Atomic Models & Theories timeline

Session (1)
Assessment

Bohr’s Model & Modern Atomic Theory

Session (2)
Assessment

Quantum Numbers
Session (3)
Assessment

Principles of Distributing Electrons

Session (4)
Assessment

Name: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Group: ……………………………………………………
 Session 1): Atomic Models & theories
Timeline
Democritus and the word “ATOM”:
- Democritus lived in Greece from about 460 to 370 B.C. Like
many other ancient Greek philosophers, he spent a lot of
time wondering about the natural world. Democritus
wondered, for example, what would happen if you cut a
chunk of matter— such as a piece of cheese into smaller
and smaller pieces. He thought that a point would be
reached at which the cheese could not be cut into still

smaller pieces. He called these pieces atomos, which

means “uncuttable” in Greek. This is where the modern term
atom comes from.
- Democritus’ idea of the atom has been called “the best
guess in antiquity.” That’s because it was correct in many
ways, yetit was based on pure speculation.

Aristotle and the four elements:

- He rejected the concept of atom and believed that
allmatters are composed of water, air, dust and fire.
- According to this idea, it was believed that cheap
metalssuch as iron and copper can be changed into
precious ones such as gold by changing the ratio of
their constituents (the four components).
- Despite how illogical this idea was, it was widely
accepted for more than a century causing a retard in
thedevelopment of chemistry.
Boyle and the first “scientific” definition of element:
- Boyle refused Aristotle’s idea about the nature of substances.
- He also came up with a definition for the element as: “A pure simple substance that can’t
bechanged to simpler forms by traditional chemical methods.”

That’s Ridiculous!
Democritus was an important philosopher, but he was less influential than Aristotle, who lived
about 100 years after Democritus. Aristotle rejected Democritus’ idea of the atom. In fact,
Aristotle thought the idea was ridiculous. Unfortunately, Aristotle’s opinion was accepted for
more than 2000 years, and Democritus’ idea was more or less forgotten. However, the idea of
the atom was revived around 1800 by the English scientist John Dalton. Dalton developed an
entire theory about the atom, much of which is still accepted today. He based his theory on
experimental evidence, not on lucky guesses.
 Dalton’s atomic theory:
- John Dalton was the first to adapt Democritus’ theory into the

first modern atomic model.

- JOHN DALTON’S ATOMIC MODEL:
1. Elements are composed of very minute undividable
solid atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and
properties but differ from atoms of other elements.
3. Compounds are formed as a result of combinations of
atoms of two or more different types of atoms in a
simple numerical ratio.

Cathode-ray experiment:
- In 1897, scientists conduct many
experiments on the electric discharge
through gases.
- Normally, gases don’t conduct electricity in
ordinary pressure and temperature, but at
very low pressure and very high potential
difference (10,000 V) gases start to conduct
electricity.
- Electricity is observed when passing through
gases as a stream of invisible rays, which can be observed through a fluorescent tube wall.
- The rays emitted (electricity) were named the CATHODE RAYS,
afterwards it was known to be composed of fine particles named be
ELECTRONS.
o PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS:

1. Consists of very fine negatively charged particles (electrons).

2. They move in straight line.
3. They have thermal effect.
4. They are affected by both electric and magnetic fields.
5. They are the same (in properties and nature) whatever the cathode material or the
gas in thetube are, and that prove that electrons are one of the fundamental
constituents of any matter.
 o THOMSON’S MODEL OF THE ATOM:
- During his experiments with the cathode ray tubes the English physicists J. J. Thomson
discovered electrons and it is one of the most important discoveries in the history of
physics. He was even awarded a Nobel Prize in physics for this discovery and his work on
the conduction of electricity in gases.
- J. J. Thomson designed a glass tube that was partly evacuated, i.e., all the air had been
drainedout. He then applied a high electric voltage at either end of the tube between two
electrodes. He observed a particle stream (ray) coming out of the negatively charged
electrode (cathode)to the positively charged electrode (anode).

- Thomson suggested a new atomic model of the atom. He considered the atom as a sphere
of uniform positive electricity in which a number of negatively charged electrons are
embeddedin it, making the atom electrically neutral.
 Gold foil experiment:
- The Geiger–Marsden experiments (also called
the Rutherford gold foil experiment) were a landmark
series of experiments by which scientists learned that
every atom has a nucleus where all of its positive
charge and most of its mass is concentrated. They
deduced this after measuring how an alpha
particle beam is scattered when it strikes a thin metal
foil. The experiments were performed
between 1908 and 1913 by Hans
Geiger and Ernest Marsden under the
direction of Ernest Rutherford at the
Physical Laboratories of the University
of Manchester.

o THE EXPERIMENT:
- When alpha particles (αa-particles) collide with a metal sheet lined with a layer of
zincsulphide (ZnS) it glows, hence it’s possible to define the location and number of α-
particles.
- Placing a thin layer of gold foil between the beam of αa-particles and the metal sheet
resultsin a series of observations leading Rutherford to many great conclusions.
 o RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL:

- THE ATOM:
▪ Extremely small in size.
▪ Has a complicated
structure,resembles the
solar system.
▪ Not uniformly dense.
- THE NUCLEUS:
▪ Much smaller than the atom itself.
▪ Most of the atom’s mass and its positive charge are concentrated in it.
▪ There is a vast space between the nucleus and the orbits of the electrons.
- THE ELECTRONS:
▪ They have negligible mass (compared to the nucleus).
▪ The sum of their negative charges is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus
(theatom is electrically neutral).
▪ Electrons revolve around the nucleus in special orbits at a very high speed.
▪ Two forces (attraction and centrifugal) are affecting the electron and they are equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction, so they cancel each other out and the
electron canorbit the nucleus at a constant distance, the forces in details are:
➢ Mutual attraction between the electrons and the nucleus (as a result of
opposite charges) which directs the electrons toward the center of the atom.
➢ Centrifugal force affecting the electrons (as a result of their rotation) which
directsthe electrons away from the center of the atom.
- Despite the great discoveries made by Rutherford, his theory doesn’t explain the system
atwhich electrons revolve around the nucleus.
 Assessment (Home Work)
Choose the correct answer:
1) Who discovered the electron? 6) What contribution did John Dalton
a. Dalton make to atomic theory?
a. He discovered that every atom was
b. Thomson positively charged.
c. Rutherford b. He discovered that every element
consisted of one type of atom.
d. Bohr c. He discovered that atoms had
nuclei.
2) What did Rutherford discover in his d. He discovered that atoms could be
experiment? divided into smaller parts.
a. Nucleus
b. Electrons 7) Who is “responsible” for the 2000-year
c. Neutrons “Death of Chemistry”?
a. Aristotle
d. Atoms
b. Democritus
3) In which model are atoms imagined as c. Thomson
tiny balls?
d. Dalton
a. Dalton
b. Thomson 8) J.J. Thomson provided evidence that an
c. Rutherford atom ………
a. is the smallest particle of matter
d. Bohr
b. contains negatively charged
4) What does atom mean? particles
c. has an overall negative charge
a. Small
d. has an overall positive charge
b. Visible
c. Indivisible 9) According to Dalton's atomic theory,
how are compounds formed?
d. Particle
a. 2 nuclei attract each other
5) Place the following scientists in order, b. ions are converted into the excited
from earliest to latest: state
A) Ernest Rutherford c. the joining of two or more atoms
B) J.J. Thomson d. through the release of alpha
particles
C) John Dalton
a. B, C, A
b. C, A, B
c. A, C, B
d. C, B, A
10) Rutherford concluded that the atom … 14) J.J. Thomson proved that cathode rays
were beams of ………
a. has a nucleus with a positive charge.
a. alpha particles
b. has a nucleus with a negative
b. atoms
charge.
c. is a small mass with negative and c. electrons
positive charges.
d. oil droplets
d. contains a nucleus without a charge.
15) In Rutherford’s gold foil experiment,
11) Who was the first person to come up
some of the alpha particles passed
with the Atomic Theory?
straight through the gold foil,
a. John Dalton
completely undeflected. What could
b. Democritus Rutherford conclude from this?
a. Alpha particles have a positive
c. Ernest Rutherford
charge.
d. J. J. Thomson b. Electrons have a positive charge.
12) The nuclear model of the atom held that: c. The atom is made up of mostly
empty space.
a. Electrons were randomly spread
d. There must be a small, positively
through "a sphere of uniform
charged dense area within the atom.
positive electrification.
16) Why is it improbable to be asked to
b. Matter was made of tiny electrically
draw an atom to scale?
charged particles that were smaller
a. The atom is too large.
than the atom.
c. Matter was made of tiny, indivisible b. The nucleus is much smaller than the
particles. atom itself.
d. The atom had a dense, positively c. Electrons do not orbit the nucleus.
charged nucleus.
d. Electrons move too slowly.
13) One of the following assumptions
represents Rutherford model and not 17) How Ernest Rutherford did know that
Thomson model. an atom was mostly empty space?
a. The atom has a positively charged a. As most particles passed straight
nucleus. through the foil.
b. The atom has negative electrons. b. As some particles were deflected.
c. The atom is a homogenous sphere c. As some particles went straight back.
of positive charges.
d. As none of the particles were
d. The atom is electrically neutral.
absorbed.
18) How did Rutherford discover protons? 23) Which diagram most closely represents
Thomson’s plum pudding model of the
a. Cathode tube ray experiment.
atom?
b. Gold Foil Experiment.
c. Planetary Model.
d. Plum Pudding Model. a.
19) The ratio of atoms in HCl is ………
a. 1:3
b. 2:1
c. 1:1
d. All answers apply. b.
20) Prior to experiments with cathode tubes,
the smallest particles that made up
matter were believed to be ……
a. atoms
b. corpuscles
c.
c. electrons
d. particles of rarefied air
21) Which theory of the atom came first?
a. Thomson’s plum pudding model
b. Dalton’s hard sphere model
d.
c. Bohr’s orbital model
d. Rutherford’s nuclear model
22) What proposition did Rutherford’s
nuclear model of the atom introduce 24) What experiment explained the
over the plum pudding model? existence of the tiny, negatively charged
a. That particles have mass but no electrons? Who performed it?
charge a. Cathode-ray tube experiment,
b. That electrons are swimming in a Dalton
positively charged sphere b. Gold foil experiment, Rutherford
c. That a small dense nucleus is in the c. Cathode-ray tube experiment,
center of the atom Thomson
d. That electron shells are of fixed d. Gold foil experiment, Thomson
radii
 Session (2): Bohr’s Model & Modern Atomic Theory
Atomic Spectra and its Explanation:
- The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of
electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon
energies.
- The ground state of an atom is the lowest energy state of the atom. When
those atoms are given energy (be heating or electric discharge), an excited
state is generated. An atom in the excited state is not stable. When it
returns back to the ground state, it releases the energy thatit had previously
gained in the form of electromagnetic radiation (Atomic emission spectra).
- Physics scientists were not able to explain the atomic emission spectra
phenomena.

- Each element shows a specific spectrum in the form of line (not

continuous) spectra which can be considered as a characteristic property of
this element (no two elements have the sameset of spectral lines).
 BOHR’S ATOMIC THEORY:
- Niels Bohr was a Danish physicist who made
foundational contributions to understanding atomic
structure, for which he received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1922.
- Bohr theory modified the atomic model by explaining
that electrons move in fixed orbits (energy levels)
and not anywhere in between and he also explained
that each orbit has a fixed energy.

