORY

1.1 Sets

A set is collection of well-defined and distinct objects. It is well defined in the sense that there
should exist no ambiguity as to what is a member and what is not a member of the set. It is distinct
in the sense that repetition of a member of the set is not permitted. Moreover, the rearrangement
of the members of a set does not matter. For instance, the set {1,2,3} is the same as the set {3,1,2}.
Capital letters are commonly used to denote sets while small letters are used to denote the objects
in sets. The objects in a set are called the elements of the set.

1.2 Membership and Representation of a set

The membership of an element 𝑎 in a set 𝐴 is denoted by 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. One says that 𝑎 belongs to set 𝐴
or 𝑎 is an element of 𝐴. Several such elements can be said to belong to a set such as 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 means
𝑎 and 𝑏 are elements belonging to a set 𝑆. On the other hand, the notation 𝑎 ∉ 𝐴 means that 𝑎 is
not an element of 𝐴.

There are two basic ways of representing the elements of a set. One way is to list all the elements
of the set and it is called tabular form. For instance, the set 𝑃 = {3,5,7,11,13,17,19} is the set of
all the prime numbers between 1 and 20. This method is possible only when the members of the
set are finite. In an infinite set, it is not possible to use this method. A way out to this is to use three
dots to indicate that the membership of such elements continues forever. For instance, we can list
the set of all nonnegative even numbers as 𝐸 = {0, 2, 4, … }.
Moreover, it is practically laborious to write down all the elements of some finite sets with very
large number of elements. In such cases, three dots are employed followed by the last element of
the set. For instance, the set of all odd numbers between zero and one million is 𝑂 =
{1,3,5, … 999999}. Another example is 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … , 𝑧} the set of all the letters of the English
alphabet.

Another way of representing the membership of a set (finite or infinite) is by using set builder
notation. This entails that all the elements satisfying certain properties together form the entire
members of a set. For example, the set 𝑋 = {𝑥: 𝑥 is even and 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 20} is a set-in set builder
notation. This set is the same as the set {0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20} when the elements are listed.

1.3 Subset

A set 𝐵 is a subset of a set 𝐴 if all the elements of 𝐵 are also elements of 𝐴. We denote this by
𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 or 𝐴 ⊇ 𝐵. This is also read as 𝐵 is contained in 𝐴. The containment is called proper, denoted
𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴 or 𝐵 ⊃ 𝐴 if there is not possibility that 𝐴 equals 𝐵.

Example 1
The set of prime numbers between 3 and 10 is a proper subset of the set of odd numbers between
3 and 10. That is, {3,5,7} ⊂ {3,5,7,9}.

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In general, to show that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 holds for some sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, one needs to pick an arbitrary element
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and show that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 also holds.

1.4 Equality of Sets

Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal if and only if every element of 𝐴 is also in 𝐵 and every
element of 𝐵 is also in 𝐴. In other words 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal if and only if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.

Thus to show that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal, pick an arbitrary element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and show that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 also
holds. Similarly, choose an element 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 and show that 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 also holds.

Example 2
State whether or not the following sets are equal or not:
(i) 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and 𝐵 = {𝑒, 𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑐}
(ii) 𝐹 = {1,2,5} and 𝐻 = {5,1,2}
(iii) 𝐺 = {3,5,6,7} and 𝐸 = {3,5,6}

Solution
(i) 𝐴≠𝐵
(ii) 𝐹=𝐻
(iii) 𝐺≠𝐸

Theorem 1:
𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be sets, then
(i) If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 then 𝐴 = 𝐵.
(ii) If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶 then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶.

1.5 Universal, Unit and Empty Set

A universal set denoted by 𝒰is the set of all sets under consideration in a particular application of
sets.

A set with only one element is called a unit set.

Example 4
(i) {a} (ii) {{1}} (iii) {{ }} (iv) {{a,b,c}}

Notice that in the case of (ii), (iii) and (iv) above, the elements of each set is also a set.

An empty set or a null set denoted by {} or ∅ is a set with no elements in it.

Example 3
(i) The set {𝑥: 𝑥 is the set of even prime numbers greater then 2} is an empty set since all
prime numbers greater than 2 are odd.
(i) The set of all dogs that have wings is also an empty since dogs are not known to have
wings worldwide.

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For any set 𝐴 under consideration and the associated universal set 𝒰 it follows that
∅⊆𝐴⊆𝒰

Remark: Since ∅ has no element in it, it would be wrong to say that an element in ∅ belongs to 𝐴
in trying to show ∅ ⊆ 𝐴. Instead, use the contra positive of the statement. That is, say that no
element of 𝐴 belongs to ∅.

1.6 Union, Intersection and Complement of Sets

The union of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 denoted as 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the set of all the elements that are in 𝐴 or 𝐵.
Symbolically,
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

Example 5
If 𝐴 = {2,3,4} and 𝐵 = {3,4,6,7} then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {2,3,4,6,7}

Note that the “or” is an inclusive one, which also indicates where 𝑥 belongs to both 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Note the following:

i. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐵
ii. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵

The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of all those elements that are in both 𝐴 and 𝐵.
Symbolically,
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
Example 6
If 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝐵 = {3,4,5,6,7} then 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {3,4}

The complement of a set 𝐴, denoted 𝐴𝑐 is the set of those elements that do not belong to 𝐴. In
other words,
𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 where 𝒰 is the universal set}

Example 7
If 𝒰 = {𝑥: 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 100 and 𝑥 is an integer} and 𝐴 =
{𝑥: 𝑥 is an even number between 0 and 100 inclusive}then 𝐴𝑐 =
{𝑥: 𝑥 is an odd integer between 0 and 100}

1.7 Difference, Symmetric Difference and Disjoint Sets

The difference of a set 𝐵 relative to a set 𝐴 written 𝐴\𝐵 is the set of all the elements that are in 𝐴
but are not in 𝐵. In other words,
𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}

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Example 8
If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑓, 𝑔} and 𝐵 = {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓} then 𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑔}. This is the difference of the set
𝐴 relative to the set 𝐵. Similarly, the difference of the set 𝐵 relative to the set 𝐴 is 𝐵\𝐴 = {}, an
empty set.

The symmetric difference of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 denoted 𝐴 △ 𝐵 is the set of all the elements that are
in 𝐴 but not in 𝐵 and that are in 𝐵 but not in 𝐴. In other words, 𝐴 △ 𝐵 = 𝐴\𝐵 ∪ 𝐵\𝐴. Thus, 𝐴 △
𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝒰: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

Example 9
Let𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑓, 𝑔} and 𝐵 = {𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, ℎ}
Now, 𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑔} and 𝐵\𝐴 = {ℎ}
Thus, 𝐴 △ 𝐵 = 𝐴\𝐵 ∪ 𝐵\𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑔, ℎ}

Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be disjoint if they have no element in common. In other words, 𝐴
and 𝐵 are disjoint if and only if
𝐴∩𝐵 =∅
Note that for any sets 𝑋 and 𝑌, the difference sets 𝑋\𝑌 and 𝑌\𝑋 are always disjoint.

