CPE 372– Week 2

NETWORKING LAYERS,
MODELS AND ARCHITECTURES
Dr. Nasir Faruk
Dept. of Telecommunication Sci.
University of Ilorin

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 Course content/Lecture Schedule
Lect. No. Date Topic
1 Week 1 Course Administration, Networking Concepts and Communication pattern
2 Week 2 NETWORKING LAYERS, MODELS AND ARCHITECTURES
3 Week 3 Network Types and Topologies
4 Week 4 Physical Layer and Media
5 Week 5 Data link Layer Protocols
6 Week 6 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN), IP Addressing
7 Week 7 (Test 1) Switched LANs, VLANS and STP
8 Week 8 Network Layer: Protocols, IP header and Subnetting
9 Week 9 Network Layer: Routing Protocols I (Static and Dynamic Routing )
10 Week 10 Network Layer: Routing Protocols II (Distance Vector Routing Protocols )
11 Week 11 (Test 2) Network Layer: Routing Protocols III (Link-State Routing Protocols)
12 Week 12 Transport Layer Protocols: TCP and UDP
13 Week 13 Application Layer Protocols: DNS
14 Week 14 (Test 3) Introduction to Network Security and Cryptography

PROBLEM SETS
P.S Topic Date Duration
No. Assigned
1 Physical Layer and Media Week 4 1 Week
2 Switched LANs, VLANS and STP Week 7 1 week
2 Network Layer: Routing Protocols I Week 9 1 Week
4 Network Layer: Routing Protocols II Week 10 1 week
5 Network Layer: Routing Protocols III Week 11 1 week

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 NETWORKING LAYERS

• Networking technologies are arranged in a manner by dividing their

functions into layers,
• Each of which contains hardware and/or software elements.
• Each layer is responsible for performing a particular type of task, as
well as interacting with the layers above it and below it.
• Layers are conceptually arranged into a vertical stack.
• Lower layers are charged with more concrete tasks such as hardware
signalling and low-level communication; they provide services to the
higher layers.
• The higher layers in turn use these services to implement more
abstract functions such as implementing user applications.
• Dividing networks into layers this way is somewhat like the division of
labour in a manufacturing facility, and yields similar benefits.

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 NETWORKING MODELS
• One other important benefit of layering is that it makes it possible for
technologies defined by different groups to interoperate.
• For this to be possible, it is necessary for everyone to agree on how layers will
be defined and used. The most common tool for this purpose is a networking
model.
• The model describes what the different layers are in the network, what each is
responsible for doing, and how they interact.
• A universally-accepted model ensures that everyone is on the same page when
creating hardware and software.
• The most common general model in use today is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model, which consists of seven stacked layers.
• These range from the Physical Layer (layer one) at the bottom, which is
responsible for low-level signalling, to the Application Layer (layer seven) at the
top, where application software is implemented.
• Understanding the OSI model is essential to understanding networking as a
whole.
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 The OSI Model/Layers
• A group called the
International Standards
Organization (ISO)
introduced the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model.
• A layered network
architecture that has seven
layers that also specifies how
the network operates in the
physical domain and also
how to connect to such a
network

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 THE OSI MODEL: MODULARITY
AND INTER-LAYER INTERACTIONS
• One of the primary goals of the OSI
Reference Model is to allow the
interconnection of different
implementations of various layers.
• The passing of information down
through the layers of the sending
device and back through the layers
of the receiving device is made
possible by an interface between
each pair of adjacent layer above it.
• Each interface defined the kind of
information and services a layer
must provide for the layer above it
and this provides the modularity to
the network.
•
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 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

• The layered
protocol stack that
dominates the data
communication and
networking today is
the five layers,
internet model
popularly known as
TCP/IP model.
• The model
compose of five
orderly layers as
shown in the fig

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Layers Protocols

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 FUNCTIONS OF LAYERS

• PHYSICAL LAYER
Is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model and is commonly abbreviated as
“PHY” is the layer where data is physically moved across the networks and it
deals with the electrical and/or optical specifications of the interface and
transmission media. It deals with bit streams only 0’s and 1’s. Some of the
functions of physical layer include:
– Defining the hardware specification:
– Encoding and signalling :
– Data rate or transmission rate

