REPUBLIC OF KENYA

MINISTRY OF ROADS AND TRANSPORT

RDM 3.3
Road Design Manual
Volume 3: Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads
Part 3: Pavement Foundation and Materials Design

2025
Chief Engineer (Materials)
Materials Testing & Research Division
State Department for Roads
Ministry of Roads and Transport
Machakos Road, Industrial Area
P.O. Box 11873 - 00400
NAIROBI
Principal Secretary
State Department for Roads
Ministry of Roads and Transport
Works Building
Ngong Road
P.O. Box 30260 – 00100
NAIROBI
Road Design Manual | Volume 3: Materials & Pavement Design For New Roads

Foreword
This manual was developed by the Ministry pursuant to The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution which
assigns to the National Government the functions and powers of setting standards for the construction and
maintenance of all public roads including those under the County Governments.
It is part of a series of manuals that replace the first generation of road manuals developed in the first
and second decades after independence. The second-generation road manuals were developed to cover
the entire road project cycle covering planning, appraisal, design, contracts, construction, maintenance,
operations and monitoring. The series incorporates best practices, climate change considerations, and
recent technologies to enable safe, secure, and efficient road infrastructure.
Under the Kenya Vision 2030, infrastructure expansion and modernisation are one of the foundations
for the realisation of Kenya's economic, social and political transformation into a rapidly industrialising
middle-income country. The plan envisages an integrated, safe and efficient transport and communication
infrastructure network consisting of roads, railways, ports, airports, waterways, and telecommunications
infrastructure.
The strategies to be pursued under the Vision 2030 plan to improve infrastructure services and to maximise
the economic and social impacts of infrastructure development and management include strengthening
the institutional framework for infrastructure development and maintenance; raising efficiency and quality
of infrastructure projects; Enhancing local content of identified infrastructure projects to minimise import
content; Benchmarking infrastructure facilities and services provision with globally acceptable performance
standards; and, Implementing infrastructure projects that will stimulate demand in hitherto marginalised
areas.
The first three 5-year Medium Term Plan (MTP) under the Vision 2030 from 2008 to 2022 targeted
construction of 1,950 km, 5,500 km and 10,000 km of new paved roads totalling 17,450 km. This was
a massive infrastructure development program intended to double the paved road network in 10 years
compared to the 8,600 km developed from independence in 1963 to 2008.
Implementing MTP I to III resulted in the construction of 14,000 km of paved roads, which was the
phenomenal expansion of the paved road network that extended the paved road coverage to the Arid and
Semi-Arid regions previously neglected. However, some key milestones of the Vision 2030 goals have
not been realised. This has been due to internal and external challenges. External challenges included:
climate change - prolonged droughts and floods; the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic; global supply
chain disruptions; exchange rate volatility; and rising interest rates in the leading economies.
The internal challenges included: inadequate road maintenance equipment; pavement overloading by
heavy goods vehicles; huge maintenance backlog of the road network; low contracting and supervision
capacity particularly in the Counties; poor quality control and assurance of works; congestion in urban
areas; encroachment on road reserves; high cost and delays in payments of land acquisition; lack of
harmonisation of cross-border transport regulation and operational procedures; rapid urbanisation;
increased traffic volume with the exponential growth of motorcycle traffic; high cost/delays in relocation of
utilities and services along and across road reserves; inadequate funding of projects and programs; and,
delay or default in payments for goods, services and works.
The inability to address some of the above challenges is largely due to intrinsic systemic challenges which
include: inadequate funding of research on roads and road construction materials; poor planning; lack of
internalization of policies and processes; lack of respect for professionals and standard practice; ineffective
coordination in the implementation of programs and projects; lack of inclusivity in engagement of manpower
and procurement of services and works; and, lack of unity of purpose and synergy in development and
delivery of projects.
The infrastructure expansion from 2008 – 2022 did not build the local contracting capacity (Micro, Small
and Medium Enterprises) rather it destroyed them due to delays or defaults in payments of invoices at both
national and county levels.

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The implementation of MTP Ill came to an end on 30th June 2023, ushering in the implementation of the
Fourth Medium Term Plan (MTP IV), which has been aligned with the aspirations of the Kenya Vision 2030
and the Bottom-Up Economic Transformation Agenda (BETA) planning approach and its key priorities.
BETA is the Government's transformation agenda geared towards economic turnaround through a value
chain approach. BETA has targeted sectors with the highest impact to drive economic recovery and growth.
This will be achieved by bringing down the cost of living; eradicating hunger; creating jobs; expanding the
tax base; improving foreign exchange balances; and inclusive growth. BETA ensures rational resource
allocation by eliminating wastage of resources occasioned by duplication, overlaps, fragmentation and
ineffective coordination in the implementation of programmes and projects.
The Fourth Medium Term Plan key priorities are clustered under five key sectors, namely: Finance and
Production; Infrastructure; Social; Environment and Natural Resources; and Governance and Public
Administration. The infrastructure sector seeks to: enhance transport connectivity by constructing 6,000km
of new roads, maintaining rural and urban roads, rail, air and seaport facilities and services; expanding
communication and broadcasting systems; and promoting the development of energy generation
and distribution by increasing investments in green energy (geothermal, wind, solar and hydro). The
infrastructure gap is expected to be bridged by promoting economic participation of the private sector
through public-private partnerships in the financing, construction, development, operation and maintenance
of infrastructure.
BETA entails a shift of focus to fundamentals in project planning and implementation which include: respect
for technical input, regulations and standard practices; adherence to project life cycle i.e., planning, feasibility
studies and design before procurement of works; public and stakeholder consultation; procurement within
budgetary ceilings; shifting focus during project implementation from the finished product ‘black top’ to the
construction of the foundation; building local capacity particularly MSMEs by ensuring prompt payments;
and capacity building at all levels to enable internalization of policies and processes.
The first generation of the road manuals were used for 35 to 45 years. It is my sincere hope that the
second generation of the road standards which have been developed in alignment to the BETA approach
will guide in solving most of the above challenges and those expected to emerge in the next 50 years.
Implementation of the manuals will enable achievement of the BETA aspirations which include inclusive
growth; creation of sustainable employment; building of MSMEs; climate change adaptation and realisation
of the UN SDGs; enhanced efficiency in management of infrastructure and transport system; and, laying
the foundation for the next national long-term plan at the end of the Vision 2030.
The second generation of the road manuals and specifications was prepared through an extensive
consultative process involving review of existing standards and consultation with stakeholders, Ministerial
Departments and Agencies, the Technical Task Force, public consultation and stakeholders’ workshops at
review and drafting phases, and the National Steering Committee.
On behalf of the Government of Kenya, I would like to thank the African Development Bank for its support
in the process of preparing this Manual. I would also like to thank the National Steering Committee, the
Technical Task Force, the Technical Administrators, and the KeNHA Project Coordination Team for the
sterling work done. I also thank the Consultant, TRL Limited for their role in providing technical expertise
that was essential for the success of the Road manuals updating exercise.

Hon. Davis K. Chirchir, E.G.H

Cabinet Secretary, Ministry of Roads and Transport

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Preface
This Part of Volume 3 covers the structural design of foundations and materials for both flexible pavement
and rigid pavements for new roads in Kenya. Pavement foundations are designed on the basis of practical
minimum layer thicknesses for construction, protection of the subgrade during construction and long-term
provision of support to the overlying pavement layer. Other considerations include drainage and durability.
In the short term during pavement construction, the stresses in the foundation are relatively high. It is
expected that loads are going to be applied to the foundation by delivery vehicles, pavers and other
construction plant. At any level where such loading is applied, the stiffness and material thickness of
the layer has have to be sufficient to withstand the load without damage occurring that might adversely
influence, to any significant extent, the long-term performance.
In the longer term during the in-service life of a pavement, the stresses in the foundation are expected
to be lower than during construction, although the foundation is going to experience repeated loads from
traffic. It is essential that the assumed support of the foundation to the pavement is maintained, otherwise,
deterioration of the upper pavement layers is going to occur more rapidly than anticipated.
This Part also covers the considerations and characteristic specifications of the materials suitable for use
in pavement foundations and pavement layers in Kenya.
Before using this manual, the designer should have obtained subgrade data in accordance with RDM
Volume 3 Part 1.

Eng. Joseph M. Mbugua, CBS

Principal Secretary, State Department for Roads

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Document Management
Document Status
This document has the status of a Manual. Users shall apply the contents there-in to fully satisfy the requirements
set out. The content of the manual is based on current practice in Kenya and the latest practices in the road
sector, both regionally and internationally.
Sources of the Document
Copies of the document can be obtained from:
The Principal Secretary, State Department for Roads, Ministry of Roads and Transport, Works Building,
Ngong Road, P.O. Box 30260 - 00100, NAIROBI Email: [email protected]
A secured PDF copy maybe downloaded from: www.roads.go.ke/downloads

Notification of errors and requests for amendments:

While all care and consideration has been applied in the compilation of this document, the Ministry accepts
no responsibility for failure in any way related to the application of this manual or any reference documents
cited in it.
Requests for edits and corrections can be freely sent to the following address:
The Principal Secretary, State Department for Roads, Ministry of Roads and Transport, Works Building,
Ngong Road, P.O. Box 30260 - 00100, NAIROBI Email: [email protected]

Amendments Request Form Format

Ref. to:
Request Section/ Type of
Name Organisation Chapter Page Figure/ Request
No. Clause Request
Table/

Type of request: General – G; Editorial – E; Technical - T

Amendments to Date
Amendment
Details of Amendments Effective Date Approved by:
No.

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Acknowledgements
This Manual was prepared by the Ministry of Roads and Transport, State Department for Roads, with the
kind assistance of the African Development Bank.
A National Steering Committee was set up and chaired by the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Roads
and Transport, with the following membership: Principal Secretary for Devolution, Office of the Deputy
President; Chief Executive Officer, Inter-Governmental Relations Technical Committee; Chief Executive
Officer, Council of Governors; Managing Director and Council Secretary, Kenya Bureau of Standards;
Director, National Transport and Safety Authority; Director General, Kenya Roads Board; Director General,
Kenya Wildlife Services; Chief Executive Officer, Engineers Board of Kenya; Director General, Kenya
Rural Roads Authority; Director General, Kenya Urban Roads Authority; President, Institution of Engineers
Kenya; Director Policy, Strategy and Compliance; Kenya National Highways Authority; Chief Engineer,
Roads Division, State Department for Roads; Chief Engineer, Materials Testing and Research Division,
State Department for Roads.
The technical work was undertaken under the guidance of a Technical Task Force, chaired by Eng. David
Maganda, with the following gazetted members: Francis Gichaga (Prof.) (Eng.), Andrew Gitonga (Eng.),
Timothy Nyomboi (Dr.) (Eng.), Rosemary Kungu (Eng.), Charles Obuon (Eng.), Sylvester Abuodha (Prof.)
(Eng.), Samuel Kathindai (Eng.), Nicholas Musuni (Eng.), Charles Muriuki (Eng.), Tom Opiyo (Eng.), John
Maina (Eng.), Fidelis Sakwa (Eng.), Daniel Cherono (Eng.), Maurice Ndeda (Eng.), Theo Uwamba (Eng.).
The Consultant for the review and updating of the manuals and specification for road and Bridge
Construction was TRL Limited (UK), in partnership with Consulting Engineers Group, India and Norken
International Limited, Kenya. The Consultant’s team composed of the Team Leader, Charles T. Bopoto
(Eng.), Author, Andrew Otto (Eng.), and Project Manager, Warsame Mohamed.
Project coordination was provided by the KeNHA team led by J. N. Gatitu (Eng.), supported by Victoria
Okumu (Dr.) (Eng.), Isaiah Onsongo (Eng.), Howard Ashihundu (Eng.), Naomi Njoki Nthiga (Eng.), Shiphrah
Mibey (Eng.) and Rose Rahabwanjohi (Eng.).
Technical Administration was provided by James Kung’u (Eng.), Joachim Mbarua (Eng.) and Stephen K.
Kogi (Eng.), assisted by the project secretariat Esther E.O. Amimo (Eng.), Monicah Wangare (Eng.) and
Catherine K. Ndinda (Eng.)
Project coordination was provided by the KeNHA team led by Kungu Ndungu (Eng.) and J. N. Gatitu
(Eng.), supported by Victoria Okumu (Dr.), (Eng.), Isaiah Onsongo (Eng.), Clarence Karot (Eng.), Howard
Ashihundu (Eng.), Naomi Njoki Nthiga (Eng.), Shiphrah Mibey (Eng.), Mateelong Moses (Eng.) and Rose
Rahabwanjohi (Eng.).

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Acronyms

AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic

AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AC Asphaltic Concrete
ACV Aggregate Crushing Value
ADT Average Daily Traffic
ALD Average Least Dimension
AmSL Above Mean Sea Level
B Bus
BSM Bitumen Stabilised Materials
BiSAR Bitumen Stress Analysis in Roads
BS British Standards
BSI British Standards Institution
C Car
CBR California Bearing Ratio
CESA Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles
CIM Cement Improved Material
CP Concrete Pavement
CPB Concrete Paving Block
CR Crushing Ratio
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
CUSUM Cumulatively Summed
CV Commercial Vehicles
CV/d Commercial Vehicles per day
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DESA Daily Equivalent Standard Axles
DR Dump Rock
DSD Double Surface Dressing
EF Equivalency Factor
EME-2 Enrobé à Module Élevé (EME2 - High modulus asphalt)
EML Equilibrium Moisture Levels
ESA Equivalent Standard Axles
ESM Emulsion Stabilised Materials
ESP Exchangeable Sodium Percentage
ETB Emulsion Treated Base
FACT Fines Aggregate Crushing Test
FI Flakiness Index
GCS Graded Crushed Stone

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Acronyms

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GM Grading Modulus
GPS Global Positioning System
H Heavy Duty
HBM Hydraulically Bound Material
HFS Hubbard Field Stabilometer
HGV Heavy Goods Vehicle
HIG Hydraulically Improved Gravel
HPS Hand Packed Stone
HRB Hydraulic Road Binders
HSM Hydraulically Stabilised Material
ICC Initial Consumption of Cement
ICL Initial Consumption of Lime
ICS Interlocking Cobble Stone
ISO International Standards Organisation
ITS Indirect Tensile Strength
ITSdry Indirect Tensile Strength conducted on a dry sample
ITSwet Indirect Tensile Strength conducted on a soaked conditioned sample
KS Kenyan Standard
L Light Duty
LAA Los Angeles Abrasion
LGV Light Goods Vehicle
LL Liquid Limit
LV Low Volume
LVR Low Volume Roads
LVSR Low Volume Sealed Roads
M Medium Duty
Mb Minibus
MC Medium Curing
Mc Motorcycle
MDD Maximum Dry Density
MESA Million Equivalent Standard Axles
MGV Medium Goods Vehicle
MLET Multi-Layer Elastic Theory
MoRT Ministry of Roads and Transport
MTRD Materials Testing and Research Division
NMT Non-Motorised Traffic
NPRA Norwegian Public Roads Administration

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Acronyms

OB Omnibus
O-D Origin – Destination
OMC Optimum Moisture Content
PC Pedal Cycle
PI Plasticity Index
PL Plastic Limit
PM Plasticity Modulus (Product of PI and % passing 0.425 mm sieve).
RDM Road Design Manual
SABitA Southern African Bitumen Association
SADC Southern African Development Community
SF Seasonal Factors
SG Specific Gravity
SMA Stone Mastic Asphalt
SSD Single Surface Dressing
SSS Sodium Sulphate Soundness
TRL Transport Research Laboratory
UC Uniformity Coefficient
UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength
USA United States of America
VEF Vehicle Equivalence Factor
VH Vibrating Hammer
VPD Vehicles Per Day
WBM Water Bound Macadam

Abbreviations

cc Cubic centimetres mm Millimetres

h Hour mm 2
Millimetres Squared
kg Kilogram MN Mega Newtons
km Kilometres MPa Mega Pascal
kN Kilo Newton N Newton
kPa Kilo Pascal Pen Penetration
l Litre µm Micrometre
m Metres
m 2
Meter Squared
m3 Meter Cubed

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Definitions and Glossary of Terms

General
Borrow Area/Pit Is a site from which natural material, other than solid stone, is removed for
construction of the works. The term borrow pit is applicable during and after the
extraction of materials.
Cobblestone Cobble or dressed stone surfacing consists of a layer of roughly rectangular to
cubical dressed stone laid on a bed of sand or fine aggregate, within mortared
stone or concrete edge restraints.
Concrete Pavement Precast concrete blocks laid on a base of either flexible or rigid pavement. It can
Blocks be laid in various patterns. They are manufactured in two categories of shapes,
i.e., regular (R) or special (S) in accordance with Kenya standard KS 827.
Graded Crushed Is a base or sub-base material derived through crushing or rock or stone,
Stone conforming to the grading, strength, shape and soundness criteria given in
materials specification Chart GM11 of this RDM.
Gravel Wearing Is a top surfacing course made from gravel and applied to a road formation
Course where no pavement or bituminous surfacing are to be placed. The term 'gravel'
includes one or a combination of the following materials: lateritic gravel, quartzitic
gravel, calcareous gravel, some forms of partly decomposed rock, soft stone,
coral rag, clayey sands and crushed rock.
Hand Packed Stone A process in which stones of maximum dimension ranging from 100 to 200 mm
are packed by hand with the largest face downwards and the stones wedged
with smaller stone; a fairly level surface on which layers of smaller graded stones
are placed.
Hydraulically Is a high-quality, well-graded aggregate, and cement mixture (or other hydraulic
Bound Stone binder), mixed in a stationary plant and laid by a paver. It is used as a high-
quality base.
Hydraulically Are natural sands and gravels, crushed stone gravel/aggregates or natural
Improved Granular materials blended with crushed stone aggregates which are deficient in desirable
Materials properties, and which may be improved by the addition of either lime, cement
or hydraulic road binder. Engineering properties such as strength and plasticity
are improved but the material still remains flexible. Improved materials may be
suitable for either sub-base or base.
Hydraulically These are granular materials whose properties are enhanced by the use of
Modified Stone hydraulic binders such as cement. The enhancement involves some limited
binding of the large particles. It excludes material modified using bituminous
binders.
Hydraulic Road Is a factory-produced hydraulic binder, supplied ready for use, having properties
Binder specifically suitable for the treatment of materials for bases, sub-bases and
improved subgrade as well as earthwork materials (fill, selected material etc)
Hydraulically Naturally occurring gravel or crushed rock whose strength is enhanced by the
Stabilised Materials addition of either lime, cement or hydraulic road binders.
Quarry Is an open surface working from which stone is removed by drilling and blasting,
for construction of the works.
Rockfill Is a rock material of such particle size that the material can only be placed
in layers of compacted thickness exceeding 300 mm. Boulders with volumes
greater than 0.2 m3 are not normally used.

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Bitumen and Bituminous Materials

Asphalt Concrete Is a group of bitumen-bound materials used as pavement surfacings. They

Surfacing normally consist of a mixture of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and filler
bound with a bituminous binder.
Asphalt Concrete Is the upper layer when two-course asphalt concrete is used as a surfacing. It
Wearing Course usually differs from the lower binder course, in having a slightly higher bitumen
content and lower voids.
Asphalt Concrete Is the lower layer when two-course asphalt concrete is used as a surfacing. It
Binder Course usually differs from the upper, wearing course, in having a slightly lower bitumen
content, lower stability and greater voids.
Bituminous Binders Are petroleum-derived adhesives used to stick chippings onto a road surface in
surface dressings, to bind together a layer of surfacing or base material, or to
bind together aggregates in bitumen bound materials. There are four principal
types used in road work (straight-run, cut-back, short residue, and emulsion):
Bitumen Emulsion Is a binder in which petroleum bitumen, in finely divided droplets, is dispersed in
water by means of an emulsifying agent to form a stable mixture.
Bitumen Stabilised Are pavement materials that are treated with either bitumen emulsion or foamed
Materials bitumen. The materials commonly treated include granular materials, previously
cement or lime treated pavement materials and reclaimed asphalt pavements.
Cut-back Bitumen Is a bitumen whose viscosity has been reduced by the addition of a volatile
diluent.
Dense Bitumen Is a hot-laid, plant mixture of well-graded aggregate, filler and straight-run
Macadam bitumen, used for base construction. The resulting mix must conform to stability
and flow criteria.
Dense Emulsion Is a cold-laid, plant mixture of well-graded aggregate, filler and bitumen
Macadam emulsion, used for base construction. The specifications are very similar to
dense bitumen macadam.
EME (Enrobé à A mix technology developed in France providing high-performance asphalt
Module Élevé): material for use in heavy-duty pavements. Offers high-level resistance to
[High Modulus permanent deformation combined with a high stiffness level, well in excess of
Asphalt] that of standard mixes used in base layers, especially at elevated temperatures.
Emulsion Slurry Is a surfacing material, used by itself in one or two layers, or on top of a single
Seal surface dressing. It consists of fine aggregate, mineral filler and bitumen
emulsion.
Foamed Bitumen Hot bitumen temporarily greatly expanded in volume by the introduction of steam
or water. It can be used in stabilisation or spray seal enrichment applications.

Fog Spray Is a light application of bitumen emulsion or cut-back, on top of a surface

dressing. Its purpose is to improve the waterproofness of the surfacing and to
assist in holding the chippings.
Gap-Graded Is a hot-laid, plant mixture of gap-graded aggregate, filler and straight-run
Asphalt bitumen, used for pavement surfacing.
Polymer-Modified A binder consisting of polymeric materials dispersed in bitumen with
Bitumen enhanced binder performance for particular applications.

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Prime Coat Is an application of low-viscosity bituminous binder to an absorbent surface,

usually the top of the base. Its purposes are to waterproof the surface being
sprayed and bind it to the overlaying bituminous course. The use of prime
emulsion is preferred.
Sand Asphalt Is a surfacing material consisting of a hot-mixed, hot-laid, plant mixture of natural
sand and, in some cases, mineral filler and crushed fine aggregate, bound with
straight-run bitumen. It is not suitable for heavily trafficked roads.
Sand Bitumen Is a base material consisting of a cold, mixed-in-place combination of sand (or
clayey sand) and either bitumen emulsion or cut-back. This material is intended
for use in areas with little or no gravel deposits.
Short Residue Is the primary product of the refinery before the air-blowing process and is a
Bitumen bitumen of variable viscosity whose penetration can be measured, approximating
to a slow-curing cut-back.
Stone Mastic A gap-graded wearing course mix with a high proportion of coarse aggregate,
Asphalt which interlocks to form a skeletal structure to resist permanent deformation. It
has a high binder content.
Straight-Run Is a bitumen whose viscosity or composition has not been adjusted by blending
Bitumen with solvents or any other substance.
Surface Dressing Is a method of providing a running surface to a pavement and consists of
applications of bituminous binder and single-sized stone chippings. The usual
form of this method on a new road is a double surface dressing with the second
layer of chips being half the nominal size of the first. Single and triple surface
dressings are also used.
Tack Coat Is a light application of bituminous binder to a bituminous or concrete surface to
provide a bond between the surface and the overlaying bituminous course.

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Contents

Foreword iii
Preface v
Document Management vi
Acknowledgements vii
Acronyms viii
Abbreviations x
Definitions and Glossary of Terms xi
Contents xiv
List of Figures xviii
List of Tables xix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Objective of this Part 3
1.3 Scope of this Part 3
1.4 Organisation of this Part 3
1.5 Design Process 4
1.6 Key Definitions 4
2 Traffic Assessment for Pavement Design 7
2.1 General 7
2.2 Vehicle Classification 7
2.3 Permissible Axle Loads in Kenya 8
2.4 Selecting a Design Period 8
2.5 Evaluation of Traffic for Design Purposes 9
2.6 Design Traffic Classes 13
2.6.1 Use of Cumulative Number of Standard Axles 13
2.6.2 Traffic Classes 13
3 The Kenyan Environment 15
3.1 General 15
3.2 Climate 15
3.3 Geology 17
3.4 Effects of Climate Change and Resilience Measures 19
4 Classification of Alignment Soils 21
4.1 General 21
4.2 Determination of Subgrade Strength 21
4.2.1 Recommended Subgrade CBR Test Procedure 21
4.2.2 Classes of Subgrade Bearing Strength 21
4.2.3 Classification of the Most Common Kenyan Subgrade Materials 23
4.3 Determination of Subgrade Class for Road Section 24
4.3.1 Determination of Homogeneous Sections 24
4.3.2 Classification of Alignment Soils 26
5 Earthworks 27
5.1 General 27
5.2 Cuttings 27
5.2.1 General 27
5.2.2 Type of Material to be Excavated 27
5.2.3 Water Table and Springs 28
5.2.4 Determination of the Angle of Slope 28
5.3 Fill Embankments 30
5.3.1 General 30
5.3.2 Foundation Conditions and Settlement 30
5.3.3 Geotechnical Design Considerations 31

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5 5.3.4 Stability of Slopes 33

5.3.5 Fill in Hard Material 34
5.3.6 Fill in Soft Material 35
5.3.7 Placing and Compaction of Fill 35
5.3.8 Dump Rock 37
5.3.9 Rockfill 37
6 Problematic Soils 39
6.1 General 39
6.2 Problems Associated with Expansive Clays 39
6.2.1 Geotechnical Characteristics of Expansive Clays 39
6.2.2 Identification and Classification 40
6.2.3 Susceptibility to Erosion 41
6.2.4 Design and Construction Procedures on Expansive Soils 41
6.3 Dispersive Soils 45
6.4 Collapsible Soils 47
6.5 Saline Soils 48
6.6 Organic Soils 49
6.7 Halloysite 49
7 Pavement Foundations 51
7.1 General 51
7.2 Subgrade Requirements for Pavement Design 51
7.2.1 Subgrade Compaction 51
7.2.2 Estimating the Subgrade Moisture Content 52
7.2.3 Determining the Subgrade Design Strength 53
7.2.4 Subgrade Failure Criterion 53
7.2.5 Subgrade Stiffness Modulus 54
7.2.6 Empirical Relationships for CBR to the Subgrade Resilient Modulus 55
7.3 Foundation Classes 55
7.4 Improved Subgrade 56
7.4.1 General 56
7.4.2 Fill 56
7.4.3 Capping Layers (Improved Subgrade) 56
7.5 Lime and Cement-treated Subgrade 59
7.6 Performance Foundations 59
7.6.1 General 59
7.6.2 Minimum Deflection Requirements 59
7.6.3 Procedure for Field Determination 60
7.6.4 Thickness Design Requirements 64
7.6.5 Use of Geosynthetics 65
8 Pavement Materials 67
8.1 General 67
8.2 Sub-base Materials 67
8.2.1 Natural Gravels 67
8.2.2 Clayey and Silty Sands 68
8.2.3 Hydraulically Improved Granular Materials 68
8.2.4 Graded Crushed Stone 68
8.2.5 Dry-bound and Wet-bound Macadam 69
8.2.6 Soft Stone 70
8.2.7 Hand Packed Stone 70
8.3 Base Materials 71
8.3.1 Natural Gravels 71
8.3.2 Hydraulically Improved Granular Materials 71
8.3.3 Graded Crushed Stone 72
8.3.4 Dry-bound and Wet-bound Macadam 73

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8.3.5 Sand Bitumen Mixes 73

8.3.6 Dense Bitumen Macadam 74
8.3.7 Dense Emulsion Macadam 74
8.3.8 Bitumen Stabilised Materials (BSM) 74
8.3.9 EME (High Modulus Asphalt) 76
8.3.10 Hydraulically Modified Stone 76
8.3.11 Hydraulically Bound Stone (HBS) for HBS6 and HBS9 77
8.3.12 Hand Packed Stone 77
8.4 Surfacings 78
8.4.1 Bituminous Binders 78
8.4.2 Modified Bitumen 78
8.4.3 Prime Coat, Tack Coat and Precoat 79
8.4.4 Surface Dressing 80
8.4.5 Other Bituminous Seals and Seal Combinations 82
8.4.6 Functions and Performance of Bituminous Premix (Asphalt) 84
8.4.7 Asphalt Surfacings 84
8.4.8 Interlocking Cobblestone Paving 88
8.4.9 Concrete Block Paving 88
8.4.10 Choice of Surfacing 89
8.5 Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP) 89
8.5.1 Current Practice in Kenya 89
8.5.2 RAP in Improved Subgrade Layers 89
8.5.3 RAP in Improved Subgrade Layers 90
8.6 Asphalt Mix Design 90
8.6.1 Aggregate Blending by Direct Proportioning 90
8.6.2 The Bailey Method of Aggregate Blending 90
8.6.3 Asphalt Concrete Mix Design Process 91
8.6.4 Bitumen Stabilised Materials Mix Design Process 95
8.6.5 EME (High Modulus Asphalt) Mix Design Process 97
8.6.6 Stone Mastic Asphalt Design Process 98
8.7 Surface Dressing Design 100
8.8 Concrete 103
8.8.1 More Environmentally Friendly Concrete (Geopolymer Concrete) 103
8.8.2 Cement 103
8.8.3 Coarse Aggregate 106
8.8.4 Fine Aggregate 108
8.8.5 Water 108
8.8.6 Admixtures 109
8.8.7 Air Content 110
8.8.8 Concrete Temperature 110
8.8.9 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 111
8.8.10 Workability 112
8.8.11 Concrete Mix Design 112
8.8.12 Roller Compacted Concrete Design 117
8.9 Materials Classification 119
8.9.1 General 119
8.9.2 Charts for Natural Gravels 123
8.9.3 Charts for Graded Crushed Stone, Hand Packed Stone, and Macadam 133
8.9.4 Charts for Hydraulically Improved Granular Materials and Hydraulically 136
Bound Stone
8.9.5 Charts for Bitumen Stabilised Materials 144
8.9.6 Charts for Bituminous Mixes for Road Bases and Surfacing 147
8.9.7 Charts for Cobblestones, Concrete Block Paving, and Cement 165
Concrete for Rigid Pavements