- BOHR’S POSTULATES:

▪ Postulates adopted from Rutherford’s atomic theory:

➢ A positive nucleus exists at the atom’s center.
➢ The number of negative electrons equal the number of positive charges which
thenucleus carries.
➢ A centrifugal force rises due to electron rotation around the nucleus which is
compensated by the attraction force of the nucleus to the electrons.
▪ Postulates added by Bohr:
➢ Electrons orbit the nucleus rapidly without emitting or absorbing energy.
➢ Electrons orbit the nucleus only in a definite allowed energy level, and can’t be
foundin the intermediate distances between those levels.
➢ Each electron has a definite amount of energy depending on the distance between
its energy level and the nucleus, the farther the level from the nucleus (increasing
radius) the more its energy, where each energy level is expressed by a whole
number called the principal quantum number (n), for instance n = 1 for the first
energy level K, n = 2 for the second one L and so on.
➢ The electron remains in the lowest allowed energy level (closer to the nucleus) in its
ground state, if the electron acquires an amount of energy (quantum) by heating
or electric discharge, it becomes excited and jump (temporarily) to a higher energy
level according to the amount of energy gained, the excited electron is unstable and
will return to its original energy level soon, and during its return it losses the
same quantum of energy absorbed, but in the form of radiant light of a definite

wavelength and definite frequency producing a specific spectral line.

➢
➢ Bohr explained the spectral lines of hydrogen atom according to the fact that

multitude of atoms absorb different amount of energy resulting in excitation of

electron in all possible higher energy level (L, M, N, O, P, Q), and then the excited
electrons return back to all possible lower energy level (K, L, M, N, O, P) releasing
spectral lines (light) correspond to the difference in the energy of those energy
level.
➢ Bohr introduced the idea of quantized energy, which means that the
energy absorbed or emitted by the atom when an electron jumps from an
energy level to another is restricted to one of a set of values, and these values
are fixed (one quantum) and the electron doesn’t move from its energy level
to another unless the energy absorbed or emitted is equal to the difference
between the two levels (one quantum) and so there is no fractions of the
quantum.

➢ Bohr discovered that the differences (in energy and radii) between successive energy
levels are not equal, as the energy gap decreases further from the nucleus.
 - INADEQUACIES OF BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL:

➢ Bohr succeeds to explain the spectral line only in hydrogen atom but not for any
other element even helium which contains only two electrons.

➢ Bohr’s theory considered the electron as a negatively charged particle only, and
didn’t consider its wave properties.

➢ Bohr’s theory postulates that it is possible to determine precisely the location

and speed of an electron at the same time. But later researches show that its

impossible experimentally.

➢ Bohr’s describe the motion of electron to be in a circular planar path in its

orbit, meaning that the hydrogen atom is planar, but later on it was confirmed
to be 3D.

The Principles of Modern Atomic Theory:

o The modern atomic theory is the latest and most accepted theory of the atom and was basedon
essential modifications to Bohr’s model.

- The Dual Nature of electron:

➢ All previous models (Thomson,
Rutherford and Bohr) considered electron
as minute negatively charged particle.
Nevertheless, experimental data showed
that electron has a dual nature that it is a
material (particle) with wave properties.

- The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

➢ Heinsberg concluded that “the
determination of both the velocity
and the position of an electron at
the same time is practically
impossible”. Thus, to speak in the
language of probability is more
precise.
- Wave Mechanical Theory of the Atom:
➢ By applying ideas of Plank, Einstein, De Broglie and
Heisenberg, the Austrian scientist Schrödinger
established the wave mechanical theory of the atom.
➢ He also managed to derive a wave equation that could
describe the electron wave motion in the atom.
➢ By solving Schrödinger’s equation, it was possible to
determine the allowed energy levels and to define the
region of space around the nucleus where it is most
probable to findthe electron (orbital).
➢ As a result of Schrödinger’s work, the concept of electron
cloud was introduced to express the region of space
around the nucleus where it is possible to find the
electron in all distances and directions.
➢ Solving Schrödinger’s equation introduced the four
quantum numbers (n, l, ml and ms) which are used to
describe the position and energy of the electron in an
atom.
a.
 Assessment (Home Work)
Choose the correct answer:
1) This was the first model of the atom ever 5) The modern atomic theory modified the
proposed. It was simple and described inadequacy in Bohr’s atomic model by:
atoms as tiny spheres that could not be a. The electron has wave property
broken down into smaller pieces. only.
a. The "Plum Pudding Model". b. The electron is negative material
particle only.
a. The "Rutherford Model".
c. The nucleus is at the center of the
b. The “Democritus Model”. atom.
c. The "Quantum Mechanical Model". d. The electron has a dual nature.

2) Niels Bohr discovered ……… 6) "Each of hydrogen and helium atoms

contain one energy level".
a. that electrons orbit a nucleus. In the light of the previous statement,
b. that electrons gain or lose energy which of the following is correct?
when they jump levels. a. They differ in the atomic emission
c. that electrons can only orbit stably. spectrum.
b. They are equal in number of
d. All of the above.
electrons.
3) Which sequence shows the correct order c. They differ in the principal quantum
of discovery, with the earliest first? number.
a. Cathode rays, nuclear model, Plum d. They are similar in the atomic
Pudding model, quantum model. emission spectrum.
b. Cathode rays, Plum Pudding model, 7) What did Democritus, Dalton,
nuclear model, quantum model. Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr all
c. Cathode rays, Plum Pudding model, have in common?
quantum model, nuclear model. a. They each identified new isotopes
d. Plum Pudding model, cathode rays, of atoms.
nuclear model, quantum model. b. The each conducted experiments in
4) Electrons of the same atom share all but which particles collided.
one of the following characteristics: c. They each contributed to the
a. Charge development of the atomic theory.
d. They each identified new elements.
b. Mass
c. Energy
d. Size
8) How would you describe the nucleus? 13) Where are electrons likely to be found?
a. Dense, positively charged a. Mixed throughout an atom.
b. Dense, negatively charged. b. In the nucleus.
c. Mostly empty space, positively c. In electron clouds.
charged
d. In definite paths.
d. Tiny, negatively charged.
9) Which of the following was one of 14) Which of these is the correct description
Dalton's ideas? of an atom?
a. All substances are made of atoms. a. An atom is a cloud of energy
containing not matter.
b. Atoms can be divided.
b. An atom is mostly space, with
c. Atoms can be destroyed. protons and electrons chasing each
other in orbits.
d. Some substances are made of atoms.
c. An atom is mostly space, with
electrons orbiting a single nucleus
10) What is the smallest particle into which
containing protons and neutrons.
an element can be divided and still be the
d. An atom is a solid object and the
same substance?
smallest part of any material.
a. Proton
15) In Thomson's plum-pudding model of
b. Electron
the atom, the plums represent ………
c. Atom a. neutrons
d. Neutron b. protons
11) Electrons move from the negative end of c. atoms
the tube to the positive one during
d. electrons
cathode ray experiment as ………
a. they are of neglected mass 16) The modern atomic theory agrees with
b. they are of high speed Rutherford model in ………
a. Electrons have wave properties.
c. they are of negative charge
b. The atom is not solid.
d. they are of dual nature
c. The system of revolution of
12) Alpha particles used in Rutherford’s
electrons around the nucleus.
gold foil experiment can attract ………
d. The impossibility to determine both
a. a whole atom
the position and the velocity of
b. electrons electron accurately.
c. atom’s nucleus
d. protons
17) Which statement about atoms is true? 21) If an electron gains 10.2 eV it transfers
from level K to level L, to transfer the
a. A penny has more atoms than Earth
electron from level M to level L:
has people.
a. It loses energy equal 1.89 eV
b. A penny has about 20,000 atoms.
b. It gains energy equal 1.89 eV
c. Aluminum has large atoms.
c. It loses energy equal 10.2 eV
d. Aluminum atoms have a diameter
of about 3 cm. d. It gains energy equal 10.2 eV
18) In the Bohr model of the hydrogen
22) Which of the following is not considered
atom, which of the following is correct? a property of an electron?
a. The electron occupies the energy
a. It is a material particle.
level furthest from the nucleus to
generate its ground state. b. It has wave properties.
b. The electron occupies the energy c. It loses energy when it transfers
level nearest to the nucleus to from one energy level to a lower
generate its excited state. energy level.
c. The electron occupies the space d. It loses energy when revolving
between energy levels to generate around the nucleus.
its ground state. 23) During the transition of an electron in a
d. The electron occupies the energy hydrogen atom, photons are produced.
level nearest to the nucleus to Which of them will have the lowest
generate its ground state. wavelength?
19) The quantum mechanical model a. (n = 3) → (n = 2)
describes electrons as:
b. (n = 4) → (n = 3)
a. Particles
c. (n = 4) → (n = 1)
b. Waves
d. (n = 3) → (n = 1)
c. Particles with wave-like properties
24) Bohr’s model is distinguished from
d. Small, hard spheres
Rutherford model as it assumed that …
20) Who created an equation that could a. Electron revolves around the
describe the electron wave motion in the nucleus in fixed orbitals
atom? b. Electron shows a line spectrum
a. Heisenberg when losing a quantum of energy
b. Bohr c. Electron is a negative particle

c. Schrödinger d. Electron doesn’t show a line

spectrum when losing a quantum of
d. De Broglie
energy
 Session (3):
Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers: are set of four figures that provide a way to describe electrons; their energies,
distance from nucleus and other properties.

ELECTRONS ARE DESCRIBED BY FOUR QUANTUM NUMBERS:

First: Principal quantum number (n):

- Describes the distance of the electron
from the nucleus, and the relation is
direct.
- Defines the principal (main) energy level or
electron shell (K, L, M, N, …etc); as they
are given a whole number starting from 1,
2, 3, 4, …etc.
- Defines the number of electrons required
to fill a given energy level (2n2); but this
rule does not apply to energy levels higher
thanthe fourth level.
o For K, n = 1, number of allowed electrons = 2(1)2 = 2 electrons.

o For L, n = 2, number of allowed electrons = 2(2)2 = 8 electrons.

o For M, n = 3, number of allowed electrons = 2(3)2 = 18 electrons.

o For N, n = 4, number of allowed electrons = 2(4)2 = 32 electrons.

o For O, n = 5, number of allowed electrons = 32 electrons (not 2(5)2 = 50).

o For P, n = 6, number of allowed electrons = 18 electrons (not 2(6)2 = 72).

o For Q, n = 7, number of allowed electrons = 8 electrons (not 2(7)2 = 98)

- It was discovered that the atom becomes unstable if the number of electrons exceeds 32
inthe energy level.
- Till now seven principal energy levels were discovered in the heaviest known atom in
itsground state.
- The principal quantum number is limited to any whole number value, excluding zero.

- Each energy level is subdivided into number of sublevels which is further defined by
anotherquantum number (subsidiary quantum number).
 Second: Subsidiary quantum number (l):
- Describes the shape of the electron cloud in the sublevel.
- Indicates the energy sublevels within each principal energy level and their shapes.
- Each energy level consists of a number of energy sublevels equal to its principal quantum
number;
- i.e., the 1st energy level contains one sublevel (s),
- the 2nd energy level contains two sublevels (s and p),
- the 3rd contains three (s, p and d)
- the 4th contains four (s, p, d and f).
- Four energy sublevels were discovered which vary slightly in their energies
- (s < p < d < f).
- Each sublevel is assigned a number (subsidiary quantum number) as follows:
Sub level symbol s p d f

Value of Subsidiary quantum number (l) 0 1 2 3

- The allowed sublevels in each level can be calculated by the relation l = [0 : (n – 1)]:

Principal quantum no. (n) 1 2 3 4

Level Symbol K L M N

The relation [0 : (n – 1)] 0:0 0:1 0:2 0:3

Subsidiary quantum no. (l) 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3

Sublevel symbol 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f
- Note that only specific combinations of sublevels in each level are allowed, for instance:
o For the first energy level, only l = 0 is allowed.
o For the second energy level, only l = 0 and l = 1 are allowed.
 Third: Magnetic quantum number (ml):
- Describes the shape and number of orbitals at which the electrons present.