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 DATA LINK LAYER
• It is been abbreviated as “DL”. This layer transform the physical layer raw
information to be reliable in other words it makes the physical layer data to be error
free before forwarding to the next layer i.e. network layer. It has two sub layers,
Logical link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC) layer. The major duties
include:
• Data framing: data receives from the network layers is encapsulated into frames
and then transmitted over the network at the physical layer.
• DL Sublayers:
– Logical link control (LLC): Logical link control refers to the functions required for the establishment and
control of logical links between local devices on a network.
– Media Access Control (MAC): This refers to the procedures used by devices to control access to a
shared medium (such as a single network cable).
• Physical addressing: i.e. physical or MAC address of the hardware.
• Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
piece of information that could helps to detects errors and re-transmit damages or
lost frames. For example, a cyclic redundancy check (CRC
• Flow Control: If the rate at which the sender transmits is higher than the rates at
which the receiver absorbed the data, there would be overflow and this could leads
to some data’s missing/lost.
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 NETWORK LAYER
• Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of packets possible
across internetworks (interconnected networks) usually from LAN-LAN while link layer is
responsible of delivery of frames within same network or LAN. The major functions of
network layer include:
• Logical addressing: Internet protocol (IP)
• Routing: When independent networks or links are interconnected, the connecting devices
e.g. router routes the packets to the final destination. Network layer provides this
mechanism and they used what is known as routing protocols
• Datagram Encapsulation: The network layer normally encapsulates messages received
from higher layers by placing them into datagrams (also called packets) with a network
layer header
• Higher layer protocol multiplexing and demultiplexing
– Sending data from different applications/Transport Layer associations over a common
internetwork path
– Demultiplexing to the appropriate application process at receiver
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The network layer must send messages down to the
data link layer for transmission. Some data link layer technologies have limits on the length
of any message that can be sent. For example the maximum transmit data unit (MTU) for
Ethernet frame is 1500B 11
 TRANSPORT LAYER
• Transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery while network layer is
responsible for host-to-destination delivery. The major duties of transport layer are:
• Port Addressing: Addressing at layer two deals with hardware devices on a local
network, and layer three addressing identifies devices on a logical internetwork.
Addressing is also performed at the transport layer. Computer runs several processes at
the same time (running programs). For this reason, process-to-process delivery means
delivery not only from one computer to another but rather from one process in a
computer to another process in other computer. Transport layer must include a type of
address called port address. For example Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) uses TCP
Port 80, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) TCP Port 25 and Domain Name System
(DNS) - TCP/UDP Port 53
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Segmentation and reassemble:
• Connection Establishment, Management and Termination: Transport layer:
• Acknowledgments and Retransmissions:
• Flow Control: Transport layer protocols that offer reliable delivery also often implement
flow control features.

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 APPLICATION LAYER
• The application layer allows the user, either human or
software program to access the network.
• It provides user interface and support services such as
email transfer, World Wide Web and etc.
• There are dozens of different application layer protocols
that enable various functions at this layer.
• Some of the most popular ones include HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, DHCP, Telnet, SNMP and POP3.
• Lots of alphabets, sorry. ☺ we will not go deep into this!

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 PROTOCOL WHAT ARE THEY?
• Protocol:
– This are sets of rules that govern the data communication.
– It represents the agreements between the communicating devices.
– With out protocol two devices may be connected but not communicating.
– For example a person speaking Yoruba language cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Hausa language.
• A protocol specification may include:
– Supported message types
– Allowable message sequences
– Message formats
– Transmission control information for example feedback on
successful/unsuccessful transmission.

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 PROTOCOLS TYPES
• Connection-Oriented Protocols (COP):
– Protocols that require a logical connection be established between two devices
before transferring data.
– This is generally accomplished by following a specific set of rules that specify
how a connection should be initiated, negotiated, managed and eventually
terminated.
– Usually one device begins by sending a request to open a connection, and the
other responds.
– They pass control information to determine if and how the connection should be
set up. If this is successful, data is sent between the devices.
– When they are finished, the connection is broken.
– Example of connection oriented protocol is TCP
• Connectionless Protocols (CP):
– Protocols that do not establish a connection between devices. As soon as a
device has data to send to another, it just sends it. Example of connectionless
protocol is UDP
You can find both types of protocol at any layer of the OSI model
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 PROTOCOL SERVICES
• One meaning of ‘service’: a facility provided for use by others
– For example the telephone service or the postal service
• In networking, we use the term to refer to a protocol’s delivery capability
– Delivery guarantees result from the inclusion of various service elements
• The term can be used to describe the service of a particular protocol
– For example, we can say “TCP provides a reliable data transfer service”
• But it is also used to refer to the cumulative service provided by a set of layered
protocols
– For example, Transport Service: the collective service of Layer 1 – 4
– Network Service: the packet delivery service
• We often describe a protocol by the service it gives to the layers above.
• Any protocol can give an enhanced service by adding one or more features.
• We shall call these service elements.
• A service element can be thought of as a collection of basic primitives that work
together to provide the necessary service enhancement
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 SERVICE LEVELS
• Protocols provide three main service
levels
– Best-efforts
– Basic connection-oriented
– Reliable