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9 Bibliography 174
10 Appendices 176
Appendix A Axle Loads and Equivalence Factors 176
A.1 Typical EFs for Class A Roads 176
A.2 Typical EFs for Class B Roads 177
A.3 Typical EFs for Class C Roads 178
A.4 Typical EFs for Class D Roads 179
Appendix B Refusal Density Testing (Vibrating Hammer Method) 180
B.1 Equipment 180
B.2 Vibrating Hammer Compaction 180
B.3 Refusal Density Design 181
B.4 Transfer of Refusal Density Mix Design to Compaction Trials 184
Appendix C Bailey Aggregate Blending Method 185
C.1 Basic Principles 185
C.2 Aggregate Packing 185
C.3 Coarse and Fine Aggregate 186
C.4 Combining Aggregates by Volume 186
C.5 Loose Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate 187
C.6 Rodded Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate 187
C.7 Chosen Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate 187
C.8 Rodded Unit Weight of Fine Aggregate 188
C.9 Determining a Design Blend 188
C.10 Analysis of the Design Blend 189
C.11 CA Ratio 189
C.12 Coarse Portion of Fine Aggregate 190
C.13 Fine Portion of Fine Aggregate 191
C.14 Summary of Ratios 191
Appendix D A Summary of the Marshall and Modified Marshall Asphalt Mix Design 193
D.1 General 193
D.2 Materials 193
D.3 Preparation of Test Samples 194
D.4 Testing of Specimens 196
D.5 Volumetric Analysis 196
D.6 Calculation of Volumetric Properties of Individual Components 197
D.7 Stability and Flow Testing 199
D.8 Selection of the Mix Design 200
D.9 Bitumen Film Thickness 201
D.10 Water Sensitivity Assessment 201
D.11 Modified Marshall Mix Design 201
D.12 Conducting Other Performance Tests 201
Appendix E A Summary of the Superpave Asphalt Mix Design 202
E.1 General 202
E.2 Materials for Superpave 202
E.3 Compaction for Superpave Mix Design 203
E.4 Volumetric Analysis 205
E.5 Selecting the Design Mix 205
E.6 Moisture Sensitivity 207
E.7 Conducting Other Performance Tests 207

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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 The Design Process 4
Figure 1.2 Cross-section Terminology 5
Figure 1.3 Cross-section Elements 5
Figure 1.4 Pavement Terminology 5
Figure 2.1 A 6-axle Semi-trailer (2:4:4:4:4:4) 10
Figure 3.1 Map Showing Temperature Zones 16
Figure 3.2 Map Showing Rainfall Zones 17
Figure 3.3 Generalised Geological Map of Kenya 18
Figure 4.1 Determining the Subgrade Bearing Strength Class 23
Figure 4.2 Example of Determination of Uniform Sections using CUSUMs 26
Figure 6.1 Schematic of Embankments and Treatments on Expansive Soils 41
Figure 7.1 The Foundation and the Pavement 51
Figure 7.2 Permissible Vertical Strain on the Subgrade 54
Figure 7.3 Subgrade Surface Modulus Test Locations 62
Figure 7.4 Wheel Path Deformation 63
Figure 8.1 Mix Design Procedure for Dense-graded Mixes (AC, DBM) by Marshall Method 93
Figure 8.2 Mix Design Procedure for Dense-graded Mixes (AC, DBM) by Superpave Method 94
Figure 8.3 Procedure for Performance Testing 95
Figure 8.4 Mix Design Procedure for BSM 97
Figure 8.5 Mix Design Procedure for EME (High Modulus Asphalt) 98
Figure 8.6 Mix Design Procedure for Stone Mastic Asphalt 99
Figure 8.7 Road Temperature from Air Temperature 100
Figure 8.8 Viscosity-road Temperature Relationship 101
Figure 8.9 Chipping Spread Rate and Bitumen Rate Multiplier 102
Figure 8.10 Flow Chart Showing 5 Stages of Concrete Mix Design 114
Figure 8.11 Continuation of the Design Flow Chart Showing 5 Stages of Concrete Mix Design 115
Figure B.1 Examples of VIM and VMA Relationships for Mixes Compacted to Refusal 182
Figure B.2 Relationship Between Age and Bitumen Penetration for Surface Dressed Bitumen 184
Macadam Roadbase
Figure D.1 An Example of Volumetric Plots at Various Bitumen Contents 200
Figure E.1 An Example (Superpave) of Volumetric Plots at Various Bitumen Contents 206

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List of Tables
Table 1.1 Road Design Manual (RDM) Coding Structure 2
Table 2.1 Vehicle Classification System 7
Table 2.2 Permissible Maximum Axle Loads 8
Table 2.3 Pavement Design Period Selection Guidance 9
Table 2.4 Lane Width Adjustment Factors for Design Traffic Loading 11
Table 2.5 Standard Axles for Different Axle Load Groups 12
Table 2.6 Lane Width Adjustment Factors for Design Traffic Loading 13
Table 4.1 Subgrade Strength Classes 21
Table 4.2 Common Kenyan Subgrade Materials 24
Table 4.3 Illustration of the Use of CUSUMs 25
Table 5.1 Rock Excavation Characteristics 28
Table 5.2 Typical Slope Batters of Excavated Slopes 29
Table 5.3 Typical Benching Heights 30
Table 5.4 Typical Slope Batter 33
Table 5.5 Requirements for Dump Rock in Fill 37
Table 6.1 Classification of Expansive Soils 41
Table 6.2 Summary of Mitigation Options for Road Construction on Expansive Clays 42
Table 6.3 Crumb Test Dispersive Reaction 46
Table 6.4 Features of Collapsible Soils 48
Table 7.1 Compaction of Subgrade 52
Table 7.2 Subgrade Strain Criteria 54
Table 7.3 Subgrade Surface Moduli 54
Table 7.4 Pavement Foundation Classes and Applicability 55
Table 7.5 Requirements for Fill and Improved Subgrade Layers 57
Table 7.6 Minimum Capping Thicknesses for Improved Subgrade 58
Table 7.7 Material Properties for Stabilisation Treatment With Lime and Cement 59
Table 7.8 Relevant Geotextile Characteristics and Test Methods 66
Table 8.1 Grading for RAP for use in Improved Subgrades 89
Table 8.2 Mix Design Methods for Design Traffic Classes 91
Table 8.3 Common Types of Cement 105
Table 8.4 Minimum Cement (or Combination) for 40mm Max. Aggregate 106
Table 8.5 Maximum Air Content 110
Table 8.6 RCC Cement Specifications 117
Table 8.7 RCC Aggregate Grading 118
Table 8.8 MaterialCodes and Abbreviated Specifications 120
Table A.1 Typical EFs for Class A Roads 176
Table A.2 Typical EFs for Class B Roads 177
Table A.3 Typical EFs for Class C Roads 178
Table A.4 Typical EFs for Class D Roads 179
Table C.1 Recommended Ranges of Aggregate Ratios 190
Table C.2 Recommended Ranges of Aggregate Ratios 192
Table D.1 Volumetric Nomenclature and Test Methods 196
Table D.2 Minimum VMA Specified for AC Mixes 199
Table D.3 AC Wearing Course Specifications 199

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Table D.4 An Example of Acceptable Bitumen Range Complying with Design Criteria 200
Table E.1 Particle Size Distribution for Superpave AC Wearing Courses 204
Table E.2 Particle Size Distribution for Superpave AC Roadbase and Binder Courses 204
Table E.3 Superpave Gyratory Compaction Effort 204
Table E.4 An Example of Acceptable Bitumen Range Complying with Design Criteria 205
Table E.5 An Example (Superpave) of Acceptable Bitumen Range Complying with Design Criteria 206

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1 Introduction
1
1.1 General

Introduction
This manual was prepared by the Ministry as part of a series of manuals that cover the entire project
cycle. The series incorporate best practices, climate change considerations, and recent technologies
to enable the provision of road infrastructure that is safe, secure, and efficient.
The Kenya road manual series is as follows:

Project Cycle Stage Manual: Volume or Part/Chapter Code

A. General Procedures and Standards Manual PSM
1. General
2. Policies
3. Procedures Guidance
4. Codes of Practice
5. Guidelines
6. Product/Testing Standards
B. Planning Network and Project Planning Manual NPM
1. Road Classification
2. Route/Corridor Planning
3. Route/Corridor Planning
4. Highway Capacity
5. Project Planning
C. Appraisal Project Appraisal Manual PAM
1. Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit
2. Social Impact Assessment
3. Traffic Impact Assessment
4. Road Safety Audits
5. Project Appraisal
6. Feasibility Studies
D. Design Road Design Manual RDM
1. Geometric Design
2. Hydrology and Drainage Design
3. Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads
4. Bridges and Retaining Structures Design
5. Pavement Maintenance, Rehabilitation and Overlay Design
6. Traffic Control Facilities and Communication Systems Design
7. Road Lighting Design
E. Contracts Works and Services Contracts Manual WSCM
1. Forms of contracts
2. Standard Specification for Road and Bridge Construction
3. Bills of Quantities
4. Standard/Typical Drawings
F. Construction Road Construction Manual RCM
1. Construction Management
2. Project Management
3. Site Supervision
4. Quality Assurance
5. Quality Control
This table continues onto the next page...

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Project Cycle Stage Manual: Volume or Part/Chapter Code

1 G. Maintenance Road Asset Management Manual RAAM
1. Maintenance Management
Introduction

2. General Maintenance
3. Pavement Maintenance
4. Bridges & Structures Maintenance
H. Operations Road Operation Manual ROM
1. Traffic Management
2. Vehicle Load Control
3. Emergency Services
4. Tolling
I. Monitoring & Road Design Manual MEM
Evaluation 1. Performance Monitoring Manual
2. Technical Audits
3. Poverty, Gender Equality & Social Inclusion Monitoring

This Volume 3, Part 3 – Pavement Foundation Design is part of the Roads Design Manual made up
of a series of volumes and shown below:

Table 1.1 Road Design Manual (RDM) Coding Structure

Vol. Manual Title Part Name Code

1 Road Design Manual: Vol. 1 Part 1 - Topographic Survey RDM 1.1
Geometric Design Part 2 – Traffic Surveys RDM 1.2
Part 3 – Geometric Design of Highways, Rural and Urban Roads RDM 1.3
2 Road Design Manual: Vol. 2 Part 1 – Hydrological Surveys RDM 2.1
Hydrology & Drainage Design Part 2 – Drainage Design RDM 2.2
3 Road Design Manual: Vol. 3 Part 1 – Ground Investigations and Material Prospecting RDM 3.1
Materials & Pavement Design Part 2 – Materials Field and Laboratory Testing RDM 3.2
for New Roads Part 3 – Pavement Foundation and Materials Design RDM 3.3
Part 4 – Flexible Pavement Design RDM 3.4
Part 5 – Rigid Pavement Design RDM 3.5
4 Road Design Manual: Vol. 4 Part 1 – Geotechnical Investigation and Design RDM 4.1
Bridges & Retaining Structures Part 2 – Bridge & Culvert Design RDM 4.2
Design Part 3 – Retaining Structures Design RDM 4.3
Part 4 – Reinforced Fill Structures RDM 4.4
Part 5 – Bridges & Structures Condition Survey RDM 4.5
Part 6 – Bridge Maintenance Design RDM 4.6
5 Road Design Manual: Vol. 5 Part 1 – Pavement Condition Survey RDM 5.1
Pavement Maintenance, Part 2 – Pavement Maintenance, Rehabilitation RDM 5.2
Rehabilitation & Overlay Design and Overlay Design
6 Road Design Manual: Vol. 6 Part 1 – Road Marking RDM 6.1
Traffic Control Facilities & Part 2 – Traffic Signs RDM 6.2
Communication Systems Design
Part 3 – Traffic Signals and Communication System RDM 6.3
Part 4 – Other Traffic Control Devices RDM 6.4
7 Road Design Manual: Vol. 7 Part 1 – Grid-connected Road Lighting RDM 7.1
Road Lighting Design Part 2 – Solar Road Lighting RDM 7.2

This volume must be applied sensibly and flexibly in conjunction with the skill and judgement of
the designer. Compliance with the guidance given in the manual does not relieve designers of the
responsibility for establishing that their design is suitable, appropriate, safe, and adequate for the
purpose stated in the project requirements.

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1.2 Objective of this Part

The main objective of this Part of Volume 3 is to provide options of materials to enable technically 1
suitable and economically justifiable foundation design, and the structural design of both flexible

Introduction
and rigid pavements. The options selected must be suitable for the local conditions considering
the availability of materials, technology, employment creation, health and safety, and efficiency of
construction.
The options provided in this part may be adjusted by the designer followed by seeking the necessary
approvals from the Chief Engineer (Materials).
Other objectives include traffic assessment for pavement design and materials design.

1.3 Scope of this Part

This Part sets out the permitted approaches for traffic assessment and materials characterisation
for foundation and pavement design. A variety of materials can be utilised in the foundation and the
designer can take advantage of improved foundation materials by using them to construct stronger
and stiffer foundations to enable compliance with a modulus ratio requirement of at least 10 % to
the overlying pavement construction and reduced pavement thickness.
Two foundation design approaches are presented:
1. A restricted foundation designs involves the use of subgrade surface moduli and
characterisation of the improved subgrade or capping based on assumed performance
provided in this manual and does not require verification via performance testing of the
foundation.
2. A performance design approach that gives flexibility to the designer in terms of the materials
that can be used in the foundation in conjunction with top of foundation testing to confirm that
performance requirements have been met.
The foundation design covered under this part are for both flexible and rigid designs to be
undertaken using Part 4 and Part 5 of this Volume.

1.4 Organisation of this Part

The remaining sections of the manual are structured as follows:
• Chapter 2: Traffic assessment. This discusses the steps required for the determination of the
design traffic.
• Chapter 3: The Kenyan environment. This presents the climate, and geology of Kenya to provide
a basis for providing appropriate design. Considerations for climate resilience are also presented
here.
• Chapter 4: Classification of alignment soils. This provides the steps for the determination of
uniform sections and the corresponding subgrade classes.
• Chapter 5: Earthworks. This provides guidance and considerations applicable to cuttings and
embankments.
• Chapter 6: Problematic soils. This addresses methods for addressing the challenges presented
by problematic soils found in Kenya.
• Chapter 7: Pavement foundations design. This provides cappings (improved subgrade)
combinations required to achieve design foundation strength. Performance design of foundations
is also discussed in this section.
• Chapter 8: Pavement Materials. This presents key aspects of various materials used in the design
of flexible and rigid pavements and their specifications.

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Appendices that contain sample axle loads and equivalence factors, the refusal density test
procedure, the Bailey method of aggregate blending, a summary of the Marshall Mix design method,
1 the modified Marshall method, and the Superpave mix design method are included.
Introduction

1.5 Design Process

The main function of a pavement foundation is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the underlying
subgrade, without causing distress in the foundation layers or in the overlying layers. This is required
both during construction and during the service life of the pavement.
Before using this manual, the designer should have obtained subgrade data in accordance with RDM
Volume 3, Part 1.
Pavement foundations are designed on the basis of practical minimum layer thicknesses for
construction, protection of the subgrade during construction and long-term provision of support to
the overlying pavement layer. Other considerations include drainage and durability.
The design of the pavement structures included in this part is as presented in Figure 1.1 below.

Figure 1.1 The Design Process

Alignment ground Material

Traffic volume survey Axle load surveys
investigations prospecting
(RDM 1.2) (RDM 1.2)
(RDM 3.1) (RDM 3.1)

Estimation of Determination of Considerations of Evaluation of

design traffic alignment subgrade drainage and pavement materials
class (RDM 3.3) class (RDM 3.3) environment (RDM 3.1) (RDM 3.3)

Evaluation of pavement options

(RDM 3.4 and 3.5)

Selection of pavement foundation

class (RDM 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5)

Selection of pavement structure

(RDM 3.4 and 3.5)

1.6 Key Definitions

Figure 1.2 to Figure 1.4 illustrate the terms used in describing the principal pavement and cross
section components.

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Figure 1.2 Cross-section Terminology

1
Roadway

Introduction
CL
Shoulder breakpoint
Cut back slope
Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder

Lane Lane
Open side drain Embankment side slope

Figure 1.3 Cross-section Elements

Original ground level Finished road level

Pavement layers Formation level

Cutting
Improved subgrade layers

Fill
In-situ subgrade Subgrade

Roadbed

Figure 1.4 Pavement Terminology

Wearing course
Surfacing Binder course
Base
Pavement
Subbase
Formation
Capping (where required)
compacted to 95% MDD
Compacted to 95% MDD AASHTO T180 Foundation/
AASHTO T180 in 150mm
Upper
cuttings and on all subgrade
fills below formation or 150mm
improved subgrade. Subgrade
Compacted to 95% MDD
AASHTO T99 in
lower embankment Lower
fill layers. subgrade

Subgrade is all the material below the pavement and may include in-situ material, fill and capping
(improved subgrade).
For assessing any section of subgrade, the average should be at least equal to the median for the
category selected, and no CBR value should fall below the lowest value in the range.
Improved Subgrade or Capping is a layer of selected fill material, the top of which is at formation
level, placed where the natural in-situ or fill material is unsuitable for the direct support of the pavement.

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Formation is the surface of the ground, in its final shape, upon which the pavement structure,
consisting of sub-base, base and surfacing is constructed.
1
Foundation is the upper subgrade below the formation. Where no capping (improved subgrade)
Introduction

is provided, it is the upper 300 mm of the subgrade below the formation. Where a capping layer is
provided, the foundation shall be defined as the combination of the top 300 mm of fill or cutting and
all the capping layers provided.
Sub-base is the layer constructed on the subgrade below the base either for the purpose of providing
support to the base, and additionally protecting the subgrade. It may be composed of natural gravel,
graded crushed stone, macadam, hand-packed stone, hydraulically improved granular materials,
hydraulically modified stone, hydraulically bound stone, and bitumen stabilised material.
Base is a layer of material usually constituting the uppermost structural element of a pavement and
on which the surfacing may be placed. It may be composed of natural gravel, graded crushed stone,
macadam, hand-packed stone, hydraulically improved granular materials, hydraulically modified
stone, hydraulically bound stone, bitumen stabilised material, or various forms of asphalt.
Surfacing is the uppermost pavement layer which provides the riding surface for vehicles. It will
normally consist of one of the following: surface dressing, sand asphalt or asphalt concrete, stone
mastic asphalt, other combinations of asphalt, cobblestone, and paving blocks. For rigid pavements,
the concrete acts as both a base and surfacing.

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2 Traffic Assessment for Pavement Design

2.1 General
1
A major factor in pavement design is the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles in the design
period. In order to determine this value a number of operations must be carried out. This includes: 2
1. Conducting traffic counts and vehicle axle load surveys (covered in RDM Volume 1 Part 2).

Traffic Assessments for Pavement Design

2. Selecting a design period (in years).
3. Converting the axle loads to an equivalent number of standard 80 kN axles (covered in RDM
Volume 1 Part 2).
4. Determining the daily number of standard axles for in the year of opening or initial daily number
of standard axles.
5. Determining the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles over the design period and thus
the determine the design traffic class.

2.2 Vehicle Classification

The vehicle classification system adopted for the traffic studies is shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Vehicle Classification System

Vehicle Vehicle Description based on unique Class by Axle
Category Vehicle Class Code characteristics and Traffic Act (Cap 403) Configuration
Passenger Pedal Cycle PC Non-motorised bicycle or tricycle.
Vehicles Motorcycle MC Self-propelled vehicle with less than 3 wheels.
Three wheelers MR Self-propelled vehicle with 3 wheels.
and Tuk-tuk
Cars, jeeps, C Passenger motor vehicle with seating capacity 2-axle rigid
SUVs, Pick-ups of not more than nine persons including the
driver.
Microbus MCB Two axle rigid chassis passenger motor vehicle 2-axle rigid
with seating capacity of 10 to 14 persons
including the driver.
Minibus MB Two axle rigid chassis passenger motor vehicle 2-axle rigid
with seating capacity of 15 to 25 persons
including the driver.
Bus B Two axle rigid chassis passenger motor vehicle 2-axle rigid
with seating capacity of 26 to 53 persons
including the driver.
Omnibus OB Three or four axle passenger motor vehicles 3 or 4-axle rigid
with seating capacity of more than 53 persons or articulated
including driver.
Goods Light Goods LGV Two axle rigid chassis goods vehicle of gross 2-axle rigid
Vehicles Vehicle vehicle weight not exceeding 3,500 kg.
Medium Goods MGV Two axle rigid chassis goods vehicle or tractor of 2-axle rigid
Vehicle gross vehicle weight of 3,500 kg to 8,500 kg.
Heavy Goods HGV 3 or 4 axle rigid chassis goods vehicle or tractor 3 or 4-axle rigid
Vehicle with gross vehicle weight greater than 8,500 kg.
Articulated AHGV Articulated goods vehicle having 3 or more axles 3 or more axles
Heavy Goods of gross vehicle weight exceeding 8,500 kg. articulated
Vehicle

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2.3 Permissible Axle Loads in Kenya

1 The prevailing allowable maximum axle loads prescribed under the Twelfth schedule at Rule 41
of the Traffic Rules under the Traffic Act (Chapter 403) of the Laws of Kenya are presented in
Table 2.2. The recommended tyre pressure for design purposes is 750 kPa for dual tyres and
2 800 kPa for Super Single tyres.

Table 2.2 Permissible Maximum Axle Loads

Traffic Assessments for Pavement Design

Maximum Axle Load

Axle Type Total Number of Wheels Tyre Type
(tonnes)
Single 2 Conventional 8
Single 4 Conventional 10
Tandem 8 Conventional 18
4 Super Single 16
Tridem 12 Conventional 24
6 Super Single 22.5
Liftable single 4 Conventional 10
Liftable single 2 Super Single 8.5

2.4 Selecting a Design Period

The concept of design period should not be confused with pavement life. At the end of the 'design
period' the pavement will only require to be strengthened to carry traffic for a further period. At the end
of the 'design period' the pavement will be NOT be completely worn out or have deteriorated to the
point that reconstruction is needed.
During the design period of the pavement, only ordinary maintenance will be carried out, i.e., shoulders
and drainage system maintenance, vegetation control, localised patching, and periodic resealing.
Pavement life refers to the length of time a pavement lasts to the point that strengthening is required
to restore and extend serviceability. This is typically expected to occur after the design period but can
occasionally occurs before the design period is reached.
The design aim is, therefore, to minimise the total expenditure on the pavement, including the initial
construction costs and subsequent maintenance or strengthening costs discounted to present day
value. This raises the question of stage construction.
For the types of pavements proposed in this Manual, stage construction offers economic advantages
and initial design periods should not exceed the values in Table 2.3, even if much longer overall lives
are anticipated. Stage construction provides an opportunity to choose the structural characteristics
of the second stage in light of actual conditions, which may differ substantially from those originally
foreseen.
The selection of design period depends on several factors and uncertainties. Based on the reliability
of available information, the designer should specify the design period. Table 2.3 provides guidance
on selection of design life. It should be noted that using Table 2.3 is an iterative process in which a
design period is selected and used to compute the design traffic. The design traffic is then checked
as to which design traffic category it belongs to. The DESA in Table 2.6 provides a good starting point
for estimating the design traffic category. In each iteration, the design period is varied until the design
period and the design traffic both correspond to the same design traffic category.
The values in Table 2.3 do not take into account designs for long-life (perpetual life) pavements. The
design of these pavements is not based on design period, but rather on limiting strains at the bottom
of bound layers (bituminous or hydraulic) and on top of the subgrade. For long-life pavements, the
maximum permissible strain at the bottom of the bituminous layer is 70 microstrain, and at the top of
the subgrade is 200 microstrain.

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Bus-rapid-transit (BRT) lanes should be designed for a period of 40 years or until the pavement
analysis shows that a long-life pavement has been achieved. Low and high levels of service refer to
the perceived importance of the roads in question. This is determined by the relevant authority for
1
the project road. For example, Class S, A, B, and C roads (see RDM 1.3) would require a high level
of service whereas other roads would fall in low level of service.
2
Table 2.3 Pavement Design Period Selection Guidance

Traffic Assessments for Pavement Design

Level of Service/ Design Period
Design Traffic Category
Low High
Low 10 – 15 years 15 years
Medium and Heavy Traffic 10 – 20 years 15 – 20 years
Very Heavy Traffic 20 years 30 years
Urban Pavements 15 - 20 years 40 years or long-life pavement
Rigid Pavements 40 years 40 years

2.5 Evaluation of Traffic for Design Purposes

To estimate the total number of standard axles to be catered for by the design, it is necessary to
forecast the annual growth rate of the traffic and to decide what the design period should be as
described below.
The calculation of design traffic loading shall include construction traffic and commercial vehicles
that are expected to use the completed pavement before the start of the design period
The following steps are followed in determining the design traffic loading and class.
• Step 1: Select Design Period
As described in section 2.4.
• Step 2: Estimate Initial Traffic Volume per Vehicle Class
This should be for each direction as described in RDM Volume 1 Part 2.
• Step 3: Estimate Traffic Growth Rate per Vehicle Class
A sensitivity analysis of the growth rates obtained in accordance with RDM Volume 1 Part 2
should be undertaken and an allowance of 1.2 times the growth rate should be made to cater for
uncertainty if new developments and diverted traffic are expected along the route.
• Step 4: Mean ESA per Vehicle Class
This should be for each vehicle class in each direction, as described in RDM Volume 1 Part 2.
The equivalency factor (EF) for each axle is normally computed and summed up to obtain the EF
for each vehicle type in the survey. The equivalency factor represents the mean damaging power
of a vehicle to the pavement, normally expressed as the number of standard 80 kN (or 8,160kg)
axles that would cause the same amount of damage.
The EF (ESAs/axle) is derived as follows:

(
P n
EF = 8160 )
Equation 2.1
Where,
P = axle load (in kg)
n = power exponent

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Example
1 Consider a 6-axle articulated truck with no tandem axles as shown in. If the truck is fully loaded,
bringing the truck weight up to 50,000kg. The load per axle is as illustrated below.

2 Figure 2.1 A 6 Axle Semi-trailer (2:4:4:4:4:4)

Traffic Assessments for Pavement Design

8,000Kg 9,000Kg 9,000Kg 8,000Kg 8,000Kg 8,000Kg

The axle load measurements are converted into EF values using Equation 2.2. The VEF for one
truck is:
8000 4.5
VEF = 8160 ( )
9000 4.5
+ 2 * 8160 (
8000 4.5
+ 3 * 8160 ) ( )
= 0.91 + 3.11 + 2.74 = 6.77
Equation 2.2
This means that one passage of the fully loaded semi-trailer exerts the same amount of pavement
damage as 6.77 passages of a single axle with a load of 8,160kg.
The above relationship was derived by Liddle, taking a regional factor of 1.0 and a terminal
serviceability index of 2.0. For Kenya, the default value of n shall be taken as 4.5. However,
Liddle’s formula does not hold for axle weights in excess of 130 kN. Empirical studies show that an
equation is similar in form but with a damage exponent (higher than 4.5) depending on pavement
structure and axle load may hold. The percentage of load carried by axles loaded to 13 tonnes and
higher, expressed as proportion of the total mass of all vehicles surveyed should be computed.
If this is equal or greater than 10 %, then a sensitivity analysis should be undertaken. This is
conducted in the computation of the load equivalency factor by varying the value of the damaging
exponent, n, from 3 to 9 for all axles measured. If these values lead to a design traffic class greater
than the one obtained by a damaging exponent greater than 4.5, then the higher design traffic
class should be adopted for the design.
All axles including tandem and triple ones should be weighed separately and the loads converted
to equivalent standard axles using the above equation. The reasons are that there is some
uncertainty concerning the tandem axle equation itself and that, in Kenya tandem axles appear to
be improperly loaded (one axle is generally much heavier than the other) and so would not fulfil
the equation requirements. The equivalence factors depend to some extent on the strength of the
pavement.