1.8 Cardinality of a set

The cardinality of a set 𝑆 is the number of elements in 𝑆. It is denoted by 𝑛(𝑆) or 𝒞(𝑆).

Example 10
If 𝐴 stands for the set of all the letters of the English alphabet, then 𝑛(𝐴) = 26. Thus, the
cardinality of the empty set ∅ is 0.

1.9 Venn Diagrams

Sets can be represented diagrammatically within closed figures called Venn diagrams. This method
of representing sets was developed by an English Mathematician John Venn. A Venn diagram is
therefore a pictorial representation of sets. The operations of intersection, union, complementation,
etc, of sets can be demonstrated by using Venn diagrams.

The following are Venn diagrams of some of the concepts already defined:

1. Subset and Superset: The set 𝐴 is a subset of the set 𝐵 while 𝐵 is a superset of 𝐴.
𝐴⊂𝐵
𝐵
𝐴

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2. Union: The union of sets A and B is the shaded region
𝐴∪𝐵

𝐴 𝐵 𝒰

3. Intersection: The intersection of sets A and B is the shaded region

𝐴∩𝐵

𝐴 𝐵 𝒰

4. Complementation: The complement of the set A is the shaded region

𝐴𝑐

𝐴 𝒰

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5. The complement of the union of sets A and B is the shaded region
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐

𝐴 𝐵 𝒰

6. The intersection of A and B complement

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑐

𝐴 𝐵 𝒰

Exercises 1.1

1. Prove that the following statements are equivalent:

(i) 𝐴⊆𝐵
(ii) 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐴
(iii) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵
2. Prove the following:
(i) Show that the sets 𝐴\𝐵 and 𝐵\𝐴 are disjoint for any sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.
(ii) Show that the set (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) is a partition. Use an example to illustrate this.
(iii)Show that 𝒰 is apartition of 𝐴 and 𝐴𝑐 for any set 𝐴 where 𝒰 is the universal set. Use an
example to illustrate this.
3. Use Venn diagram to show that for any sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, the difference sets 𝐴\𝐵 ∩ 𝐵\𝐴 = ∅ are
always disjoint.
4. Prove that the set𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is a union of the sets 𝐴\𝐵, 𝐵\𝐴 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
5. Draw the Venn diagrams for the following sets
(i) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐
(ii) 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐
(iii) 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐
(iv) 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵
(v) (𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐

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1.10 Algebra of Sets

The following operations hold for sets:

1. Idempotent law: 𝐴∪𝐴 =𝐴

𝐴∩𝐴 =𝐴

2. Associative law: (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

3. Commutative law: 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴

𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴

4. Distributive law: 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)

5. Identity law: 𝐴∪ ∅ =𝐴
𝐴∩∅=∅
𝐴∪𝒰 =𝒰
𝐴∩𝒰=𝐴

6. Involution law: (𝐴𝑐 )𝑐 = 𝐴

7. Complementation law: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝑐 = 𝒰
𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 = ∅
∅𝑐 = 𝒰
𝒰𝑐 = ∅

8. De ’Morgan’s law (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐

1.11 Finite and infinite sets

A set 𝑆 is said to be a finite set if 𝑆 contains exactly 𝑛 number of elements where 𝑛 is a nonnegative
integer, otherwise 𝑆 is an infinite set. Note that the empty set ∅ is finite by this definition, with
𝑛 = 0.

Example 1
1. The set of the letters of the English alphabet is finite with 𝑛 = 26.
2. The closed interval [0,1] is infinite because no value of 𝑛 can be used to denote the number
of elements in it.
3. The set 𝑃 = {0, 2, 4, … } of all nonnegative even numbers is infinite because no value of 𝑛
can be used to denote the number of elements in it.

1.12 Countable and Uncountable Sets

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Definition 1
A set 𝑆 is countable if 𝑆 is finite or if the elements of 𝑆 can be arranged as a sequence in which
case 𝑆 is said to be countable infinite.

Definition 2
A set 𝑆 is said to be countable if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between 𝑆 and a subsetℕ
of natural numbers, otherwise it is said to be uncountable.

Example 2
1. The empty set ∅ is countable
2. The pair set {-1,1} is countable
3. The set 𝑃 = {0, 2, 4, … } of nonnegative even numbers is countable
4. The set ℝ of real numbers is an uncountable set.
5. The set ℚ of rational numbers is countable.

Exercises 1.2

1. Which of the following sets are equal?

𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0}, 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0}, 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 < 3},
𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 is odd, 𝑥 < 5}, 𝐸 = {1,2}, 𝐹 = {1,2,1}, 𝐺 = {3,1}, 𝐻 = {1,1,3}
2. Consider the universal set 𝒰 = {1,2,3, … ,9} and let 𝐴 = {1,2,5,6}, 𝐵 = {2,5,7}, 𝐶 =
{1,3,5,7,9}. Find
(a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 (b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 (c) 𝐶\𝐴 (d) 𝐵\𝐴 (e) 𝐴 △ 𝐶 (f) 𝐴𝑐 (g) 𝐴𝑐 ∩
(𝐴\𝐵)
3. Use Venn diagrams to illustrate (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) above.
4. Prove De Morgan’s law (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐
5. The distributive law (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐
6. Find the power set 𝑝(𝑆) of the set 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5}
7. Given the set 𝐾 = {𝑎, {𝑎, 𝑏}, 𝑐, {𝑐, {𝑑}}}.
(a) How many elements has the set 𝐾?
(b) Find the power set of 𝐾.
8. Let 𝒰 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}be a universal set, and let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be subsets of 𝒰, such
that 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a factor of 12}. 𝐵 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9},
𝐶 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 < 8}. Find (i)𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 (ii) 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
9. Let 𝜉 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}be a universal set, and let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be subsets
of 𝜉, such that 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a factor of 12} and 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 is divisible by 3}, find
(i) 𝐴𝑐 (ii) 𝐵\𝐴
10. Which of the following sets is finite and which is infinite? What is the cardinality of those that
are finite?
(i) The set 𝑆 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℤ and𝑥 2 − 64 = 0}
(ii) The set of letters of the English alphabet.
(iii) The set {𝜃: sin 𝜃 = √3 2
}

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 (iv) ℕ, the set of all integers
(v) 𝑃 = {𝑝: 𝑝 is a prime number between 0 and 100}
(vi) ℝ, the set of all real numbers
10. Say which of the following sets is countable and which is uncountable:
(i) (0,1)
(ii) {0,1}
(iii) 𝑃 = {𝑝: 𝑝 is a prime number between 0 and 100}
(vii) ℕ, the set of all integers
(viii) ℝ, the set of all real numbers
(ix) ℚ, the set of all rational numbers

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 CHAPTER TWO
2 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