- Represents the number of orbitals within a certain energy sublevel and their direction in
thespace (spatial orientation).
- It’s represented by whole integers between –l, …, 0, …, +l.

o The (s) sublevel contains one orbital (0) of spherical symmetrical shape.

o The (p) sublevel contains three orbitals (–1, 0, +1) of dumb-bell shape.

▪ Each orbital is perpendicular to the other two, they met at a point

(node)where the density of electron is zero.
o The (d) sublevel contains five orbitals (–2, –1, 0, +1, +2).

o The (f) sublevel contains seven orbitals (–3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3).

Subsidiary quantum no. (l) 0 1 2 3

Sublevel symbol s p d f

Magnetic quantum no. (ml) 0 –1, 0, +1 –2, –1, 0, +1, +2 –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3

Number of orbitals 1 3 5 7

- Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.

 Fourth: Spin quantum number (ms):
- Defines the type of spin motion of the
electron and it only has two possible
values:
o Clock-wise spinning (ms = + 1\2½)

o Anticlock-wise spinning (ms = - 1\2).

- Being negatively charged, one would

expect the two electrons in the same
orbitals to repel each other, yet as a
result
of the opposite spinning, two opposite magnetic field arise creating an attraction force
that cancels out the repulsion.
 Assessment (Home Work)
Choose the correct answer:
6) Is the 5p orbital permitted?
1) How many orbitals in the d subshell?
a. Yes
a. 1 b. No
b. 3
7) For a principal quantum number, "n",
c. 5
equal to 3, what is the total electron
d. 7 capacity of that level?
a. 32
2) What is the correct representation for b. 14
an orbital which has an "n" value of 3 c. 18
and an "l" value of 1? d. 16
a. 3s
b. 3p 8) What is the “l” quantum number for an
f orbital?
c. 3d a. 0
d. 3f b. 1
3) The 4th energy level (n = 4) has how c. 2
many total orbitals? d. 3
a. 2
b. 4 9) For a p sublevel, "l" equals ………
a. 0
c. 8 b. 1
d. 16 c. 2
d. 3
4) How many electrons can the first energy
level hold? 10) There are 4 different types of subshells
a. 1 s, p, d, f.
b. 2 a. True
b. False
c. 8
d. 0 11) The magnetic quantum number
describes the:
5) The set of orbitals that are dumbbell a. Number of electrons.
shaped and directed along the x, y, and b. Average distance of the most
z axes are called … electron-dense regions from the
a. d orbitals nucleus.
b. p orbitals c. Spatial orientation of the orbital.
c. f orbitals d. Shape of the nucleus.
d. s orbitals
12) The principal quantum no. is related to: 18) What are the quantum numbers that
a. Number of electrons. describe a 3p orbital?
b. Average distance of the most a. n = 3, l = 1, ml = +1
electron-dense regions from the b. n = 3, l = 1, ml = 0
nucleus. c. n = 3, l = 1, ml = −1
c. Spatial orientation of the orbital. d. All of the previous
d. Shape of the orbital.

13) Which of the following sets is not an 19) What quantum number describes the
acceptable set of quantum numbers? energy level and size of an orbital?
a. n = 2, l = 1, ml = −1 a. l
b. n = 3, l = 3, ml = +3 b. ml
c. n = 2, l = 1, ml = +1 c. ms
d. n = 3, l = 1, ml = −1 d. n

14) Is the following a valid or invalid set of

quantum numbers: (1, 1, +1, –½) 20) Quantum Numbers are solutions of ……
a. Valid a. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
b. Invalid b. Einstein’s mass energy relation
c. Schrodinger’s Wave Equation
15) How many orbitals are in the 5s d. Hamiltonian Operator
subshell?
a. 2
b. 5 21) Which quantum numbers gives the shell
c. 1 to which the electron belongs?
d. 3 a. n
b. l
16) How many orbitals are in 4d subshell? c. ml
a. 3 d. ms
b. 6
c. 4
d. 5 22) What is the maximum number of
electrons in a shell?
17) How many total electrons can the ‘p’ a. n
orbitals hold? b. 2n
a. 1 c. n2
b. 6 d. 2n2
c. 7
d. 3
23) Which of the following quantum 28) What are the possible values of l when
numbers gives the shape of atomic the principal quantum number is 3?
orbital of sub-shell? a. 0, 1, 2
a. n b. 1, 2, 3
b. l c. 1, 2
c. ml d. 0, 1, 2, 3
d. ms
29) The probability of finding an electron is
24) What is the range of Azimuthal uniform in every direction is in which
(subsidiary) Quantum Number, l? orbital?
a. 0 to n a. s
b. 0 to s b. p
c. 0 to n–1 c. d
d. 0 to s–1 d. f
25) The total values of the magnetic
quantum number are ………
30) The second principal energy level
a. 2n
has ……. containing ……… and ………
b. 2l
a. 1 sublevel, 2 s orbitals, 3 p orbitals
c. 2n + 1
b. 3 sublevels, 1 s orbital, 2 p orbitals
d. 2l + 1
c. 2 sublevels, 2 s orbitals, 6 p orbitals
d. 2 sublevels, 1 s orbital, 3 p orbitals
26) Which of the following are the possible
values of the magnetic quantum
number, ml, when l = 1? 31) Which of the following expresses the
a. −1, 0, +1 number of orbitals in each level?
b. −2, −1, 0, +1, +2 a. 2n2
c. +2, +1, 0, −1, −2 b. 2l + 1
d. +1, 0, −1 c. n2
d. 2l − 1
27) Which of the following can be the
quantum numbers for an orbital? 32) The values n = 2 and l = 0 represent the
a. n = 4, l = 4 and ml = +3 last electron in the sublevel ………
b. n = 2, l = 3 and ml = +1 a. 2s
c. n = 3, l = 2 and ml = –1 b. 3p
d. n = 3, l = 0 and ml = –3 c. 2p
d. 1s
 Session (4): Principles of Distributing Electrons
In chemistry, the electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom in atomic
orbitals. For example, the electron configuration of the neon atom is 1s2 2s2 2p6, meaning that
the 1s, 2s and 2p sublevels are occupied by 2, 2 and 6 electrons respectively.
As electrons’ number and their distribution in energy levels around the nucleus determine the
behavior of atoms, we shall study the rules that govern these distributions in details.
Electrons are distributed according to three rules:
1-Pauli’s exclusion principle:

- “It is impossible for two electrons in a poly-electron atom to

have the same values of the four quantum numbers: n, l, ml,
ms”

- The true meaning of this principle is that every electron in an

atom must be different from others in at least one of the four
quantum numbers, as:
o If two electrons are in the same energy level (same n), they can be in the same or
indifferent sublevel (l).
o If two electrons are in the same sublevel (same l), they can be in the same or
indifferent orbital(s) (ml).
o If two electrons are in the same orbital (same ml), they must have different
spinning(different ms).

- If someone wrote down two sets of quantum

numbers for two electrons in the same atom and
he/she finds out that the four quantum numbers
are identical, it’s a violation of Pauli’s exclusion
principle, because it’s impossible for two
electrons to be in the same energy level, same
sublevel, same orbital and have the same spin, at
least they must have opposite spin.
 2-Aufbau’s (building-up) principle:
- “Electrons fill atomic orbitals (sublevels) of the
lowestavailable energy before occupying higher
levels.”

- According to the figure, the arrangement of

sublevels ascendingly according to their energies is:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f,5d,
6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p.

- A useful way to determine which sublevel is higher or

lower in energy is to use the formula (n + l) and the greater the result the higher the energy:

o 4s vs. 3d: 4s (4 + 0 = 4), 3d (3 + 2 = 5) » 4s < 3d so electrons occupy 4s first.

o 5p vs 4f: 5p (5 + 1 = 6), 4f (4 + 3 = 7) » 5p < 4f so electrons occupy 5p first.

- Keep in mind that each sublevel can hold up to a

maximumnumber of electrons (s1:2, p1:6, d1:10 and f1:14).

- The configuration shows the energy level of each electron

which indicates its principal quantum number (n) and its
sublevel which indicates its subsidiary quantum number (l).

- An abbreviation (noble gas notation) is usually used to make the process of distributing
electrons easier, in the abbreviated notation, the sequence of completely filled subshells
that correspond to the electronic configuration of a noble gas is replaced with the
symbol of that noble gas in square brackets. For instance, the electron configuration of
sodium (1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1) is abbreviated to [Ne] 3s1 (the electron configuration of Neon is
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, whichcan be abbreviated to [He] 2s2 2p6).
 3-Hund’s rule (bus seat rule):
- “The orbitals of the subshell are each occupied singly with electrons of parallel spin before
double occupation occurs.”
- The reason for this is that pairing of electrons
in the same orbital and facing repulsion force
decreases the stability of the atom (increases
its energy) even though their spinning is in the
opposite direction, that’s why electrons prefer
to occupy orbitals single as much as possible.

- Electrons of the neighboring orbitals has same

spinning direction (all clock-wise ms = +1\2½ or all
anti clock-wise ms = -1\2–½) and this gives the
atom maximum stability.
- Also pairing two electrons requires energy, but
it’s still better than jumping to a higher
sublevel, as in oxygen (8O: 1s2, 2s2, 2p4) the
fourth electron in the 2p sublevel will pair with
first one instead of jumping to the next

sublevel (3s).