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It is important to note that the Liddle relationship is not linear but exponential. What this means
is, small increases in the axle weight can result into large increases in pavement damage. For
example:
1
1. A 44.4 kN single axle needs to be applied to a pavement structure more than 12 times to inflict
the same damage caused by one repetition of an 80 kN single axle. 2
2. An 80 kN single axle does over 3,000 times more damage to a pavement than an 8.9 kN single
axle (1.000/0.0003 ˜ 3,333).

Traffic Assessments for Pavement Design

Individual wheels do slightly less damage when part of a tandem set than if they were widely
separated. A 133.3 kN single axle does about 11 times more damage than a 133.3 kN tandem
axle (7.9/0.703 ˜ 11). However, tandem, or triple axle groups rarely carry equal loads and
therefore it is recommended to treat each axle of the tandem or triple set separately.
• Step 5: Mean Daily ESA for all Vehicle Classes
The estimated initial daily ESAs for each vehicle class (DESA), for each direction of travel, is
obtained from the traffic data derived in Step 2 and the VEFs derived in Step 4, as follows:

DESAi = AADTi x VEFi

Equation 2.3
Where,
i = vehicle class/category
AADTi = the AADT or ADT of vehicle class/category i, (Step 2)
VEFi = the weighted average of VEF of vehicle class/category i, computed from axle
load measurements as explained in Step 4. Typical examples of vehicle
equivalency factors for the Kenya road network are provided in Appendix A.
• Step 6: Adjustment of the Computed DESA
After computation of the DESA in Step 5, the DESA should be adjusted for each vehicle class
based on the recommendations in Table 2.4. The term heavy commercial vehicle shall refer to a
commercial vehicle whose tare weight exceeds 3048 kg.

Table 2.4 Lane Width Adjustment Factors for Design Traffic Loading

Number of Carriageway
Traffic To Be Considered Explanatory Notes
Carriageways Width
Traffic in both directions uses the
The sum of DESAs in both
Less than 4.5m same lane, but not all in the same
directions for each vehicle class.
wheel tracks as for a narrower road.
Min. 4.5m but 80% of the DESAs in both To allow for overlap in the centre
Single less than 7m directions for each vehicle class. section of the road.
Carriageway Total DESAs in the heaviest loaded Minimal traffic overlap in the centre
7m or wider
direction for each vehicle class. section of the road.
More than one 70% of the total DESAs in the
The majority of vehicles use one
lane in each studied direction for each vehicle
lane in each direction.
direction class.
Lanes of
In such cases, the commercial
minimum 3.5 m The total commercial traffic in
vehicles are most likely to use the
width (less than ONE DIRECTION
outermost lane.
Dual 2000 CV/d)
Carriageways Lanes of In such cases, the commercial
minimum 3.5 A special study of the distribution of vehicles are likely to utilise all
m width (more traffic will be necessary available lanes in a bid to obtain
than 2000 CV/d) better level of service.

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• Step 7: Cumulative ESA (CESA) for all Vehicle Classes over the Design Period
1 The cumulative equivalent standard axles (CESA) for each vehicle category expected over
the design life of a road may be obtained from Equation 2.4.

2 CESAi = 365 * DESAi ( (1 + rr) - 1 )

N

Equation 2.4
Where,
Traffic Assessments for Pavement Design

CESAi = Cumulative equivalent standard axles for vehicle class i.

DESAi = Average daily ESAs for each vehicle class in the first design year (Step 5).
r = Assumed annual growth rate expressed as a decimal (Step 3).
N = Design period in years (from Step 1).
This computation must consider different growth periods (which have different growth rates)
for the entire design period. The CESA for each growth period is then summed to obtain the
representative CESA for each vehicle class over the design period.
• Step 8: The Pavement Design Traffic
The pavement design traffic is the sum of the cumulative equivalent standard axles for all
vehicle classes considered for the pavement design of the particular road. It is computed as
follows (Equation 2.5).
Pavement Design Traffic Loading = ∑mi=1CESAi
Equation 2.5
Where,
CESAi = Cumulative equivalent standard axles for vehicle class i.
i = Vehicle class/category.
m = The total number of vehicle class/categories considered for design.
After the pavement design traffic is computed, the design traffic class is obtained from Table 2.6.
In Step 4 above, the standard axle load used is 80 kN (8160 kg), and this represents a single
axle with dual wheels. For special projects as deemed by the Chief Engineer Materials, the
determination of equivalency factor may be based on axle groups. In which case the 80 kN
standard axle loads used in
Equation 2.1 will be replaced with the values shown in Table 2.5 depending on the axle groups.
Axle load data from weighbridges comes in the format of axle groups weighed, hence it is easily
applied in such a case.

Table 2.5 Standard Axles for Different Axle Load Groups

Tyre Type Axle Group Standard Axle Load (kg)
Dual Tyre Axles Single Axle with Dual Tyres 8,160
Tandem Axle with Dual Tyres 13,700
Triaxle with Dual Tyres 18,500
Quad Axle with Dual Tyres 23,000
Super-single Single Axle with Single Tyres 5,900
(wide base) Tyre Axles Tandem Axle with Single Tyres 9,990
Triaxle with Single Tyres 13,400
Quad Axle with Single Tyres 16,700

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2.6 Design Traffic Classes

2.6.1 Use of Cumulative Number of Standard Axles 1
Attempts were made to define axle classes based on numbers of commercial vehicles. They have
been largely unsuccessful because axle spectra vary considerably from one road to another. It has 2
been found that the respective proportions of buses, medium goods and heavy goods vehicles on
urban and suburban sections were completely different from those on rural roads.

Traffic Assessments for Pavement Design

A more rational approach is to base the traffic classification on the cumulative equivalent standard
axle values. Even this method, based on the equation given in Chapter 2.4.3 has its drawbacks in
that the initial axle load spectrum is assumed to remain fixed. Where it is fairly certain that some
future event will alter the distribution of axle loads, this should be taken into account.
This type of classification enables the effects of unexpected changes in traffic volumes or axle-load
distributions on the pavement life to be evaluated.

2.6.2 Traffic Classes

Traffic flow and axle-load surveys have shown that the following classes (Table 2.6) satisfactorily
account for all traffic categories likely to be carried by the various classes of roads in Kenya.

Table 2.6 Lane Width Adjustment Factors for Design Traffic Loading
Design Design Traffic ESA/day (DESA):
Cumulative Equivalent Traffic Load
Traffic Loading in Year one2
Standard Axles Category
Class (Million CESA) Min. Max.
TC0.025 < 25,000 0.025 0.0 0.2
TC0.10 25,000 - 100,000 0.10 0.2 8
TC0.25 100,000 – 250,000 0.25 Low 8 21
TC0.50 250,000 – 500,000 0.50 21 41
TC1 500,000 – 1 million 1 41 83
TC3 1 million – 3 million 3 83 249
Medium
TC10 3 million – 10 million 10 249 829
TC17 10 million – 17 million 17 829 1409
TC30 17 million – 30 million 30 Heavy 1409 2486
TC50 30 million – 50 million 50 2486 4143
TC80 50 million – 80 million 80 4143 6629
TC150 80 million – 150 million 150
Very Heavy
6629 12428
TC150+1
> 150 million
Based on specific >12428
value

Notes:
1. The “150+” in TC150+ class requires specific considerations and performance design based on the actual value of design traffic
determined. In preparing their reports, the designer should then refer to the class based on the specific design traffic determined.
For example, if the traffic determined is 160 MCESA, the design class will be TC160.
2. The DESA in the First year after opening to traffic (Year one) computed from the design traffic loading taking into account a
constant growth rate of 5% over a design period of 20 years.

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2
Traffic Assessments for Pavement Design

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3 The Kenyan Environment

3.1 General 1
It is important that any designer is familiar with the environment in which their project site is located.
This chapter discusses the climate and geology of Kenya at an introductory level. Additionally, an 2
overview of climate change and climate resilience measures are given in this Chapter.

3.2 Climate 3
Climate has a considerable influence on road performance and should therefore be taken into account

The Kenyan Environment

for by the design engineer during selection of pavement materials, construction methodology and
maintenance interventions. These include:
1. Moisture variation in subgrade and pavement layer affecting bearing strength and pavement life
which determine selection of sub grade and pavement materials.
2. Effects of temperature during construction and the performance of the various pavement
materials incorporated in the road which informs the selection of pavement materials, construction
methodology and maintenance interventions.
3. Problematic sub grade properties related to the environment.
Kenya lies between latitudes 5°N and 5°S, and longitudes 34° and 42°E, with a land area of
approximately 580,367 km2. Kenya has a very wide variety of climates, comprising:
1. Afro-alpine climate.
2. Equatorial climate.
3. Wet-tropical climate.
4. Semi-arid climate.
5. Arid climate.
6. Very arid climate.
Moreover, the pattern of the climatic zones is rather complex since the Kenyan climates are largely
governed by altitude.
This diversity is illustrated by the Mean Annual Rainfall map and by the Air Temperature Charts given
in Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2. Detailed climatic data (rainfall, evaporation, and temperature) may be
obtained from Kenya Meteorological Department.
The design of drainage and anti-erosion systems is largely dependent upon the climatic conditions.
The choice of road making materials is equally influenced by climatic factors. In this respect the
following guidelines should be followed by the design engineer:
1. In ‘wet’ areas (mean annual rainfall greater than 500 mm), the use of plastic pavement materials,
should be avoided if possible. Bituminous surfacing should be as impervious as possible.
Shoulders should be impermeable or properly sealed. Great attention should always be paid to
both internal and external drainage. The subgrade strength shall be assessed at 4-days soaked
CBR or until no further swell occurs.
2. In ‘dry’ areas (mean annual rainfall less than 500 mm), higher plasticity can be accepted for
pavement materials and open-textured base materials can be used. However, the subgrade
strength shall still be assessed at 4-days soaked CBR or until no further swell occurs. Difficulties
may occur with cement-treated materials, because of the rapid evaporation of water hindering
the hydration of cement and the tendency of the treated material to crack extensively as a result
of shrinkage and volumetric changes caused by the daily temperature variations. Drainage and
protection against erosion should not be neglected as short but heavy storms are likely to occur
even in the driest areas.

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Figure 3.1 Map Showing Temperature Zones

1

3
The Kenyan Environment

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Figure 3.2 Map Showing Rainfall Zones

1

The Kenyan Environment

3.3 Geology
The geology of Kenya is characterised by Archean granite/greenstone terrain in western Kenya
along Lake Victoria, the Neoproterozoic ‘Pan-African’ Mozambique Belt, which underlies the central
part of the country and Mesozoic to recent sediments underlying the eastern coastal areas. The
Eastern Rift Valley crosses Kenya from north to south and the volcanics associated with rift formation
largely obliterate the generally north-south striking Neoproterozoic Mozambique Belt. Rift Valley
volcanogenic sediments and lacustrine and alluvial sediments cover large parts of the Eastern Rift.
A generalized geological map of Kenya is presented in Figure 3.3. A detailed geological map may
be obtained from the Directorate of Geological Surveys of the Ministry of Petroleum and Mining, or
from the National Geodata Centre (NGDC). An interactive map is available from their website.
A detailed soil map may be obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, or
from the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resource for Development (RCMRD). An interactive map
is available on their website.
From the coast on the Indian Ocean the low plains rise to central highlands, thence to the shores of
Lake Victoria at 1130 mASL. The highlands are bisected by the Great Rift Valley but are also the site

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Figure 3.3 Generalised Geological Map of Kenya

1

3
The Kenyan Environment

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of the highest point in Kenya, Mount Kenya, which reaches 5,199 mASL. Mount Kilimanjaro which at
5,895 mASL is the highest point in Africa can be seen from Kenya just south of the Tanzanian border.
1
Kenya has abundant resources of hard stone. Detailed information regarding the various types of stone
available and their road making characteristics can be found in Materials Branch Report No. 336.
2
Many different sorts of gravels exist in Kenya: lateritic gravels, quartzitic gravels, calcareous gravels,
some forms of weathered rock, soft stone, coral rag, etc. Various types of sand and silty or clayey
sands are also found. Detailed information concerning these materials and their engineering
properties can be found in Materials Branch Reports No. 343 and 344.
3
The characteristics of the natural soils are discussed in Chapter 4, Sub grade and Earthworks, of

The Kenyan Environment

this Manual.
In order to minimise construction costs, natural materials should be used as much as possible. Every
endeavour should be made to use the cheap local materials before considering the importation of
material from some distance. It is therefore of prime importance to make a complete inventory of all
available road making materials, such as stone, gravel, sand, and clayey sand at the investigation
stage.

3.4 Effects of Climate Change and Resilience Measures

The effect of climate change means changes have to be made in the way pavements are designed
if the design life of the road is to be achieved. Due to increased cost of climate-proofing pavements,
the interventions need to be applied after risk assessments of sections of road. Only sections at high
risk should be proofed. Vulnerability assessment is discussed in RDM Volume 2 Part 1. If steps are
not undertaken, this can lead to catastrophic failures of the pavement layers by effects of increased
rainfall or temperature. Some of the steps taken in this manual include:
1. All subgrades are assessed at 4 days’ soaked strength whether in wet or dry areas.
2. Subgrade class S3 (CBR 7-13 %) has been adopted as the minimum material for pavement
foundation to avoid use of the lower subgrade materials which are more susceptible to moisture
variation due to high plasticity and high swell properties.
3. Application of surface dressing seal on all asphalt concrete surfacing.
4. Plasticity specifications for granular materials and hydraulically modified materials have been
made more stringent to minimise susceptibility to moisture variations. This may necessitate
mechanical stabilisation of natural gravels which may not meet the specification using natural
gravel of low plasticity or crushed stone aggregates.
5. Use of hydraulically modified granular materials that are less susceptible to moisture.
Climate mitigation measures such as planting trees in road reserves are encouraged.
In addition to the above, the designer should consider adopting the following approaches on
vulnerable sections of any project road:
1. For low volume sealed roads, the surfacing should be made of triple surface dressing or single
surface dressing on cold mix asphalt. This will minimise rainwater ingress. Hard grade base
binders emulsions (50/70 penetration) should be used as substitutes for soft-grade binders to
provide resilience against temperature increases.
2. Base and sub-base materials for low volume sealed roads should be graded crushed stone for
resilience against ground water effects and arboriculture, provided they do not interfere with the
road designed sight distances.

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For medium to very heavy traffic, to provide resilience against high temperatures, a surfacing of
double surface dressing on dense bitumen macadam (maximum stone size 25 mm) or stone mastic
1 asphalt should be used. These alternatives also protect against rainwater ingress and are suitable for
areas of severe axle loading. The standard bases and sub-bases provided (in Chapter 6) for these
roads are generally resilient against ground water effects.
2

3
The Kenyan Environment

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4 Classification of Alignment Soils

4.1 General 1
Before classifying subgrades based on strength, they should first be classified by soil type as
described in RDM Volume 3 Part 1, and the road divided into homogeneous sections based on the 2
soil classification. This permits for design of treatment measures such as sub-surface drainage for
clay sections.
For a rational approach to pavement design, the most important characteristic of the subgrade is
3
its elastic modulus. However, the measurement of this modulus requires complicated and time-
consuming tests.
4
It has been proven that there is a good correlation between the elastic modulus and the California

Classification of Alignment Soils

Bearing Ratio (CBR). Various empirical relations for CBR to elastic modulus have been developed
for different soil types. Since the CBR test is a fairly easy and widely used test, it has been decided
to retain it as the quantitative means of evaluating the subgrade bearing strength.

4.2 Determination of Subgrade Strength

4.2.1 Recommended Subgrade CBR Test Procedure
The actual strength of the subgrade and its actual CBR depend on the type of material, its density,
and its moisture content.
For each type of material, it is therefore necessary to determine the relative compaction that should
be obtained in-situ and the maximum moisture content likely to occur in the subgrade.
In order to obtain a complete knowledge of the relationship between density, moisture content and
CBR, a '6 point' CBR test should be carried out on a representative sample of each type of subgrade
material encountered. The tests are conducted in the following way:
The material shall be compacted at 3 different levels of compaction. (90% MDD, 95% MDD, and
100% MDD) in accordance with AASHTO T 99. The samples shall be moulded at the moisture
content which is expected at the time of in-situ compaction (in general, at the Optimum Moisture
Content). At each level of compaction, one CBR shall be measured on one unsoaked and one
soaked specimen. The time of soaking will depend on the anticipated subgrade conditions. The
amount of water absorbed during soaking, and the eventual swell shall also be measured.
The above method enables an estimate to be made of the subgrade CBR at different densities and
thus helps in deciding the relative compaction required. It also indicates the loss of strength which
soaking may cause. A full particle size analysis should also be done on each representative sample.

4.2.2 Classes of Subgrade Bearing Strength

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is dependent on the type of soil, its density, and its moisture
content. Thus, the classification of the subgrade material is based on the soaked California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) at a representative density. The subgrade strength for design shall be assigned to one
of six bearing strength classes as defined in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Subgrade Strength Classes

Subgrade Class CBR Range (%) Median CBR (%)
S1 2-5 3.5
S2 5-10 7.5
S3 7-13 10
S4 10-18 14
S5 15-30 22.5
S6 30-60 45

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The above CBR ranges correspond to the results actually obtained on materials of the same type along
sections of road considered homogeneous. They reflect both the variations of the characteristics of
1 the soil which inevitably occur, even at small intervals, and the normal scatter of test results.
The following points should be noted:
2
1. It will be noted that the subgrade categories overlap. For any one section of road, the average
CBR should be higher or equal to the median of the subgrade class selected for design and
no individual result shall be below the lowest value of the range for that subgrade class (see
3 Figure 4.1). Where the subgrade CBR values are very variable the designer should balance the
cost of having very short uniform sections of different subgrade classes against a conservative
design based on the worst condition encountered over longer sections.
4
2. No provision has been made for subgrade of CBRs below 2 % because it is technically and
Classification of Alignment Soils

economically unviable to lay a pavement on soils of such poor bearing capacity. Such weak soils
are saturated expansive clays, saturated fine silts or compressible (swampy) soils, e.g. mud, soft
clay, etc. moreover, the measurement of bearing strength of such soils is most uncertain and CBR
values below 2 % have little significance. They should be dealt with as described in Chapter 3.
3. Pavements to be constructed on subgrade class S1 (CBR 2-5) shall require improvement as
described in Chapter 6 and 7 because of their poor bearing capacity. Such weak soils are
saturated expansive clays, saturated fine silts or compressible (swampy) soils e.g., mud, soft
clay, etc. Moreover, the measurement of the bearing strength of such soft soils is most uncertain
and CBR's below 3 are of little significance.
4. The use of subgrade class S2 soils as direct support for the pavement is only permissible for
unpaved roads. All other pavements shall require a minimum equivalent subgrade class of S3.
Capping options for improving subgrades are provided in Chapter 4.
5. The CBR range of subgrade class S5 is fairly wide. This is because the difference in the pavement
thickness required is comparatively small when the subgrade bearing strength varies from the
lower to the upper limit of this class.
6. Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a CBR in the range 30-60, and which comply
with the plasticity requirements for natural materials for sub-base. In such cases, no sub-base
is required for low and medium traffic pavement (Traffic loading below 10 million cumulative
standard axles). No class of higher bearing capacity has been considered as such subgrades are
extremely rare.
The procedure for determining the subgrade class is shown in Figure 4.1. For any one section of
a road the average (CBR should be higher or equal to the mean of the subgrade class selected for
design, and no individual result shall be below the lowest value of the range for that subgrade class).
Where the subgrade CBR values are highly variable the designer should balance the cost of having
very short sections of different subgrade categories against a conservative design taking account of
the worst conditions encountered over longer sections.

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Figure 4.1 Determining the Subgrade Bearing Strength Class

1
Determine subgrade CBRs

2
Identify uniform
subgrade sections

3
Compute the average subgrade
CBRs for each section
4

Classification of Alignment Soils

Compare the computed
Identify lower CBR average CBR with the median
values that fit into the value of the subgrade classes
next lower subgrade from the design chart
class and create a
separate road section
for them. Select a subgrade class whose
median value is either equal or
just less than the average value
of the CBR test results

Is the
lowest CBR test
No value greater or equal to
the lowest class
value?

Yes

This is the subgrade

class for the section

4.2.3 Classification of the Most Common Kenyan Subgrade Materials

Typical subgrade materials encountered in Kenya are presented in Table 4.2. The bearing strength
classes presented are tested at standard compaction effort and are only indicative of the materials
strength. The designer shall obtain CBR values through laboratory tests. General engineering
classification of the soils is given in RDM Volume 3 Part 1.

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Table 4.2 Common Kenyan Subgrade Materials

1 Subgrade Class (100 % MDD ASHTO T99)
Subgrade Class
After 4 days soak At OMC

2 Black cotton soils S1 S5

Micaceous silts (decomposed rock) S1 S3
Other eluvial silts (decomposed rock) S2 S4
3 Red friable clays S3 S5
Sandy clays on volcanics S3 or S4 S5
The Kenyan Environment

Ash and pumice soils* S3 or S4 S5

Silty loams on gneiss and granite S4 S5
Calcareous sandy soils S4 S5
Sandy clays on basement S4 S5
Clayey sands on basement S4 or S5 S5 or S6
Dune sands S4 S4 or S5
Coastal sands S4 S5
Weathered lava S4 or S5 S5 or S6
Quartzitic gravels S4 - S6 S5 or S6
Soft (weathered) tuffs S4 - S6 S5 or S6
Calcareous gravels S4 - S6 S5 or S6
Lateritic gravels S5 or S6 S6
Coral gravels S5 or S6 S6

Note: Some of the ash and pumice soils have a very low maximum dry density and a lower Young’s Modulus than might be expected
from the measured CBR values. Such soils (Standard Compaction MDD less than 1.4 Mg/m3) cannot be classified for pavement
design purposes based on CBR only. Particle size distribution and aggregate crushing value play a very important role in their use. They
should at least conform to the material class GCS-E (see Chapter 8.9) before they can be used as capping or in pavement layers.

4.3 Determination of Subgrade Class for Road Section

4.3.1 Determination of Homogeneous Sections
The first step in determining uniform sections is to undertake a soil classification as described in RDM
Volume 3 Part 1. The uniform sections should consist of similar soil groups e.g., clays, silts, sands,
gravel or at a broader level such as coarse-grained soils, and fine-grained. These uniform sections
based on soil classification to provide additional measures such as provision of sub-surface drainage in
the sections containing silt or clay, appropriate cut slopes, subgrade modification treatment lengths, etc.
The next stage is the determination of uniform sections based on the subgrade strength. This is for
the purpose of foundation design. The sections should not be too short that it presents construction
challenges. If this is the case, then soil replacement should be considered before defining uniform
sections. Following this, then the cumulative sums (CUSUM) method should be used to determine
homogeneous sections and the respective subgrade classes. This involves:
1. Using a spreadsheet, listing all the chainages at which the subgrade samples were taken in one
column. In the adjacent column listing the corresponding CBR values for each chainage. At each
chainage (test pit), the CBR value used should be the minimum CBR from each test pit; or if the
reduced level at which the design vertical road profile cuts through the test pit is known, then the
weighted average of the strength of all profiles below the reduced level to a maximum depth of
0.5 m should be used. The vertical profile is taken as the grade level.
2. Computing the mean of all the CBR values for the entire road.

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3. In the third column of the spreadsheet, subtracting the mean from the CBR values for each
chainage.
1
4. In the fourth column of the spreadsheet, cumulatively summing (CUSUMs) the values in the third
column.
5. Plotting the cumulative sums in the fourth column of the spreadsheet against the chainage. 2
6. By visual inspection of the graph, identifying points of inflection. These represent changes in
subgrade strength, hence uniform sections, as shown in Figure 4.2.
3
7. Determining the average of the CBR test results under each homogeneous sections and the CBR
bearing strength class of the section shall then be determined as described in section 4.2.2 and
illustrated in Figure 4.1. 4
An illustration of the procedure for determining uniform subgrade sections by the method of CUSUMs

Classification of Alignment Soils

is shown in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.2.

Table 4.3 Illustration of the Use of CUSUMs

Mean CBR Mean CBR Minimum CBR Subgrade Class
Chainage Subgrade
Measured CUSUM for the uniform for the uniform of the uniform
(Km) CBR
CBR section section section
0.00 12 5 5
1.00 14 3 8
14 12 S4
2.00 13 4 12
3.00 18 -1 12
4.00 20 -3 9
5.00 23 -6 3
6.00 19 -2 1
7.00 21 -4 -3
8.00 19 -2 -5
20 19 S4
9.00 19 -2 -7
10.00 20 -3 -9
11.00 23 -6 -15
12.00 19 -2 -17
13.00 20 -3 -20
14.00 14 3 -17
15.00 8 9 -8
16.00 14 3 -5
17.00 17 0 -4 14 8 S3
18.00 14 3 -1
19.00 16 1 0
20.00 17 0 0
Mean 17

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Figure 4.2 Example of Determination of Uniform Sections Using CUSUMs

1
15

2 10
Section 3
5
3
0
CUSUMs

4 -5
Section 1
Classification of Alignment Soils

-10
Section 2
-15

-20

-25
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
18.00
19.00
20.00
Chainage (Km)

4.3.2 Classification of Alignment Soils

The survey report from the RDM Volume 3 Part 1 will have information on subgrade engineering
classification of alignment soils, for example, silty sand, clayey gravel, etc determined through
laboratory tests. It will then be combined with laboratory test results for the strength (CBR). The
report should contain a table that shows the chainage of each sampling point, the soil characteristics
at each chainage, and the strength. Using these reports, the uniform subgrade sections should be
determined as discussed in section 4.3.1, and reported accordingly. This output should then be used
to design the foundation as discussed in Chapter 7.

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5 Earthworks
5.1 General 1
The road cuts, embankment heights and fills are determined from the topography along the alignment.
These data are also required for the design of horizontal and vertical curves. Therefore, topographical 2
surveys are important for the entire geometric design. These will include conventional longitudinal
and transverse level surveys along the entire length of the road at appropriate intervals – usually
20 m in the longitudinal direction on the proposed centreline and at 2 m interval offsets on each side 3
of the centreline up to the edge of the right-of-way. The data should preferably be reported in a format
that can be inserted directly into any geometric design software being used for the project. During this
survey, temporary benchmarks must be fixed and referenced. 4
Topography data obtained by photogrammetry can be complete and accurate, with features such
as fences, walls, utility poles, and existing improvements, in addition to elevation contours and spot
elevations. These data will be of great use to the designer in determining road reserve restrictions, 5
swamp or rock locations, and the need for relocating utility lines or other physical features that affect

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the design.
The topography data should be checked for completeness against other maps available to the
designer. Topography data obtained by field ground surveys will generally be collected electronically
for downloading to appropriate computer-aided design software.

5.2 Cuttings
5.2.1 General
Wherever a cutting is required, consideration needs to be given to the following factors that will affect
its design and cost:
1. Type of material to be excavated.
2. Volume and position of the different materials.
3. Level and flow of water table and springs.
4. Stability of slopes.
5. Drainage and protection against erosion.
Any cutting to a depth of more than 5 m requires a specific study, including boreholes or test pits
down to the formation level.

5.2.2 Type of Material to be Excavated

The type of material to be excavated governs the construction methods, the use to which the material
can be put, its suitability as subgrade material and slopes that can be safely adopted.
From both economic and technical points of view, the respective volumes of rock, rippable and
normal material occurring in each deep cut shall be determined with reasonable accuracy. Dynamic
penetration and seismic tests may usefully supplement boreholes for this purpose.
At the design stage, it is sometimes not easy to accurately differentiate rock from rippable material or
rippable from normal material. In particular, the occurrence of residual boulders and especially their
volumes are, in some cases, difficult to ascertain.
Table 5.1 can be used as a guide to determine the excavation characteristics of rock based on rock
hardness and strength.

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Table 5.1 Rock Excavation Characteristics

1 Rock hardness description
Unconfined compressive
Excavation characteristics
strength (MPa)
Very soft 1.7 – 3.0 Easy ripping
2 Soft 3.0 – 10 Hard ripping
Hard 10 – 20 Very hard ripping
Very hard 20 – 70 Extremely hard ripping or blasting
3
Extremely hard >70 Blasting

4 Tropical weathering generally results in the occurrence of two types of materials:

1. Residual (or alluvial) soils.
5 2. Weathered rock.
The depth and degree of weathering are often variable, and the properties of the residual materials
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may be quite different even within the same horizon over a short distance. In addition, the pattern of
the residual materials is often complicated by the processes of leaching of silica and accumulation of
iron and aluminium sesquioxides, known as laterization.
The depth of bedrock is clearly important not only because of its effect on the cost of the cuttings,
but also because the presence of rock can provide a layer on which a perched water table can exist.
Depending on the type of rock and its structure, springs may also be a problem.
The quality of cutting should be assessed for possible reuse as fill material, capping layers, or even
sub-base layers on other sections of the road. The specifications are included in section 8.9.

5.2.3 Water Table and Springs

A water table may be permanent, seasonal, or perched. In any case, its presence, and its characteristics
(level, flow of water, etc.) must be determined. Presence of water may affect the method of excavation
and the stability of the cut slopes as well as the drainage system required. Similarly, the likelihood of
springs occurring within the cut should be assessed.