2.1 Number Systems

When a mathematical operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication or division is carried

out on a set of numbers, there is a need for the result of such operation to be a member of the set
in question. Consider the set of natural numbers (non-negative integers):
ℕ+ = {1,2,3, … }
The result of the subtraction such as 1 − 1 = 0 is not an element of ℕ. Therefore, there is need to
extend the set of natural numbers to include the number zero. It can be seen that the set of
counting numbers is such an extension.
ℕ = {0,1,2, … }
Again the mathematical operation of subtraction produces numbers which may not belong to the
set of counting numbers above. For instance, the operation 2 − 3 = −1 and −1 is not in ℕ. Hence
the need to expand the set of numbers to accommodate the negative integers as in
ℤ = {… , −2, −1,0,1,2, … }
Thus, ℤ is the set of all integers. Certain mathematical operations such as division bring about the
expansion of the need for yet a larger set of numbers. Consider 2 ÷ 6 = 13 = 0.333333 … . This
result is not a member of ℕ. Hence, the set ℚ of rational numbers can be expressed as follows:
𝑝
ℚ = {𝑞 : 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ, 𝑞 ≠ 0}
In other words, the set of all rational number ℚ is the set of numbers 𝑥 where 𝑥 can be expressed
as the division of an integer 𝑚 by a nonzero integer 𝑛. (greatest common divisor can be regarded
as the well-known highest common factor).
Again there exists an operations (roots for instance) on rational numbers which produce and
elements that are not rational numbers. For instance, the number √2 cannot be expressed as a
rational number. Several scientific and mathematical constants such as 𝜋 = 3.1415926 … and 𝑒 =
2.71828182 … cannot be expressed as rational numbers. However, rational numbers can be used
to approximate them. For instance, 22 7
is a rational number popularly used to approximate 𝜋. We
shall denote the set of irrational numbers by ℝ\ℚ. That is the set of real numbers minus the set of
rational numbers.
Now the set of real numbers is a union of the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational
numbers.
Again, the square root of negative real numbers is not a real number. For instance, √−4 ∉ ℝ even
though −4 ∈ ℝ.Such number belongs to a new kind of numbers called complex numbers and the
set of complex numbers is denoted by ℂ. An element of ℂ is of the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎 is the real
part of the number, 𝑏 is the imaginary part of the number and 𝑖 is a notation representing √−1 .
That is, ℂ = {𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑖 2 = −1}

Thus, √−4 = √−1 × 4 = √−1 × √4 = √−1 × 2 = 𝑖2 = 0 + 𝑖2. Thus, 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑏 = 2.

Clearly, √−4 ∈ ℂ.

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From the above explanations, the following set inclusion follows:

ℕ⊂ℤ⊂ℚ⊂ℝ⊂ℂ

We denote by ℤ+ , ℚ+ andℝ+ the sets of positive integers, positive rationals and positive real
numbers, respectively. Similarly, ℤ− , ℚ− andℝ− denote the sets of negative integers, negative
rationals and negative real numbers.

Even numbers
An even number is a number that has no remainder when divided by 2.

Odd numbers
An odd number is a number that has a remainder of 1 when divided by two.

Prime numbers
A prime number is a number that has two factors, itself and 1.

Composite numbers
A composite number is a number that has more than two factors.

2.2 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction is an essential and method used to show that a statement or formula is true
for all natural numbers (or called positive integers). It is known as proof by induction and was first
introduced by Al-Karaji around 1000 AD.

2.2.1 Principle of Mathematical Induction: Let 𝑃 be a proposition defined on the positive

integer ℕ; that is, 𝑃(n) is either true or false for each n ∈ ℕ. Then we say that 𝑃 is true
for every positive integer n ∈ ℕ if the following conditions are satisfied:
(i) 𝑃(1) is true,
(ii) 𝑃(k + 1) is true whenever 𝑃(k) is true.

Example 2.1 Let 𝑃 be a proposition that the sum of the first n even numbers is 2n2 ; that is,

𝑃(n) = 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + (4n − 2) = 2n2

Solution

𝑃(n) = 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + (4n − 2) = 2n2 (1)

(i) For n = 1, then from equation (1), we get,

(4(1) − 2) = 2(1)2
2 = 2 This is true
Thus, the statement 𝑃(1) is true. That is condition (i) satisfied.

(ii) Suppose that the statement is true for n = k, that is,

13
 𝑃(k) = 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + (4k − 2) = 2k 2 (2)

Then we must show that it is true for n = k + 1, that is,

𝑃(k + 1) = 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + (4(k + 1) − 2) = 2(k + 1)2 (3)

Since the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ term of even number is (4k − 2) and the next even number is

(4(k + 1) − 2). Then by adding (4(k + 1) − 2) to both side of equation (2), we get,

𝑃(k) = 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + (4k − 2) + (4(k + 1) − 2) = 2k 2 + (4(k + 1) − 2)

= 2k 2 + 4k + 2

= 2(k 2 + 2k + 1)

= 2(k + 1)2

∴ 𝑃(k) = 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + (4k − 2) + (4(k + 1) − 2) = 2(k + 1)2 (4)

We noticed that equation (3) and (4) are the same, thus condition (ii) satisfied.
Thus, we conclude that the statement is true for all positive integers.

n(n+1)
Example 2.2 Prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + n = , is true for all positive integers.
2

Solution
n(n+1)
Let 𝑃(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + n = (1)
2

(i) For n = 1, then from equation (1), we get,

1(1+1)
1= 2
1 = 1, this is true
Thus, the statement 𝑃(1) is true. That is condition (i) satisfied.

(ii) Suppose that the statement is true for n = k, that is,

k(k+1)
𝑃(k) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + k = (2)
2

Then, we must show that it is true for n = k + 1, that is,

(k+1)[(k+1)+1]
𝑃(k + 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + (k + 1) = (3)
2

Then by adding the next 𝑘 𝑡ℎ term (i.e. k + 1) to both side of equation (2), we get,

14
 k(k+1)
𝑃(k) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1)
2
k(k+1)+2(k+1)
= 2

(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2

(k+1)[(k+1)+1]
= 2

(k+1)[(k+1)+1]
∴ 𝑃(k) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + k + (k + 1) = (4)
2

We noticed that equation (3) and (4) are the same, thus condition (ii) satisfied.

Thus, we conclude that the statement is true for all positive integers.
n(n+1)(2n+1)
Exercises 2.2 Prove that 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + n2 = , is true for all positive integers.
6

15
 CHAPTER THREE
3 REAL SEQUENCES AND SERIES

3.1 Sequences

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers denoted as 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , …, where 𝑎n is nth term. In other

word, a sequence is a collection of elements in a defined order.

An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers ℕ = {1,2,3, … }

A finite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of a finite number of first consecutive
natural numbers.ℕ𝑛 = {1,2,3, … , 𝑛}

The general term of a sequence is an expression for the nth term of the sequence.