-
↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿
 Assessment (Home Work)
Choose the correct answer:
1) The "up" and "down" arrows in 6) What neutral atom is represented by the
electron orbital notation depict ……… following configuration: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
a. protons & electrons 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p5?
b. protons & neutrons a. Iodine
c. electrons with opposite spins b. Bromine
d. electrons with opposite charges c. Zinc
d. Lead
2) Which atomic sub-level will follow 5d?
a. 6s 7) Which of the following noble gas
b. 6p configurations is correct for iron?
c. 5f a. (Kr) 5s2, 4d3
d. 4f b. (Kr) 5s2, 4d5
c. (Ar) 4s2, 3d6
3) If electrons in an atom have the lowest d. (Ar) 5s2, 4d3
possible energies, the atom is in the
ground state. 8) Which of the following is the correct
a. True electron configuration for the bromide
b. False ion, Br–?
a. [Ar] 4s2 4p5
4) What neutral atom is represented by the b. [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
following configuration: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, c. [Ar] 4s23d104p6
3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p4? d. [Ar] 4s2 3d10 3p6
a. Silicon
b. Selenium 9) Which one of the following statements is
c. Silver correct?
d. Sulphur a. The 3d sub level is filled before the
4s sub level.
5) What neutral atom is represented by the b. The 3rd principal energy level only
following configuration: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, contains 8 electrons.
3p1? c. Principal energy levels get closer
a. Aluminum together as they get further from the
b. Sodium nucleus.
c. Boron d. Orbitals are always filled in
d. Silicon numerical order.
10) Which of the following elements has the 14) Which is the first element to have 4d
largest number of electrons for which electrons in its electron configuration?
the principal quantum number, n, is 3? a. Ca
a. Na b. Sc
b. Al c. Rb
c. Si d. Y
d. Cl
15) Which one of the following statements
11) Which one of the following statements about orbitals is incorrect?
about s orbitals is incorrect? a. Orbitals can hold up to two
a. They are found in all principal electrons.
energy levels b. Orbitals are regions in space where
b. They are spherical in shape one is likely to find an electron.
c. The maximum no. of s orbitals in c. Orbitals can hold two electrons
any principal level is 1 provided they are spinning in the
d. They can only hold one electron same direction.
d. s, p, d and f orbitals are possible.
12) Which one of the following statements
about p orbitals is incorrect? 16) The electronic configuration of an atom
a. They are found in all principal of an element with atomic number 8 is ...
energy levels. a. 1s2 2s6
b. Each p orbital can hold up to two b. 1s2 2s2 2p6
electrons. c. 2s2 2p6
c. There are three types of p orbital. d. 1s2 2s2 2p4
d. They have a dumb-bell shape. 17) Which one of the following is not the
electronic configuration of atom of a
13) Which one of the following statements noble gas?
about d orbitals is incorrect? a. 1s2
a. They are not found in the first two b. 1s2 2s2
principal energy levels. c. 1s2 2s2 2p6
b. They are associated with transition d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
elements. 18) The order of filling orbitals is ………
c. There are 5 types of d orbital. a. 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p
d. d orbitals are filled before p orbitals b. 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4p, 3d
in the same principal energy level. c. 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p
d. 4p, 4s, 3d, 3p, 3s, 2p, 2s, 1s
19) Hund's Rule states that ……… 24) Which of the atom pairs both have only
a. you must not sit next to another three unpaired electrons in their d
person on a bus orbitals?
b. electrons enter the lowest available a. 22Ti and 23V
energy level b. 22Ti and 27Co
c. an orbital can hold up to two c. 23V and 24Cr
electrons d. 23V and 27Co
d. electrons in similar energy orbitals 25) Which of the following atoms has the
remain unpaired as far as possible greatest number of unpaired electrons?
20) What is the electronic configuration of a a. 22Ti
sodium ion Na+? b. 23V
a. 1s2 2s2 2p6 c. 26Fe
b. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 d. 25Mn
c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 26) Which statement about chromium is
d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 incorrect?
21) What is the electronic configuration of a. Chromium is a transition metal.
an oxide ion O2–? b. The electronic configuration of
a. 1s2 2s2 2p2 chromium atoms is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
b. 1s2 2s2 2p4 3p6 4s1 3d5.
c. 1s2 2s2 2p5 c. The electronic configuration of
d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 chromium atoms is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
22) Which one of the following is not 3p6 4s2 3d4.
isoelectronic with the others? d. Chromium has an atomic number of
a. F− 24.
b. Ne 27) Which statement about copper is
c. Na+ incorrect?
d. Mg+ a. The electronic configuration of
23) Which one of the following ions has an Cu+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10.
electronic configuration similar to b. The electronic configuration of
Argon? Cu2+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9.
a. Ti+ c. The electronic configuration of
b. Ti2+ copper atoms is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
c. Ti3+ 4s1 3d10.
d. Ti4+ d. The electronic configuration of
copper atoms is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4s2 3d9.
28) All orbitals of equal energy are occupied 32) An electron occupies the lowest energy
by one electron before any single orbital orbital that can receive it.
is occupied by a second electron. a. Hund’s rule
a. Aufbau principle b. Pauli exclusion principle
b. Pauli exclusion principle c. Bohr model of the atom
c. Hund’s rule d. Aufbau principle
d. Core Notation
33) The two electrons in a helium atom
29) Which guideline: Aufbau’s, Hund’s rule occupy ……… orbital(s) and have
or the Pauli Exclusion Principle, is ……… electron spins.
violated in the following a. the same; the same
orbital diagrams? b. the same; opposite
c. different; the same
d. different; different
a. Hund's
b. Aufbau's 34) Two electrons in an atom may have their
c. Pauli's Exclusive first three quantum numbers the same
as long as they have opposite spins.
30) No two electrons in the same atom can a. True
have the same four quantum numbers. b. False
a. Aufbau principle
b. Pauli exclusion principle 35) When a barium atom loses two electrons
c. Hund’s rule to form Ba2+ ion, the electrons are lost
d. Noble gas notation from the ………
a. 5s orbital
31) What is incorrect about this orbital b. 5p orbital
diagram? c. 4f orbital
d. 6s orbital
a. Both arrows in the 2p box should be
pointing up 36) How many energy levels does an atom of
b. There is nothing incorrect with this Chlorine have?
diagram a. 2
c. All the arrows should be pointing b. 3
up. c. 4
d. In the 2p box there should only be 1 d. 7
electron in the first 2p box and one
in the 2nd 2p box
 Session (1) The long form periodic table
Assessments

Session (2) Trends and Periodicity of properties in the periodic table

Assessments

Session (3) Cont. Periodicity of properties in the periodic table

Assessments

Session (4) Oxidation number

Assessments

Name: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Group: ……………………………………………………
 SESSION (1)
THE LONG FORM PERIODIC TABLE
The periodic table was first constructed to arrange all elements in a way that eases their
study and predict their properties.
Many attempts have been made to make a suitable organized table, the most recent one (long
form)was achieved after the discovery of the real energy levels (sublevels) and after reaching
the buildingup (Aufbau) principle.

CRITERIA OF CONSTRUCTING THE LONG FORM PERIODIC TABLE:

- Elements arranged in ascending sequence
according to atomic number
(number of protons or electrons).
1H, 2He, 3Li, 4Be, 5B, 6C, 7N, 8O, 9F,

10Ne, 11Na, 12Mg, 13Al, 14Si, 15P, 16S,

17Cl, 18Ar, 19K, 20Ca, …etc.

Sequence of filling the actual energy levels (sublevels) according to Aufbau:

1s 2s, 2p 3s, 3p 4s, 3d, 4p 5s, 4d, 5p 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
 Description of the Long Form Periodic Table
The arrangement of elements in the periodic table depends mainly on their electronic configuration and
we can relate elements’ locations in the periodic table to their configuration after classifying them into
groups, periods (energy levels) and blocks (sublevels) as following:

- Vertical Groups:
o Consists of 18 vertical groups (sum of electrons in s, p and d sublevels).
o Each group contains elements similar in properties as their highest energy level have
identical electron composition (but the principal quantum number increases one as
we go down the group).

- Horizontal Periods:
o Consists of 7 horizontal periods similar to the 7 main energy level.
o Each period begins by filling a new energy level of a larger principal quantum number.
o Across the period sublevels are filled with electrons successively:
▪ s-sublevel in period 1.
▪ s-sublevel then p-sublevel in period 2 and 3.
▪ s-sublevel then d-sublevel then p-sublevel in period 4 and 5.
▪ s-sublevel then f-sublevel then d-sublevel then p-sublevel in period 6 and 7.
o Each period ends with a noble gas with a completely filled p-sublevel (except He).

- Blocks:
o Elements are classified into four main zones or blocks based on the last sublevel
containing electrons in the element.
 FOUR MAIN ZONES OR BLOCKS:
- s-block:
o Contains the elements whom outer most electrons occupy the s-sublevel.
o Found at the left in the periodic table.
o Consists of two vertical groups (as the s-sublevel can take up to
twoelectrons):
▪ Group I-A (1) whose elements end by the ns1.
▪ Group II-A (2) whose elements end by the ns2.
- p-block:
o Contains the elements whom outer most electrons occupy
thep-sublevel.
o Found at the right in the periodic table.
o Consists of six vertical groups (as the p-sublevel can take up
to six electrons):
▪ Group III-A (13) whose elements end by the ns2, np1.
▪ Group IV-A (14) whose elements end by the ns2, np2.
▪ Group V-A (15) whose elements end by the ns2, np3.
▪ Group VI-A (16) whose elements end by the ns2, np4.
▪ Group VII-A (15) whose elements end by the ns2, np5.
▪ Group Zero (18) whose elements end by the ns2, np6.

The elements of the s and p blocks (except noble gases) are known as the
representative elements or the main group elements and they include all the A-
groups.
- d-block:
o Contains the elements whom outer most electrons occupy the d-sublevel.
o Found at the middle in the periodic table.
o Consists of ten vertical columns (as the d-sublevel can take up to ten electrons):
▪ Group III-B (3) whose elements end by the ns2, (n-1)d1.
▪ Group IV-B (4) whose elements end by the ns2, (n-1)d2.
▪ Group V-B (5) whose elements end by the ns2, (n-1)d3. Groups 8, 9 and 10
▪ Group VI-B (6) whose elements end by the ns1, (n-1)d5. Are all numbered(VIII) and
considered as one group as their
▪ Group VII-B (7) whose elements end by the ns2, (n-1)d5.
elements are more similar
▪ Group VIII (8) whose elements end by the ns2, (n-1)d6. horizontally thanvertically.
▪ Group VIII (9) whose elements end by the ns2, (n-1)d7.
▪ Group VIII (10) whose elements end by the ns2, (n-1)d8.
▪ Group I-B (11) whose elements end by the ns1, (n-1)d10.
▪ Group II-B (12) whose elements end by the ns2, (n-1)d10.
Seven of the ten columns belong to B-groups and the other three belong to group VIII and they are
included in the same group as these elements are similar horizontally.
The d-block elements are called transition elements as their properties are transitional between
highly reactive metallic elements of s-block which are ionic in nature and the elements of p-block
which are covalent in nature.

o The d-block elements can be classified horizontally into four series:

▪ First transition series: [3d1 : 3d10]
• Placed in the fourth period.
• Consists of elements from 21Sc [18Ar] 4s2 3d1 to 30Zn [18Ar] 4s2 3d10.
▪ Second transition series: [4d1 : 4d10]
• Placed in the fifth period.
• Consists of elements from 39Y [36Kr] 5s2 4d1 to 48Cd [36Kr] 5s2 4d10.
▪ Third transition series: [5d1 : 5d10]
• Placed in the sixth period.
• Consists of elements from 57La [54Xe] 6s2 5d1 to 80Hg [54Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10.
▪ Fourth transition series: [6d1 : 6d10]
• Placed in the seventh period.
• Consists of elements from 89Ac [86Rn] 7s2 6d1 to 112Cn [86Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10.

- f-block:
o Contains the elements whom outer most electrons occupy the f-sublevel.
o Usually separated from the table (below it) so the table is not too wide.
o Consists of fourteen vertical columns (as the f-sublevel can take up to fourteen electrons):
▪ Elements end by the ns2, (n–1)d0–1, (n–2)f1–14.
o The f-block elements can be classified horizontally into two series:
▪ Lanthanides: [4f1 : 4f14]
• Placed in the sixth period.
• Consists of elements from 58Ce [54Xe] 6s2 5d1 4f1 to 80Lu [54Xe] 6s2 5d1 4f14.
• All of them share the same outer most energy level configuration 6s2,
so they are quite similar in behaviour and hence very difficult to be
separated and thus called rare earths.
▪ Actinides: [5f1 : 5f14]
• Placed in the seventh period.
• Consists of elements from 90Th [86Rn] 7s2 6d2 5f0 to 103Lr [86Rn] 7s2 5f14 7p1.
• All of them are radioactive and their nuclei are unstable.
The f-block elements are known as inner transition as the last electron enters theanti-penultimate
energy level (4th or 5th), which is inner to the penultimate energy level (5th or 6th) in which the last
electron of d-block elements enters. Thus, d-block elements are called transition, and f-block elements
are called inner transition.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO THEIR PROPERTIES:

- Noble gases:
o They are the elements of the last column of the p-block (group zero or 18).
o Their electronic structure ends with np6 except Helium which ends with 1s2.
o Their valence (last) energy level is completely filled with electrons, so they are very
stable elements (don’t lose, gain or share electrons) and don’t form compounds, but they
can withgreat difficulty.