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 SERVICE PRIMITIVES
• Framing
– Marking start and end of data frame (Layers 1 & 2 only)
• Addresses
– Ensure data sent to correct recipient
• Handshake
– Ensures fully synchronized communicating layer processes
• Applies to connection-oriented protocols
• Acknowledgements
– Signal correct reception back to sender
• Sequence numbers
– Used in conjunction with acknowledgements and other service elements
• Timers
– Set maximum delay before acknowledgement expected

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 SERVICE ELEMENTS
• Use predefined groups of service elements to provide given service
enhancement
– Basic data transfer service is assumed for all
• Common service elements include
• Connections: Set up using handshake between pairs of systems
• Error detection: Often using a checksum that is verified by the receiver
• Flow control: Protocol incorporates some means of asking sender to slow
down the rate of transmission
• Error correction: Protocol incorporates means of ensuring data transfer is
complete, sequenced and loss-free
• Congestion control: Sender detects network congestion and reduces its
sending rate
• Timestamp: Allows data to carry sender’s clocking information
• Authentication: Sender verifies itself to receiver
• Encryption: Sender hides information using unbreakable code
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 Protocol Service Level Mapping
Protocol Type Elements Used Service Level
Data transfer, addressing
Can also include: Best efforts
Connectionless
framing and error (no delivery guarantees)
detection
All of the above, plus
Sequenced information transfer
Basic Connection- connection
(But delivery not guaranteed;
Oriented Can also include error
errors cause data to be discarded)
detection
All of the above, plus:
Guarantees to deliver information
Full (Reliable) flow control, error
in sequence and without loss or
Connection-Oriented detection and error
corruption
correction

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 PROTOCOL DATA UNIT (PDU):
Message formatting
• Header:
– The information that is placed before the actual data. The header normally contains network-wide
addressing information and control information for receiving network devices (host or router).
– It serves as the communication and control link between protocol elements on different devices.
• Data: This is the actual data to be transmitted, it is also called the payload of the
message or PDU
• Footer: This is the information that is placed after the data though it’s optional, it is
also called trailer.
– There is no real difference between the header and the footer, as both contain control information’s.
• Packets: This is a term referred to as message sent by protocols operating at the
network layer of the OSI reference model and are commonly called ‘IP packets’
• Datagram: This is synonyms to packets
• Frame: Is a name given to a message that travels at low level of the OSI model
such as physical and data link layer.

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 DATA ENCAPSULATION IN TCP/IP

• As application data is passed down the protocol stack on its way to

be transmitted across the network media, various protocols add
information (header) to it at each level. This is commonly known as
the encapsulation. Reverse process of removing headers is called
decapsulation.
THE SENDING AND RECEIVING PROCESS

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 Tutorial Questions:
• What is the difference between a protocol and a service?
• Which protocol layers support data transfer in a:
– Host?
– Router?
– Switch/bridge?
– Hub/repeater?
• What are piggybacking and encapsulation?
• What is the purpose of packet encapsulation?
• Give four functions of the Network Layer.
• Address mapping is an important aspect of the interface between the Network Layer and the Link
Layer services. How do you map an IP address to A MAC address?
• What is flow control in the context of a Network Layer service element. How is flow control
performed in the IP suite?
• How does an IP host differentiate between a destination host on its own LAN and a destination
host on a different LAN?
• Give an examples of a pair of protocols where:
– The higher-layer protocol is connection-oriented and the lower-layer connectionless;
– The higher-layer protocol is connectionless and the lower-layer connection-oriented
• What type of protocol is one-to-many (supports many receivers)?
• Differentiate with examples between connection oriented and connectionless protocols and give
which type of applications each is suited 23
 GENERAL READING LIST
1. Charles M. Kozierok (2005), “TCP/IP guide “
2. K.V Prasad (2003) “Principle of digital communication systems and
computer Networks”, Charles River Media, ISBN: 1584503297
3. Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data communication and Networking” Third
Edition, McGrawHill Higher Education.
4. http://www.infocellar.com/networks/ip/classful-vs-classless.htm
5. M. W.Murhammer, K. Lee and P Motallebi’IP Network Design
Guide’ International Technical Support Organization, June 1999
6. Martin P. Clark’ Data Networks, IP and the Internet’ 2003 John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd ISBN:0-470-84856-1

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