Example 3.1
(−1)𝑛
1. If the general term of a sequence is given by 𝑎𝑛 = , find
5𝑛
(a) the first term
(b) the eighth term
(c) the 91st term

Solution
(−1)1 −1 −1
(a) The first term is when 𝑛 = 1, 𝑎1 = = ∴ 𝑎1 =
5(1) 5 5

(−1)8 1 1
(b) The eight term is when 𝑛 = 8, 𝑎8 = = ∴ 𝑎8 =
5(8) 40 40

(−1)91 −1 −1
(c) The 91st term is when 𝑛 = 91, 𝑎91 = = ∴ 𝑎91 =
5(91) 455 455

Example 3.2
2. Find the general term of the sequence whose first few terms are given below
(a) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
(b) 1, 4, 9, 16, …
1 1 1
(c) , , ,…
2 4 6
(d) −3, −6, −9, −12, …

Solution
(a) This is the sequence of an odd numbers, then the general term of the sequence is
𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 1, for 𝑛 ≥ 0
(b) This is the sequence of perfect squares, then the general term of the sequence is
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 , for 𝑛 ≥ 1

16
 (c) This sequence has even denominators, the general term of the sequence of even positive
integers is 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 for 𝑛 ≥ 1. Thus, the general term of the given sequence is
1
𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 , for 𝑛 ≥ 1.
(d) The general term of the given sequence is 𝑎𝑛 = −3𝑛, for 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Exercises 3.1
1. Write the first five terms of each of the following sequences:
(a) 𝑎𝑛 = (−2)𝑛
1
(b) 𝑎𝑛 = 5𝑛
(c) 𝑎𝑛 = 10(𝑛 + 1)𝑛
(d) 𝑎𝑛 = (−1)𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)

2. Find the general term of each of the following sequences:

(a) 3,7,11,15, …
(b) −4, 16, −64, 256, …
1 1 1 1
(c) , , , ,…
5 25 125 625
1 1 1
(d) 1, 4 , 9 , 16 , …

3.2 Series

A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. A finite series is the sum of all the terms of a finite
sequence or the sum of the first finite number of terms of an infinite series.

Consider a finite sequence 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … 𝑛, a finite series would be the sum:

𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
𝑖=1
An infinite series is the sum of all the terms of an infinite sequence.

Consider an infinite sequence 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , …, an infinite series would be the sum:

∞

∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯
𝑖=1
The above two sums may begin from any term order than the first term and end at any term order
than the last term or order than infinity as chosen:
𝑚

∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
𝑖=𝑘
where of course 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛 < ∞

17
Example 3.3
6

∑ 𝑖 2 = 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 = 86
𝑖=3
Example 3.4
5
𝑗−3
Evaluate ∑
3
𝑗=0

Solution
5
𝑗−3 0−3 1−3 2−3 3−3 4−3 5−3
∑ = + + + + +
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
𝑗=0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2
= + + + + +
3 3 3 3 3 3
−6 3 −3
= + = = −1
3 3 3
5
𝑗−3
∴∑ = −1
3
𝑗=0

3.3 Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

Arithmetic Progression A.P. is a sequence where the difference between consecutive terms is a
constant called the common difference.

The Arithmetic progression follows the pattern 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, … For instance the
sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, . .. is an A.P. with a common difference of 5.

3.3.1 𝒏𝐭𝐡 term of an A.P.

The nth term, (𝑇n ), of an A.P., with 𝑎 and 𝑑 as first term and common difference respectively is
given by the formula;

𝑇n = 𝑎 + (n − 1)𝑑

Example 3.5
Which of the following series are A.P.? Write down the common differences of those that are.

(a) 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯

(b) 3 − 2 − 7 − ⋯

(c) 1 − 2 + 3 − ⋯
1 5 7
(d) +6+6+⋯
2

18
 1 1
(e) 1+2+3+⋯

Solution
(a) This is an A.P. with common difference 2
(b) This is an A.P. with common difference −5
(c) This is not an A.P. because it has no common difference
1
(d) This is an A.P. with common difference 3
(e) This is not an A.P. because it has no common difference

Example 3.6
Find the 20th term of the following sequences
(a) −7, −1, 5, …
(b) 𝑥, 3𝑥, 5𝑥, …
(c) 44, 41, 38, …

Solution
(a) The nth term of an A.P. is 𝑇n = 𝑎 + (n − 1)𝑑.

Given that 𝑎 = −7, 𝑑 = −1 − (−7) = −1 + 7 = 6, and n = 20. Then 𝑇20 , will be

𝑇20 = −7 + (20 − 1)6
= −7 + 19 × 6
= −7 + 144 = 107

Therefore, the 20th term is 107.

Example 3.7
The third term of an A.P. is 44 and the six term is 92. Find the first term and the common difference.

Solution
The nth term of an A.P. is 𝑇n = 𝑎 + (n − 1)𝑑.
⇒ 𝑇3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 44 (1)
⇒ 𝑇6 = 𝑎 + 5𝑑 = 92 (2)

Subtracting the first equation from the second equation, we get

3𝑑 = 48
48
𝑑=
3
∴ 𝑑 = 16

Substituting 𝑑 = 16 into equation (1) we get

𝑎 + 2(16) = 44
𝑎 + 32 = 44
𝑎 = 44 − 32 = 12

19
 ∴ 𝑎 = 12

Hence, the first term is 12 and the common difference is 16.

Example 3.8
Find the number of terms in the following A.P.s.
(a) 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + 99
(b) 7 + 12 + 17 + ⋯ +82
(𝑐) 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ + 6𝑥

Solution
The nth term of an A.P. is 𝑇n = 𝑎 + (n − 1)𝑑.
(a) Given that 𝑎 = 1, 𝑑 = 3 − 1 = 2 and 𝑇n = 99.
∴ 99 = 1 + (n − 1)2
99 = 2n − 1
2n = 100
100
n= = 50 ∴ n = 50
2

3.3.2 Sum of an Arithmetic Progression A.P.

The general formula for finding the sum of 𝑛th term of an A.P. denoted as 𝑆𝑛 , is given by
the formula;
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
Where 𝑎, 𝑑 and 𝑛 represents first term, common difference number of terms respectively.

Or equivalently,
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + 𝑙)
2
Where l is the last term of the A.P..

Example 3.9
Find the sum of the first 21st terms of the following A.P.s.
(a) 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯
(b) 7 + 12 + 17 + ⋯107
(𝑐) − 7 − 1 + 5, …
1 1 1
(d) + 1 + 1 2 + ⋯ + 10 2
2

Solution
𝑛
The sum of the nth term of an A.P. is 𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
Or equivalently,
Or equivalently,

20
 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + 𝑙)
2
If the last term ‘l’ is given

(a) Given that 𝑎 = 2, 𝑑 = 4 − 2 = 2 and n = 21. Then, the sum of the first 21st term 𝑆21 , is
obtained as;
21
𝑆21 = [2 × 2 + (21 − 1)2]
2
21
𝑆21 = [4 + 40]
2
21
𝑆21 = [44] = 462
2
∴ 𝑆21 = 462
(b) Given that 𝑎 = 7, 𝑑 = 12 − 7 = 5, 𝑛 = 21 and 𝑙 = 107. Then, the sum of the first 21st
term 𝑆21 , is obtained as;
21
𝑆21 = (2 × 7 + 107)
2
21
𝑆21 = (14 + 107)
2
21 2541 1
𝑆21 = 2 (121) = 2 = 1270 2
1
∴ 𝑆21 = 1270
2

3.4 Geometric Progression (G.P.)

A Geometric Progression is a sequence where consecutive terms either increase or decrease by a

constant ratio. For example, the sequence 1, 2, 4,... is G.P. with common ratio 2, and this can be
written as, 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , … , where r is the common ratio.