5.2.4 Determination of the Angle of Slope

The design of the slope angle of a cut is a compromise between the following requirements:
1. Stability.
2. Erosion control.
3. Appearance and visibility.
4. Need of fill material.
5. Minimum cost.

5.2.4.1 Stability
The stability of cuttings is highly dependent on the height of the slope. For cuts less than 6 m deep
where there is no water seeping out of the cut face and no external loads, the slope batters presented
in Table 5.2 shall be used as a guide.

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Table 5.2 Typical Slope Batters of Excavated Slopes

Material Slope Batters (Vertical: Horizontal) 1

Cohesionless sands 1:2
Silty sands - silts 1:1
2
Eluvial soils (red friable clays) 1.5:1 if the depth of cut is < 4 m
1.5:1 if the depth of cut is > 4 m
Weathered rock 2:1 to 4:1 3
Sound rock 5:1 to 10:1
Notes
1. The relic structure of the parent rock may dominate the stability in alluvial soils. 4
2. Safe slopes in schistose or stratified rock chiefly depend on the orientation of the foliation or strata. Similarly in rocks with a strong
pattern of jointing, the orientation and spacing of the discontinuities may well control the safe slope angle.

Any cutting to a depth of more than 6 m shall require geotechnical investigations, including boreholes down to formation level and 5
associated testing. A geotechnical design (See RDM 4.3), by a geotechnical engineer, to determine the factor of safety against sliding

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or rotation considering the material strength parameters, the slope geometry, the location of any water table and the presence of any
external loading on the slope.

5.2.4.2 Erosion Control

This is sometimes a difficult requirement to reconcile with stability. For instance, in cohesive materials,
the erosion is less extensive for very steep slopes than for slopes at about 1:1 and it is therefore
desirable to keep the slopes as steep as possible, unless the slope is protected.
Slope erodibility is controlled by the grades and type of soil. Generally, guidance on satisfactory
slope angles from the points of view of both stability and erosion resistance can be obtained from a
survey of other cuttings and natural steep slopes in the vicinity. In the red friable clays, which are very
common in Kenya, a cut slope of 1:1 would be extensively eroded where its height exceeds 4–5 m.
For slopes prone to erosion or where erosion is foreseen the following options shall be considered:
1. As a guide, topsoil thickness of a minimum of 75 mm shall be used. Thicknesses greater than
100 mm could result in gullying.
2. Grassing and planting shall be considered for slopes greater than 1V in 2H. Preferably, planting
should be done at the beginning of the first rainy period. Bioengineering shall be considered
suitable for slip surfaces of 1–2 m. Local native species for the region should be used. The
choice of plant and grass species shall be dependent on the type of roots (deep or spreading) and
site conditions such as moisture, permeability, temperature, stoniness, and nutrients in the soil,
among others. Once the vegetation has been established the overall slope stability and erosion
resistance increase.
3. Benching of slopes to reduce concentrated runoff. The bench width shall vary between 2–4 m
to allow for maintenance requirements, and rockfalls where applicable. Benches shall always be
sloped downwards out of the cut face at about 10–15 %, and a minimum depth of 0.3 m to prevent
water ponding. The bench height is dependent on the runoff, the type of material and the overall
risk associated with the slope. As a guide, the bench heights in Table 5.3 shall be considered
during design.
4. Small check dams shall be constructed on steep slopes and where long erosion gullies are
foreseen.

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Table 5.3 Typical Benching Heights

1 Slope Vertical Height Between Benches
1V: 4H 20 m
1V: 3H 15 – 20 m
2
1V: 2H 10 – 15 m
1V: 1H 5 – 10 m
3
5.2.4.3 Other Factors

4 Partly for aesthetic and safety reasons, a low angle slope is normally considered more desirable
than a near-vertical one, even if other factors will allow this latter course.
The need for, or the surplus of, fill material will also have an influence on slope angles.
5
In deep cuttings, where the pavement is laid shortly after completion of the cutting, consideration
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should be given to heave.

5.3 Fill Embankments

5.3.1 General
Wherever an embankment is required, consideration needs to be given to the following factors that
will affect its design and cost:
1. Foundation conditions.
2. Settlement.
3. Method and rate of construction.
4. Stability of slopes.
5. Acceptable fill material.

5.3.2 Foundation Conditions and Settlement

Embankment stability relies greatly on the bearing capacity of the underlying ground, and the nature
and proximity of the groundwater table. Most cohesionless soils exhibit good bearing capacity and
low compressibility. Settlement in cohesionless soils is generally negligible and occurs rapidly during
the placement of the fill. However, their liquefaction potential should be considered for projects in
seismically active zones.
Embankments constructed on swamps with soft ground, such as soft clays, silts and organic
materials, including peat, undergo consolidation settlement. Swamps shall be classified as seasonal
or permanent swamps. The type, number, length, and corresponding chainage of each swamp shall
be recorded during site investigations. The length of permanent swamps shall have to be confirmed
during the wet season as it may vary.
The foundation conditions beneath such embankments therefore require special attention to avoid
shear failures and excessive settlements. Detailed investigations should be conducted to determine
the most suitable construction method, the rate of construction and any special precautions required,
for embankments constructed on compressible soils.
It is essential to use ground improvement methods which ensure either the removal of the soft
material or its substantial consolidation before the pavement is completed. Cost-benefit analysis
of the various methods which are technically feasible shall be undertaken during the design before
choosing a method. The following ground improvement methods can be considered during design:

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1. Removal and replacement: This involves the excavation of the compressible soil from below the
embankment and replacing it with higher quality less compressible soil. Usually, the excavation
should extend to at least the toe of the embankment to increase the stability of the embankment.
1
Removal and replacement is only justified under certain conditions because of the high costs
associated with excavating and disposing of unsuitable soils and the difficulty of excavating below
the water table. Displacement using rockfill may be used for material below the water table. Some 2
of the conditions where removal and replacement shall be deemed feasible include the following:
i. The area requiring excavation is not wide. 3
ii. The unsuitable soils are near the ground surface and do not extend very deeply (removal of
unsuitable material beyond the depth of 3 m is not normally economically feasible).
iii. Temporary dewatering is not required to support or facilitate the excavation.
4
iv. The unsuitable soils can be dumped on-site or can be disposed of safely elsewhere close by.
v. Suitable fill materials are readily available to replace the volume of unsuitable soils. 5
2. Allowing for consolidation: This involves pre-loading (surcharging) with higher embankment

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fill, installation of prefabricated vertical sand drains to accelerate settlement or a combination of
pre-loading and sand drains. Normally 90 per cent consolidation before placing pavement layers
is considered adequate.
If the consolidation solution is chosen the rate of dissipation of construction pore pressures in the
soft, saturated foundation material must be investigated and a suitable construction rate fixed. This is
most important, especially if a high pre-loading embankment is proposed, in order to obviate a deep-
seated shear failure during construction. Even if the proposed embankment is only a few metres high
a full geotechnic al investigation is necessary to determine the magnitude and rate of settlement,
and the likely pore pressures to be developed during construction. Where the estimate of this last
parameter is not very reliable (as is usually the case) peizometers can be install ed in the foundation
material. This will allow faster safe rates of construction if the forecasts have been pessimistic and
will prevent stability failure if they have been optimistic.

5.3.3 Geotechnical Design Considerations

Embankment fills over swamps are frequently stronger and stiffer than their foundations therefore the
peak strengths of the embankment and the foundation soils do not mobilise simultaneously. Thus,
an embankment may deform as the foundation fails under the weight of the embankment with the
possibility of progressive failure because of stress strain incompatibility between the embankment
and its foundation. Hence, during design attention should be given to the internal stability of the entire
embankment foundation interface rather than the embankment or the foundation soils alone.
Consolidation parameters play a crucial role in geotechnical engineering, particularly in embankment
design. Consolidation refers to the process by which soil undergoes volume reduction due to
the expulsion of water from its void spaces under sustained loading. The primary consolidation
parameters include the coefficient of consolidation (Cv), coefficient of volume compressibility (mv),
and the compression index (Cc). They are defined as follows:
1. Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv): The coefficient of consolidation denoted as cv, represents
the rate at which soil consolidates under load. It is determined through laboratory tests such
as the oedometer test. Higher values of Cv indicate faster consolidation, implying that the soil
achieves stability more rapidly.
2. Coefficient of Volume Compressibility (mv): The coefficient of volume compressibility,
denoted as mv, measures the change in volume per unit change in effective stress. Similar to Cv,
it is determined through laboratory tests, often obtained from oedometer tests. A lower value of mv
indicates lower compressibility, suggesting that the soil is less prone to volume reduction under load.

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3. Compression Index (Cc): The compression index denoted as Cc, is the slope of the virgin
compression line on the e-log p curve. Determined from the oedometer test, Cc provides insights
1 into the compressibility characteristics of soil. A higher Cc implies greater compressibility, reflecting
the potential for greater settlement under loads.
2 The conventional oedometer consolidation tests with specimens cut from undisturbed samples as
discs in the horizontal plane, normally give accurate predictions of the amount of settlement that
can be expected for a layer of soft saturated clay loaded by an embankment. However, the time of
3 settlement predicted by this method is usually much longer than in practice. This is because in most
normally consolidated clays the drainage path in the horizontal direction is usually many times more
permeable than it is in the vertical direction. Oedometer tests with specimens cut from undisturbed
4 samples in the vertical plane will give an accurate prediction of the time of settlement under an
embankment loading.
Generally, settlement in the range of 30 to 60 mm throughout the design life of the road shall
5 be tolerable provided that it is uniform, occurs slowly, and does not take place adjacent to a pile
supported bridge.
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If the consolidation solution is chosen the rate of dissipation of construction pore pressures in the
soft saturated foundation material must be investigated and a suitable construction rate fixed. This is
important, especially if a high pre-loading embankment is proposed, to avoid a deep-seated shear
failure during construction. Where the estimate of the magnitude and rate of settlement is not very
reliable (as is usually the case) piezometers can be installed in the foundation material. This will
allow faster safer rates of construction if the forecasts have been pessimistic and will prevent stability
failure if they have been optimistic.
The design of embankments of heights greater than 3 metres should be undertaken by a geotechnical
engineer. The design steps are as follows:
1. Geometry and Loading Conditions: The geometric parameters required are the height and
length of the embankment, the width of the crest (shoulder break-to shoulder break), and the
slide slope angle. The loading conditions include any surcharges and any temporary or dynamic
loads. The construction rate should also be included because the gain in shear strength is directly
affected by the placement of the embankments.
2. Soil Profile and Engineering Properties: The subsurface stratigraphy should be determined,
including soil layering and groundwater table location. The testing should include basic
classification testing (RDM 3.1). The shear strength and consolidation properties should be from
laboratory testing.
3. Embankment Fill Engineering Properties: The engineering properties of the fill (borrow)
material should be determined, including basic classification testing (RDM 3.1), moisture-density
relationship, shear strength, and chemical properties. A drainage media (e.g., free-draining
granular materials, non-woven geotextiles, etc.) should be placed at the interface between the
existing subgrade and the embankment fill to permit drainage of water. Above this drainage
media, normal backfill materials may be placed.
4. Bearing Capacity Check: The bearing capacity of the subgrade soils can be checked.
5. Rotational Shear Stability Check: Perform a rotational slip surface analysis on the embankment
to determine the critical failure surface and the resistance factor against local shear instability.
6. Sliding Block Stability Check: Perform a sliding block analysis. If the calculated resistance factor
is less than required, then reinforcement is not required. If the resistance factor is inadequate,
then reinforcement is required.
7. Estimate Magnitude and Rate of Embankment Settlement: The magnitude and rate of
immediate settlement, primary settlement and secondary embankment settlement should be
computed. These require the following design inputs:

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i. Total stress and effective stress strength parameters.

ii. Unit weight. 1
iii. Compression indexes (primary, secondary and recompression).
iv. Coefficient of consolidation. 2
8. Establish Construction Sequence and Procedures: The construction sequence and
procedures should be established. Proper placement and performance of the geosynthetic is
highly influenced by the construction sequence and procedure. The sequence and procedure 3
should be as clear and concise as possible to prevent misunderstandings during construction.
9. Establish Construction Observation Requirements: Since implemented construction 4
procedures are crucial to the success of reinforced embankments on very soft foundations,
competent and professional construction inspection is absolutely essential. Field personnel
must be properly trained to observe every phase of the construction and to ensure that the
specified material is delivered to the project and the specified construction sequence is explicitly
5
followed. Instrumentation requirements should also be established. As typical instruments

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include piezometers, settlement points, surface survey points and slope inclinometers. Part of
the instrumentation requirements is establishing how often the measurements will be obtained.

5.3.4 Stability of Slopes

Embankments less than 3 m in height in areas having stable ground generally do not require a
detailed geotechnical investigation and analysis to determine their slopes. The slopes, based on past
experience in the same region and on engineering judgment, given in (Table 5.4) are recommended
for cohesionless sands and other materials.

Table 5.4 Typical Slope Batter

Material Embankment Height (h) Recommend Slope

(Vertical: Horizontal)
Cohesionless sands h≤1m 1:3
h>1m 1:2
Other materials h≤1m 1:3
1m<h<3m 1:2
3 m < h < 10 m 1:1.5

A geotechnical analysis (see RDM 4.3) shall be undertaken to determine the stability of embankments
higher than 3 m or those of lesser height but founded on soft, wet materials using the cohesion and
angle of friction of the embankment fill and founding materials.
Typically soil slopes shall not exceed 400 unless reinforcement or a retaining wall is used.
The moisture variation zone should be contained within the side slopes. That is, the slope angle
chosen should be such that the lateral distance from the toe of the embankment to the outer edge of
the shoulder should be at least 2 metres.
Embankments higher than 3 m or those of lesser height but founded on soft, wet materials should be
analysed individually using appropriate geotechnical methods (see RDM Volume 4 Part 3).
Where land and fill material are readily available, modification of the embankment geometry through
reduction of the slope angle or the construction of counterweight berms may be considered to
improve the stability of the embankment.

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Curbs, or an alternative method of controlling runoff along the embankment slope should be specified
for all pavement systems on compacted embankments to improve stability and reduce maintenance
1 costs.
The provision of riprap at the embankment toe where scouring of the toe is foreseen for is recommended
2 for additional slope protection. This is also important due to climate resilience requirements.
The safety factors for overall stability under static conditions shall be as follows:
3 1. All embankments not supporting, or potentially impacting structures shall have a minimum safety
factor of 1.25.
2. Embankments supporting or potentially impacting non-critical structures shall have a safety factor
4 of 1.3.
3. All Bridge approach embankments and embankments supporting critical structures shall have a
safety factor of 1.5.
5
4. Critical structures are those for which failure would result in a life-threatening safety hazard for
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the public, or for which failure and subsequent replacement or repair would result to high financial
burden.

5.3.5 Fill in Hard Material

Hard material refers to a material of UCS greater than 7.5 MPa (tested on a core of 100 mm diameter
X 200 mm length) or Mohs hardness is equal to or greater than 5.
Hard material shall be material which cannot be ripped to an average depth of rip greater than 300
mm by a track type craw1er tractor complying with the following:
1. In good order complete with all equipment and accessories as supplied;
2. Rated 300 BHP flywheel power or over;
3. With an operating weight of not less than 37.2 tonnes;
4. Equipped with a hydraulically operated single tine ripper compatible with the tractor used; and,
5. Table 5.1 can be used as a guide to determine the excavation characteristics of rock based on
rock hardness and strength.
Where it is impractical to prove hard material by the above method then the quantity of hard material
shall be determined by the Engineer based UCS tests on core samples of 100 mm diameter x 200
mm length and the classification in Table 5.1. Based on this method, hard material shall be defined
as a material of UCS greater than 7.5 MPa or Hard material shall be defined as material whose
minimum and average unconfined compressive strength determined from a sample of six cores,
exceeds 7.5 MPa and 10 MPa.
Hard material shall not be placed within 600 mm of the formation level in embankments and shall be
removed to a depth of 300 mm or as otherwise instructed by the Engineer below formation level in
cuttings.
Any fill material meeting these requirements and is used to form an embankment shall be classified
as 'fill in hard material'. These consist of rocks, recycled concrete material, building waste, etc.
This shall often require rolling to break down into sizes less than 100 mm as the largest dimension.
Blinding using finer material to fill in any spaces between larger particles is required before placing
any pavement layers on top.

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5.3.6 Fill in Soft Material

Fill material will generally be obtained from cuttings. If the material obtained from this source is 1
insufficient or unsuitable, extra material shall be obtained from borrow areas.
Any fill material not classified as 'hard' shall be classified as 'soft'. 2
The following materials are generally unsuitable for the construction of fills:
1. All material containing more than 5% by weight of organic matter (such as topsoil, material from 3
swamps, mud, logs, stumps and perishable material).
2. All material having CBR at 100% MDD (AASHTO T99) and after 4 days soak of less than 2%.
3. All material with a swell of more than 3% (such as black cotton soil).
4
4. All clay of plasticity index exceeding 50 (However, some red friable clays having a plasticity
index over 50 may successfully be used). It is known that alluvial soils (red friable clays), when 5
compacted in embankments to a greater density than they are found in-situ, develop considerable
shrinkage and suction forces associated with seasonal rainfall and dry periods, together with the

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root system of the grass planted on embankments.
These forces are large and can cause longitudinal cracks to repeatedly be formed through the
surface of any pavement containing rigid or semi-rigid layers.
It is suggested that if no other earthwork materials are available then a fully flexible pavement
on these embankments will be most suitable. If for reasons of traffic category, a pavement
incorporating rigid or semi-rigid layers is necessary (asphalt, bituminous macadam, lean concrete,
concrete cement or lime stabilised or improved gravels, it is suggested that the problem may be
overcome by incorporating a 'slippage' layer which will stop the cracks being transferred through
the pavement. A suitable 'slippage' layer will comprise the placing of a layer of polythene sheeting
at the top of the subgrade earthworks and laying a thin ’lower sub-base" of sand or crushed dust,
before the sub-base.
5. All material having a moisture content greater than 105 per cent of the Optimum Moisture Content
(Standard Compaction).
The best materials either from cuttings or from borrow areas, should be reserved for the upper layers
of fill.

5.3.7 Placing and Compaction of Fill

5.3.7.1 Construction on Near Level Ground
Generally, all soft and organic material shall be removed, and hollows shall be filled, to obtain a
uniform surface to receive the fill. Any backfilling required to obtain the uniform surface shall be
compacted to a dry density of at least 100 % MDD (AASHTO T99).

5.3.7.2 Construction on Slopes

Where the slope of the existing ground is greater than 1 (vertical) to 3 (horizontal), horizontal benches
in steps not less than 3 m wide shall be cut into the existing ground. Immediately on completion of
cutting the benches, the whole of the area to receive the fill shall be compacted to 100 % MDD
(AASHTO T99) down to a depth of 150 mm. The time between preparing the area and placing the
fill must be kept to a minimum.

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5.3.7.3 Compaction of Fill Material

1 Materials other than rockfill shall normally be placed in layers of compacted thickness not exceeding
150 mm. Thicker layers (not exceeding 250 mm) may be permitted only after trial sections have
proved that the required compaction may readily be obtained over their full depth.
2
The minimum layer thickness shall be twice the maximum particle size of the material.
Normally, the layers of fill material shall be compacted throughout to a dry density of at least 100 %
3 MDD (AASHTO T99), except for the upper 300 mm of the subgrade, which shall be compacted to a
dry density of at least 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180).

4 For very high fills, higher compaction may be required to reduce settlement.
The moisture content of the material shall be adjusted so that the above specified minimum compaction
are obtained. Moisture contents well below the Optimum Moisture Content may be accepted, provided
5 that the compaction equipment and method are such that the required compaction is achieved.
Especially in arid areas, dry compaction may offer substantial savings or maybe the only practical
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solution.
Dry compaction by vibratory rollers operating at the proper frequency and amplitude seems to give
fairly good results on some non-plastic materials. However, experience is still very limited, and the
development of dry compaction requires further experiments and research.
It is strongly recommended that the moisture content at the time of compaction does not exceed 105
% of the Optimum Moisture Content. This applies particularly to silty and clayey materials, which are
prone to shrinkage and loss of strength, resulting from excessive moisture contents.
Normal laboratory compaction tests cannot be accurately carried out on materials containing a high
proportion (say more than 25 %) of particles greater than 40 mm size. On such coarse material,
the minimum dry density required, and the suitable moisture content shall be determined from site
compaction trials.
Where fairly homogeneous materials are used, the compaction requirements may consist of a
method specification with the following parameters being fixed:
1. The maximum thickness of the compacted layer.
2. The characteristics of the compacting equipment.
3. The number of passes of each roller.
4. The permissible range of moisture content, all as determined from full-scale compaction trials.

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5.3.8 Dump Rock

Dump rock shall be natural or quarry stones having minimum core UCS of 7.5 MPa and shall comply 1
with the requirements in Table 5.5. Dump rock may be placed in layers not thicker than 1 metre in one
operation. Each boulder shall not be larger than two-thirds (usually not larger than 600 mm diameter)
of the compacted thickness. It is dumped in soft uncompactable soils as initial step in embankment 2
construction in swampy soils. Where impermeable layers of fill are required, dump rock shall not be
used. Where applicable a geosynthetic may be used for separation, followed by the placement of fill
material and/or improved subgrade layers. 3
Table 5.5 Requirements for Dump Rock in Fill
Material Properties Material Class (Dump Rock: Min UCS 7.5 MPa) 4
Maximum particle size Two thirds of compacted layer thickness.
Maximum layer thickness 1 m placed in one operation. 5
Note: The content of fines shall be sufficiently low so that the larger particles rest against each other when placed in earthworks

Earthworks
layers. The Engineer’s decision shall be the final in cases where doubt or disagreement exists whether the material can be classi-
fied as DR.

5.3.9 Rockfill
This is rock material of such particle size that the material can only be placed in layers of compacted
thickness exceeding 300 mm. Boulders with volumes greater than 0.2 m3 (600 mm size) are not
normally used. This material should not be placed within 600 mm of the formation level. The rock
shall have a minimum UCS of 7.5 MPa.
Where rockfill is used it should be placed in the bottom of the embankment. The largest sizes of
rock shall be placed in layers of maximum compacted thicknesses of 1 m. The interstices shall then
be filled with smaller rocks, spalls and approved finer material. The whole layer shall be compacted
until the interstices are completely filled or until the required settlement is obtained. Heavy vibratory
rollers are generally the most suitable machines for compacting rockfill.
It is most important that the specified compaction is achieved over the full width of the embankment.
Loose material left on the slopes may absorb water and may endanger the stability of the slopes.

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5
Earthworks

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6 Problematic Soils
6.1 General 1
This chapter addresses problematic soils which pose challenges during construction and performance
of civil engineering structures founded on soils. They include expansive, collapsible, dispersive, low 2
strength, low density, saline and high organic content soils. These soils need to be identified at
design stage and appropriate interventions measures included in the design documents to enable
proper performance over the envisaged service life. 3
6.2 Problems Associated with Expansive Clays
4
6.2.1 Geotechnical Characteristics of Expansive Clays
Some clay soils undergo slow volume changes that occur independently of loading and are attributable
to swelling or shrinkage. These volume changes can give rise to ground movements which can lead 5
to cracking and breakup of the road they support. Furthermore, these volume changes may produce
lateral displacements ('creep') if the side slopes are not gentle enough.
6
The principal cause of expansive clays is the presence of swelling clay minerals such as montmorillonite.
Differences in the period and amount of precipitation and evapotranspiration are the principal factors

Pavement Foundations
influencing the swell-shrink response of a clay soil beneath the road pavement. Trees with high water
demand may dry out clay causing shrinkage.
The potential for volume change in clay soil is governed by its initial moisture content, initial density or
void ratio, its microstructure and the vertical stress, as well as the type and amount of clay minerals
present. These clay minerals are responsible primarily for the intrinsic expansiveness whilst the
change in moisture content or suction controls the actual amount of volume change, which a soil
undergoes at a given applied pressure.
There are two modes of swelling in clay known as inter-crystalline and intracrystalline. Interparticle
swelling takes place in any type of clay deposit irrespective of its mineralogical composition, and
the process is reversible. In relatively dry clays the particles are held together by relict water under
tension from capillary forces. Upon wetting, the capillary force is relaxed and the clay expands. In
other words, inter-crystalline swelling takes place when the uptake of moisture is restricted to the
external crystal surfaces and the void spaces between the crystals. Intracrystalline swelling, on the
other hand, is characteristic of the smectite family of clay minerals, and montmorillonite in particular.
The individual molecular layers, which make up a crystal of montmorillonite, are weakly bonded so
that on wetting water enters not only between the crystals but also between the unit layers which
comprise the crystals. Generally, kaolinite has the smallest swelling capacity of the clay minerals
and nearly all of its swelling is of the interparticle type. Illite may swell up to 15% but intermixed illite
and montmorillonite may swell some 60 to 100%. Swelling in calcium montmorillonite is very much
less than in sodium variety, it ranges from about 50 to 100%. Swelling in sodium montmorillonite can
amount to 2000% of the original volume, the clay then having formed a gel.
Because expansive clays normally possess extremely low permeabilities, moisture movement is
slow and significant period of time may be involved in the swelling-shrinkage process. Accordingly,
moderately expansive clays with a smaller potential to swell but with higher permeabilities than clays
having a greater swell potential may swell more during a single wet season than more expansive
clays.
Cemented and undisturbed expansive clay soils often have a high resistance to deformation and
may be able to absorb significant amounts of swelling pressure. Therefore, remoulded expansive
clays tend to swell more than their undisturbed counterparts. When the moisture content increase,
expansion occurs and the bearing strength of the black cotton soil decreases dramatically. The CBR
may be reduced to less than 2% if the soil becomes completely saturated.

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6.2.2 Identification and Classification of Expansive Clays

1 Expansive clay subgrades may be identified in the field by observation of large cracks that appear on
the land surface in the dry season and disappear in the wet season. After desiccation, the surface
exhibits polygonal shrinkage cracks, which reflect the percentage of clay and possibly the presence
2 of expandable clay minerals.
In the laboratory these soils are identified using index properties, bearing strength and swell tests.
Experience has shown that the volume change behaviour correlates reasonably well with liquid limit,
3 plasticity index, swell, and plasticity modulus (as shown in Table 6 1).
For instance, if the liquid limit is above 70%, then the material is often highly expansive and may
4 not be suitable for fills. If the liquid limit is between 50% and 70%, then some treatment may be
necessary to avoid distress. Similarly, the plasticity index is also a useful indicator; values below 15%
indicate minimal problems and values greater than 45% indicate that the material must be treated or
5 discarded.
The swell test is the second and most direct method for measurement of volume change, providing
swell and swell pressure values. The swell defines deformation, while the swelling pressure is related
6 to stress generated by volume change. The Oedometer swell test with minimum surcharge may be
used to determine volume change. However, for practical design purposes, the CBR swell test may
Pavement Foundations

be used. Expansive clays will exhibit swell exceeding 2.5 %.

The investigations to identify and classify expansive soils according to their expansiveness are
presented below:
1. Routine Investigations are those carried out during surveys of the project.
2. Extended Investigations include simple additional indicator testing in the laboratory when
expansive soils are suspected.
3. In depth studies include specialised laboratory testing and are used when extended investigations
show the occurrence of expansive soils, and the required countermeasures have high economic
consequences.
Routine investigations are those analyses carried out during normal centreline soils surveys and site
observations, as discussed in the first paragraph of this sub-subsection.
Extended investigations include simple additional laboratory tests to estimate expansiveness and
shall be routinely employed where special measures against damage from expansive soils are
proposed in the design. These include:
1. Shrinkage Limit (ASTM D4943-89).
2. PIw>20%, where PIw = Plasticity Index tested on fraction <425 μm, weighted for the sample’s
actual content of particles <425 μm as follows: PIw = PI x (% passing 425 μm).
3. Determining the activity, Ac of the soil sample. An activity value greater than 1.25 is indicative of
active clays with a high potential for expansion.
Activity = Plasticity Index / (% by weight finer than 2 µm). Inactive (good) and active (difficult) soils
have A-values of less than 0.75 and more than 1.25, respectively. Further investigation of soils
with values in between 0.75 and 1.25 will be at the discretion of the designer.
4. Classification of low/medium/high/very high expansiveness (Table 6.1).
The treatment principles shall be governed by the following criteria in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 and
presented diagrammatically in Figure 6.1.