- Representative elements:
o They are the elements of the s-block and p-block (except group zero).
o Their electronic structure ends with ns1, ns2, np1, np2, np3, np4, np5 or np6.
o All their energy levels are completely filled with electrons except the valence (last)
energy level which is not completely filled with electrons, and that’s why they tend to
lose, gain or share electrons and form compounds to reach a complete configuration like
that of noblegases (either 1s2 or ns2, np6).
o These elements comprise
of some metals, all non -
metalsand metalloids.
These elements are the
elements which are found
in nature inabundance
and active in nature. All
types of valences are
observed in the case of
these elements (1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 and 7). On account of
this these elements are
calledrepresentative
elements.
- Main transition elements:
o They are the elements of the d-block.
o Their electronic structure ends with ns1:2 (n-1)d1:10.
o Their last two energy levels (n and n-1) are not completely filled with electrons.

- Inner transition elements:

o They are the elements of the f-block.
o Their electronic structure ends with ns2 (n-1)d1, (n-2)f1:14.
o Their last three energy levels (n, n-1 and n-2) are not completely filled with electrons.
 Assessment (Home Work)
Choose the correct answer:

1. Each element in the periodic table is assigned a number called the atomic number. This is
equalto ………
a. the number of protons and neutrons in each atom of that element.
b. the number of neutrons in each atom of that element.
c. the number of protons plus the number of electrons in each atom of that element.
d. the number of protons in each atom of that element.

2. The category of elements that is characterized by the filling of f-orbitals is the …………
a. alkali metals b. transition elements
c. alkaline earth metals d. inner transition metals

3. In which group does this atom belong?

a. 1
b. 3
c. 13
d. 11

4. Based on their locations in the periodic table, which element has chemical properties most
similarto those of Calcium, Ca?
a. Beryllium, Be b. Potassium, K
c. Titanium, Ti d. Yttrium, Y

5. According to the Periodic Table of the Elements, which set of elements has similar
properties?
a. H, C, I b. He, H, Al
c. He, Ne, Ar d. Na, Ca, Al

6. Locate the box in Group 18 in the fourth period. Predict the state of matter and the
chemicalreactivity of the element that belongs in that box.
a. The element is a gas, one of the halogen gases. It does not ordinarily react with other
elements.
b. The element is a gas, one of the noble gases. It does ordinarily react with other elements.
c. The element is a gas, one of the noble gases. It does not ordinarily react with other elements.
d. The element is a gas, hydrogen gas. It does ordinarily react with other elements.
 7. Elements that form diatomic molecules, or molecules of two atoms each, are commonly
found onthe ……… side of the periodic table.
a. left b. right c. top d. bottom

8. What are the elements in group 18 (the far right) of the periodic table
called?
a. Alkali metals b. Alkaline earth metals
c. Noble gases d. Halogens

9. Fill in the blank: The following statements are valid for the p-block of the periodic table
except forthat ……
a. it consists of groups 13–18.
b. it is located at the leftmost part of the periodic table.
c. the valence electrons of their elements are in the p-orbital.
d. it contains nonmetals, metalloids, and some metals.

10. Which of the following shows a period in the Periodic Table?

a. b.

c. d.
 11. In which group of the periodic table is there an atom with a valence shell electron
configurationof (n−1)d5 ns1?
a. 4B b. 5B c. 6A d. 6B

12. Which of the following shows a group in the Periodic Table?

a. b.

c. d.
13. Periods ……… in the periodic table contain all four types of elements (representative, noble,
maintransition and inner transition).
a. 3 & 4 b. 6 & 7 c. 5 & 6 d. 1 & 2

14. Fill in the blank: The following statements are valid for the s-block of the periodic table
except forthat ……
a. it consists of groups 1-18.
b. it includes alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.
c. it is located at the leftmost part of the periodic table.
d. the valence electrons of their elements are in the s-orbital.
 15. The element with the configuration [54Xe] 6s2 4f7 5d1 is a(an) ………
a. Noble gas
b. Main transition element
c. Representative element
d. Inner transition element

16. The ratio between the number of elements in period one to those of period four is ………

a. 1/2 b. 1/9
c. 1/4 d. 1/16

17. Group ……… contains the least number of elements.

a. 1A b. 13
c. 1B d. 18

18. Which of the following shows inner transition elements in the Periodic Table?

a. b.

c. d.
 19. Each group within the representative elements, shares which characteristic?
a. Same number of electrons in their atoms.
b. Same number of occupied orbitals in their atoms.
c. Same number of valence electrons in their atoms.
d. Same number of energy levels in their atoms.

20. Which of the following is true about the electronic configurations of noble gases?
a. The electrons with the highest energy are in s- or p-sublevel.
b. The electrons with the highest energy are in p- or d-sublevel.
c. The electrons with the highest energy are in s- or d-sublevel.
d. The electrons with the highest energy are in d- or f-sublevel.

21. Which two atomic numbers represent elements that are more
similar?a. 48 & 49
b. 44 & 45
c. 54 & 55
d. 56 & 57

22. Elements ending with ns2 (n−2)f14 (n−1)d2 are placed in …… in the long form periodic table.
a. Group 2
b. Group 4B
c. Group 2A
d. Group 12

23. Which of these belong to the same period?

Element A B C
Quantum numbers of the last electron (5, 0, 0, +½) (6, 1, −1, +½) (4, 2, +2, −½)

a. A and B b. B and C
c. A and C d. A, B and C

24. Which of these belong to the same group?

Element A B C
Quantum numbers of the last electron (5, 2, −2, −½) (6, 1, +1, +½) (4, 2, −2, −½)

a. A and B b. B and C
c. A and C d. A, B and C
 SESSION (2)
TRENDS AND PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
We have already studied how elements are arranged in the periodic table, and how the location of
the elements in the table is relevant and related to its electronic configuration, and as the physical
and chemical properties of elements mainly depend on their electronic configuration, then those
properties must be related to the location on the elements in the table, and also as the elements are
arranged in amanner that each element is one electron more.
We will concentrate this year on the properties of the elements of the main groups
(s and p blocks)only and next year God willing we will study the main transition elements (d block).
Among the physical properties of atoms are: atomic radius, melting and boiling points, and
density, we will study the atomic radius only now and the rest will be studied later on.
Among the chemical properties of atoms are: ionization potential (ionization energy), electron
affinity, electronegativity, metallic and non-metallic properties, acidic and basic properties and
finally the oxidation number.

The Atomic Radius

✓ In classical geometry, a radius of a circle or sphere is any of
the line segments from its center to its perimeter.
✓ But when dealing with atoms, and after the new discoveries
of the wave mechanical theory, it’s impossible to determine
the precise location of an electron, and hence nor the
perimeter of the atom neither its radius can be defined or
physically measure. So, we can’t define the atomic radius as
the distance from the nucleus to the farthest electron.
Instead, it’s defined as:

“Half the distance between the centers of two similar atoms in a molecule.”
The bond length in chlorine molecule (Cl–Cl) is 1.98 Å and the bond length between carbon and
chlorine atoms (C–Cl) = 1.76 Å. Calculate theatomic radius of carbon.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 (𝑪𝒍) = 𝑩𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝟏.𝟗𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 Å
𝟐 =
𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕 Å

Using the same method as in the previous

practice, the atomic radii of most elements
have been calculated and recorded, as in the
opposite table.
If you look carefully at the atomic radii of the
elements in the previous table you will notice a
repeated trends and that is what we call
atomic radius trend or periodicity.
You can notice that atomic radii decrease
across periods as the atomic number increases
(from left to right), and increase across groups
as the atomic number increases (from top to
bottom), and we shall study the reasonsfor that
as following:
-
- Atomic Radius Trend in Horizontal Periods:
o The decrease in atomic size is due to the
increase in the effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
which is the actual nuclear charge that affects
an electron and control its distance from the
nucleus.
o The effective nuclear charge is always less
than the nuclear charge (number of protons)
due to the screening effect of the inner (core)
electrons which consume part of the charge.
o In any given period, the biggest atom is that
of the first group (1A) and the smallest atom is that of the seventh group (Halogen).
- Atomic Radius Trend in Vertical Groups:
o The increase in atomic size is due:
▪ The effect of the extra shells of electrons being added.
▪ The inner filled orbitals which have a screening effect on the nuclear charge.
▪ The increased repulsive force between electrons.

The Ionic Radius

In ionic compounds, the radii can be
measured in the same technique, but notice
that the atoms are not in its original neutral
state due to the loss and the gain of electrons,
and the compound is in the form of crystals
constructedof cations (+ve ions) and anions (–
ve ions) which have different radii from
neutral atoms, and hence it’s called in this
case ionic radii not atomic radius. And the
ionic radii depend on the types of the atom as
well as the number of electrons lost or gained
as following:
- Positive Ions:
o This happens in case of
metalslike sodium, iron, …etc.
It’s observed that the radius
of cations is smaller than that
of the atoms. And this is due
to the increasing pull of the
effective nuclear charge on
the remaining electrons. And
the more electrons the atoms
lose, the smaller their radii
become.
- Negative Ions:
o This happens in case of non-metals like chlorine, oxygen, …etc. It’s observed that the radius
of anions is larger than that of the atoms. And this is due to the increase in the number of
electrons that is not compensated by an increase in the nuclear charge.
 Ionization Potential
We have already studied in Bohr’s experiment that when an
electron gains a quantum of energy it gets excited and jump to a
higher energy level, what if the electron gains a quantum larger
than that required for it to transfer to the highest possible energy
level? The answer is obvious, it will be completely separated and
removed out of the atom leaving behind a positive ion. The energy
that does so is called ionization energy.

“It is the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron
completelyfrom an isolated gaseous atom.”

Because an input of energy is required, the ionization energy is always positive (>0). Larger values mean
that the electron is more tightly bound to the atom and harder to remove. Typical units for ionization
energies are kilojoules/mole (kJ/mol) or electron volts (eV).
The opposite diagram shows the first ionization
potentials for representative elements, you can notice
a trend across periods and also across groups, and this
can be explained as following:
- Ionization Potential Trend in
Horizontal Periods:
o The increase in ionization potential is
due to the increase in the effective
nuclear charge (Zeff) and the
decrease
in the atomic radius leading to increasing the nuclear attraction to the valence electrons, thus they
need higher energy to remove them from the atom.
- Ionization Potential Trend in Vertical Groups:
o The decrease in ionization potential is due to the extra shells of electrons being added
which increase the atomic radius which lead to decreasing the nuclear attraction to
the valence electrons, thus they need less energy to remove them from the atom.

o We can say that the ionization potential is inversely

proportional to the atomic radius.
 Atomic Number

The 1st ion. pot. of noble gases is very high, this is due to the stability of their electronic configuration
and the difficulty to remove an electron from a completely filled level.

- Successive Ionization Potential:

Since it’s possible to remove one, two, three, …etc. electron(s) from most atoms, there are first,
second, third, …etc. ionization energies.
The amount of energy needed to remove successive electrons increases steadily. We can define a
first ionization energy, a second ionization energy, and in general an nth ionization energy according
to the following reactions:

Energy required to remove the first 𝑰𝑷𝟏

electron from a neutral atom. 𝑬(𝒈) →−−−−−→ 𝑬+ + 𝒆−
First IP
(𝒈)
Energy required to remove the second 𝑰𝑷𝟐
electron from a monovalent cation. 𝑬+ →−−−−−→ 𝑬𝟐+ + 𝒆−
Second IP
(𝒈) (𝒈)
Energy required to remove the third 𝑰𝑷𝟑
electron from a divalent cation. 𝑬𝟐+ →−−−−−→ 𝑬𝟑+ + 𝒆−
Third IP
(𝒈) (𝒈)
Energy required to remove the fourth 𝑰𝑷𝟒
electron from a trivalent cation. 𝑬𝟑+ →−−−−−→ 𝑬𝟒+ + 𝒆−
Fourth IP
(𝒈) (𝒈)
Energy required to remove the fifth 𝑰𝑷𝟓
electron from a tetravalent cation. 𝑬𝟒+ →−−−−−→ 𝑬𝟓+ + 𝒆−
Fifth IP
(𝒈) (𝒈)
 The following table shows the successive ionization energies of some elements, notice the second
ionization energy is always higher than the first, and the third is always higher than the second and
so on, this is due to the increase in the effective nuclear charge after losing an electron. But at some
point, for each element there is an ionization energy that is much greater than the one before, and
thiscorrespond to breaking up a completely filled shell.