3.4.1 𝒏𝐭𝐡 term of a G.P.

The nth term, (𝑇n ), of a G.P., can be generated from the sequence 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , … , 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , ...
with 𝑎 and 𝑟 as first term and common ratio respectively is given by the formula;

𝑇n = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

Example 3.10
Which of the following series are G.P.? Write down the common ratio of those that are.

(a) 2+4+8+⋯
(b) −1+2−4+⋯
(c) 1+4+9+⋯
(d) 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
1 1 1
(e) + 6 + 12 + ⋯
2

21
 1 1
(f) 1 + + + ⋯
3 9

Solution
(a) This is a G.P. with common ratio 2
(b) This is a G.P. with common ratio −5
(c) This is not a G.P. because it has no common ratio
(d) This is a G.P. with common ratio 𝑥
(e) This is not a G.P. because it has no common ratio
1
(f) This is a G.P. with common ratio 3

Example 3.11
Find the 11th term of the following G.P.s
(a) 1 + 3 + 9 + ⋯
1 1 1
(b) + + + ⋯
3 9 27
(c) 5 + 10 + 20 + ⋯
1 1 1
(d) + + + ⋯
2 4 8
(e) − 5 − 15 − 45 − ⋯

Solution
The nth term of a G.P. is 𝑇n = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
3
(a) Given that 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = 1 = 3, and n = 11. Then 𝑇11 , will be

𝑇11 = 1(3)11−1
= 310
= 59049

Therefore, the 11th term is 59049.

1 1 1 1 3 1
(b) Given that 𝑎 = 3, 𝑟 = 9 ÷ 3 = 9 × 1 = 3, and n = 11. Then 𝑇11 , will be

1 1 11−1
𝑇11 = ( )
3 3
1
= ( )11
3
1
= 311
1
= 177147
1
Therefore, the 11th term is .
177147

Example 3.12
Find the number of terms in the following G.P.s.
(a) 1 + 4 + 16 … + 4096

22
 1
(b) 81 + 27 + 9 + ⋯ +
27
(d) 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ + 512
1
(e) 64 + 32 + 16 + ⋯ +
2

Solution
The nth term of a G.P. is 𝑇n = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 .
4
(a) Given that 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = 1 = 4 and 𝑇𝑛 = 4096. Then we are to find 𝑛

∴ 4096 = 1(4)𝑛−1

4096 = (4)𝑛−1

(4)6 = (4)𝑛−1

⇒6=𝑛−1

⇒𝑛=7

Therefore, the number of terms of the given series is 7.

27 1 1
(b) Given that 𝑎 = 81, 𝑟 = 81 = 3 and 𝑇𝑛 = 27. Then we are to find 𝑛
1 1
∴ = 81( )𝑛−1
27 3
1 4 −1 𝑛−1
= 3 (3 )
33
3−3 = 34 × 3−𝑛 × 31
3−3 = 35 × 3−𝑛
3−3
= 3−𝑛
35
3−8 = 3−𝑛
⇒ −𝑛 = −8
⇒𝑛=8

Therefore, the number of terms of the given series is 8.

Example 3.13
The fourth term of a G.P. is -6 and the seven terms is 48. Write down the first three terms of the
progression.

Solution
The nth term of a G.P. is 𝑇n = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 .
The fourth and the seven terms will be
𝑇4 = 𝑎𝑟 3 = −6 (1)
𝑇7 = 𝑎𝑟 6 = 48 (2)
Dividing equation (2) by (1) we get;

23
 𝑎𝑟 6 48
=
𝑎𝑟 3 −6
⇒ 𝑟 3 = −8

⇒ 𝑟 = −2

Substituting 𝑟 = −2 into equation (1) to get;

𝑎(−2)3 = −6
⇒ −8𝑎 = −6
3
⇒𝑎=
4
3 3
Hence, the first three terms of the progression will be 4 , − 2 , 3.

3.4.2 Sum of a G.P.

The general formula for the sum of the 𝑛th term of G.P. with a first term 𝑎 and common ratio 𝑟
denoted as 𝑆𝑛 , is given by

𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = , 𝑟<1
1−𝑟
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 = , 𝑟>1
𝑟−1
Example 3.14

Find the sum of the first eight terms of the following G.P.s.
1 1
(a) 1, 2 , 4
,…
3 3
(b) 4
, − 2 , 3, …

Solution
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
(a) The general formula for the sum of the 𝑛th term of G.P. is 𝑆𝑛 = , 𝑟<1
1−𝑟
1
Since 𝑟 = 2 < 1. Give that 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑛 = 8

1
1(1 − (2)8 )
∴ 𝑆8 = 1
1−2
1
1 − 256
⇒ 𝑆8 = 1
1−2
1
1 − 256
⇒ 𝑆8 = 1
1−2

24
 255
256 255
⇒ 𝑆8 = 1 = ×2
256
2
255 127
⇒ 𝑆8 = =1
128 128
127
There the sum of the first eight terms of progression is 1 128 .

3.4.3 The sum to Infinity of a G.P.

The sum to infinity of a G.P. with a first term 𝑎 and common ratio 𝑟 denoted by 𝑆∞ is given by
𝑎
𝑆∞ = if and only if − 1 < 𝑟 < 1
1−𝑟
Example 𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
Find the sum of infinity of the following G.P.s

(a) −45 − 15 − 5 − ⋯
3 3
(b) + + 3+⋯
4 2

Solution
1
(a) 𝑎 = −5, 𝑟=3
Since 𝑟 lies between −1 and 1. The series converge.
−5 15 1
𝑆∞ = 1 = − 2 = −7 2
1− 3
1
∴ 𝑆∞ = −7
2
3
(b) 𝑎 = 4 , 𝑟=2
Since 𝑟 does not lies between −1 and 1. The series does not converge. But, however, one
may tries to find the sum to infinity of the G.P. as
3
4 3
𝑆∞ = =−
1−2 4
3
∴ 𝑆∞ = −
4
We noticed that all the series terms are no-negative, leading to the conclusion that the sum
cannot be negative. Consequently, ′𝑟′ must strictly fall within the range of −1 and 1.

25
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 POLYNOMIALS
4.1 THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
A function is quadratic if it is associated to a polynomial of degree 2. The general form of a quadratic
equation is f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c or y = ax 2 + bx + c where a, b and c are constant x is the independent
variable and y is the dependent variable. Some examples of quadratic functions are
y = 4 x 2 + 2 x + 5, y = 2 x 2 + 6 x, y = x 2 + 8 x, y = x3 . The function f ( x) = 2 x + 5 is not a quadratic
function, but a linear function because the coefficient of x 2 is zero (that is a = 0) .