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Table 6.1 Classification of Expansive Soils

Expansive
Liquid Limit % Plasticity Index %
Plasticity
Swell % in
1
Classification Product1
Very high > 70 > 45 > 3,200 > 5.0
High > 70 > 45 2,200 – 3,200 2.5 – 5.0
2
Moderate 50 – 70 25 – 45 1,200 – 2,200 0.5 – 2.5
Low < 50 < 25 < 1,200 < 0.5 3
Notes: PM = PI x % soil < 0.425 mm (425 micron). Soil at OMC compacted at 98% MDD with 4-day soak, 4.5 kg surcharge
1

4
6.2.3 Susceptibility to Erosion
When dry, black cotton soils present a sand like texture (polyhedral segments formed by the 5
agglomeration of clay, silt, and sometimes sand particles). In this state, they are prone to erosion to
a much greater extent than that normally anticipated from their plasticity and clay content.
6
6.2.4 Design and Construction Procedures on Expansive Soils

Pavement Foundations
6.2.4.1 General
The four common approaches for dealing with expansive clay subgrades are as follows:
1. Avoid the areas of expansive clays by realigning the road;
2. Excavate and replace the expansive clays with suitable material;
3. Chemical stabilisation of the expansive clay preferably with lime; and,
4. Minimise moisture changes and potential swell in the expansive clays.
The mitigation options for problems presented by expansive clays are presented in Table 6.2. The
design engineer is advised to carry out a cost-benefit analysis before selecting a suitable approach.

Figure 6.1 Schematic of Embankments and Treatments on Expansive Soils

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Table 6.2 Summary of Mitigation Options for Road Construction on Expansive Clays
1 Options Summary Description
1. Shift Road
Re-align Road onto areas of non-problem soil.
alignment
2 2. Removal and For clays classified as 'High' or 'Very High' expansivity, dig out of the material and
replacement replace with inert or encapsulated material, Depth of dig out will be a function
of the variation in swell potential and the depth of moisture content variation. An
3 additional precaution is to treat with lime, any extra material that is not removed.
Rockfill and sandbags (DONOU Technology for low volume roads) is useful in
waterlogged areas prior to application of other soil.
4 3. Chemical Treatment of the expansive clays with hydrated lime or other chemical stabilisers
stabilisation including proprietary products approved by the Ministry
4. Minimise moisture
5 changes and Placing of sufficiently high embankment of non-expansive material over expansive
potential swell in the material such as to inhibit heave.
expansive clays
6 a. Confining expansive For clays classified as 'Moderate' expansivity. Use of improved subgrade but is
clays under improved extended to include side-slopes and the toe of embankments. Cover material
subgrade and should ideally be a plastic gravelly soil. The road section should have sealed
Pavement Foundations

protective blanket. shoulders and flatter embankment side slopes (1:4 to 1:6). Rockfill and sandbags
(DONOU Technology for low volume roads) is useful in waterlogged areas prior to
the application of other soil.
b. Surcharge Placing of sufficiently high embankment of non-expansive material over expansive
material such as to inhibit heave.
5. Moisture control Range of options:
i. 2m wide sealed shoulders.
ii. Impermeable full-width sub-base.
iii. No vegetation allowed on shoulders.
iv. 5% crossfall on shoulder.
v. Drains to be lined, if unlined to be at least 4 m from embankment toe and
shallow
vi. Pre-wetting (2 - 3 months) to induce equilibrium moisture content before
constructing the pavement.
vii. Minimising or preventing moisture change using waterproofing membranes and/
or vertical moisture barriers.
The clay beneath culverts must be replaced with an inert material, all joints must
be carefully sealed to avoid leakage and inlets and outlets must be well-graded to
avoid ponding
6. Mechanical Mixing of potentially expansive material with inert material (e.g. sand/silt) to render
stabilisation the subsequent mass less potentially expansive.
7. Geosynthetic Geomembranes used as impermeable barriers to vertical and horizontal moisture
movement, although problems have been reported with placement, durability and
possible hydrogenesis.

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6.2.4.2 Realignment
This solution is possible only if the areas covered with expansive clays are of limited extent. 1

6.2.4.3 Excavation and Replacement

2
This procedure is simple and guarantees that the problems associated with expansive clays are
eliminated. Its use is therefore recommended as much as possible. Backfill material is to be obtained
from borrow pits. 3
However, this method is economically practicable only if suitable backfill material is available in the
vicinity of the road. This is the case in most regions of Kenya where black cotton soils occur. Indeed,
the thickness of black cotton generally does not exceed 1.00 - 1.20 m and suitable backfill material 4
is found under the black cotton soils (e.g. decomposed phonolite in the Nairobi area).
In practice, it should be sufficient to excavate the expansive soil to a depth of about 1 m and cart it 5
to spoil. Even if some expansive soil remains under the backfilling material, it should be adequately
confined and protected from moisture changes.
It is recommended that backfill material be at least of S2 quality and impermeable enough not to act 6
as a drain.

Pavement Foundations
Embankments shall be constructed with suitable fill material (as specified in Section 5.3.6) obtained
from borrow pits.

6.2.4.4 Treatment with Lime

Treatment of black clays with hydrated lime gives excellent results. The addition of 4 to 6 % of Lime
is usually required and provides the following improvements:
1. Reduction of the plasticity index to less than 20.
2. Reduction of the swell to negligible values.
3. Increase of the CBR to a minimum of 10 (after 7 days cure) and 15 (after 28 days cure).
4. Modification of the particle size distribution (by agglomeration of the clay particles), the final
grading being similar to that of a silt.
All these improvements render the treated clay easily workable, and it can be assumed that the
treated clay will normally be of at least S4 quality.
This treatment is comparatively costly, however, because it is necessary to treat a substantial thickness
of soil (minimum 300 mm compacted thickness). Lime treatment would therefore be advantageous
only where no backfill or improved subgrade material is economically available.
There are also problems in obtaining a uniform and intimate mix. Generally, the lime would have to
be added in two or even three increments with intervening 'fallow' periods. Intense pulverising and
mixing would also be necessary. Wet weather would make this operation almost impossible due to
the extremely sticky character of these soils when wet.
Lime treatment is likely only to be economically viable when pavement savings can be made by
taking advantage of the enhanced strength of the treated clay.

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6.2.4.5 Minimising Moisture Changes and Consequent Movements

1 If none of the above methods can be employed, because of an excessive cost or the absence of
suitable fill or replacement material, expansive clays may be used for fill and subgrade. Special
practices are then necessary to avoid detrimental moisture and volume changes in the swelling soils,
2 as described below.
a. Confining Expansive Clays Under Improved Subgrade and Protective Blankets
3 As stated in Section 7.2.6, it is in all respects advantageous to place an improved subgrade on
native soils of Class S1. Even if a long haul is required, the use of an improved, subgrade will
generally prove economical, as it allows a substantial reduction in the sub-base, which is made
4 from much more costly materials.
An improved subgrade has the further advantage of protecting the expansive clays from seasonal
moisture changes.
5
In the case of black cotton soils, it is recommended that the improved subgrade be at least 300
mm thick (compacted thickness). To obtain a good protection against moisture movements, it is
6 desirable that the improved subgrade is impermeable.
Similarly, black cotton soils may be used to form shallow embankments (up to about 3 m), provided
Pavement Foundations

that a protective blanket is placed on the slopes, to prevent moisture changes in the black cotton
soil. The blanketing material should be at least of S4 quality and be impermeable and resistant to
erosion. The blanket thickness should be at least 300 mm.
It is also possible to use black cotton soils to form the cores of higher embankments, the sides
being made from good quality fill material. However, due to the complexity of such embankment
construction, this practice will rarely be beneficial.
b. Surcharging Expansive Clays
Placing a substantial thickness of non-swelling material over expansive clay reduces heave. The
minimum thickness required depends on the expansion pressure of the swelling soil but will
usually be 1 – 3 m to produce a useful reduction of swell. It is therefore possible to use black
cotton soil to form the lower part of an embankment. It is recommended that the total thickness
of pavement plus improved subgrade be at least 600 mm, irrespective of the other protective
measures taken.
c. Limiting the Compaction of Expansive Clays
Expansion pressure and potential volume change increase significantly with the dry density of
swelling soils. High degrees of compaction may therefore be detrimental and should be avoided.
It is recommended that the dry density of black cotton soils averages around 97 – 98 % MDD
(Standard compaction -AASHTO T99) and in no case exceeds (100 % MDD (Standard Compaction).
d. Placing Expansive Clays at Equilibrium Moisture Content
This should prevent moisture changes. If possible, the equilibrium moisture content should be
measured under existing roads in the region concerned. Otherwise, it can be assumed that the
equilibrium moisture content is near the plastic limit or the Optimum Moisture Content (modified
compaction), which is usually close to the plastic limit; this applies in areas where the mean
annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm, and the water table is non-existent or deep (more than 5 – 6 m).
In arid areas or in the case of a water table close to ground level, a special study will be required
to determine the equilibrium moisture content.

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e. Preventing Moisture Changes Under the Pavement

It is essential that the swelling soils under the pavement are protected from moisture changes, 1
whether caused by external water or by internal variations (seasonal desiccation - wetting cycles).
To this effect, the following practices shall be adopted:
1. The pavement shall be as impermeable as possible. In particular, the use of an impervious 2
bituminous surfacing is required (multiple surface dressing or dense premix).
2. The shoulders shall be impervious and, if necessary, sealed or even surface dressed.
3
They shall be extended to a width at least equal to the depth of the zone affected by seasonal
moisture changes. Their width shall in no case be less than 2 m.
3. The side ditches shall be dispensed with or, if this is impractical, they shall be located.as far 4
away as feasible from the pavement. They shall have sufficient section and grade to ensure
that no water ponding can occur.
As the areas covered with black cotton soils are generally flat, mitre drains are required at 5
frequent intervals to discharge the water on to the surrounding ground. (See RDM Volume 2
Part 2).
6
4. Trees shall not be allowed to grow near the road, as their roots may spread under the pavement
and produce moisture changes, hence shrinkage and expansion.

Pavement Foundations
6.2.4.6 Type of Pavement Recommended Over Expansive Clays
It is strongly recommended that construction of flexible pavements only should be carried out in
the first stage. Indeed, small differential movements of the subgrade are almost inevitable, even if
all the above protective measures have been implemented. Flexible pavements can follow these
deformations, whereas rigid or semi-rigid pavements would fracture.
Wherever possible, the surfacing of such flexible pavement should be surface dressing which has
the further advantage of being impervious. Double surface dressing is sufficient if the pavement
layers are impermeable. Triple surface dressing is required if they are permeable.

6.2.4.7 Slopes in Expansive Clays

It is necessary that all fill slopes in black cotton soils be protected by a blanket of non-swelling
material. In this case, the slopes indicated in Section 5.3.4 can be adopted.
If unprotected, black cotton soils are prone to erosion and creep due to lateral expansion movements.
Safe slopes in black cotton soils are therefore very gentle. If black soils are to be left exposed, as
may be the case in shallow cuttings or side ditches, it is recommended that the slope does not
exceed 1 (Vertical): 4 (Horizontal).

6.2.4.8 Culverts and Drainage Pipes

Culverts shall not be cast, and drainage pipes shall not be laid, directly against expansive clays.
Surrounds or haunches, made from non-swelling material, shall be placed. The use of impermeable
and, if possible, gravelly material is essential.

6.3 Dispersive Soils

Dispersive soils are those soils that, when placed in water, have repulsive forces between the clay
particles that exceed the attractive forces. This results into the colloidal fraction going into suspension.
In moving water, the dispersed particles are carried away or eroded. This obviously has serious
implications in earth dam construction but is of less consequence in road construction. However,
inclusion of dispersive soils in the subgrade or fill can lead to significant pavement failures through
piping, tunnelling, and the formation of cavities.

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Dispersive soils often develop in low-lying areas with gently rolling topography and relatively flat
slopes. In Kenya dispersive soils occur in Mai Mahiu, Suswa, and Lake Turkana areas.
1
It is important to identify dispersive soils prior to design. In areas of sloping topography where
dispersive soils exist, a characteristic pattern of surface erosion is evidenced by jagged, sinuous
2 ridges and deep rapidly forming channels and tunnels.
In the laboratory, dispersive soils may be identified in the following ways:
3 1. Crumb test;
2. Pinhole test;
3. CBR test; and,
4
4. Double hydrometer test.
Crumb Test
5
The Crumb test is a simple indicator test that is recommended for initial field identification of dispersive
soils. The presence of dispersive clays can be identified by observing behaviour of a few crumbs of
6 soils placed in distilled water. Based on the observation of the behaviour of, dispersive soils can be
classified as levels 1 to 4 as indicated in Table 6.3 with Levels 1 and 2 representing a non- dispersive
reaction, and levels 3 and 4 a dispersive reaction.
Pavement Foundations

Table 6.3 Crumb Test Dispersive Reaction

Level Observation Reaction
Crumbs slakes or runs out to form a sallow heap at the bottom of the breaker
1 No reaction
without sign of cloudiness caused by colloidal suspension.
2 A very slight cloudiness can be seen in the water at the surface of a crumb. No reaction
There is an easy recognizable cloud of colloids in suspension usually
3 Moderate reaction
spreading out in thin streaks at the bottom of the beaker.
A colloidal cloud covers most of the bottom of the beaker, usually a thin skin.
4 Strong reaction
In extreme cases all the water becomes cloudy.

CBR Test
Another early indication of potentially dispersive soils is that the CBR test gives low strengths, less
than 3 %, however, this is not a confirmatory test.
Double Hydrometer Test
The Double Hydrometer Test is recommended as indicative laboratory testing for identification of
dispersive soils. The test procedure is as follows:
1. Determine the percentage passing 0.005 mm with standard hydrometer testing using a chemical
dispersing agent such as ordinary sodium hexametaphosphate; and,
2. Carry out a separate hydrometer analysis using no dispersing agent and determine the percentage
passing 0.005 mm.
The percentage dispersion is defined as:
Dispersion = [(% passing 5 µm from Item 2)/(% passing 5 µ from Item 1] x 100 %
Dispersion values greater than 30% are significant and greater than 60% are critical.
Pinhole Test
The pinhole test is a physical test whereby water under various heads of pressure is caused to flow
through a hole of 1 mm diameter is a sample specimen. Erosion and widening of the hole is observed
and dispersive properties derived from the results.

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From a road engineering perspective, field observation and the first two tests are sufficient guide
in deciding whether the soil/subgrade needs special treatment.
1
The remedial measures applicable on dispersive soils are as follows:
1. Adopt designs that minimise the need for excavation and subsoil exposure, and disturbance
to topsoil and vegetation. 2
2. Cover dispersive soils with a minimum 100 mm layer of non-dispersive soil prior to re-
vegetation or placement of the pavement layers.
3
3. Avoid its use in fills as much as possible.
4. Remove and replace it in the upper 300 mm of the subgrade.
4
5. Top dress the surface of potentially dispersive soils with up to 2 % gypsum if soil pH > 6.5 or
up to 4 % lime if soil pH < 5.0 or a mixture of both if soil pH is between 5.0 and 6.5. The use
of gypsum is recommended over lime, as lime may lead to soil stabilisation and its associated
cracking.
5
6. Manage water flows and drainage in the area well.
7. Infill any trenches or holes to prevent collection and ponding of water on subsoil surfaces. 6

Pavement Foundations
6.4 Collapsible Soils
Collapsible soils are those that appear to be strong and stable in their natural dry state, but which
rapidly consolidate under wetting, generating large and often unexpected settlements. Such soils
include loose and windblown silts generally consisting of 50 to 90 % silt particles.
Often, the loose structure of these soils is held together by small amounts of clay minerals or calcium
carbonate. The introduction of water dissolves the bonds created by these cementing materials
and allows the soil to take a denser packing under any type of compressive loading. The condition
for collapse is that the soil mass must be in a partially saturated condition and then wetted up and
loaded simultaneously which can occur beneath pavement structures.
Collapsible soils possess porous textures with high void ratios and relatively low densities. They
often have sufficient void space in their natural states to hold their liquid moisture at saturation.
In the laboratory the potential degree of collapse is best determined using the oedometer test.
Information on the general location of collapsible soils in Kenya should be obtained from the Chief
Engineer (Materials). However, confirmatory investigation should be carried out where the project
road traverses such soils.
The oedometer test can be used to assess the degree of collapsibility. The double oedometer test for
assessing the response of a soil to wetting and loading at different stress levels should be carried out.
The Collapse Potential (CP) is defined as (Equation 6.1):
∆ec
CP (%) = × 100
1 + e0
Equation 6.1
Where,
∆ec = the change in void ratio at 200 kPa, upon wetting
e0 = the initial void ratio
Since the test is conducted as one-dimensional test the collapse potential can also be expressed as
(Equation 6.2):
∆h
CP (%) = × 100
h0
Equation 6.2

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Where,
1 ∆h = the change in height upon wetting
h0 = the initial height of the specimen
This test is a guide or indicator test only to determine the potential for collapse (see Table 6.4)
2 settlement to occur and is merely a qualitative indication.

Table 6.4 Features of Collapsible Soils

3 Collapse Potential (%) Severity
0-1 Very low
4 1-5 Low
5 - 10 Moderate
10 - 20 High
5 > 20 Very high

6 Remedial measures include:

1. Moistening and using high energy compaction techniques using large impact rollers to reduce
Pavement Foundations

the collapse potential.

2. Ground modification involving either partial removal and replacement or densification of the
collapsible soil using techniques such as compaction grouting and pre-wetting of the soil followed
by a surcharge loading to cause settlement before construction. These methods include partial
removal and replacement; densification of the collapsible soil in-place such as by compaction
grouting; and pre-wetting of the collapsible soil followed by surcharge loading to cause settlement
before construction; conventional compaction with heavy vibratory roller for shallow depths (within
0.3 to 0.6 m); and dynamic or vibratory compaction for deeper compressible soils of more than
0.5 m (combined with inundation with water). For collapsible soils with thickness greater than 1.5
m, lime pressure and sodium silicate injections could also be helpful, though expensive.

6.5 Saline Soils

The presence of soluble salts, i.e. NaCl, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, (but not gypsum, Na2SO4, which is
only slightly soluble) in pavement or earthwork materials, or more critically in the subgrade and/or
groundwater can cause damage to prime coats and thin surfacings.
This is a significant risk in arid climates because of the migration of these salts to the surface as a
result of evaporation. Coastal areas, or possibly areas in the vicinity of the saline lakes in Kenya, are
most at risk from this mode of damage.
The content of soluble salt can be rapidly but indirectly determined by laboratory or field determination
of electrical conductivity. It is prudent to determine the precise configuration of soluble salts by
chemical analysis on a few samples and relate this to the conductivity. If the tests are carried out on
potential pavement materials, rather than subgrade, construction water should be added at 1.5 times
the required amount to obtain the OMC, to allow for evaporation, before the sample is tested.
The total soluble salts (TSS) will normally be measured; however, it is important to ascertain the
dominant salt type for more detailed design and construction control, particularly if salt levels are
significant. Methods have been developed whereby the electrical conductivity (EC) of an aqueous
solution of the material is measured using a standardized procedure and the values are related to the
percentage of TSS of the sample (Equation 6.3).

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TSS = 0.04 + 0.16EC

Equation 6.3 1
Where,
EC = measured in millisiemens per centimeter siemen is the reciprocal of the electrical resistance 2
ohms at 25 °C, and the TSS content is measured in mass percentage.
Prime coats are very vulnerable to the formation of blisters in the bituminous surfacing and by fretting
of the edges of the surfacing. If the soluble salt content, measured as % Total Soluble Salt (TSS),
3
exceeds approximately 0.3 % in the upper 50 mm of the road base, they are susceptible to damage.
Cutback prime is more vulnerable than emulsion prime. Blistering damage is accelerated if the road
is low-trafficked. 4
Surface dressing is more resistant to attack. Single and double surface dressings are not susceptible
to damage unless the % TSS exceeds 1.0 %; however, if surface dressings are constructed on 5
saline subgrades, it is recommended that an impermeable fabric be placed beneath the road base
to prevent the upward rise of salt and protect the surface dressing from eventual salt damage. If the
road is well trafficked, the susceptibility to damage is reduced. 6

Pavement Foundations
6.6 Organic Soils
These commonly occur in swamp areas and require special investigations to evaluate ground stability
and potential for excessive settlement. Typically, remediation consists of surcharging the pavement
structure for a specified time before removing the surcharge and constructing the pavement. However,
secondary consolidation of organic soils can be significant, and caution should be exercised when
specifying pavement construction on top of an embankment when 90 % of primary consolidation
(based on the consolidation test results) has taken place. Other remediation measures comprise
removal and replacement of the organic soil or, in extreme cases, construction of the road floating
on the swamp material.
A high content of organic matter (>2 %) is undesirable in pavement materials, particularly in stabilised
layers because it causes increased demand for stabiliser to achieve the required strength.

6.7 Halloysite
The presence of halloysite as a major constituent of the residual soils accounts for or contributes to
the following properties:
• The position of test results to the right of the 'A' line on the plasticity chart.
• Higher than normal moisture contents, for example for the compaction optimum.
• High strength in terms of effective stress parameters.
While these properties are unusual, halloysitic soils have been used in the construction of a number
of major dams with no deleterious effects. In other terms its presence in road embankments should
not be a problem.
Besides, the principal influence of halloysite appears to be that the engineering properties of the
soil are good, despite a high clay fraction and very small particle size, and high values of natural
water content and Atterberg limits. The good engineering properties appear to be the direct result
of their mineralogical composition, or in some cases cementation arising from the presence of the
sesquioxides.

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6
Pavement Foundations

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7 Pavement Foundations
7.1 General
1
The foundation is the upper subgrade below the formation. Where no capping (improved subgrade)
is provided, it is the upper 300 mm of the subgrade below the formation. Where a capping layer 2
is provided, the foundation shall be defined as the combination of the top 300 mm of fill or cutting
and all the capping layers provided. The sub-base is not part of the foundation, it is considered a
pavement layer. The illustration is shown in Figure 7.1. 3
Figure 7.1 The Foundation and the Pavement

Wearing course
4
Surfacing Binder course
Base

Subbase
Pavement
5
Formation
Capping (where required)

Compacted to 95% MDD

compacted to 95% MDD
AASHTO T180 Foundation/ 6
AASHTO T180 in 150mm
Upper
cuttings and on all subgrade
fills below formation or 150mm
improved subgrade. Subgrade
7
Compacted to 95% MDD
AASHTO T99 in

Problematic Soils
lower embankment Lower
fill layers. subgrade

7.2 Subgrade Requirements for Pavement Design

7.2.1 Subgrade Compaction
The compaction requirements shall be generally as follows:
1. The upper 300 mm of the subgrade shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 95 % MDD
AASHTO T180 (Heavy compaction) in cuttings and on all fills below formation or improved
subgrade.
2. All improved subgrades shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 95 % MDD AASHTO T180
(Heavy compaction).
3. The maximum compacted thickness processed and compacted at one time shall be:
i. 150 mm for the upper 300 mm of the subgrade in cuttings and fills; and,
ii. 150 mm unless through a trial, it is demonstrated that a 200 mm layer can be compacted at
one time.
The lower embankment fill layers below the upper 300 mm of the subgrade shall be compacted to a
dry density of 100 % MDD AASHTO T99 (Standard compaction).
The compaction requirements are summarised in Table 7.1.

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Table 7.1 Compaction of Subgrade

1 Subgrade Layer Description Compaction Specification
Upper subgrade The top 300 mm of the subgrade • 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) on fills,
(Pavement foundation) below formation level in cuttings cuttings, and improved subgrade layers
2 and fills where there is no improved • The maximum compacted layer at any
subgrade or the upper 300 mm of one time shall be 150 mm on fills and
the subgrade in cuttings and fills and cuttings and 200 mm on improved
3 improved subgrade. subgrade layers.
Lower subgrade Cuts or fill embankments below the • 100% MDD (AASHTO T99) on
(Cuts or fill foundation/upper subgrade embankment fills
4 embankments) • The maximum compacted layer thickness
shall be 150 mm, unless as a result of
trials it is demonstrated that compaction
5 can be consistently achieved at greater
depth which should not exceed 250 mm.

6 The moisture content shall be adjusted in order that the required relative compaction is obtained,
but the moisture content at the time of compaction shall not exceed 105 % of the Optimum Moisture
Content (the specified compaction level).
7 The moisture content shall be measured using the Nuclear Density Gauge, another moisture
measuring device that gives speedy results (e.g. calcium carbide devices), or by taking a sample and
Problematic Soils

oven-drying.
In some cases, it is advantageous to obtain relative compactions higher than the above figures, since
compaction not only improves the subgrade bearing strength, but also reduces permeability. This
particularly applies to clayey sands, silty sands and granular materials, the coarse particles of which
are hard enough not to crumble under heavy compaction.

7.2.2 Estimating the Subgrade Moisture Content

The actual moisture content of the subgrade soil under the road pavement will depend on many
factors, principally:
1. Local climate (Figure 7.2) shows the Koppen-Geiger climate classification of Kenya and shall be
used in determining the climatic zone of road projects).
2. Depth of the water table.
3. Type of soil.
4. Topography and drainage.
5. Permeability of the pavement materials.
6. Permeability of the shoulders.
After the pavement is constructed, the moisture content of the subgrade will generally change. In
warm desert and warm semi-arid climates, the moisture content is expected to decrease. In areas
where the water table is present, the subgrade moisture content may or may not change subject to the
depth of the water table. Despite this, the moisture content used for subgrade strength assessment
shall be determined after 4 days of soaking. (Please refer to Figure 3.2 in this Manual).

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7.2.3 Determining the Subgrade Design Strength

Unless a more accurate estimation of the ultimate subgrade moisture content can be made and 1
backed by factual data, the subgrade strength shall be determined based on CBRs measured after
4 days soaking for all climatic classifications.
2
7.2.4 Subgrade Failure Criterion
It is widely accepted that the compressive strain on the surface of the subgrade is the criterion 3
that governs the total cover required in the case of a flexible pavement. If the compressive strain is
excessive, permanent deformation will occur in the subgrade and this will cause deformation at the
pavement surface.
4
The relationship between the maximum permissible compressive strain and the cumulative number
of standard axles is usually given by an empirical equation called the 'subgrade failure criterion',
which relates the vertical strain at the subgrade level to pavement rutting performance. 5
The general relationship is as described in Equation 7-1.
6
N= ( Aɛ )
n

Equation 7.1
Where, 7
ɛ = In micro-strain (i.e. strain/1,000,000).

Problematic Soils
N = The number of cumulative equivalent standard axles.
A and n = Constants.
In practice this relationship depends on the strength of the subgrade, hence there are a variety of
relationships in international literature. Those most relevant are given in Table 7.2 and shown in Figure 7.2.

Table 7.2 Subgrade Strain Criteria

Subgrade Strain Criterion
Shell Shell CSIR C Kenya RDM
Constant USA Strong USA Medium
50 % 85 % 80% III
A 28,000 21,000 36.471 19,700 10,900 41445
n 4 4 - 5.714 5.714 4

Note 1: N = 10^(A-10*logɛ), Where ɛ is the vertical strain on top of the subgrade

In Kenya, the Shell 50 % criterion is applicable to subgrades for design traffic greater than 1 MCESA,
and the Kenyan criterion is applicable to subgrades for design traffic less than 1 MCESA (LVSRs).
The Shell 85 % criterion is applicable to very weak subgrades (<3 % CBR), the USA medium
strength and the CSIR C criteria are applicable to subgrades of CBR greater than 5 % but less than
8 %, and the Kenyan criterion is applicable to slightly stronger subgrades. Finally, the USA strong
criterion is applicable to the subgrade of CBR > 20 %, but these ranges should be considered as
very approximate.

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Figure 7.2 Permissible Vertical Strain on the Subgrade

1
1300

2 1200

1100

3
Microstrain

1000

4 700

500 USA strong

400
5 300
Kenya RDM
CSIR C 80%
USA medium strength
200
6 Shell 50 %
Shell 85 %
100
7
100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

700,000
800,000
900,000
1,000,000
Problematic Soils

Number of passes

7.2.5 Subgrade Stiffness Modulus

The design system incorporates the dynamic elastic modulus of the subgrade as one of the principal
design parameters.
The modulus should correspond to the common moisture content that the subgrade soil will endure
under the pavement, since the effects of repeated loading are considered.
The moduli of the subgrade classes at their equilibrium moisture contents have been determined by
direct measurements (plate bearing tests), and the values are given in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3 Subgrade Surface Moduli

CBR at 100 % MDD
Subgrade Class (AASHTO T99) and 4-day soak (%) Surface Modulus (MPa)
Range Median
S1 2–5 3.5 40
S2 5 – 10 7.5 65
S3 7 – 13 10 75
S4 10 – 18 14 95
S5 15 – 30 22.5 130
S6 30 – 60 45 200

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7.2.6 Empirical Relationships for CBR to the Subgrade Resilient Modulus

The Resilient Modulus (MR) of soil is a measure of subgrade stiffness. It can be obtained using the 1
cyclic triaxial test. The determination of MR in the laboratory is time-consuming and hence empirical
relationships have been developed.
2
Equation 7.2 derived by Powell et al (1984), shall be used to estimate the short-term and long-term
subgrade service modulus.
MR = 17.6 * CBR0.64 3
Equation 7.2
Where,
MR = the estimated subgrade surface modulus in MPa; and,
4
CBR = the California bearing ratio of the subgrade in %.
Equation 7.2 is valid for CBR values in the range of 2 to 12 %. However, research at MTRD shows that it 5
is valid up to CBR 100 %. Above CBR 12 %, direct measurement in the laboratory or in-situ is advised.
The equivalent subgrade modulus for each of the subgrade classes is given in section 7.2.5. 6
7.3 Foundation Classes
7
Pavement design is carried out in two stages, foundation design and pavement structure design. The
foundation carries the construction traffic and acts as a platform for the construction of the upper

Problematic Soils
pavement structure. The long-term properties of the foundation are used in analytical models to
design the pavement structure.
The design thicknesses are based on foundation classes defined in terms of the subgrade surface
modulus at equilibrium moisture. The foundation classes selected for design and their applicability
are presented in Table 7.4.