Let’s talk about magnesium for instance, magnesium has two completely filled shells (K and L), and
has two electrons in the third energy level (3s2), it’s easy for magnesium to lose those two electrons
and it require relatively low energies, +737 kJ/mol and +1450 kJ/mol respectively, while losing the
third one (from the completely filled L-shell) requires much greater energy, +7730 kJ/mol.

𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈
+737 𝑴𝒈+ +1450 𝑴𝒈𝟐+ +𝟕𝟕𝟑𝟎 𝑴𝒈𝟑+
→−−−−−→ →−−−−−−→ →−−−−−−→
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
1s2, 2s2, 2p6 1s2, 2s2, 2p5
𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

What you can interpret about magnesium is not the case for all elements, for instance, nitrogen has
one completely filled shell (K), and has five electrons in the second energy level (2s2, 2p3), it’s
relatively easy for nitrogen to lose those five electrons and it require relatively low energies, +1402
kJ/mol, +2856 kJ/mol, +4578 kJ/mol, +7475 kJ/mol and +9445 kJ/mol respectively, while losing the
sixth one (from the completely filled K-shell) requires much greater energy, +53267 kJ/mol.
 Electron Affinity
We have just studied that removing an electron from an atom
requires energy (IP), you might think that adding an electron to
an atom releases energy, well, your thinking is correct, and this
releasedenergy is called electron affinity.

“It is the amount of energy released when an extraelectron

is added to a neutral gaseous atom.”

Electron affinity can be illustrated as following:

𝑬(𝒈) + 𝒆− →−→ 𝑬− + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝑬(𝒈) + 𝒆− →−→ 𝑬−(𝒈) ∆𝑯 = −𝒗𝒆
(𝒈)
Also the concept of electron affinity is the exact opposite of ionization potential (electron
affinity is the energy released while ionization potential is the energy absorbed, electron affinity
corresponds to electron gain while ionization potential corresponds to electron lost), they follow
the same trend and periodicity, nevertheless, electron affinities of successive elements have
many abnormalities, theperiodicity and abnormalities will be explained in some details.
- Electron Affinity Trend in Horizontal Periods:
o The increase in electron affinity is due to the decrease in the atomic radius making it
easierfor the nucleus to attract the new electron.
o Lower than expected electron affinities are due to the lack of need to gain an electron,
for instance three of the eight period two elements don’t follow the same pattern
mainly due to their stability and when the atom is already stable, we must add energy
to put an electron making the electron affinity almost zero or it can be even a positive
value (energy absorbed), Be, N and Ne, and their abnormal behaviour can be explained
as following:
▪ Beryllium: the filled s-orbitals (4Be 1s2, 2s2) give the atom some stability.
▪ Nitrogen: the filled s-orbitals and half-filled p-sublevel (7N 1s2, 2s2, 2p3) give theatom
some extra stability.
▪ Neon: the filled s- and p-sublevels (10Ne 1s2, 2s2, 2p6) give the atom some stability.

o Higher electron affinities are due to the need to gain an electron, and this takes place
whenthe gained electron make the orbitals half- or completely-filled as this will allow the
atom to achieve a more stable state.

- Electron Affinity Trend in Vertical Groups:

o The decrease in electron affinity is due to the increase in the atomic radius making it
harder for the nucleus to attract the new electron.
o Lower than expected electron affinities are observed in case of fluorine, which
is a group 7A halogen, one might think that fluorine must has the highest
electron affinity ever, the electron gained will make its orbital, sublevels and
main levels completely filled, but and contrary to the normal effect of the small
size, fluorine atom has a very small size, thus the entering electron will suffer a
strong repulsion force with the existing nine electrons, so the released energy
although significantlyhigh, is less than expected and less than that for chlorine.
 Electronegativity
Unlike ionization potential and electron
affinity, electronegativity is not an energy,
it’s also only applied on atoms in their
bonding state, not in their atomic state.
Electronegativity plays a major role in
determining and affecting the kind of bonds
established between atoms, and this will be discussed in details in the second term (Ch. 3).

“It is the tendency of an atom to attract the electrons of the

chemical bond to itself.”
Electronegativity can be illustrated as following:
Atoms A and B are equally electronegative

Atom B is slightly more electronegative than A

Atom B is a lot more electronegative than A

Also the concept of electronegativity is the different from those of ionization potential and electron
affinity, it follows the same trend and periodicity as them, the periodicity and abnormalities will be
explained in some details as following.
-
- Electronegativity Trend in Horizontal Periods:
o The increase in electronegativity is due to the
decrease in the atomic radius making it easier for
the nucleus to attract the bond electrons.

- Electronegativity Trend in Vertical Groups:

o The decrease in electron affinity is due to
the increase in the atomic radius making
it harder for the nucleus to attract the
bond electrons.
The Pauling scale is the most commonly used for expressing electronegativity.
Fluorine (the most electronegative element) is assigned a value of 4.0, and values
range down to cesium and francium which are the least electronegative at 0.7.
 Assessment (Home Work)
Choose the correct answer:

1. Which of the following will have a higher electronegativity than arsenic (As)?
a. Carbon (C) b. Germanium (Ge)
c. Antimony (Sb) d. Neon (Ne)

2. Atoms that have a high electronegativity …

a. give up their electrons more easily.
b. hold on to their electrons more tightly.
c. have more electron shells.
d. have large atomic radius.

3. As you move across the periodic table atoms tend to get smaller because …
a. the atoms have more mass. c. the atoms have less mass
b. the atoms have more protons. d. the atoms have less electrons.

4. Which of these elements has the smallest atomic radius?

a. Potassium b. Iron
c. Arsenic d. Bromine

5. Which of these elements has the highest first ionization energy?

a. Oxygen b. Beryllium
c. Fluorine d. Carbon

6. Which of these elements has the lowest electronegativity?

a. Sodium b. Aluminum
c. Phosphorus d. Sulfur

7. Which of these elements has the highest electron affinity?

a. Astatine b. Iodine
c. Bromine d. Chlorine

8. As you move up and to the right on the periodic table:

a. atomic radius increases and electronegativity increases
b. atomic radius decreases and electronegativity increases
c. atomic radius increases and electronegativity decreases
d. atomic radius decreases and electronegativity decreases
 9. Which of the following will have a larger radius than Zinc?

a. Gallium b. Aluminum
c. Magnesium d. Strontium

10. Which of the following will have lower ionization energy than Scandium (Sc)?

a. Calcium b. Magnesium
c. Titanium d. Helium

11. As atoms of elements in group 16 are considered in order from top to bottom, the
electronegativityof each successive element ………
a. decreases b. increases
c. remains the same d. decreases then increases

12. As you move down the periodic table atoms get bigger. This is because …
a. the atoms have more mass. b. the atoms have more protons.
c. the atoms have more energy levels d. the atoms have more neutrons.

13. Electronegativity is ………

a. how good an atom is at attracting electrons
b. the ability of an atom to lose electrons
c. the energy required to remove an electron from a specific atom
d. how easy it is to make friends.

14. Ionization energy is …

a. the energy required to add an electron to a specific atom
b. how much energy it takes to remove an electron from an atom
c. the energy required to shield the outer electrons from the nucleus
d. a measure of the ability of an atom to attract electrons

15. The atom with the largest atomic radius in Group 18 is ………
a. Ar b. He c. Kr d. Rn

16. Metals have the largest ………

a. atomic radius and electronegativity
b. electronegativity and ionization energy
c. atomic radius only
d. ionization energy and atomic radius
 17. The element with the largest electronegativity in the halogens is ………
a. At b. F c. Cl d. Br
18. The element with the lowest electronegativity in Period 3 is ………
a. Na b. Cl c. Ar d. Mg
19. Which periodic group has the largest atomic radius?

a. Alkali metals (IA) b. Noble Gases (zero)

c. Transition metals (B) d. Halogens (VIIA)
20. Electronegativity … from left to right within a period and … from top to bottom within a
group.

a. decreases, increases b. increases, increases

c. increases, decreases d. stays the same, increases
21. Which orbital block corresponds to main transition metals in the periodic table?
a. s b. p c. d d. f
22. The representative elements are usually called ………
a. Noble gases. b. group A elements
c. group B elements. d. Halogens
23. Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are in the same group on the periodic table. Based on their
locations, which statement about sodium and potassium is true?
a. Sodium is less electronegative than potassium.
b. Sodium has fewer energy levels than potassium.
c. Sodium has a larger ionic radius than potassium.
d. Sodium has lower ionization energy than potassium.
24. The Periodic Table of the Elements is useful for revealing patterns and trends in the
elements. Which statement accurately describes a pattern in the size of atomic radii in the
Periodic Table ofthe Elements?
a. Atomic radii decrease from left to right across a period and decrease from top to bottom in
a group.
b. Atomic radii increase from left to right across a period and increase from top to bottom in
a group.
c. Atomic radii decrease from left to right across a period and increase from top to bottom in
a group.
d. Atomic radii increase from left to right across a period and decrease from top to bottom
in a group.
 25. Atomic radius generally increases as we move ………
a. down a group and from right to left across a period
b. up a group and from left to right across a period
c. down a group and from left to right across a period
d. up a group and from right to left across a period

26. Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine all have the same number of valence electrons and
have atendency to gain electrons. Which element has the greatest ionization energy and
electronegativity?
a. Fluorine b. Chlorine c. Bromine d. Iodine

27. The ionization potential of an element is the amount of energy required to remove an
electron from an isolated atom or molecule. According to the periodic table, which of the
following indicates the correct decreasing order of ionization energy?
a. Li > Na > K > Cs b. Na > K > Li > Cs
c. Li > K > Na > Cs d. Cs > K > Na > Li

28. All elements found on the left side of the Periodic Table of the Elements have what
properties incommon?
a. They conduct heat and electricity b. They are all gases
c. They are brittle and dull d. They are radioactive

29. Which of the following will have lower ionization energy than Scandium (Sc)?
a. He b. Ti c. Ca d. Mg

30. The second ionization energy of Sodium atom 11Na is ……………

a. equal to the second ionization energy of Magnesium atom 12Mg
b. less than the second ionization energy of Magnesium atom 12Mg
c. equal to the first ionization energy of Magnesium atom 12Mg
d. more than the second ionization energy of Magnesium atom 12Mg

31. If the electronegativities of 4 elements are arranged as following: W > X > Y > Z, which
one of them has the least electron affinity?
a. W b. Y c. X d. Z

32. When the atoms; Li, Be, B, Na, are arranged in order of increasing atomic radius which is
the correct order?
a. Li, Be, B, Na b. Li, Na, B, Be
c. Na, Li, Be, B d. B, Be, Li, Na
 SESSION (3):
CONT. PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
Metallic & Non-metallic properties
Early at the beginning of the nineteenth century,
Berzelius classified elements into metals and non-
metals, at this time, nothing was known about the
atom and its structure, and the classification we
depending mainly on the physical properties and
appearance of those elements. Till now, the
classification of elements in this way is still valid
and still in use.
Nowadays, and after the great discoveries in the
field of atomic structure, we can define metals
and non-metals can be defined correctly and also
a new third type can be added which is the
metalloids.
Boundaries between different types of elements
in the periodic table are blurry and also
differences between their properties are blurry
but based on our development of the structure
of atom and our information about the nature of
electron, we can differentiate between them and
categorize them as follow:

Metals:
- Their valence shell has less than half of
its electron capacity (considering the s-
and p-sublevels only):
o Group IA: ns1.
o Group IIA: ns2.
o Group IIIA: ns2 np1.
 - According to their configuration, they are placed to the left of metalloids in the periodic
table.
- Tend to lose electrons to achieve noble gas configuration (aim of chemical reaction).
- Form positive ions (due to loss of electrons) and described as electropositive elements.
- They are good electric conductors, and this is due to the mobility of their valence
electrons and the easiness of their transference from one position to another in the
metal structure.
- Have large atomic radius, small ionization potential, electron affinity
and electronegativity.