4.1.1 Optimal point of a quadratic function

The optimal point of a quadratic function is the maximum or minimum point of the function.
Consider the general form of a quadratic function f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c.
 b c
f ( x) = a  x 2 + x + 
 a a
Completing the square:
 2 b  b  c  b  
2 2

f ( x) = a  x + x +   + −   
 a  2a  a  2a  
 b  4ac − b 2 
2

f ( x ) = a  x +  + 
 2a  4a 2 

b  4ac − b 2
2

f ( x) = a  x +  +
 2a  4a
2
 b 
Now  x +   0 is always true.
 2a 
2 2
 b   b 
Suppose a  0, then a  x +   0 . Hence, the value of x for which  x +  = 0 is the minimum
 2a   2a 
value of x and is obtained as follows:
2
 b  b b
a x +  = 0  x + =0 x =−
 2a  2a 2a
4ac − b 2
The value of y is thus
4a
2 2
 b   b 
Suppose a  0, then a  x +   0. Hence, the value of x for which a  x +  = 0 is the maximum
 2a   2a 
value of x and is obtained as:
2
 b  b b
a x +  = 0  x + =0 x =−
 2a  2a 2a
4ac − b 2
The value of y is thus
4a
Example 4.1

26
Determine whether the equation y = 3x 2 + 6 x + 4 has a maximum or minimum point. Find the value of
the point determined.

Solution
a = 3, b = 6, c = 4. Since a  0, then the equation has a minimum point.
−b −(6)
Now, x = = = −1
2a 2(3)
4ac − b2 4(3)(4) − 62 48 − 36
y= = = =1
4a 4(3) 12
The minimum point is (-1,1)

4.1.2 Discriminant and roots of a quadratic equation

A quadratic function is a quadratic equation when a particular value is equated to the function. Methods of
solving a quadratic equation include:
1. Graphical Method
2. Factorization Method
3. Completing the square Method
4. Formula Method

Consider the general form of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0. By completing the square method
b c
x2 + x+ =0
a a
b c
x2 + x = −
a a
2 2
b  b  c  b 
x2 + x +  = + − 
a  2a  a  2a 
−4ac + b2
2
 b 
x+  =
 2a  4a 2
b −4ac + b 2
x+ =
2a 4a 2
b b 2 − 4ac
x=− 
2a 2a
−b  b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Let D = b 2 − 4ac, then
−b  D
x=
2a
If D > 0 we have two distinct real roots.
If D < 0 we have no real roots.
If D = 0 we have two equal roots.
The value of D determines the nature of roots. Thus, D is called the discriminant.

27
Example 4.2
Determine the nature of roots of the equation 2 x 2 + 7 x + 4 = 0

Solution

D = b 2 − 4ac
D = 72 − 4  2  4
D = 49 − 32
D = 17
D0
The equation has two distinct roots.

Example 4.3
If the roots of the equation 3x 2 + px + 12 = 0 are equal. Find the value of the p.

Solution
D = p 2 − 4  3  12 = 0
p 2 = 144
p =  144
p = 12

Example 4.4
Find the value of q for which the equation qx 2 − 3x + 4q = 0 has equal roots.

Solution
D = (−3) 2 − 4  q  (4q) = 0
9 − 16q 2 = 0
16q 2 = 9
9
q2 =
16
3
q=
4

4.1.3 Sum and product of roots of a quadratic equation

If  and  are the roots of a quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (1)
Then x =  or x =  . That is, x −  = 0 or x −  = 0. That is, ( x −  )( x −  ) = 0. This implies
x 2 − ax −  x +  x = 0 we get the equation
x 2 − ( +  ) x +  = 0 (2)
Comparing (1) and (2) we see that

28
 b c
( +  ) = − and  =
a a
Example 4.5
Find the sum and product of the roots of the equation x 2 + 3 x + 2 = 0

Solution

Let  and  be the roots of the equation x 2 + 3 x + 2 = 0. Comparing ax 2 + bx + c = 0 with the given
equation, we get a = 1, b = 3, c = 2. Thus,
b 3
 + =− = − = −1
a 1
c 2
 = = = 2
a 1
Example 4.6
Prove that if one root of a quadratic equation is half the other, then 2b 2 = 9ac.

Solution

Let one root be  . Then the other root is
2

2 +  3
Sum of roots is  + = =
2 2 2
3 b 2b 4b 2
Now = −  = −  = 22

2 a 3a 9a
 2
Product of roots is   =
2 2
 2
c 2c
Also, = 2 =
2 a a
2
4b 2c
It follows that 2
= . This implies 2b 2 = 9ac
9a a
Example 4.7
If the difference in roots of a quadratic equation is 1, prove that b 2 = a 2 + 4ac

Solution
Let the roots be  and  + 1
b a+b
For the sum of roots: 2 + 1 = −  = −
a 2a
c c
For the product of roots:  ( + 1) =   2 +  = (1)
a a
a+b
Substitute − for  in (1)
2a

29
 (a + b)
2
a+b c
2
− =
4a 2a a
(a + b) − 2a ( a + b ) = 4ac
2

a 2 + 2ab + b 2 − 2a 2 − 2ab = 4ac

b 2 = a 2 + 4ac

4.1.4 Symmetric functions

A function f ( x, y ) is symmetric if after an interchange of all the x ' s and y ' s, the function remains the
same. That is, f ( x, y ) = f ( y, x).
A function f ( x, y ) is square symmetric if an interchange of all the x ' s and y ' s, produces a negation of
the original function. That is, − f ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ).

Example 4.8
If the roots of the equation 2 x 2 + 4 x + 6 = 0 are  and  solve the following symmetric functions.

1. f ( ,  ) =  2 +  2
 
2. f ( ,  ) = +
 
1 1
3. f ( ,  ) = − 2
 +1  +1
2

1. Solution
Let the roots of the equation 2 x 2 + 4 x + 6 = 0 be  and 
 +  = −2 and  = 3.
 2 +  2 =  (  +  ) = 3  ( −2 ) = −6

2. Solution
Let the roots of the equation 2 x 2 + 4 x + 6 = 0 be  and 
Now,  +  = −2 and  = 3.
   2 +  2 ( +  ) − 2 ( −2 ) − 2 ( 3) 4 − 6
2 2
2
+ = = = = =−
    3 3 3

3. Solution
Let the roots of the equation 2 x 2 + 4 x + 6 = 0 be  and  . Now,  +  = −2 and  = 3.
1 1 2 + 2 +2 2 + 2 +2 2 +2 +2
+ = = =
 2 + 1  2 + 1 ( 2 + 1)(  2 + 1)  2  2 +  2 +  2 + 1 ( )2 +  2 +  2 + 1
But  2 +  2 = ( +  ) − 2
2

( +  ) − 2 + 2
2
1 1
Hence, 2 + 2 =
 + 1  + 1 ( )2 + ( +  )2 − 2 + 1

30
 ( −2 ) − 2 ( 3) + 2 = 4 − 6 + 2 = 0
2
1 1
Therefore, 2 + 2 =
 + 1  + 1 ( 3)2 + ( −2 )2 − 2 ( 3) + 1 9 + 4 − 6 + 1

Exercise 4.1
If the roots of the equation x 2 − 3x − 4 = 0 are  and  solve the following symmetric functions.
 
f ( ,  ) = +
 
1 1
f ( ,  ) = +
 +   +
2 2
f ( ,  ) = +
 

Exercise 4.2
If the roots of the equation x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0 are  and  solve the following square symmetric functions.
 