Table 7.4 Pavement Foundation Classes and Applicability

Minimum Foundation
Applicable Design Traffic
Requirement Equivalent
Foundation
Equivalent Subgrade
Class Surface Traffic Load
Minimum CBR Class Traffic Class
Modulus (MPa) Category
(%)
F1 75 10 S3 Low TC0.025 -TC1
F1 75 10 S3 Medium TC3 – TC10
F2 95 14 S4 Heavy TC17 – TC30
F3 130 23 S5 Heavy TC50
F4 200 45 S6 TC80 and TC150
Very Heavy
F5 400 140 N/A TC80 and TC150+

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7.4 Improved Subgrade

1 7.4.1. General
Placing an improved subgrade not only increases the bearing strength of the direct support of the
2 pavement, but also:
1. Protects the upper layers of earthworks against adverse weather conditions and their effects
such as soaking and shrinkage.
3
2. Facilitates the movement of construction traffic.
3. Permits proper compaction of the pavement layers.
4 4. Reduces the variation in the subgrade bearing strength, and
5. Prevents pollution of open-textured sub-bases by plastic fines from the natural subgrade.
5 It may prove technically and economically advantageous to lay an improved subgrade not only on S1,
but also on other subgrade classes (S2 to S6). The decision will generally depend on the respective
costs of sub-base and improved subgrade materials, and on the design traffic class as presented
6 in Table 7.4. Improvements to achieve higher foundation classes, F4 and F5, are required for rigid
pavements

7 An improved subgrade placed on soils must be made of a material of a higher class as discussed in
section 7.4.3.
Problematic Soils

7.4.2 Fill
The best materials either from cuttings or from borrow areas, should be reserved for the upper
layers of fill. Fill in soft material shall be selected based on determined in-situ subgrade class, i.e.,
on a section traversing Class S2 subgrade soils, material of CBR of 5% to 10% shall be used as fill
material and the top 300 mm using selected material of CBR ≥ the class median CBR strength (G8).
This applies for the other subgrade soils except for class S1 (CBR 2-5%) for which the minimum
requirements are as specified for G3 in Table 7.5. Materials for fill shall meet the requirements in
Table 7.5.

7.4.3 Capping Layers (Improved Subgrade)

Where a sufficient thickness of improved subgrade is placed, the overall subgrade bearing strength
is increased to that of a higher class and the sub-base thickness may be reduced accordingly. There
may also be problems in achieving high degrees of compaction in Class S4 or S5 material overlying
a Class S1 soil. The minimum thickness of each class of improved fill required on each class of
natural subgrade soil to obtain a higher class of subgrade bearing strength is shown in Table 7.6.
If the material in cuttings or embankments does not meet the requirements of the selected foundation
class, a capping layer shall be constructed to improve the subgrade to achieve the design foundation
class.
The improvement is designed to bring the existing native subgrade plus the capping layers up to an
overall bearing strength level equivalent to that of the selected foundation.

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Table 7.5 Requirements for Fill and Improved Subgrade

Requirements for Fill in Soft Material 1
Determined
Native/ In-situ Lower subgrade Upper subgrade (Pavement Foundation)
Subgrade Class (Fill below the
Top 300 mm of the subgrade Top 300 mm of fill below
2
pavement foundation1)
below the formation improved subgrade2
CBR ≥ 3%
Below Class S1:
Swell: < 3% 3
CBR < 2% N/A G3
LL: ≤ 70%
PI: ≤ 50%
CBR ≥ 3% 4
Swell: < 3%
S1: CBR 2-5% N/A G3
LL: ≤ 70%
PI: ≤ 50% 5
CBR ≥ 5%
Swell: < 3%
S2: CBR 5-10% N/A G8
LL: ≤ 70%
PI: ≤ 50%
6
CBR ≥ 7%
S3: CBR 7-13%
Swell: < 2.5%
LL: ≤ 50%
G10 for foundation Class F1 G10 7
PI: ≤ 35%

Problematic Soils
CBR ≥ 10%
Swell: < 2.5%
S4: CBR 10-18% G14 for foundation Class F2 G14
LL: ≤ 50%
PI: ≤ 30%
CBR≥ 15%
Swell: < 2%
S5: CBR 15-30% G23 for foundation Class F3 G23
LL: ≤ 35%
PI: ≤ 25%
CBR > 30%
S6: CBR 30-60% Swell: < 0.5% G45 for foundation Class F4 G45
PI: ≤ 12%

1. The foundation is the upper subgrade below the formation. Where no capping (improved subgrade) is provided, it is the upper
300 mm of the subgrade below the formation. Where a capping layer is provided, the foundation shall be defined as the combination
of the top 300 mm of fill or cutting and all the capping layers provided. The sub-base is not part of the foundation, it is considered a
pavement layer.
2. Material specifications for G3, G8, G10, G14, G23, G30 and G45 are provided in Table 8 8 and in Material Charts GM1, GM2, GM3,
GM4, GM6, and GM9, respectively.

The minimum thickness of each type of capping material required to improve the subgrade to a
higher class is shown in Table 7.6. The minimum thicknesses have been calculated considering the
respective elastic modulus of each class of soil. It should be noted that the foundation layers are
additive. For example, to improve a S2 subgrade to a S6 (F4) equivalent, it can first be improved to
an S4 (F2) by adding 175 mm of G14, followed by 150 mm of G45 into an S6 (F4). The specifications
for the capping materials in Table 7.6 are found in section 8.9.
In special circumstances, such as due to scarcity of natural materials, higher quality materials such
as crushed rock and hydraulically modified or bound materials may be used as capping. Due to the
high cost this would present, their use must be fully justified by the designer.

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Table 7.6 Minimum Capping Thicknesses for Improved Subgrade

1 Native Improved Subgrade/Capping
New Subgrade Foundation
Subgrade Minimum
Material Class Class
Class Thickness (mm)
2 G8 375 S2 N/A
G10 300 S2 N/A
3 G10 400 S3 F1
S1
G14 250 S2 N/A

4 G14 350 S3 F1
G14 425 S4 F2
G10 150 S3 F1
5
S2 G14 150 S3 F1
G14 175 S4 F2
6 G14 150 S4 F2
G23 150 S4 F2
7 G45 150 S5 F3
S3
G45 250 S6 F4
Problematic Soils

HIG100 250 S6 F4
BSM50 275 S6 F4
G23 150 S5 F3
G45 200 S6 F4
S4
HIG100 200 S6 F4
BSM50 225 S6 F4
G45 150 S6 F4
GCS/BSM50 275 S6 F4
S5 HIG160/HMS1 125 S6 F4
HIG160 250 N/A F5
HMS1 225 N/A F5
GCS 250 N/A F5
HIG160 200 N/A F5
S6
HMS1 175 N/A F5
BSM100 150 N/A F5

For concrete pavements, only F4 and F5 foundations should be used, and the top-most capping layer must be HIG160, HMS1,
BSM100 or higher quality BOUND material. To achieve this for S1 and S2 subgrades, they must first be improved to S3 (F1) or S4
(F2) subgrade class before final improvement to F4 and F5.

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7.5 Lime and Cement-treated Subgrade

Treatment of the subgrade soils with lime, cement, other binder, may be considered in the following 1
cases:
1. Where the natural soils are excessively clayey and no better material is economically available, 2
their treatment with hydrated lime may be the cheapest solution.
2. Where the natural soils are excessively wet and cannot be dried out because of adverse weather
conditions, their treatment with quicklime may allow construction to proceed and provide a 3
markedly stronger subgrade.
Lime and cement-treatment shall be considered for subgrade soils with the material properties as 4
presented in Table 7.7.

Table 7.7 Material Properties for Stabilisation Treatment With Lime and Cement 5
Soils with more than 35% particles Soils with less than 35% particles passing
passing the 0.075 mm sieve the 0.075 mm sieve
Stabiliser
PI ≤ 6,
6
PI ≤ 10 10 < PI < 20 PI ≥ 20 PI ≤ 10 PI ≤ 10
PP ≤ 60

Lime
Marginally
effective
Yes Yes Not suitable
Marginally
effective
Yes 7
Marginally

Problematic Soils
Cement Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
effective

When assessing the CBR of lime or cement-treated material, consideration should be given to
measuring the CBR and swell of the untreated material to provide an indication of the effectiveness
of the lime treatment. The treated soils will be classified as improved subgrade and achieve at
least twice the CBR strength of the improved subgrade material specified in Table 7-6, i.e., for G14
material the treated material should achieve a minimum CBR of 28% after 7 days soak.

7.6 Performance Foundations

7.6.1 General
Pavement foundations are classified as restricted/empirical foundation, or as performance foundation.
Restricted foundations are those that have been developed through empirical studies or from
past performance experience. In this manual these are generally classes F1 to F3. Performance
foundations are those that are designed through practical experimentation and testing on site during
the works execution. In this manual these are generally classes F4 and F5.

7.6.2 Minimum Deflection Requirements

These are applicable for design traffic class TC 80 or higher. The following shall be detailed for each
foundation design:
1. Start and end chainage.
2. Foundation class.
3. The layer stiffness.
4. Estimated minimum layer thicknesses based on Table 7.6 or structural analysis
Performance foundation design thicknesses shall be derived using constructed trial sections with
various materials options. After construction of the trial sections in accordance with standard
specifications, the layers/sections shall be wetted for 4 continuous days to simulate soaked conditions.
The sections shall then be tested and in case of failure, layer thicknesses shall be increased (topped
up) or different materials trialled.
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Note that protection of the subgrade during construction (short-term) is based on the vertical
compressive strain in the top of the subgrade. The structural response is limited so that excessive
1 deformation does not occur. The deflection under a given load can be equated to a surface modulus
for the foundation as a whole.
2 The deflection of the foundation shall be measured using an FWD (40 kN load over a 150 mm radius
loaded area) or calibrated LWD and the maximum deflection of the foundation for each foundation
class shall be no greater than:
3 1. 1.65 mm (1650 µm) for Foundation Class 1 (75 MPa).
2. 1.34 mm (1340 µm) for Foundation Class 2 (95 MPa).
4 3. 0.95 mm (950 µm) for Foundation Class 3 (130 MPa).
4. 0.74 mm (740 µm) for Foundation Class 4 (200 MPa).
5 5. 0.37 mm (370 µm) for Foundation Class 5 (400 MPa).
The surface modulus at the top of the foundation is calculated as in Equation 7.3 below:
6 Eo = 2(1 - υ2)σo
a
δo
Equation 7.3
7 Where.
Eo = the surface modulus at the centre of the loading plate in MPa,
Problematic Soils

υ = the Poisson’s ratio taken as 0.35,

σo = the contact pressure under the loading plate in kPa,
a = the radius of the loading plate in mm,
δo = the deflection at the centre of the loading plate in µm.
The Poisson's Ratio value used for the design of capping materials shall be 0.35.

7.6.3 Procedure for Field Determination

7.6.3.1 General
Performance foundation designs shall be subject to performance testing. Capping materials for
construction of F4 and F5 foundation shall be as follows:
1. Class F4 foundation: Gravel of CBR ≥45% (G45), graded crushes stone class E (GCS-E), and
hydraulically improved materials of CBR ≥ 100% (HIG-100); and,
2. Class F5 foundation: graded crushes stone class A, or B (GCS-A or B, hydraulically improved
materials of minimum CBR of 160% (HIG160, and hydraulically modified stone of UCS ≥ 1 MPa
(HMS1).

7.6.3.2 Demonstration Area

A demonstration area shall be constructed and tested to confirm the performance of each foundation
design. The demonstration area shall be prepared using the same methods, materials, thickness,
and compaction as proposed for the permanent works. Each demonstration area shall be not less
than 400 m² and not less than 60 m long and shall have a sufficient and suitable run off/run on area
to ensure the trafficking trial can be undertaken.
The materials placed in the demonstration area may form part of the permanent works, provided that
they meet the requirements of the permanent works.

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7.6.3.3 Determination of the Subgrade Surface Modulus

The subgrade surface modulus shall be determined using one of the following devices: 1
a. Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD).
b. Lightweight Deflectometer (LWD). 2
c. Plate Loading Test.
Detailed procedures for using these devices are included in RDM Volume 5, Part 1. 3
a. Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Testing
The FWD is the preferred and first choice tool for the design of performance foundations. FWD
testing shall be undertaken using a calibrated FWD in accordance with BS 1924-2 (2018 section 9.3).
4
b. Lightweight Deflectometer Testing (LWD)
In lieu of an FWD, an LWD may be used. LWD testing shall be undertaken using a calibrated 5
LWD in accordance with BS 1924-2 (2018 section 9.2). In accordance with BS 1924-2 (2018
section 9.2), an LWD device shall only be used with a site-specific correlation versus a FWD or if
it has an annual correlation certificate. 6
Testing shall either be undertaken to:
i. Procedure A – the standard target stress as per BS 1924-2; or 7
ii. Procedure B – a range of target stresses centred around 100 KPa to determine stress

Problematic Soils
dependency.
c. Plate Loading Test
In lieu of an LWD, a plate loading test may be conducted through application of a load to circular
plate, and measurement of the result deflection until the point of required design load. Equation 7.4
shall be used for computation of the stress.
σz =
P
A
(
1+ 2
z
z + a2
)
Equation 7.4
Where,
σz is the vertical stress at depth z.
P is the applied load.
A is the loaded area.
a is the radius of the loading plate.
The process for the performance testing of the demonstration area is as follows:
1. Measure subgrade surface modulus as set out below and confirm that the value is equal to or
higher than the design subgrade surface modulus value. If the measured subgrade surface
modulus is lower than the design subgrade modulus, a foundation redesign is required.
i. The construction subgrade surface modulus shall be determined at intervals suitable for the
type of subgrade material and its condition, with a maximum spacing of 60 m along each lane
of prepared subgrade and staggered to the mid-point between adjacent lanes, see Figure 7.4.

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Figure 7.3 Subgrade Surface Modulus Test Locations

1

2 LANE 1

x
3
x/2
LANE 2

5
Subgrade surface modulus test locations

7 ii. At least 10 tests shall be carried out for each prepared foundation area.
iii. The measurement of the construction subgrade surface modulus shall be taken at formation
Problematic Soils

level or at sub-formation level if capping is part of the foundation design.

iv. The test site shall be free from standing water.
v. Where the construction subgrade surface modulus is found to be less than the design
subgrade modulus, the area shall either be improved, or the foundation redesigned.
2. Where the measured subgrade surface modulus is greater than design subgrade surface
modulus, an adjustment factor should be applied to the measurements of foundation surface
modulus values using Equation 7.5 and used for the pavement design.

[ ( (E (measured)
EF (adjusted) = EF 1 + 0.28 * Ln ES (measured)
S
))]
Equation 7.5
Where,
EF (adjusted) = The adjusted foundation surface modulus.
EF = The measured foundation surface modulus.
ES (measured) = The measured subgrade surface modulus.
ES (designed) = The design subgrade surface modulus.

3. Construct the foundation as proposed for the permanent works.

4. The Contractor shall undertake a controlled trafficking trial on top of the constructed foundation
in the demonstration area.

5. The trial procedure shall be as follows:

i. Mark out the intended running track for the vehicle to ensure same wheel path is followed in
each pass.
ii. Using a heavy goods vehicle, undertake several passes of the demonstration area along the
marked out running track to achieve a number of passes equivalent to 1000 standard axles.

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iii. At 10 metre intervals or as instructed by the client, measure vertical deformation in the wheel
path using a straight edge with a length of at least 2 m.
1
iv. The straight edge shall be placed transverse to the rut and raised clear from the rut by two
identical blocks. The blocks shall be placed on undisturbed material outside the wheel path.
The amount of deformation shall be the difference of the foundation (A) and the height of the 2
blocks (B), see Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4 Wheel Path Deformation 3

4
B
A 5

Deformation A – B
6
6. The wheel path deformation shall not exceed the following limits along any section of trial length:
• All bound surfaces – 10 mm.
7

Problematic Soils
• < 250 mm design thickness of granular material – 30 mm.
• ≥ 250 mm design thickness of granular material – 40 mm.
7. Repeat measurement of foundation surface modulus to confirm the foundation surface modulus
requirements for the foundation are in accordance with the requirements above.
8. Where the completed demonstration area meets all of the specification requirements, the
methods, materials and thicknesses used shall not be changed for the construction of the main
works without an additional demonstration area being constructed.
9. Where the demonstration area fails to meet all of the specification requirements, the design and
construction practices shall be reviewed, and the demonstration area reconstructed until the
specification requirements have been met.
10. Records of the performance test results for each construction stage, referenced to the following
condition details shall be stored and presented on request to the client in a digital spreadsheet
format:
i. Subgrade surface modulus value immediately before foundation construction.
ii. Date and time of mixing (for stabilised and slow-setting materials).
iii. Date and time of placing and compaction.
iv. Date of performance testing.
v. Values of surface modulus recorded.
vi. Values of material properties including density and layer thickness.
vii. Weather conditions including temperature.
viii. Sampling and testing records in the demonstration area.

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7.6.3.4 Permanent Works

1 For the main works, a testing regime shall be detailed to confirm that the foundation surface modulus
shall be equal to or higher than that specified for the designed foundation class.

2 It should be noted that the foundation surface modulus measured is for a partially confined foundation
and is not to be confused with the long-term confined foundation surface modulus.
Where the foundation surface modulus is lower than that specified for the designed foundation class,
3 action shall be taken to either undertake improvement or review the foundation design. The approach
for improvement is dependent on the scale of the issue and the practical options available on site.

4 Where a foundation area within the main works fails to comply with the surface modulus performance
measurement requirements, and the foundation is to be redesigned, the suitability of the redesigned
foundation shall be confirmed with a demonstration area.
5 For each foundation area, records of the performance test results for each construction stage,
referenced to the following condition details shall be stored and presented on request to the Client
in a digital spreadsheet format:
6
1. Subgrade surface modulus value immediately before foundation construction.
2. Date and time of mixing (for stabilised and slow-setting materials).
7 3. Date and time of placing and compaction.
Problematic Soils

4. Date of performance testing.

5. Values of foundation surface modulus recorded.
6. Values of material properties including density and layer thickness.
7. Weather conditions including temperature; and
8. Sampling and testing records.
Within the 48 hours prior to construction of the overlying pavement layers, the foundation surface
modulus shall be tested at 20 m intervals along each lane, staggered by 10 m between adjacent
lanes. Tests shall coincide with subgrade surface modulus and density tests where appropriate.
The foundation surface modulus values achieved shall meet or exceed that for the corresponding
material and foundation class.
A foundation containing unbound materials that fails to comply with the performance requirements
when the recorded moisture content exceeds that of the demonstration area, may be re-tested for
compliance when the foundation moisture content has reduced to that in the demonstration area.
Where surface modulus performance values do not meet the requirements of the foundation required,
a re-design should be completed.
Ruts that develop under construction traffic, measured in accordance with this Clause, shall nowhere
exceed the limits in (7) above.

7.6.4 Thickness Design Requirements

The design thickness shall be derived using the layer stiffness values assigned to each layer and the
procedure outlined in Section 7.6.3.
When the subgrade surface modulus is expected to be low at the time of construction, a capping
layer should be added to provide a working platform for construction of the subsequent layers. It is
noted that foundations built on a construction subgrade surface modulus of 50 MPa or less have a
relatively high risk of structural rutting during construction if the foundation does not incorporate a
capping layer.

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The design thickness derived shall either be subject to zero negative tolerance; or, to ensure that
the design thickness is applied throughout the scheme, an additional thickness may be applied
to the derived thickness. Any additional thickness required may be limited by the capacity of the
1
construction equipment to deliver the required design thickness consistently.
The minimum capping thickness for foundation class F5 shall be at least 150 mm regardless of the 2
material used.

7.6.5 Use of Geosynthetics 3

Geosynthetics are categorised as proprietary products. For all proprietary products, performance
design is required. This involves the construction of a trial section and conducting several tests to 4
ensure performance compliance.
In such special cases, the design engineer should follow the design and construction principles set
out in this Manual and liaise closely with the MTRD for guidance on approval procedure of such 5
materials.
Geosynthetics refer to synthetic materials used in civil engineering and geotechnical applications to 6
enhance the performance of soil and rock. In road construction, four main types of geosynthetics
are used.
1. Geogrid. 7
2. Geotextile.

Problematic Soils
3. Geomembrane.
4. Geocell.
Geogrids are high-strength synthetic grids or mesh structures made from materials like polyethylene
or polypropylene. They are employed for soil reinforcement and slope stabilisation. Geogrids are
especially useful in applications where increased tensile strength is required to withstand heavy
loads and prevent soil movement.
Geotextiles are permeable fabrics made from synthetic materials such as polypropylene or polyester.
They are commonly used to separate different soil layers, prevent soil erosion, and facilitate drainage.
Filter fabrics can be categorised according to the method of manufacture as follows:
• Woven geotextiles may be made from single fibres, slit film or bundles of fibres woven together.
The resulting geotextiles generally have high tensile strength, high modulus, and low elongation.
Woven filter fabrics generally are available in the range of equivalent opening size (EOS) values
between 150 and 600 μm. However, the EOS may decrease markedly when a slit film woven
geotextile is subjected to soil pressures.
• Non-woven geotextiles where the fibres are bonded together by various processes such as needle
punching or thermal or melt bonding. Non-woven geotextiles can be made using continuous
fibres or short (staple) fibres and generally have lower tensile strength, lower modulus, and higher
elongation than woven. Non-woven geotextiles generally have a higher permeability, ranging
from about 0.04 to 0.01 m/s, but a lower EOS, generally in the range 20 to 500 μm, than woven.
• Composite geotextiles are a combination of woven and non-woven geotextiles, generally have
high strength and modulus and low EOS
• Knitted geotextiles are available only in the form of ‘socks’. Although relatively strong, knitted
geotextiles exhibit high elongation. They have a relatively large but uniform EOS.
Geocells are three-dimensional cellular confinement systems typically made from high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) or other durable polymers. They are used to confine and stabilise soil,
aggregate, or other infill materials in a grid-like network.

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Geomembranes are impermeable sheets made from materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene,
or PVC. They are utilised in containment systems to prevent the seepage of moisture/water.
1
Different types of geosynthetics materials are used for subgrade stabilisation in various forms such
as geogrid, geomembrane, and geocell to perform the function of strengthening, separation, filtration,
2 lateral drainage and reinforcement.
In the construction of temporary road works such as haul roads:
3 1. Geotextiles shall be considered for use as reinforcement in weak subgrades of California bearing
ratio (CBR) <3 % (i.e., subgrade class S1) to maximise their benefit in terms of pavement thickness
reduction.
4 2. It is recommended that a minimum of 150 mm of granular material be placed over a geosynthetic,
and where design shows that without a geosynthetic, 200 mm of granular material is required on
strength grounds only, it is unlikely to be economic to include a geosynthetic.
5
3. A geogrid shall be placed on top of the geotextile where there is a need to distribute wheel loads
over a greater area of the subgrade in order to achieve strength improvements.
6 For road construction of permanent works over subgrade class S1 and where rut depth is limited to
less than 20 mm:

7 1. Geotextiles shall serve the purpose of separators and shall be placed at the interface of subgrade
and sub-base layer to prevent the loss of aggregates into the soft subgrade. The geotextile should
have high permeability to allow rapid dissipation of excess porewater pressures that have been
Problematic Soils

built up during transient wheel load passes.

2. Geotextiles shall conform to the requirements of the product standard BS EN 13251 and BS EN
13249.
The following geotextile characteristics (Table 7.8) shall be determined for their suitability in road
works for reinforcement, R; Filtration, F; and Separation, S. The obtained test result shall be greater
than the material specification provided in the design.

Table 7.8 Relevant Geotextile Characteristics and Test Methods

Characteristic Test method Function

Elongation at maximum load EN ISO 10319 R
Dynamic perforation
EN 918 F, R
resistance (cone drop tests)
Damage during installation ENV ISO 10722 – 1 F, R, S
Characteristic opening size EN ISO 12956 F
Water permeability normal to
EN ISO 11058 F
the plane
Resistance to weathering EN 12224 F, R, S

Geocells shall be used for subgrade improvement in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications
and where a cost saving arising from their use as evidenced outweighs the risk of failure.
Note: Polyester geosynthetics shall not be used where the sub-base is lime-treated due to the strength reduction of the material arising
from coming into contact with calcium hydroxide.

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8 Pavement Materials
8.1 General
1
Pavement materials can be obtained from within the road reserve, from material borrow sites, and
from stationery and moving production plants. The materials include: 2
1. Natural granular materials (sands and gravels).
2. Crushed stone materials and screened rock.
3
3. Hydraulically and lime improved materials.
4. Hydraulically bound materials.
4
5. Bitumen stabilized materials (BSMs).
6. Primes, tack coats and precoating fluids.
7. Bitumen bound materials.
5
8. Bituminous seals and micro-surfacing.
9. Concrete. 6
10. Concrete paving blocks.
The choice of the pavement materials and, hence, of the pavement structure, will largely depend on 7
the types and the respective costs of the natural materials locally available.
In light of climate change events, it is important that the designer should identify sections of the road 8
that are vulnerable and select materials appropriately. The measures could include:

Pavement Materials
i. Provision of a bituminous surface dressing on asphalt pavements to mitigate increased oxidation
rates.
ii. Use of polymer modified asphalts.
iii. Use of hydraulically modified granular materials that are less susceptible to moisture.
iv. Use of low plasticity materials to minimise the loss in strength when wet.
v. Use of geo-grids to enhance strength of granular materials, and geo-membranes to cut off
capillary rise.

8.2 Sub-base Materials

8.2.1 Natural Gravels
Many different types of natural gravel occur in Kenya, namely lateritic gravels, quartzitic gravels,
calcareous gravels, some forms of weathered rock, soft stone, coral rag, volcanic gravels (scoria)
and conglomerate.
Natural gravels for sub-base shall have a CBR of at least 30 %, at 95 % MDD (Modified AASHTO)
and after 4 days’ soak.
In addition, the gravel shall comply with the requirements shown in Chart GM8 (GM7 for LVSR).

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The following points should be noted:

1 I. The maximum Plasticity Index allowed depends on the climate and on the type of base to be
placed. Plasticity Indices of up to 20 for G25 and 12 for G30, may be tolerated in dry areas i.e.
mean annual rainfall less than 500 mm. On the other hand, the Plasticity Index should not exceed
2 15 for G25 and 12 for G30 in wet areas under open-textured (permeable) bases, because of the
risks of soaking and pumping of plastic fines up into the base.
II. Care is needed in using gravels derived from weathered igneous rock, as these materials are
3 extremely heterogeneous and coarse fragments that appear to be sound may contain minerals that
are already decomposed. In particular weathered basic rocks like basalt, phonolite and dolerite
are of very poor quality and their use should be as limited as possible. Weathered micaceous
4 rocks, such as micaschists and some types of gneiss, are likely to give rise to similar difficulties.

8.2.2 Clayey and Silty Sands

5
Various types of clayey and/or silty sands are to be found in Kenya. These are suitable as sub-base
materials if their CBR, at 95 % MDD (Modified Compaction) and after 4 days’ soak, is at least equal
6 to 30 % and if they comply with the other requirements given on Chart GM7 and GM8. Attention is
drawn particularly to the plasticity limitations.

7 8.2.3 Hydraulically Improved Granular Materials

Natural gravels, sands, and clayey sands, which do not meet the sub-base requirements given on
8 Chart GM7 and GM8, may be improved by treatment with cement or lime.
Non-plastic and low plasticity materials can readily be treated with cement, but do not lend themselves
Pavement Materials

to lime treatment whilst plastic materials can be successfully treated with lime. Treatment with lime
appears to be advantageous when the percentage of fines (material passing 0.425 mm size) and the
Plasticity Index exceed 15 % and 10 % respectively.
The materials suitable for treatment, the cement, lime, or other hydraulic binder, and the treated
material shall comply with the requirements given in Charts HM1 to HM4.
Curing shall be carried out by covering the surface with either approved plastic sheeting, moist soil,
straw and/or keeping the surface damp by frequent applications of a light spray of water.

8.2.4 Graded Crushed Stone

Stone is abundant in many parts of the country, and graded crushed stone may be used as sub-base
material, particularly where no suitable natural gravel can be economically found.
The material requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures are summarised in
Chart GM11.
The following points should be noted:
I. Crusher-run should be used as much as possible, for obvious economic reasons. The grading
envelopes given cover the crusher-runs usually obtained. For some softer stones a grading at the
design stage which is coarser than the envelope may be acceptable.
II. Fairly coarse crusher-run (0/60 mm) which is economical may be used for medium and light
traffic.
III. The grading to consider is that after compaction and rolling may cause further crushing and
produce additional fines in the case of soft stone (LAA > 40).