Non-metals:
- Their valence shell has more than half of
its electron capacity (considering the s- and
p-sublevels only):
o Group VA: ns2 np3.
o Group VIA: ns2 np4.
o Group VIIA: ns2 np5.
- According to their configuration, they are
placed tothe right of metalloids in the
periodic table.
- Tend to gain electrons to achieve noble gas configuration (aim of chemical
reaction).
- Form negative ions (due to gain of electrons) and described as electronegative
elements.
- They don’t conduct electricity, because their valence electrons are strongly
bounded to their nucleus, so it’s difficult for them to transfer.
- Have small atomic radius, high ionization potential, electron affinity and
electronegativity.

Metalloid:
- These elements have the appearance
of metals and most of non-metals’
properties at the same time.
- There electronegativity is intermediate
between metals and non-metals.
- Their electric conductivity is less than
metals, but more than non-metals and
that’s why they are used as semi-
conductors and are known as
transistors.
According to the position of metals, non-metals and
metalloids in the periodic table, trends and periodicity of
metallic and non-metallic properties can be explained as
following:

- Trend in Horizontal Periods:

o At the beginning of each period (except period 1), in group 1A, the elements of the
highest metallic characters are observed, then by increasing the atomic number (from
right to left) the metallic property decreases gradually till reaching a metalloid.
o After the metalloid(s) in the period, non-metals with low non-metallic characters appear,
then by increasing the atomic number (from right to left) the non-metallic property
increases gradually till reaching the strongest non-metallic character in group 7A
(halogens).

- Trend in vertical groups:

o The metallic character increases with the increase in atomic number down the group, so
we can conclude that elements with the strongest metallic character are placed at the
bottom left of the table. Thus, Cesium is considered to have the highest metallic
character.
o The non-metallic character decreases with the increase in atomic number down the
group, so we can conclude that elements with the strongest non-metallic character are
placed at the top right of the table. Thus, Fluorine is considered to have the highest non-
metallic character.
 Oxygen constitutes about 21% of atmospheric gases and is very reactive. All elements on earth
react with oxygen to form oxygen-containing compounds called oxides. Examples of oxides include
Na2O, CaO, A2O3, CO2, N2O3, Cl2O and XeO2.
Oxides can be classified in terms of:
• The other combining element as metallicand nonmetallic oxides.
• Nature of oxides as acidic, basic,amphoteric and neutral.

Acidic & Basic properties of Oxides

Some oxides are acidic in character, while
some are basic. Some oxides can behave both
asan acid and basic.

AcidicOxides:
• Examples include carbon dioxide CO2,
sulphur dioxide SO2, phosphorus pentoxide P2O5, sulphur trioxide SO3, chlorine oxides Cl2O7, etc.
Some of the characteristics of this oxide include:
o Mostly oxides of non-metals.
o They dissolve in water forming acids.
𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞)
𝑆𝑂3(𝑔) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞)
o Acidic oxides react with basic substances to form salts and water.
𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)➔ 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
o Covalent in nature and so exists as individual molecules, have low melting and boiling
point and don’t conduct electricity even in a molten state.

BasicOxides:
• Examples of basic oxides are Na2O, CaO. They have the following characteristics:
o Formed when electropositive metals react with oxygen.
 o Some metal oxides dissolve in water (called alkali) to form hydroxide ions and
henceact as bases.
𝑁𝑎2(𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙) →➔2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
𝐾2𝑂 (𝑠) + 𝐻2(𝑙) ➔ 2𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
o Basic oxides react with acidic substances to from salts and water.
𝑁𝑎2(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ➔ 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) →➔ 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
o They are ionic in nature and exhibit a polymeric structure, have high melting and
boilingpoints and conduct electricity in a molten state.

AmphotericOxides:
• Examples include beryllium oxide BeO, aluminium oxide Al2O3, zinc oxide ZnO, antimony
oxide Sb2O3 and tin oxide SnO. They have the following characteristics:
o These are oxides of metalloids and some elements close to them.
o These oxides are generally insoluble in water.
o They react with both acid and bases to form salts.
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) ➔ 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ➔ 𝑁𝑎2𝑍𝑛𝑂2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑙)
According to the position of acidic, basic and
amphoteric oxides in the periodic table, trends
and periodicity of acidic and basic properties
can be explained as following:

- Trend in Horizontal Periods:

o The acidic character increases and the basic character decreases when
the atomic number increases from left to right.

- Trend in vertical groups:

o The acidic character decreases when the atomic number increases from top to bottom.
o The basic property increases (consider group 1Aelements) when the atomic number increases
from top to bottom due to the increase in the atomic size while the charge (+1) remains
constant.

Hydroxy Compounds (MOH)

Compounds containing the hydroxyl group –OH are commonly considered as bases, while a
large number of them acts as acids. Whether a compound of the general type M–O–H will
act as an acid ora base depends on which bond will break, the M–O or the O–H:

- In general, if M is a metallic element, the metal hydroxide compound MOH will be

basic, as the attraction force between O–H is bigger than that between M–O, the M–
O bond breaks more readily, then the –OH part will tend to retain its individuality
making the MOH compound acting as a base.
-
- In general, if M is a metallic element, the metal hydroxide compound MOH will be
basic, as the attraction force between M–O is bigger than that between O–H, the
O–H bond breaks, the MO-part of the molecule will remain intact and the released
proton (H+) will cause the MOH compound to act as an acid.

- If the attraction forces between M–O is equal to that between O–H, the MOH
compound will act according to the reaction medium, it reacts as base in acidic
medium and reacts as acid in basic medium.
 Oxygenated acids [MOn(OH)m]

The acidic character of hydroxy compounds of the

nonmetals, known collectively as oxyacids, is attributed to
many factors. In general, the strengths of these acids
depend more on the number of oxygens than on any
other factor, and we mean by the number of
oxygen atoms those that are not bonded to hydrogen, the more the non-bonded
oxygen atoms the stronger the acids.

What if two oxyacids share the same number

of non-bonded oxygen atoms, but the central
atoms are different? Then another factor to
consider is the electronegativity of the central
atom,
the more electronegative
the central atom is, the more it displaces the
negative charge from the bonded oxygen
atoms, causing the departure of the hydrogen
ion bonded to it as H+, making the acid

stronger.
 Assessment (Home Work)
Choose the correct answer:
1. Gaseous atoms of which of these elements contain one or more unpaired electrons?
Ge (Z = 32) As (Z = 33) Se (Z = 34)
a. (A) As only b. Ge and As only
c. Ge and Se only d. Ge, As, and Se

2. Non-metal oxides showing no reaction with acids or alkalis are called:

a. Amphoteric b. Neutral
c. Acidic d. Basic

3. If the Second ionization energy and Third ionization energy of an element as shown
in thefollowing equations:
+ 2+ – 2+ 3+ –
X → X + e ΔH = +495 kJ/mol X → X + e ΔH = +4560 kJ/mol
This element is characterized from the previous elements in its same period by:
a. Non-metal has low ionization energy
b. Metal has low ionization energy
c. Non-metal has high ionization energy
d. Metal has high ionization energy

4. Which atom has the smallest first ionization energy?

a. Na b. K c. Mg d. Ca

5. By using the following table:

Atom or ion Electronic configuration

A–1 [10Ne]
B–2 [10Ne]
C [18Ar] 4s1
D [10Ne] 3s1
The arrangement of elements according to the electronegativity is
a. A ˃ B ˃ D ˃ C
b. D < A < C < B
c. D ˃ C ˃ B ˃ A
d. A ˃ D ˃ C ˃ B
 6. What is the chemical formula of the oxygenated acid which is formed of hydrogen,
sulphur andoxygen elements and has the general formula M2O(OH)2?
a. H2SO3 b. H2S2O3
c. H2SO4 d. H2S

7. How many orbitals in a ground state oxygen atom are completely filled?
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4

8. An element X its electron configuration ends by 3p1, then with respect to the elements that
precedeit in the period, this element is:
a. A non-metallic element and its electron affinity is high.
b. A non-metallic element and its electron affinity is low.
c. A metallic element and its electron affinity is high.
d. A metallic element and its electron affinity is low.

9. An element (X) its electronic configuration ends by the following sublevels 5s2 4d10
5p5.The properties of this element with the respect to the elements before it in its
period:
a. Its oxide is basic and its ionization potential is small.
b. Its oxide is amphoteric and its ionization potential is high.
c. Its oxide is acidic and its ionization potential is high.
d. Its oxide is acidic and its ionization potential is small.

10. Sulfur and Selenium both forms oxoacids of formula H2EO4 where E is either S or Se.
These are called sulfurous and selenous acid, respectively. Which oxoacid would you
expect to be more acidic: selenous acid or sulfurous acid?
a. H2SO3 b. H2SeO3
c. Both are equally acidic d. Both are amphoteric

11. The electron configuration of a cobalt atom is: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2. How many
unpaired electrons are present in a gaseous Co3+ ion in its ground state?
a. 6 b. 4 c. 2 d. 0

12. When the atoms; P (Z = 15), S (Z = 16) and As (Z = 33), are arranged in order of increasing
radius,what is the correct order?
a. P, S, As b. As, S, P
c. S, P, As d. P, As, S
 13. Which of the following oxides when its mixture dissolves in water, it yields a neutral solution?
a. Al2O3, MgO b. Na2O, MgO
c. Na2O, P4O10 d. SO3, P4O10

14. Which model of the atom is represented?

a. Thomson’s atomic model
b. Rutherford’s atomic model
c. Bohr’s atomic model
d. Modern atomic model

15. Which of the following statements is true?

a. Metals lose electrons readily and hence have large electron affinity.
b. Metals gain electrons readily and hence have low electron affinity.
c. Nonmetals gain electrons readily and hence have large electron affinity.
d. Nonmetals lose electrons readily and hence have low electron affinity.

16. X2O3 is an oxide that can react as shown in the following equations:
X2O3 + 3H2SO4 → X2(SO4)3 + 3H2OX2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaXO2 + H2O
If you know that elements X lies in group 3A, which of the following describes its oxide?
a. It is an amphoteric nonmetal oxide.
b. It is a peroxide.
c. It is an amphoteric metal oxide.
d. It is a neutral nonmetal oxide.

17. Which of the following elements includes a nonmetal, a metal and a metalloid ………
a. H, Zn, I b. Zn, I, Br
c. Zn, Cu, Si d. I, Zn, Si

18. What scientist is best known for this model of

theatom?
a. Ernest Rutherford
b. J.J. Thomson
c. John Dalton
d. Democritus

19. When adding sodium hydroxide solution to aluminum hydroxide the following happens:
a. Al(OH)3 doesn’t react as both are acids. b. Al (OH)3 acts as a base.
c. Al(OH)3 doesn’t react as both are bases. d. Al(OH)3 acts as an acid.
 SESSION (4)
OXIDATION NUMBER
An oxidation number is a positive or negative number that is assigned to an atom to
indicate its degree of oxidation or reduction. The term oxidation state is often used
interchangeably with oxidation number. A partial electron transfer is a shift in the
electron density near an atom as a result of a change in the other atoms to which it
is covalently bonded. That charge shift is based on the relative electro negativities
of the atoms involved in the bond.
Overall, the oxidation number of an atom in a molecule is the charge that the atom
would have if all polar covalent and ionic bonds resulted in a complete transfer of
electrons from the less electronegative atom to the more electronegative one.
Oxidation numbers can be assigned using the set of rules outlined below.