f ( ,  ) = −
 
1 1
f ( ,  ) = −
 −1  −1
2 2
f ( ,  ) = −
 

4.2 REMAINDER THEOREM

It is possible to divide a polynomial by another polynomial. When a polynomial is divided by another

polynomial of less or equal power of x there may or may not arise a remainder. It is best to use the long
division method in order to obtain any possible remainder. Consider the function x 3 − 7 x 2 + 6 x − 2 which
is divided by x − 2 as follows:

x2 − 5x − 4
x − 2 x3 − 7 x 2 + 6 x − 2
x3 − 2 x 2
− 5x2 + 6 x − 2
−5 x 2 + 10 x
− 4x − 2
−4 x + 8
− 10
It follows that x − 7 x + 6 x divided by x − 2 is equal to x 2 − 5 x − 4 with a remainder of -10, and this
3 2

can be expressed as

31
 x3 − 7 x2 + 6 x − 2 = ( x2 − 5x − 4 ) ( x − 2 ) − 10
In general, if f ( x ) is a polynomial in x which when divided by x = a gives a quotient Q ( x ) and a
remainder R then we have f ( x) = ( x − a )Q( a ) + R. If x = a then we have f ( a ) = R. This is known as
remainder theorem. In other words, when f ( x ) is divided by x − a the remainder is f ( a ).

Example 4.2.1
Find the remainder if x3 + 2 x 2 + 6 x − 2 is divided by x + 2

Solution

By long division,

x2 + 6
x + 2 x 3 + 2 x 2 + 6 x + 13
x3 + 2 x 2
+ 6 x + 13
+6 x + 12
1
The remainder is 1.

Example 4.2.2
Find the remainder if 2 x 5 + x 4 − 2 x 3 + 2 x 2 − x − 2 is divided by x + 2

Solution

By long division,

2 x 4 − x3 − x 2 + 2 x − 3
x + 2 2 x5 + x 4 − 2 x3 + x 2 − x − 4
2 x5 + 2 x 4
− x 4 − 2 x3 + x 2 − x − 4
− x 4 − x3
− x3 + x 2 − x − 4
− x3 − x 2
2x2 − x − 4
2x2 − 2x
− 3x − 4
−3 x − 3
−1
The remainder is -1

32
To completely factorize a polynomial f ( x) = an xn + an−1xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + ... + a0 of order n  3 and
above, follow these steps:

Step 1:
Substitute x = 1, x = −1, x = 2, x = −2 and so on in f ( x ). if f (1) = 0 then ( x − 1) divides f ( x ) without
a remainder and is therefore a factor of f ( x ) . Similarly, if f ( −1) = 0 then ( x − (−1)) (that is ( x + 1))
divides f ( x ) without remainder and is therefore a factor of f ( x ) and so on. Divide f ( x ) by the obtained
factor.

Step 2:
Either
(a) Repeat step 1 above where f ( x ) is the remainder of the quotient in the division or
(b) Factorize the quotient in the division in step 1 above.

Example 4.2.3
Factorize completely x3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x − 6

Solution

Let f ( x) = x3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x − 6.
x = 1, we obtain f (1) = (1)3 + 2(1) 2 − 5(1) − 6 = 1 + 2 − 5 − 6  0
Substituting
 ( x − 1) is not a factor of f ( x ).
Substituting x = −1: f (−1) = (−1)3 + 2(−1) 2 − 5( −1) − 6 = −1 + 2 + 5 = 0
 ( x + 1) is a factor of f ( x).
Substituting x = 2 : f (2) = (2)3 + 2(2) 2 − 5(2) − 6 = 8 + 8 − 10 − 6 = 0
 ( x − 2) is a factor of f ( x)
Substituting x = 3 : f (3) = (3)3 + 2(3) 2 − 5(3) − 6 = 27 + 18 − 15 − 6 = 24  0
 ( x − 3) is not a factor of f ( x).
Substituting x = −3 : f (−3) = (−3)3 + 2(−3) 2 − 5(−3) − 6 = −27 + 18 + 15 − 6 = 0
 ( x + 3) is a factor of f ( x ).
Thus, x3 + 2 x 2 − 5 x − 6 = ( x + 1)( x − 2)( x + 3).

Example 4.2.4
Factorize completely x 3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6.

Solution
Substituting x = 1: f (1) = (1)3 − 2(1) 2 − 5(1) + 6 = 1 − 2 − 5 + 6 = 0
 ( x − 1) is a factor of f ( x).

Divide x3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6 by ( x − 1)

33
 x2 − x − 6
x −1 x − 2 x2 − 5x + 6
3

x3 − x 2
− x2 − 5x + 6
− x2 + x
− 6x + 6
−6 x + 6
0
x − x − 6 to get ( x − 2)( x + 3)
2

Factorize
Therefore f ( x) = x3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6 = ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x + 3).

Exercise 4.3

Factorize completely 2 x 4 − x3 − x 2 + 2 x − 3.

34
 CHAPTER FIVE
BINOMIAL EXPANSION
The expression (a + b) means (a + b)  (a + b)  (a + b). The multiplication symbol ' ' is usually
3

omitted. Thus, (a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b). To expand the expression, we first expand the product of
the last two, (a + b)(a + b) as follows:
(a + b)(a + b)
= a ( a + b) + b( a + b)
= a 2 + ab + b 2 + ab
= a 2 + 2ab + b 2
That is not because we only expanded the last (a + b)(a + b). It is left to expand (a + b)(a 2 + 2ab + b 2 )
By multiplying each of a and b in the first bracket with each a 2 , 2ab, and b 2 in the second bracket and
adding all together as follow:
(a + b)(a 2 + 2ab + b 2 )
= aa 2 + a 2ab + ab 2 + ba 2 + b 2ab + bb 2
= a 3 + 2a 2b + ab 2 + ba 2 + 2ab 2 + b3
= a 3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + b3
It may have been observed how laborious the above task would pose as n gets larger hence the need for
easier and faster methods.

Other binomial expressions include

101
2
2 3   1 
(a − b)3 , (2a + 3b) 2 , (5a − b)5 ,  a + b  , (4a − 2b) 7 , ( a + 5b)13 ,  3a − b  and infinitely many
3 5   3 
more. Thus, it is more convenient to denote a general form of a binomial expression as (ax + bx) n where
a and b are coefficients, x and y are variables and n is a positive integer (there also exist cases where
n is a real number, but we shall not treat such here). The task in binomial expansion is to express each of
these as sums of products of the variables in the brackets with their corresponding coefficients.

METHODS OF RESOLVING BINOMIAL EXPANSION

Pascal’s Triangle Method of Resolving Binomial Expansion

Example 1
Expand the binomial expression (2 x − y)6 by employing the Pascal’s triangle method.

Solution

First, sketch the expansion leaving out the coefficients from Pascal’s triangle. Decrease the powers of the
first term 2x of the expression from 6 to 0 and increase the powers of the second term (− y ) of the
expression from 0 to 6.