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IV. Six classes of GCS in accordance with Chart GM11, stone classes A, B, C, D, E and F have been
defined based on hardness and crushing ratio. Classes A, B, and C stone must be crushed stone,
whereas rounded aggregate (alluvial deposits) may be accepted for Class D and lower. Class A
1
stone is required for design traffic class TC30 and TC50, Class B for TC17, Class C for TC3 and
TC1, and Class D for TC3 and TC1.
2
V. The general requirement is that the fines shall be non-plastic for Class A, B, and C, but allowed
for classes D, E and F. However, under light traffic and in dry areas, limited plasticity may be
tolerated (Plasticity Index not more than 6-8), provided that the stability and the permeability of 3
the material remain adequate. Plasticity requirements are as follows:
a. Class A: Non plastic.
b. Class B: Non plastic.
4
c. Class C: Non Plastic.
d. Class D: PI ≤ 10. 5
e. Class E: PI ≤ 10.
f. Class F: PI ≤ 12. 6
Stone class D, E and F shall be used as gravel i.e., G80 and G30 materials.
VI. To avoid segregation: GCS classes A, B and C should be mixed and moistened in stationary plant 7
and laid by paver. Classes D, E and F should always be kept moist during handling, transportation
and laying and should not be stockpiled in heaps higher than 5 m.
VII. All of the following compaction requirements shall be complied with: 8
a. Reference to the Maximum Dry Density (Vibrating Hammer method):

Pavement Materials
• Average dry density: Min. 98 % MDD (V.H.).
• No result below 96 % MDD (V.H.).
b. Reference to the Specific Gravity of the stone (Oven dry value):
• Average dry density: Min. 82 % S.G.
• No result below 80 % S.G.
c. No visible movement under a steel wheeled roller applying at least 5000 Kg/metre width
of roll.
VIII. Special care must be taken to ensure that the layer edges are properly compacted.

8.2.5 Dry-bound and Wet-bound Macadam

Macadam is comparable in performance with a graded crushed stone and should be used as
substitutes for GCS in standard pavement structures that provide that option. For sub-base it is
suitable for traffic application from TC3 to TC150. They are especially useful where good internal
drainage is required within the pavement. The materials are also not susceptible to moisture ingress
and are therefore good in mitigating capillary rise and for enhancing climate resilience. Aggregate
hardness, durability, particle shape and in-situ density requirements are similar to those given
for graded crushed stone and are contained in materials Chart GM13 together with particle size
distribution requirements.
The material is also suitable where labour-intensive construction is an economic option. They consist
of nominal single-sized crushed stone and non-plastic fine aggregate (passing through the 5.0 mm
sieve). The fine material should preferably be well graded and consist of crushed rock fines or natural,
angular pit sand.

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The dry-bound Macadam process involves laying single-size crushed stone of 75- or 50-mm nominal
size in a series of layers, to achieve the design thickness. The compacted thickness of each layer
1 should not exceed twice the nominal stone size. Each layer of coarse aggregate should be shaped
and compacted, and then the fine aggregate should be spread onto the surface and vibrated into the
interstices to produce a dense layer. Any loose material remaining is brushed off and final compaction
2 carried out, usually with a heavy smooth-wheeled roller. This sequence is then repeated until the
design thickness is achieved. To aid the entry of the fines, the grading of stone should be toward
the coarse end of any recommended range. Economy in the production process can be achieved
3 if layers consisting of 50 mm nominal size stone and layers of 37.5 mm nominal size stone are both
used. This allows the required total thickness to be obtained more precisely and better overall use
made of the output from the crushing plant.
4
Water-bound Macadam is similar to dry-bound Macadam. It consists of two components, namely a
relatively single-sized stone with a nominal maximum particle size of 50 mm or 37.5 mm and well
5 graded fine aggregate (grouting sand) that passes through the 5.0 mm sieve. The coarse material
is usually produced from quarrying fresh rock. The crushed stone is laid, shaped, and compacted,
and then fines are added, rolled, and washed into the surface to produce a dense material. Care is
needed in this operation to ensure that water-sensitive plastic materials in the sub-base or subgrade
6 do not become saturated. The compacted thickness of each layer should not exceed twice the
maximum size of the stone. The fine material should preferably be non-plastic and consist of crushed
rock fines or natural, angular pit sand.
7
8.2.6 Soft Stone
8 Where soft stone is to be used for the sub-base layer, its contribution to the pavement strength will
depend on its quality. A poor-quality soft stone is to be assessed and used in accordance with the
Pavement Materials

requirements for a natural gravel. A good quality soft stone meeting the requirements given below
may, however be improved by the use of cement or lime and used for sub-base layers:
I. L.A.A. less than 70 %.
II. P.I. on fines from L.A.A. test: Non-plastic.
III. P.I. of material passing 0.425 mm sieve from the 'as dug' material: Max 15 % and plasticity
modulus less than 250.
IV. C.B.R. at 95 % MDD (Modified AASHTO) after 4 days’ soak: Min. 60 %.

8.2.7 Hand Packed Stone

Hand-Packed Stone (HPS) paving consists of a layer of large broken stone pieces (typically 150 to
200 mm thick) tightly packed together and wedged in place with smaller stone chips, rammed by
hand into the joints using hammers and steel rods. The remaining voids are filled with sand or gravel.
The structures also require a capping layer when the subgrade is weak and a sub-base of G30
material or stronger is used. Prior to laying of the HPS, edge restraint of either a concrete or stone
kerb may be constructed to improve stability.
Stones may be extracted from trachyte, basalt, granite, or hard sandstone rock. The characteristics
of the parent rock material for the various applications are provided in the materials chart GM12.
The stones shall be laid by hand and closely packed using stones of maximum size of either 150
mm or 200 mm. The larger stones are packed with the longer dimensions placed vertically with the
base at the bottom and the voids in between filled with the smaller stone driven with the apex facing
down. The layer shall be proof rolled with a steel wheeled roller with a minimum axle load of 8 tonnes
in the presence of the Engineer, who shall approve of its stability before compaction. The materials
specifications are provided in Chart GM13.

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Compaction shall be by a steel-wheeled roller of at least five tonnes per metre width of roll. It shall
consist of four static runs or until there is no movement under the roller. There shall follow vibratory
compaction until an average dry density of 85 % minimum of specific gravity of the stone has been
1
achieved. No result shall be below 82 % of specific gravity.
After compaction a filler of crushed rock fines or sand shall be spread over the surface and brushed 2
into the joints. The surface shall be vibrated using a vibratory plate compactor to ensure complete
filling of spaces within the hand packed stone surface matrix by the fine aggregates. Where necessary,
further sand or fines shall be added and the surface re-vibrated. 3
The filler shall be free from foreign matter and fines passing 0.425 mm sieve shall be NON-PLASTIC.

8.3 Base Materials 4

8.3.1 Natural Gravels
Natural gravels for base shall have a CBR of at least 80, at 95 % MDD (Modified AASHTO) and after 5
4 days’ soak. The other material requirements are detailed in Chart GM10. Notably, the plasticity
index should not exceed 10. Crushed stone or crusher run not complying with requirements of graded
crushed stone, may be used as 'natural gravel', provided it complies with the requirements in Chart 6
GM10. In fact, where available, it is preferred to natural gravel due to its low moisture susceptibility
and high shear strength.
Natural gravels meeting these requirements are very scarce in Kenya. Most of the lateritic gravels are
7
not suitable for base, due to their poor nodule hardness (incomplete laterisation) and high plasticity.
Weathered rocks are even poorer. Only a few quartz gravels and coral gravels have been found to
be adequate. 8
It may therefore be advantageous to mechanically stabilise unsuitable natural gravels, by mixing in

Pavement Materials
sand to reduce the plasticity or stone (crushed or not) to provide hard coarse particles. An addition
of 30 % of sand or stone is regarded, practically and economically, as a maximum.
In other cases, it may be advantageous to obtain relative compaction higher than the usual 95
% MDD (AASHTO T180). However, the bearing strength will be significantly increased by higher
compaction degrees only if the coarse particles are hard enough to resist heavy compaction without
being crushed or pulverised. In practice, relative compactions up to 97% MDD (AASHTO T180) may
be considered.
Natural gravels are not suitable for design traffic classes TC30 and higher, even if they are
mechanically stabilised or well compacted, for they are prone to attrition and their characteristics
are too variable. However, they may be used for sub-base for TC17 with GCS or BSM base when
blended or mechanically stabilised with up to 40% crushed stone aggregates or milled asphalt.

8.3.2 Hydraulically Improved Granular Materials

It is common practice to treat with cement or lime natural materials which have been found to be
unsuitable in their natural state. Cement and lime treated materials are thoroughly dealt with in
Materials Branch Report No. 343.
It is essential to distinguish between improved materials and stabilised materials.
Improvement consists of treating materials with lime or with a comparatively small amount of cement,
so that the engineering characteristics are improved (higher bearing strength, lower plasticity), but
the treated material remains flexible.
Stabilisation consists of treating materials with a sufficient amount of cement, so that their cohesion
is considerably increased, and significant rigidity is obtained.
Charts HM1 to HM4 covers cement and lime improved materials for base.

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The materials will normally be mixed-in-place, as stationary plant mixing is extremely costly. It has
been assumed that the scatter of the stabiliser content may reach ± 30 % of the nominal amount.
1
As improved materials are fairly flexible, the CBR criterion has been retained.

2 Cement, and lime improved materials are not considered suitable for heavy traffic because of their
generally poor resistance to attrition. Use of this as base layer should be limited to maximum design
traffic class TC10 and for sub-base up to TC50. Various types of cement available in Kenya are
discussed in section 8.3.2.
3
It is strongly advised that a mechanical spreader (e.g., spreader box) be used for spreading the
cement or the lime, in order to obtain a fairly uniform distribution.
4
Attention is drawn to the following time limitations:
I. Where cement is used, it is essential that compaction and finishing are completed not later than
5 2 hours after mixing and that the treated layer is protected against evaporation not later than 4
hours after compaction.
II. When lime is used, the times allowed are 4 hours after mixing and 8 hours after compaction
6 respectively.
In some cases, a prime coat may be too thin to prevent desiccation, in which case protection and
7 curing shall normally be achieved by the application of a bituminous seal coat or prime coat, or
by covering the surface with either approved plastic sheeting, moist soil, straw and/or keeping the
surface damp by frequent applications of a light spray of water.
8 No vehicle shall be allowed on a cement treated layer for the first 7 days after compaction.
Pavement Materials

8.3.3 Graded Crushed Stone

The material requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures are summarised in Chart
GM11.
The following points are stressed:
I. Three classes of stone have been defined, on the basis of their hardness and crushing ratio.
Class A, B and C stone must be entirely crushed, whereas Class D, E and F stone may be semi-
crushed.
II. Graded crushed stone is not considered suitable for Traffic Class TC30 or higher, or for roads
carrying overloaded axles because attrition is probable. Class A stone is required for TC17,
Class B for TC10 and Class C for TC3 and TC1.
III. The grading generally required is 0/40 mm. However, for Traffic Class TC17, it is necessary to
use 0/30 mm graded crushed stone, in order to minimize segregation and provide sufficient
stability.
IV. A minimum amount of fines of 4 % is considered necessary to ensure the stability of the base.
V. No plasticity is allowed in GCS classes A, B, and C.
VI. To avoid segregation, graded crushed stone classes A, B and C should be moistened in a
stationary plant and laid by paver. Graded crushed stone classes D, E and F may be laid using
a grader. If laid by paver, it should always be kept wet during handling, transporting, and laying
and should not be stockpiled in heaps higher than 5 m.

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VII. Both of the following compaction requirements for graded crushed stone classes A, B and C
shall be complied with:
1
a. Reference to the Maximum Dry Density (Vibrating Hammer):
○ Average dry density: Min. 98 % MDD (V.H.).
2
○ No result below 96 % MDD (V.H.).
b. Reference to the Specific Gravity of the stone (oven-dry value)
○ Average dry density: Min. 85 % S.G. 3
○ No result below 82 % S.G.
VIII. Special care must be taken to ensure that the layer edges are always properly compacted by 4
providing an extra width or specific lateral abutment.
IX. Compaction requirements for graded crushed stone classes D, E, and F shall be comply with 5
compaction to minimum 98% MDD (AASHTO T180).

8.3.4 Dry-bound and Wet-bound Macadam 6

See section 8.2.5 and materials Chart GM13. It is suitable for use as a base layer for design traffic
up to TC30.
7
8.3.5 Sand Bitumen Mixes
In areas where neither natural gravels nor stone can be found, the treatment of sandy soils may 8
be the only practical solution for base construction. In arid areas, cement treatment has several
disadvantages and bitumen stabilisation may then be the most appropriate technique.

Pavement Materials
Two types of sand bitumen mixes have been identified:
I. Bitumen stabilised silty and clayey sands
The material requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures are summarised in
Chart BB3.
Stable anionic emulsion A3 or fluid medium curing cutbacks (MC 250 - MC 800) may be used.
The materials will be mixed-in-place.
Bitumen stabilised silty and clayey sands are suitable for medium and light traffic (TC1 to TC10)
but NOT for heavy traffic (classes TC17 or higher).
II. Sand mixes
Chart BB4 gives the material requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures for
sand mixes.
Hard bitumen 40/50 or 60/70 may be suitable. Hot mixing and hot laying are then necessary.
Anionic emulsion A2 and A3 may also be used with the advantage of cold mixing and cold laying.
Single sized sands, such as dune sands, present a very difficult problem because of their low
internal friction angle and their high voids percentage. A possible solution is to stabilise them with
cement together with bitumen emulsion. The addition of mineral filler or of angular crusher sand
to the natural sand will generally be necessary to fill up the voids and to increase the internal
friction angle, so that the specified stability is obtained.
Sand mixes are suitable for medium and light traffic. The behaviour of this material under Traffic
Class TC30 is still uncertain.

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8.3.6 Dense Bitumen Macadam

1 Dense bitumen macadam is a hot-laid, plant mixture of well-graded aggregate, filler and straight-run
bitumen, used for base construction. The resulting mix must conform to stability and flow criteria.
Chart BB1 gives the material requirements and construction procedures for dense bitumen macadam.
2 The following points should be noted:
I. As long as DBM is covered by another layer, harder bitumens (e.g., 30/50 penetration grade) can
3 be used in its manufacture.
II. Dense bitumen macadam is adequate for all traffic but is economically justified only for heavy
traffic (TC17 and higher).
4
8.3.7 Dense Emulsion Macadam
Dense emulsion macadam is a cold mixed, cold laid plant mixture of well graded aggregate and
5 bitumen emulsion and its principal use will be as a pavement overlay material.
The requirements for aggregate and filler are basically the same as for dense bitumen macadam
6 (see Chart BB1). The emulsion can be either slow setting anionic A3 or slow acting cationic K3. The
amount of residual bitumen should normally be between 3 and 5 % by weight of the dry aggregate.
Dense emulsion macadam may be a cheap alternative to dense bitumen macadam. Although its
7 strength is only slightly less than that of dense bitumen macadam, no heating or drying of aggregate
and no heating of the binder are required. Laying of DBM must only be undertaken by an approved
paver. It is pointed out that dense emulsion macadam should not be laid in layers of compacted
8 thickness exceeding 15 mm to permit the evaporation of water.
Note: Dense emulsion macadams require heavy compaction to be continued at intervals until all movement ceases; this may not be
Pavement Materials

achieved until a period of some days after laying.

8.3.8 Bitumen Stabilised Materials (BSM)

Bitumen Stabilised Materials (BSMs) are pavement materials that are treated with either bitumen
emulsion or foamed bitumen. The materials treated are normally granular materials, previously
cement treated materials or reclaimed asphalt layers.
The use of bitumen stabilised materials (BSM) is preferred for pavement rehabilitation interventions
as it allows utilisation of existing pavement materials and immediate passage of traffic. BSM layers
are also less susceptible to weaknesses in the underlying layers compared to cement or bitumen
bound layers.
The quantities of residual bitumen emulsion or foamed bitumen added do not typically exceed 3 %
by mass of dry aggregate. In many situations, active filler in the form of cement or hydrated lime is
also added to the mix. The cement content should not exceed 1 % and should also not exceed the
percentage of the bitumen stabiliser, (i.e., the ratio of bitumen percentage to cement percentage
should always be greater than 1). If this ratio is less than one, then the material should be considered
as a cement improved material.
The types of filler used are cement (various types, but not rapid hardening cements), lime, rock
flour, fly ash and slag. For the purpose of this Manual, the term active filler is used to define fillers
that chemically alter the mix properties. This includes fillers such as lime, cement and fly ash but
excludes natural fillers such as rock flour. In this Manual, lime always refers to hydrated lime.

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The purpose of incorporating active filler in BSM is to:

1. Improve adhesion of the bitumen to the aggregate. 1
2. Improve dispersion of the bitumen in the mix.
3. Modify the plasticity of the natural materials (reduce PI). 2
4. Increase the stiffness of the mix and rate of strength gain.
5. Accelerate curing of the compacted mix.
3
The addition of bitumen emulsion or foamed bitumen to produce a BSM results in an increase in
material strength and a reduction in moisture susceptibility due to bitumen coating of some of the fine
aggregates within the materials matrix. Such 'non-continuous' binding of the individual aggregate 4
particles makes BSMs different from all other pavement materials. The dispersed bitumen changes
the shear properties of the material by significantly increasing the cohesion value, whilst effecting
little change to the internal angle of friction. A compacted layer of BSM will have a void content like 5
that of a granular layer, and not to an asphaltic material. BSMs are therefore granular in nature and
are treated as such during construction.
The primary benefits of using BSMs are: 6
1. The increase in strength associated with bitumen treatment allows a BSM to replace alternative
high-quality materials in the upper pavement. For example, a G80 quality material treated with
either bitumen emulsion or foamed bitumen can be used in place of an asphalt base, provided it
7
meets the layer requirements, thereby offering significant cost savings.
2. Improved durability and moisture insensitivity due to the finer particles being encapsulated in 8
bitumen and thereby immobilised.

Pavement Materials
3. Lower quality aggregates can often be successfully used.
4. The typical failure mode of a BSM (permanent deformation) implies that the pavement will require
far less effort to rehabilitate when the terminal condition is reached, compared to a material that
fails due to full-depth cracking.
5. BSMs are not temperature sensitive, unlike hot mix asphalt. This is because the bitumen is not
continuous throughout the mix.
6. Unlike a hot mixed asphalt, BSMs are not overly sensitive materials. Small variations in both
the amount of bitumen added and untreated material properties will not significantly change the
strength achieved through treatment. This allows the inevitable variability in the recycled material
to be tolerated.
7. Traffic disruption and time delays are minimised by working in half widths and opening to traffic
soon after completion. The construction and maintenance of diversions is therefore avoided.
8. Pavements showing a wide range of distress types can be effectively rehabilitated, thus
eliminating most of the heavy construction traffic that damages newly constructed layers and
adjacent access and service roads.
The BSMs are classified into following three classes:
1. BSM175: Bitumen emulsion/foamed bitumen stabilised graded crushed stone or reclaimed
asphalt – see materials Chart BM3.
2. BSM100: Bitumen emulsion/foamed bitumen stabilised graded natural gravel or reclaimed
asphalt – see materials Chart BM2.

3. BSM50: Bitumen emulsion/foamed bitumen stabilised gravels or clayey/silty sands, stabilised

with higher bitumen contents – see materials Chart BM1.

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8.3.9 EME (High Modulus Asphalt)

1 Enrobé à Module Élevé (EME) is hot-mix asphalt consisting of hard, unmodified bitumen blended
at high concentrations (up to 6.5 % m/m) with good quality, fully crushed aggregate to produce a
mix with low air voids content. EME is designed to combine good mechanical performance with
2 impermeability and durability. Its key performance characteristics are high elastic stiffness, high
resistance to permanent (plastic) deformation and fatigue failure, while also offering good moisture
resistance and good workability.
3 Suitable binders for use in the production of EME include 10/20, and 20/30 penetration grade. The
material requirements and construction procedures are summarized in Chart BB2.

4 Pavements comprising EME as the principle structural layer can be employed for design traffic
well greater than 50 million ESALs - with due consideration and selection of supporting pavement
materials and structure.
5 The potential for reduced layer thicknesses makes EME also ideally suited for application in urban
areas where disruption to subsurface services can be significantly reduced.
6 EME is suitable for use in the following circumstances:
1. On heavily trafficked routes, particularly where traffic is slow and channelised, such as on major
bus routes.
7 2. In specific pavements subjected to heavy loads such as dedicated truck routes, loading bays and
container terminals.
8 3. In constrained (boxed-in) pavements such as those found in urban and peri-urban areas.
EME should not be used as surface or binder layer since:
Pavement Materials

• It may be prone to thermal cracking.

• It may not provide a surface texture with sufficient skid resistance.
Where multiple layers of EME are constructed, it is crucially important that good bonding between
the two courses is achieved.
The underlying principle of designing EME base layers is to provide an extremely stiff asphalt
layer derived mainly from the properties of a hard binder. While the use of hard grade bitumen, in
conjunction with suitable aggregate gradings, will inherently be resistant to permanent deformation,
adequate resistance to fatigue failure is ensured by a relatively high binder content.

8.3.10 Hydraulically Modified Stone

This consists of GCS that has been improved with cement to enhance stone-to-stone contact and
limit segregation. The material requirements and construction procedures are summarised in Chart
HM5 and HB1. The common GCS+2 % are as per Chart HM5.
The following points should be noted:
I. The amount of cement normally required is between 1 % and 4 %. The true quantities to meet the
strength requirements should be determined through laboratory testing.
II. The traffic limitations of hydraulically modified stone are presented in Chart HM5 and HB1.
III. Mixing is to be carried out in a stationary plant and hydraulically bound stone is to be laid by
mechanical paver.
IV. Compaction and finishing must be completed not later than 2 hours after mixing, and the finished
layer must be protected against evaporation not later than 4 hours after compaction. Protection
and curing shall be achieved by the application of a bituminous seal coat, preferably bitumen
emulsion.

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8.3.11 Hydraulically Bound Stone (HBS) for HBS6 and HBS9

As hydraulically bound materials are rigid or semi-rigid, the CBR is meaningless. The most convenient 1
strength criterion for such materials is the Unconfined Compressive Strength (U.C.S.).
Hydraulically bound materials are technically suitable for all traffic, but their use is normally not
economically justified for light traffic (Classes TC3 and TC1).
2
It is recommended to use, as much as possible, the stationary plant mixing method, but it should
be borne in mind that only low plasticity materials (Plasticity Modulus not exceeding 700) can be 3
properly mixed in a stationery plant.
Mix-in-place can be used alternatively (and has to be used for materials with a Plasticity Modulus
exceeding 700). Powerful mixing equipment is then required, the most usual being heavy duty
4
pulvimixers (more than 100 h.p.).
The scatter of the cement content should not exceed + 10 % of the nominal amount when the 5
materials are mixed in stationary plant and + 20 % when the mix-in-place method is employed.
Compaction must be completed not later than 2 hours after mixing and protection against evaporation 6
must be placed not later than 4 hours after compaction.
Protection and curing shall be carried out as indicated in sections 8.2.3 and 8.3.2.
7
Vehicles shall not be allowed on bound material for the first 7 days after compaction.
The material requirements and construction procedures are summarised in Chart HB2, and HB3.
8
The following points should be noted:

Pavement Materials
I. Ordinary Portland cement is generally used. However, because of the shrinkage problems and
time limitations, it may be worthwhile developing the use of special slow-setting cements or the
use of retardants (coarsely-ground cements, or mixtures of cement and inert filler, etc.).
II. The amount of cement normally required is between 3 % and 5 %. The true quantities to meet the
strength requirements should be determined through laboratory testing.
III. Due to its rigidity, hydraulically bound stone must be placed in thick layers (minimum 150 mm,
generally 200 or 250 mm).
IV. Hydraulically bound stone is adequate for all traffic but is economically justified only for heavy
traffic (TC50 and higher).
V. Mixing is to be carried out in a stationary plant and hydraulically bound stone is to be laid by
mechanical paver.
VI. Compaction and finishing must be completed not later than 2 hours after mixing, and the finished
layer must be protected against evaporation not later than 4 hours after compaction. Protection
and curing shall be achieved by the application of a bituminous seal coat, preferably bitumen
emulsion. No vehicles shall be permitted on hydraulically bound stone for the first 7 days.

8.3.12 Hand Packed Stone

See section 8.2.7. However, if used for base, the surface regularity must be strictly controlled. The
materials specifications are provided in Chart GM12.

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8.4 Surfacings
1 8.4.1 Bituminous Binders
8.4.1.1 Penetration Grade Bitumen (Straight-Run bitumen)
2 The common grades used in Kenya are 40/50, 60/70, 80/100, and 100/250 penetration grades.
These shall conform to the requirements contained in ASTM D 946. Their specific use is contained
within the materials specification charts in section 8.9.6. Other grades may be used where technically
3 justified.

8.4.1.2 Cut-back Bitumen

4
The common grades used in Kenya are medium-curing cut-backs MC30, MC70, MC250, MC800,
and MC3000. These shall conform to the requirements contained in ASTM D2027. Slow-curing
5 (SC) options are available for use where there is a need to extend the curing period, such as when
working with materials contain a large quantity of dust. These shall conform to the requirements
contained in ASTM D2026. Their specific use is contained within the materials specification charts
6 in section 8.9.6. Other grades may be used where technically justified.

8.4.1.3 Emulsified Bitumen

7
The common grades used in Kenya include cationic emulsion grades K1, K2 and K3, and anionic
emulsions A1, A2, A3, and A4. Cationic emulsions shall meet the requirements outlined in ASTM
8 D3910 whereas anionic emulsions shall comply with the requirements outlined in BS 434-1. The
designer is advised to contact relevant emulsion manufacturers since the grades and developments
are always evolving. Their specific use is contained within the materials specification charts in section
Pavement Materials

8.9.5 and 8.9.6.

8.4.1.4 Performance-Grade Bitumen

Pending classification of suitable performance grades for the climatic regions in Kenya, these can
be used on projects in Kenya by the approval of the Chief Engineer (Materials). The designer shall
be required to submit the selection criteria used in selecting the bitumen for the specific project.
Performance-grade specifications shall conform to the requirements contained in AASHTO M 320.

8.4.2 Modified Bitumen

8.4.2.1 General
Modified bitumen are bitumen whose properties have been enhanced by the addition of polymers,
rubber, or other chemical additives. Depending on the modifier, they mitigate against early cracking
or rutting, withstand heavy traffic application for longer periods, enhance adhesion, and provide
better compaction.
Unmodified bitumen has weaknesses: it becomes rapidly more ‘fluid’ at high temperatures, facilitating
rutting in asphalt and embedment in surface dressing: and in the intense light of the tropics, it rapidly
ages and hardens, accelerating cracking.
Numerous proprietary products are commercially available to ameliorate these characteristics. The
products can be categorised as follows:

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8.4.2.2 Polymer-modified Bitumen

It is possible to create additives which enhance the good properties of bitumen whilst suppressing 1
the bad properties. Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA), Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS) and Styrene
Butadiene Rubber (SBR) are three such examples. Polymer modified bitumen shall conform to the
requirements contained in BS EN 14023. They all increase the viscosity, and visco-elastic stiffness, 2
of bitumen at high temperatures and increase fatigue life. The consequences of using polymers to
suppress the development of rutting and premature bitumen aging are obvious. Polymer modified
bitumen properties shall comply with the requirements of AASHTO M320 and M332 specifications. 3
8.4.2.3 Rubber-modified Bitumen
4
Crumb rubber can be added to bitumen to enhance its resilience. This can be obtained by grinding
used vehicle tyres, although suppliers of ready-made crumb rubber exist. At up to 18% m/m of the
neat bitumen, crumb rubber has been shown to enhance the resilient modulus of asphalt by up to 5
50%. Its use in Kenya road projects should be considered as part of performance design. Rubber
modified bitumen shall meet the specifications of ASTM D6114.
6
8.4.2.4 Chemical Additives
Elemental sulphur and manganese have both been used as additives. Sulphur becomes a liquid at
a temperature greater than ≈120 °C and is added to improve workability at high temperature. The 7
modified shall still have to comply with the requirements of AASHTO M320 and M332 specifications.