Ionic compounds:
- Electrons are lost by an atom (usually of a
metal) making it positively charged, we used
to call the number of lost electrons “valency”,
the oxidation number in this case will be the
valency preceded by a positive sign.
- Electrons are gained by an atom (usually of a
non- metal) making it negatively charged, we
used to call the number of gained electrons
“valency”, the oxidation number in this case
will be the valency preceded by a negative
sign.

Covalent compounds:
- The electrons spend more time at the vicinity of
the more electronegative atom and hence it
carries a partial negative charge, and its
oxidation number willbe positive.
- The electrons spend less time at the vicinity of the
less electronegative atom and hence it carries
a partial positive charge, and its oxidation
number will be negative.
Some elements have fixed oxidation
numbers, while others have variable
oxidation numbers. If we
understand some rules, we can
calculate the oxidation number of
anyelement in a compound.

It is often useful to follow chemical reactions by looking at changes in the oxidation numbers
of the atoms in each compound during the reaction (redox). Oxidation numbers also play an
important role in the systematic nomenclature of chemical compounds. By definition, the
oxidation number of an atom is the charge that atom would have if the compound was
composed of ions.

Rules for assigning Oxidation Number:

1) The oxidation number of an atom is zero in a neutral
substance that contains atoms of only one element.
Thus, theatoms in Fe, He, O2, O3, P4, S8, and Al metal
all have an oxidation number of 0.

2) The oxidation number of simple ions is equal to the charge on the ion. The oxidation
number of sodium in the Na+ ion is +1, and the oxidation number of chlorine in the Cl−
ion is −1.

3) The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 when it

is combined with a nonmetal as in: CH4, NH3,
H2O, and HCl.
The oxidation number of hydrogen is −1 when it is
combined with a metal as in: LiH, NaH, CaH2, and
LiAlH4.
4) The metals in Group IA form
compounds (such as Li3N and Na2S) in
which the metal atom has an oxidation
number of +1.
5) The elements in Group IIA form
compounds (such as Mg3N2 and CaCO3)
in which the metal atom has a
+2 oxidation number.

6) Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of −2.

Exceptions include peroxides, such as H2O2 and
Na2O2 in which it has an oxidation no. of −1,
superoxides such as: KO2 in which it has an
oxidation no. of −½ and its compounds with
fluorine in which it has an oxidation no. of +1 (or
+2).

7) The elements in Group VIIA often form

compounds (such as AlF3, HCl, and
ZnBr2) in which the nonmetal has a −1
oxidation number, chlorine, bromine,
and iodine mightshow exceptions for
this rule, but fluorine never, as it always
has an oxidation number of −1 in all its
compounds.

8) The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero.

H2O: 2(+1) + (−2) = 0
 9) The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the
charge on the ion. The oxidation number of the sulfur atom in the
SO42− ion must be +6, for example, because the sum of the oxidation
numbers of the atoms in this ion must equal −2.
(SO4)2−: (+6) + 4(−2) = −2
10) Elements toward the bottom left corner of the periodic table are more likely to have positive
oxidation numbers than those toward the upper right corner of the table. Sulfur has a positive
oxidation number in SO2, for example, because it is below oxygen in the periodic table.
SO2: (+4) + 2(−2) = 0

Oxidation Number andChemical Reactions

As mentioned before, keeping track of the oxidation
number of elements atoms is useful in order to
understand if any atoms have lost or gained
electrons, When the oxidation number of an atom
increases during chemical reaction, we can say that
the atom is being oxidized (reducing agent), and
reduced (oxidizing agent) if its oxidation number
decreases
Assessment (Home Work)
Choose the correct answer:
1. What is oxidation number of O in O2?
a. 0 b. +1 c. –2 d. +2

2. What is oxidation number of O in H2O2?

a. -2 b. +2 c. –½ d. –1

3. What is oxidation number of Na in Na+?

a. 0 b. +1 c. +½ d. –1
4. What is oxidation number of Mn in MnO2?
a. 0 b. –2 c. +2 d. +4

5. The ratio between the oxidation number of Na in NaCl to that in Na2CO3 is

a. ½ b. 2 c. 1 d. 0

6. What is the charge of an ion in group 2?

a. +2 b. –6 c. –2 d. +6

7. The sum of all oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is ………

a. 0 b. 1 c. –1 d. ½

8. What is oxidation number of Hg in Hg22+?

a. 0 b. +1 c. +½ d. –1

9. What is the oxidation number for Fluorine (F) in its compounds?

a. +1 b. 17 c. –1 d. 7

10. What element always has an oxidation number of +1 when in combination with
nonmetals?
a. Hydrogen b. Chlorine c. Fluorine d. Iodine

11. Which of the following elements does NOT have an oxidation number of +2?
a. Ca b. K c. Sr d. Ba

12. What is the oxidation number of C in CO2?

a. +2 b. +4 c. –1 d. –2

13. What is the oxidation number of N in NO2-1?

a. –3 b. –2 c. +4 d. +3
 14. What is the oxidation number of chlorine in HClO?
a. 0 b. +1 c. –1 d. +5

15. What is the oxidation number of nitrogen in N2?

a. –3 b. +4 c. 0 d. –1

16. The sum of the oxidation numbers in SCN– is equivalent to

a. 0 b. +1 c. –1 d. +3

17. The sum of the oxidation numbers in Na2CO3 is equivalent to ………

a. 0 b. +1 c. –2 d. -1

18. In which of the following species does nitrogen have an oxidation number of +1?
a. 𝑁2𝑂4 b. 𝑁2𝑂
c. 𝑁𝑂− d. 𝑁𝑂2
3

19. Which one of the following elements does NOT have a fixed oxidation number?
a. Fluorine b. Sodium
c. Sulphur d. Magnesium

20. The Alkali metals of group I are always assigned an oxidation number of +1.
Which one of thefollowing statements is incorrect?
a. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of –1 in lithium hydride (LiH).
b. Free potassium has an oxidation number of +1.
c. When there is an increase in the oxidation number of an atom in a chemical reaction,
oxidation is said to occur.
d. When sodium is bonded to chlorine in NaCl, it has an oxidation number of +1.

21. Oxidation number of carbon in sucrose (𝐶12𝐻22𝑂11) is:

a. 0 b. + 12
c. ‒ 12 d. + 7

22. Free elements are assigned an oxidation number of 0. Which one of the
following statementsis incorrect?
a. Ions cannot have an oxidation number of 0.
b. The oxidation number of calcium in the calcium ion (Ca2+) is 0.
c. The oxidation number of sodium (Na) in the metal sodium is 0.
d. The oxidation number of hydrogen in the hydrogen molecule (H2) is 0.
 23. What is the oxidation number of vanadium in
𝑅𝑏4𝑁[𝐻𝑉10𝑂28]?a. + 8 b. + 5
c. + 3 d. + 1

24. During oxidation, the oxidation number of a species becomes ………

a. more positive b. more neutral

c. more negative d. no correct answer

25. The species that is being reduced will have ………

a. a more negative oxidation state after the reduction has occurred.
b. a more positive oxidation state after the reduction has occurred.
c. no change in its oxidation state after the reduction has occurred.

26. Cesium metal reacts explosively with water. The equation for this reaction is:
𝟐𝑪𝒔(𝒔) + 𝟐𝑯𝟐𝑶(𝒍) → 𝑯𝟐(𝒈) + 𝟐𝑪𝒔𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒)
The reducing agent for the forward reaction is:

a. 𝑪𝒔 b. 𝑪𝒔+
c. 𝑶𝑯− d. 𝑯𝟐𝑶(𝒍)

27. Which one of the following reactions is an oxidation reduction reaction?

a. CaSO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + SO2
b. NaNO2 + HCl → NaCl + HNO2
c. 3CuO + 2NH3 → 3Cu + 3H2O + N2
d. 3Ca(OH)2 + 2H3PO4 ➔ Ca3(PO4)2 + 3H2O

28. What is the oxidation number of iodine in KIO3?

a. 0 b. +5 c. –1 d. +1

29. Determine the oxidation number of chromium in CrO42-.

a. +6 b. +2 c. 0 d. +3

30. Determine the oxidation number of phosphorous in PO2-.

a. 0 b. +3 c. –3 d. +5

31. What is the oxidation number of nickel in NiSO3?

a. +2 b. 0 c. +3 d. –1

32. What is the oxidation number of C in CH4?

a. –4 b. –1 c. +4 d. +1
 33. What elements don't have oxidation numbers in normal conditions?
a. Alkali metals b. Noble gases
c. Halogens d. Alkaline earth metals

34. Which of the following statements is true?

a. Hydrogen can only have one possible oxidation number.
b. The oxidation number of oxygen is always -2.
c. The oxidation number of chlorine is always -1.
d. The oxidation number of fluorine is always -1.

35. What is the oxidation number of Cl in HClO2?

a. –1 b. +3 c. +2 d. +5

36. Which substance is being oxidized in the following reaction?

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
a. Cl–(aq) ions b. Zn2+ ions c. Zn(s) d. H2(g)
(aq)

37. What is the oxidation number of Mn in MnO4–?

a. +2 b. +5 c. +4 d. +7

38. Which of the following is a false statement?

a. The oxidation number of chlorine atoms in Cl2 is zero.
b. Oxidation results in an increase in oxidation number.
c. The oxidizing agent in a redox reaction is reduced.
d. Electrons are being transferred in a redox reaction.
e. Reduction is loss of electrons.

39. What is the oxidation number of O in O2F2?

a. –1 b. +1 c. –2 d. +2

40. What is the oxidation state of sulfur in S2O3?

a. +2 b. +3 c. –2 d. –3

41. What is the oxidation state of oxygen in P2O5?

a. +5 b. +2 c. –5 d. –2

42. What is the oxidation state of oxygen in Na2Cr2O7?

a. +7 b. –2 c. +2 d. –7
 43. What is the oxidation state of aluminum in Al2(SO4)3?
a. +2 b. –3 c. –2 d. +3

44. What is the oxidation state of oxygen in Na2O2?

a. +1 b. +2 c. –1 d. –2

45. What is the oxidation number of Chlorine in HClO4?

a. +5 b. +1 c. +3 d. +7

46. What is the oxidation number of Pt in K2PtCl6?

a. +4 b. –2 c. +2 d. –4

47. What is the oxidation number of nitrogen in (NO3)-1?

a. +1 b. –5 c. +5 d. +3

48. Oxygen has an oxidation number of –2 in ………

a. OF2 b. NO2 c. Na2O2 d. O2
49. What is the reducing agent in the following reaction?
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
a. Sodium b. Hydrogen c. Water d. Oxygen

50. What do you call an atom that has more protons than electrons?
a. A molecule b. An isotope c. An anion d. A cation

51. A compound has an oxidation state of +6, it ………

a. can be easily oxidized
b. is a good Oxidizing Agent
c. is a good Reducing Agent
d. can’t be easily reduced

52. What can oxidation and reduction be redefined as in terms of oxidation

state?
a. Oxidation is the decrease in oxidation state, reduction is the opposite.
b. Oxidation is the increase in oxidation state, reduction is the opposite.
c. Reduction is the increase in oxidation state, oxidation is the opposite.
d. None of the above

53. When NO2 reacts and is converted to N2O4, the oxidation number of
nitrogen ………
a. increases by 2 b. increases by 4
c. increases by 8 d. does not change