 2 x + (− y ) 
6
= [ ](2 x)6 (− y)0 + [ ](2 x)5 (− y)1 + [ ](2 x) 4 (− y) 2 + [ ](2 x)3 ( − y)3
+ [ ](2 x)2 (− y)4 + [ ](2 x)1 (− y)5 + [ ](2 x)0 (− y)6

35
Construct a Pascal’s triangle up to the sixth level and fill in the square brackets with the numbers at the
sixth level of the triangle.

n = 0: 1
n = 1: 1 1
n = 2: 1 2 1
n = 3: 1 3 3 1
n = 4: 1 4 6 4 1
n = 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1
n = 6: 1 6 15 20 15 6 1

[1](2 x)6 (− y)0 + [6](2 x)5 (− y)1 + [15](2 x) 4 ( − y) 2 + [20](2 x)3 ( − y)3 + [15](2 x)2 (− y )4 + [6](2 x)1 (− y )5 + [1](2 x)0 (− y )6

Evaluate the powers of the brackets.

[1]64 x 6 − [6]32 x5 y + [15]16 x 4 y 2 − [20]8 x3 y 3 + [15]4 x 2 y 4 − [6]2 xy 5 + [1] y 6

(2 x − y)6 = 64 x 6 − 192 x5 y + 240 x 4 y 2 − 160 x3 y 3 + 60 x 2 y 4 − 12 xy 5 + y 6

Factorial Method of Resolving Binomial Expansion

First let us note the concept of factorial and combination.

Factorial
The factorial of a number (a positive integer) is the product of all the consecutive natural numbers between
the number and 1 inclusive.

Let n represent a positive integer, then the factorial of n is expressed as

n  (n − 1)  (n − 2)  (n − 3)  ... 1. For example, the factorial of 7 is 7  6  5 4  3 2 1 = 5040.
Also, 1! = 1 and, intriguingly, 0! = 1.

Combination
Combination is defined as follows: Let n and r be non-negative integers such that n  r. Then
n n!
Cr ( pronouned n combination r ) is defined as .
r !( n − r )!
For example,

8! 8! 8  7  6  5  4  3  2 1 40320
8
C5 = = = = = 56
5!( 8 − 5)! 5!3! (5  4  3  2 1)  (3  2 1) 720

The binomial expansion

By this method, the general form of a binomial expansion of (ax + by ) n is given by

r =0
n
Cr (ax) n − r (by ) r

Thus, the expansion of the expression (2 x − y)6 is obtained using

36
 6

r =0
Cr (2 x) 6− r (− y ) r
6

That is,

6
C0 (2 x)6−0 (− y )0 + 6C1 (2 x)6−1 (− y )1 + 6C2 (2 x) 6−2 (− y) 2 + 6C3 (2 x) 6−3 ( − y)3
+ 6C4 (2 x)6−4 (− y )4 + 6C5 (2 x)6−5 (− y )5 + 6C6 (2 x)6−6 (− y)6

6! 6! 6!
= (2 x)6 ( − y ) 0 + (2 x)5 ( − y )1 + (2 x) 4 ( − y ) 2
0!( 6 − 0 )! 1!( 6 − 1)! 2!( 6 − 2 )!
6! 6!
+ (2 x)3 (− y )3 + (2 x) 2 (− y ) 4
3!( 6 − 3) ! 4!( 6 − 4 )!
6! 6!
+ (2 x)1 (− y )5 + (2 x)0 (− y ) 6
5!( 6 − 5 ) ! 6!( 6 − 6 )!

720 720 720 720 720 6

=  64 x 6 + 6  32 x5 (− y ) +  8 x3 (− y 3 ) +  4 x2 y 4 +  2 x( − y ) 5 + y
720 36 48 120 720

= 64 x6 + 6  32 x5 (− y) + 15 16 x 4 y 2 + 20  8 x3 (− y 3 ) + 15  4 x 2 y 4 + 6  2 x(− y 5 ) + y 6

= 64 x 6 − 192 x5 y + 240 x 4 y 2 − 160 x3 y 3 + 60 x 2 y 4 − 12 xy 5 + y 6

An advantage of this method of binomial expansion is that a single term of a binomial expansion can be
obtained without having to list all the terms of the expansion.

It is most easily stated for the (r + 1)th term. Thus, the (r + 1)th term of the expansion of (ax + by ) n is
given by

n
Cr (ax)n−r (by)r

Or

n!
(ax)n −r (by )r
r !( n − r )!

Example 1
Find the eight term in the expansion of (2 x − y )10 .

Solution

37
Using the binomial formula method, with n = 10, ax = 2 x, by = − y. Since r +1 = 8 then r = 7.
Thus, the eight term is

10!
(2 x)10−7 ( − y ) 7
7!(10 − 7 ) !
3628800
= (2 x)3 ( − y ) 7
5040  6
= 120(2 x)3 ( − y ) 7
= 120  8  x 3 (− y ) 7
= −960 x 3 y 7

Example 2
Use the binomial expansion to evaluate 1023

Solution
102 = 100 + 2. So that 1023 = (100 + 2)3
Since ( x + y )3 = x 3 + 3x 2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3 then
(100 + 2)3 = 1003 + 3  (100) 2  2 + 3 100  (2) 2 + (2)3
(100 + 2)3 = 1000000 + 60000 + 1200 + 8
(100 + 2)3 = 1061208

Example 3
Use binomial expansion to evaluate 1.056

Solution

1.05 = 1 + 5(0.01). So that 1.056 = (1 + 5(0.01))6

Since ( x + y )6 exp ands as x 6 + 6 x 5 y + 15 x 4 y 2 + 20 x 3 y 3 + 15 x 2 y 4 + 6 xy 5 + y 6
( x + 5 y )6 = x 6 + 6 x 5 (5 y ) + 15 x 4 (52 y 2 ) + 20 x 3 (53 y 3 ) + 15 x 2 (54 y 4 ) + 6 x(55 y 5 ) + (56 y 6 )
= x 6 + 30 x5 y + 375 x 4 y 2 + 2500 x 3 y 3 + 9375 x 2 y 4 + 18750 xy 5 + 15625 y 6
Substituting x = 1 and y = 0.01
(1 + 5(0.01))6 = 16 + 30 15  0.01 + 375 14  0.012 + 2500 13  0.013 + 9375 12
 0.014 + 18750 1 0.015 + 15625  0.016
(1 + 5(0.01))6 = 1 + 0.3 + 0.0375 + 0.0025 + 0.00009375 + 0.000001875
+ 0.000000015625
(1 + 5(0.01)) = 1 + 0.3 + 0.0375 + 0.0025 + 0.00009375 + 0.000001875
6

+ 0.000000015625
1.05 = 1.340095640625
6

38
Exercise
1. Use binomial expansion to evaluate 102 7
2. Use binomial expansion to evaluate 1.04 6
3. Use binomial expansion to evaluate 0.995
4. Find the fifth term in the expansion of ( x + 3 y )8
5. Find the 4th term in the expansion of (2 x − y)6
6. Find the 3rd term in the expansion of (2 x + 3 y )5
7. Find the 3rd term in the expansion of (3 x − y )5
8. Find the 6th term in the expansion of ( x − y )11

39