8.4.3 Prime Coat, Tack Coat, and Precoat

8

Pavement Materials
8.4.3.1 Prime Coat
A prime coat is an application of low viscosity bituminous binder to an absorbent surface. Its purposes
are to waterproof the surface being sprayed and to help bind it to the overlying bituminous course.
The use of prime emulsion is preferred. These can be obtained from bitumen manufacturers and
suppliers. A3 Anionic emulsion diluted with water can be used.
All non-bituminous base shall be primed.
The most appropriate binders for priming are medium curing fluid cut-backs MC 30 and MC 70.
MC 30 is suitable for practically all types of materials. For open-textured surfaces like graded crushed
stone, MC70 is recommended.
The rate of application will depend on the texture and density of the material to be primed. It is usually
between 0.8 and 1.2 l/m2.
It is good practice to dampen the surface to be primed as this facilitates the penetration of the binder.
It may happen that priming a cement treated layer with cut-back causes slight surface disintegration,
because of interference with the cement hydration. The effect of cut-backs on cement treated
materials should always be assessed on preliminary trial sections. If difficulties arise, priming should
be replaced with a bitumen emulsion tack coat.
If the prime coat has to be trafficked before the surfacing is placed, it should be blinded with clean,
non-plastic natural sand, crusher dust or fine aggregate. However, this should be done after the
prime has achieved 10 mm penetration and water or binder has fully evaporated.

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8.4.3.2 Tack Coat

1 A tack coat is a light application of bituminous binder to a bituminous or concrete surface. Its purpose
is to provide a bond between the surface being sprayed and the overlying bituminous course.

2 The following types of binders may be used:

1. Medium curing cutbacks (MC250, MC800 or MC3000).
2. Quick breaking emulsions (A1 or K1).
3
3. A3 Anionic emulsion diluted with water.
4. Polymer-modified emulsions.
4
The rate of spray will depend on the surface texture. It is usually between 0.3 and 0.8 l/m2 residual
bitumen.
5 For very thin applications, emulsion would normally be preferred, as it can be diluted with water,
permitting a thin film of bitumen to be achieved at a convenient rate of spray from the distributor. All
tack coats should be applied to a cleaned surface shortly before laying the next bituminous layer but
6 allowing sufficient time for evaporation of cutter or run-off of emulsion water.

8.4.3.3 Precoat
7
Precoating of aggregates may help to improve the aggregate-bitumen bond. This is especially
effective for aggregates that are dusty or that may be used in a dusty environment. Aggregates may
8 be pre-coated using a special formulated emulsion or a mix of 45-60% penetration grade bitumen
and 55-40% by volume of Kerosene.
Pavement Materials

8.4.4 Surface Dressing

8.4.4.1 General
Surface dressing is a surfacing of the highest importance. It can be used as a definitive surfacing
under light and medium traffic or as an economical first surfacing under heavy traffic. Further,
surface dressing can be applied as a maintenance process; the service life of all forms of bituminous
surfacing is extended by periodic resealing.
Chart SU1 gives the material requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures.
The design method (i.e., choice of chippings size, choice of binder and determination of application
rates) is detailed in Charts SU1.

8.4.4.2 Type of Binder

Surface dressing can be used on roads carrying very heavy traffic. However, classical binders like
cut-backs and emulsions are suitable only for traffic up to about 6,000 vehicles/day on 2 lanes. For
heavier traffic, or high stress areas such as junctions and steep sections, special types of binder, for
example those modified by the addition of polyvinyl chloride or rubber, are required.
Three main types of binder can be used for traffic up to 6,000 vehicles/day, these are:
1. Medium curing cut-back 3000 (Site blended from 80/100 penetration bitumen and 5-10 %
Kerosene).
2. 80/100 penetration grade bitumen (Neat or site blended with up to 5 % Kerosene for workability
depending on road surface temperature).
3. Cationic emulsion (K1-70).
4. Polymer-modified binders.

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Section 8.7 discusses the most suitable binder in various climatic areas and for different aggregates.
It can be seen that cationic emulsion is preferred in wet areas.
1
As regards cutbacks, the governing feature is the road surface temperature at time of application.
Section 8.7 presents the road temperature/viscosity relationship for several bituminous binders and
will help select the most suitable binder. 2
Medium curing cutbacks of appropriate viscosity may also be obtained by blending straight-run
bitumen with diesel or kerosene, should the commercial product not be available.
3
8.4.4.3 Chippings Class and Size
Four classes of chippings have been defined based on their hardness, shape and their respective 4
conditions of use are as follows:
a. Class 1 where the total traffic exceeds 6,000 vehicles/ day.
b. Class 2 where the total traffic is 2,000-6,000 vehicles/day.
5
c. Class 3 where the total traffic is 500-2,000 vehicles/day.
d. Class 4 where the total traffic is less than 500 vehicles/day. 6
The total traffic referred to above is the average daily traffic during the year of application of the
surface dressing and which includes cars and light goods vehicles as even they have a wearing 7
effect on surface dressing.
For double seals, the first layer is usually made up of 14-mm chippings followed by a second layer of
7 mm chippings. The use of 20 mm chippings is generally not justified for double seals (except under 8
very heavy traffic on soft surfaces). However, for triple seals, the 20 mm chippings form the first layer,

Pavement Materials
the second being 14 mm chippings, and the third seal being 7 mm chippings.
The design of surface dressing is discussed in section 8.7.

8.4.4.4 Number of Seals

Double surface dressing is normally recommended for new roads. Triple surface dressing is justified
only where complete imperviousness must be guaranteed for a number of years and where there is
heavy traffic on steep slopes or tight curves.
Single surface dressing should not be used for new construction, but only for maintenance.

8.4.4.5 Racked-in Surface Dressing

Racked-in surface dressing should be used when greater interlock is required, such as in high traffic
acceleration or deceleration, or on tightly knit surfaces. Racked-in surface dressing is designed as
a double surface dressing, but the chipping spread rate of the first seal is reduced by 10 %. During
construction, all the bitumen for the first and second seal are applied in one pass. Then the chippings
for the first seal applied, then the chippings for second seal applied, then rolling is done. It may also
be used if assurance of deep seal is required particularly in high rainfall areas and in this case a
second seal will be necessary to protect the second stone spread.

8.4.4.6 Inverted Surface Dressing

This is used on fine-textured (tightly knit) bases such as hydraulically stabilised or modified bases,
and lateritic bases. It is designed as a double surface dressing, but during construction, the 'second
seal' is constructed first, then the 'first seal' is applied on top.

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8.4.4.7 Adhesion
1 Clean dry chippings should be used with possibly an adhesion agent with cut-back binders. The
chippings should be clean and damp if a cationic emulsion binder is used. If cutbacks are used with
damp chippings an adhesion agent will probably be required.
2
8.4.5 Other Bituminous Seals and Seal Combinations
3 8.4.5.1 Slurry seal and Cape Seal
A slurry is a mixture of slow-breaking bitumen emulsion (A4-60 or K3-65), sand, fine crushed
stone aggregates, cement, and water in pre-determined proportions. The specification of materials
4 required to produce good-performing slurry are contained in Chart SU2. A slurry seal as a first seal
is generally only advisable for low volume roads of class TC0.01, and not higher. Slurry is produced
and laid using a special purpose-built machine, however labour-based methods of mixing and laying
5 also exist, although they are generally slow.
A Cape Seal is simply an application of a slurry seal on top of a single surface dressing. It is known
6 to perform very well, even at high volumes of traffic.

8.4.5.2 Cold Mix Asphalt

7 Cold mix asphalt for surfacing is a cold mixed and cold laid mixture of well-graded aggregates and
bitumen emulsion.

8 The emulsion can either be slow setting anion A3 or slow acting cationic K3 with at least 60% residue
binder content. The amount of residue bitumen should normally be between 6.0 to 7.5%.
Pavement Materials

Voids in the mix shall be between 3 to 8%. If more voids are present based on the mix design, then
a fog spray of K1-70 and quarry dust of 0/6 mm shall be provided to seal the surface.
For labour intensive construction methods, the bitumen emulsion and aggregates are usually mixed
in pans and placed on the road using labour-based methods. The compaction is then applied by
rollers until the surface has attained stability – usually within a few minutes.
Materials specifications, construction procedures and tolerances for surface dressing are presented
in chart SU3.

8.4.5.3 Otta Seal

Otta seal is a bituminous seal constructed by the application of a thick application of relatively soft
bitumen (MC800, MC3000, 150/200 penetration grade, or aggregate-specific bitumen emulsions)
followed by the application of graded granular aggregate.
The cover aggregate shall consist of natural gravel, graded crushed stone or a mixture of these.
The surface is then rolled using a pneumatic-tyred roller. After continuous rolling and traffic action,
the bitumen works its way up through the aggregate interstices. Over time, a tight impervious
surfacing results. Otta Seal has been used hitherto in Kenya since the 1980s, and it has shown good
performance.
The major advantages of Otta Seal are that it can be constructed using crushed aggregates or
natural screened aggregates; they can be constructed with or without priming the base layer and
have long durability.
Otta seals are designed according to the guideline, “A guide to the use of Otta Seals, 1999; NPRA
Publication No. 93.”
Materials specifications, construction procedures and tolerances for surface dressing are presented
in chart SU4.

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8.4.5.4 Sand Seal

A sand seal is an application of a bituminous binder on a primed road base covered with natural 1
sand, fine crushed rock aggregates or a mixture of both. This should not be used on roads other than
low-volume roads, except as a maintenance intervention.
2
The sand or fine aggregate shall be free from organic matter, clayey and other deleterious material.
Sand seal application is usually limited to roads carrying light traffic of less than 100 vehicles per
day if it is applied as a first seal, or less than 500 vehicles per day if it is applied as a second seal on 3
Surface Dressing, Otta Seal or Cold Mix Asphalt.
Sand seals should not be used on steep grades greater than 6 %. In addition, the use of single sand 4
seal directly applied on the base layer is strongly discouraged. It should always be constructed as a
double seal, unless it is applied as a second seal on another type of surfacing.
Sand seal is not designed in the same sense that a surface dressing can be designed. The design is 5
in fact a recipe design. The sand should be applied at a rate of 6 to 7 x 10-³ m3/m2. The binder, which
may be a cut-back (preferably MC800 in cold areas and MC3000 in hot areas) or an emulsion (K1-60
or K1-70), should be spread at a rate of approximately 1.0 to 1.2 kg/m2. 6
Materials specifications, construction procedures and tolerances for surface dressing are presented
in chart SU5. 7
8.4.5.5 Surfacing Combinations
The following surfacing options are suitable for low-volume sealed roads. They should be used in 8
the following recommended layer combinations to prevent premature failures. Experience has also

Pavement Materials
shown that the following combinations work well and are usually cost-effective:
1. Double Surface Dressing.
2. First layer of Single Surface Dressing followed by a second layer of Sand Seal.
3. First layer of Single Surface Dressing followed by a second layer of Slurry Seal.
4. First layer of Single Otta Seal followed by a second layer of Sand Seal.
5. First layer of Cold Mix Asphalt followed by a second layer of Slurry Seal.
6. First layer of Cold Mix Asphalt followed by a second layer of Sand Seal.
In each case, each layer is designed as described under the respective seal. In addition, ample time
should be given for the first seal to cure before applying the second seal.

8.4.5.6 Road Oiling

Road oiling is primarily used for dust control. Its main function is to protect the base layer materials
from being abraded by traffic. Road oiling should be treated as a temporary measure before applying
a more permanent bituminous seal.
Substances used for road oiling include slow-curing cut-backs SC70 or SC250, used motor oil,
lignin-sulphates, propriety products and polymers, vegetable oils, molasses, and other substances.
The 'oil' is sprayed on the road surface by a distributor or purpose made sprayer. The spray rate of
the substance is often provided by the supplier. For slow-curing cut-backs, the application rate is
usually 3 to 4.5 l/m2. This method works best on porous road bases.
Anionic bitumen emulsion (A4) and medium-curing cut-backs MC250 and MC800 may also be used
by mixing in place base materials; that is if the plasticity of the base material is less than 15 % and the
percentage of fines passing 75 µm is less than 30%. The treated thickness usually varies between
50 and 75 mm.

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It must be noted that some substances used for road oiling in the past are now not environmentally
acceptable, as they may be leached or washed into open water bodies by the action of rain.
1 Consultation must be made with the environment office before using any road oil. Moreover, road-
oiling must be considered as a temporary measure and must be sealed soon afterwards for economic
value to be realised from the process.
2
8.4.6 Functions and Performance of Bituminous Premix (Asphalt)
3 8.4.6.1 General
Bituminous premixes are generally referred to as asphalt. This is a combination of bitumen and
4 aggregate proportioned in a manner to provide appropriate performance economically. During
production, the constituents are premixed together in a batching plant, transported, and placed as a
mat more than 30 mm) using a paver; hence the name 'premix'.
5
8.4.6.2 Functions of a Premix Surfacing
The road user mainly requires a premix surfacing to:
6
1. Provide a satisfactory riding quality.
2. Provide a sufficient skid resistance under all weather conditions.
7
The design engineer requires a premix surfacing to:
1. Protect the underlying pavement layers from ingress of water and the abrasive and disruptive
8 actions of traffic.
2. Have a maximum maintenance - free life (this implies that the surfacing itself is not subjected to
Pavement Materials

excessive strains).
3. Fulfil certain economic conditions.

8.4.6.3 Factors Influencing the Performance of Premix Surfacings

The performance of a premix surfacing depends on:
1. The local climatic conditions.
2. The intensity and distribution of traffic.
3. The properties of the supporting pavement layers, in particular their stress-strain characteristics.
4. The bonds between the layers.
5. The engineering characteristics of the bituminous mixture (stability, durability, fatigue resistance,
permeability, etc.).

8.4.7 Asphalt Surfacings

8.4.7.1 General
From a structural point of view, it is absolutely essential to make a clear distinction between rigid and
flexible mixes. Rigid (or high stability) mixes are designed to resist rutting and high stresses, whereas
flexible mixes are designed to resist comparatively high flexural deformation.
From a practical point of view, it is usual to differentiate between two basic types of mix:

8.4.7.2 Interlocked Aggregate Mixes

These are continuously graded mixes that derive their stability from a good aggregate interlock,
obtained by careful adjustment of the mix grading, and from the cohesion provided by the bitumen.

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8.4.7.3 Mortar Type Mixes

These mixes derive their stability from the cohesion of a sand-filler-bitumen mortar. They may consist 1
of a mortar only (sand asphalt) or of a mortar plus coarse aggregate that acts as an extender (gap
graded asphalt).
2
In practice, the following types of mix are the most suitable and will cover virtually all the needs of
this country:
3
8.4.7.4 Asphalt Concrete (Continuously Graded Asphalt)
It consists of a well graded mixture of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and filler, bound together
with straight-run bitumen. 4
Three types of asphalt concrete have been defined:
i. Asphalt Concrete Type I (High Stability) 5
This is a fairly stiff type of mix, designed to resist rutting and high stresses. It can be used as the
Wearing Course of a surfacing (Chart SU9) and the Binder Course (Chart 10) of a surfacing.
6
It may be placed in a thin layer (50 mm or less) on only rigid or semi-rigid pavements or in a thick
layer (minimum 75 mm) on a flexible pavement.
ii. Asphalt Concrete Type II (Flexible) 7
This is a flexible type of mix, designed to resist comparatively high flexural deformation.
It must be placed in a thin layer (maximum 50 mm). 8
The material requirements, traffic and use limitations and construction procedures concerning

Pavement Materials
asphalt concrete (Types I and II) are summarised in Chart SU8 and SU9.
The following points should be noted:
1. The desired rigidity (or flexibility) will be obtained by the proper combined choice of the
following factors:
a. Grade of bitumen.
b. Crushing Ratio of Coarse aggregate.
c. Angularity of sand.
d. Mix grading.
e. Amount of filler.
f. Amount of bitumen.
g. Filler bitumen ratio.
h. Voids in total mix.
2. The production of flexible asphalt concrete Type II (Flexible) will generally require the use of
an appreciable proportion of rounded sand and a comparatively high amount of bitumen.
3. It is important to bear in mind that the mix composition should strike a balance between the
requirements of stability and durability. In particular, it is not desirable to achieve Marshall
stabilities much higher than the minimum values given in Chart SU8, as this would produce a
lean mix prone to rapid hardening of the bitumen and fatigue cracking.
4. Because of the rapid ageing of bitumen generally observed in Kenya, all asphalt surfacing
(especially those made with hard bitumen grades) should be followed by application of surface
dressing. Overheating of the aggregate and of the bitumen must be avoided, as it causes
oxidisation of the bitumen.

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5. Asphalt Concrete Type I (High Stability), because of its low voids content, is very sensitive
to mix variations. Furthermore, as the bitumen film is thin, the mix is sometimes difficult to
1 work and compact. This type of mix requires very strict control of production, laying and
compaction.
2 6. Three classes of coarse aggregate have been identified on the basis of hardness and shape.
'Class a' is required for design traffic class TC50 and higher; 'Class b' for TC30, TC17, and
TC10; and 'Class c' for TC3 and TC1.
3 7. Asphalt Concrete Type I is suitable for all traffic, but for traffic classes TC10 and higher, it must
be placed on high strength bases (e.g. DBM, HBS9) to minimise premature cracking.
8. Asphalt Concrete Type II is suitable only for medium traffic class TC3 and low volume roads
4 (TC1 and lower). Especially on urban roads, where the traffic flow is composed of mostly light
vehicles. If the percentage of load carried by axles loaded to 13 tonnes and higher, expressed
as proportion of the total mass of all vehicles surveyed, is equal or greater than 10%, then AC
5 Type I should be used at these design traffic classes.
9. The absolute minimum thickness of asphalt concrete that can practically be laid by the current
Earthworks

types of pavers is 25-30 mm, provided the maximum size of aggregate does not exceed 10 mm.
iii. Superpave Asphalt
This is a fairly stiff type of mix, designed to resist rutting and high stresses.
It may be placed in a thin layer (50 mm or less) on only rigid or semi-rigid pavements or in a thick
layer (minimum 75 mm) on a flexible pavement.
The nominal maximum aggregate sizes (NMAS) are 37.5 mm, 25 mm, 19 mm, 12.5 mm and
9.5 mm. The physical properties of aggregates are as per AC I.
The Superpave definition of NMAS is one sieve size larger than the first sieve to retain more
than ten per cent of the aggregate. Gradation classification: the combined aggregate shall be
classified as coarse graded when it passes below the control sieve and all other gradations shall
be classified as fine graded. All gradations shall be plotted in power chart in accordance with
AASHTO M323
Mixes identified for compaction trials shall be manufactured to the laboratory design bitumen
content and two other bitumen contents of + 0.5 % and + 1.0 % additional bitumen. Cores will be
cut to determine the density of compacted material. The core will then be reheated to 145 ± 5 °C
in the appropriate mould and compacted to refusal in the vibrating hammer test. The cores cut
from the compaction trial must have a density equivalent to 95 % refusal density.

8.4.7.5 Gap Graded Asphalt

Gap graded asphalt, as the name implies, has a certain range of particle sizes missing from the total
aggregate grading. It generally consists of aggregate of a fairly uniform size blended with sand and
filler.
As there is very little stone-to-stone contact in the compacted mix, the stability is derived from the
cohesion of the sand-filler-bitumen mortar.
The material requirements, traffic and use limitations and construction procedures concerning gap
graded asphalt are summarised in Chart SU7.
The following points are to be noted:
1. The gap graded mixes specified in this Manual are designed for thin wearing courses.
(25−50 mm).
2. These mixes are impermeable, because of the comparatively high bitumen content and the good
distribution of the voids structure.

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3. The maximum stone content is limited to 55 % by weight. 'Low stone content' mixes (less than
40 %) are easy to work and compact and are very tolerant to mix variations, whereas 'High stone
content' mixes (more than 45 %) become sensitive to changes in bitumen content.
1
4. The main advantages of this type of mix are its flexibility, its fatigue resistance, and its durability,
due to the good distribution of the voids structure and the rounded shape of most of the fine 2
aggregate.
5. 60/70 grade bitumen should normally be used to provide sufficient cohesion. Nevertheless, the
use of 80/100 bitumen should not be precluded (bearing in mind the rapid hardening of bitumen 3
generally occurring in this country).
6. The gap graded mixes specified in Chart SU7 are suitable for light to medium traffic (TC10 and
lower) and thin wearing courses.
4
7. Gap graded asphalt may be suitable for heavier traffic or thicker layers, subject to its compliance
with more severe specifications, to be derived from further research. 5
8. As regards thicknesses, the absolute minimum is 25-30 mm. The maximum size of the coarse
aggregate and the stone content of the mix shall be adapted to suit the thickness of the layer.
6
8.4.7.6 Sand Asphalt
Sand asphalt consists of natural sand plus, in some cases, mineral filler and a small proportion of 7
crushed fine aggregate, bound with straight-run bitumen.
The material requirements, traffic and use limitations and construction procedures are summarized
in Chart SU6.
8

Pavement Materials
The following points should be noted:
1. Sand Asphalt is suitable for wearing course in a thin layer (max. 50 mm).
2. Because of its relative richness in binder and the good distribution of the voids structure, sand
asphalt is impermeable, flexible and has a good fatigue resistance.
3. As its resistance to rutting is not very high, sand asphalt is suitable only for light traffic (TC10 and
lower).

8.4.7.7 Stone Mastic Asphalt

Stone mastic asphalt (SMA) is a stone-to-stone asphalt structure made up of particles larger than
2 mm, held together by a stiff mastic (bitumen + fine aggregate + filler). This should be used only for
traffic levels TC50 or higher. Cellulose fibre must be added as a constituent of SMA with dose rate of
0.3 – 0.5 % by mass of the mixture. The binder for use in SMA should be strictly polymer modified.
SMA possesses a number of technical advantages over conventional asphalt concrete. These
include:
1. Enhanced skid resistance.
2. Low permeability (good for climate resilience).
3. Low noise levels.
4. Good rut-resistance if well-designed.
5. High resistance to reflection cracking.
Specifications are given in Chart SU11.

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8.4.7.8 Other Types of Mixes

1 It is thought that the above types of mix cover all the needs of this country.
The use of open-graded asphalt is not recommended as surfacing imperviousness is generally
2 necessary and due to its high air permeability; the mix performance would be adversely affected by
the rapid ageing of the binder.
Grouted stone (or penetration macadam) is not favoured either as it requires about 30% more
3 bitumen than the same thickness of plant mix, the construction is complicated, and the final surface is
always irregular.

4 8.4.8 Interlocking Cobblestone Paving

Cobble or dressed stone surfacing consists of a layer of roughly rectangular to cubical dressed
5 stone laid on a bed of sand or fine aggregate, within mortared stone or concrete edge restraints.
The thickness of the sand bedding layer shall not be less than 25 mm nor more than 50 mm. The
individual stones should have at least one face that is fairly smooth, to be the upper or surface face
6 when placed. Each stone is adjusted with a small (mason’s) hammer and then tapped into position
to the level of the surrounding stones. Sand or fine aggregate is brushed into the spaces between
the stones and the layer then compacted with a non-vibratory roller. Cobble stones are generally 100
7 mm thick. These options are suited to homogeneous rock types that have inherent orthogonal stress
patterns (such as granite), which allow for easy break of the fresh rock into the required shapes by
labour-based means.
8 Cobble stones may be extracted from trachyte, basalt, granite, or hard sandstone rock. Suitable stone
must meet minimal standards with regards to water absorption, crushing strength and specific gravity.
Pavement Materials

Material for the sand bed or the laying course and joint filler should be naturally occurring clean sand
or crushed rock fines, free from clay, lumps, or other deleterious material, with a grading curve falling
within the envelopes.
Detailed specifications of the cobblestone materials, laying course, and joint filler material are
provided in Chart PB1.
For adequate performance of cobblestones, it is essential that they are laid on a suitable base
material (as presented in the standard pavement structures in RDM 3.4).

8.4.9 Concrete Block Paving

Block paving is the term applied to flexible surfacing, consisting of precast interlocking concrete
paving blocks laid on a laying course. The laying course is the layer of material on which paving
blocks are bedded. A firm edge support is required to prevent ravelling at the edge of the surface.
Supplementary drainage measures are necessary to prevent saturation of the underlying roadbed
through the ingress of water.
Concrete block surfaces are not suitable for sections where the speed of heavy vehicles exceeds 60
km/h. They are most suitable for heavy vehicle parking areas and pedestrian walkways.
Interlocking of the blocks improves strength and durability characteristics to resist the punching
loads and horizontal shear loads caused by the manoeuvring of heavy goods vehicles. Interlocking
concrete pavement blocks are resistant to oil spillages and may be used in a variety of heavily
stressed locations, including intersections, weigh bridges, customs and toll barriers, service station
forecourts, container and bus terminals, ports, and bulk cargo handling areas.
In order to ensure durability, interlocking blocks in heavily stressed locations must be of consistently
high quality and dimensional accuracy, implying mass production under factory conditions. Precast
concrete blocks are manufactured in compliance with KS 827 and are graded in three strength
categories: heavy duty, medium duty, and light duty.

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Material for the sand bed or the laying course and joint filler should be naturally occurring clean sand
or crushed rock fines, free from clay, lumps, or other deleterious material, with a grading curve falling
within the envelopes.
1
Detailed specifications of the paving blocks, laying course and joint filler material are provided in
Chart PB2. 2
8.4.10 Choice of Surfacing
3
The choice of a type of surfacing will be governed by the structural requirements, road safety
requirements, materials availability, and cost considerations.
For heavy and very heavy traffic (Classes TC17-TC150), Asphalt Concrete Type I will normally be 4
required. For medium traffic (TC10), Asphalt Concrete Type I will normally be required. A surface
dressing must be applied on top of the AC.
5
For light and medium traffic (TC3 and lower), surface dressing should normally be chosen, owing to
its low cost and good performance (flexibility, imperviousness, and good skid resistance). Asphalt
Concrete Type II should also be considered, especially in urban environments. 6
It is only where no suitable stone for surface dressing is available that the use of Asphalt Concrete
Type II, gap graded asphalt or sand asphalt should be considered.
7
8.5 Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP)
8.5.1 Current Practice in Kenya 8
It is economically viable, and environmentally desirable, to reclaim worn-out asphalt and granular

Pavement Materials
pavements, re-process, and re-use them in the rehabilitated road.
The stockpiling of RAP prior to re-processing is a critical part of the procedure. It is important that
the variability of the RAP is well-controlled. Stockpiled RAP tends to agglomerate, and a crust forms,
depending on the hardness of the bitumen and the ambient temperature. To offset this tendency, it
has been found that the larger the stockpile the better. RAP readily absorbs moisture, and it is best
stored under roofing in an open-sided building.

8.5.2 RAP in Improved Subgrade Layers

An improved subgrade would only be used in the reconstruction of a road pavement where (in
the unlikely event) the in-situ subgrade CBR is <5 %. The milled asphalt material should meet the
grading specification in Table 8.1. The capping layer can consist of 100 % of RAP providing the
bitumen content is <10 %. The recycled material can be laid to a maximum thickness of 200 mm
providing the required density is obtained.

Table 8.1 Grading for RAP for Use in Improved Subgrades

BS Sieve Size (mm) % Passing Sieve Size
75 65 - 100
37.5 45 - 100
10 15 - 60
5 10 - 15
0.6 0 - 25
0.063 0 - 12
0.6 0 - 25
0.063 0 - 12

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8.5.3 RAP in Improved Subgrade Layers

1 The quality of the aggregate in the RAP should at least meet the requirements for this layer. Fresh
aggregate can be added to modify the grading and the compacted layer of the blended material
should be acceptable providing the bitumen is hard enough not to hinder compaction and enable
2 the required moisture content, which is between the optimum moisture content and -2 % of optimum
moisture content achieved with the BS Vibrating Hammer test, BS 1377, Part 4, 1990 to be met. This
is also subject to a Trafficking Trial, whereby the compacted RAP is laid on a prepared trial area
3 constructed to a specified standard and then trafficked with a loaded truck until 1000 ESA have been
applied. The mean deformation in the wheel paths must be <30mm for the material to be acceptable.

4 8.6 Asphalt Mix Design

8.6.1 Aggregate Blending by Direct Proportioning
5 Often, multiple stockpiles of aggregate are blended to meet the final specified requirements. A
washed sieve analysis must be performed on every aggregate stockpile in order to calculate the final
aggregate blend in the mixture to be designed.
6 Calculating a blended gradation, assuming all aggregate fractions have a similar Bulk Specific Gravity
(Gsb):

7 P = (A × a) + (B × b) + (C × c) + . . .
Where,
P = the blended percent passing for a given sieve
8
A,B,C, = the percent passing a sieve for an individual stockpile
Pavement Materials

a,b,c, = proportion of stockpile to be added in the blend, where total = 1.00.

The above-mentioned gradation and blending operations result in an aggregate size distribution
based on percentage of mass. Volumetric properties such as air voids and VMA are directly impacted
by the amount and size of aggregate particles and the resulting packing characteristics in the final
mixture. However, when the specific gravities of the individual aggregates differ or vary significantly
(by 0.20 or more), the blended gradation, based on the mass of the aggregates, may have different
volumetric characteristics when compared to an equivalent gradation of materials having similar
specific gravities. For such cases, prior experience with similar aggregates, and a trial-and-error
approach should be used.

8.6.2 The Bailey Method of Aggregate Blending

The Bailey Method was developed to prevent rutting while also maintaining the durability of mixtures,
and to better understand the mechanics of aggregate packing and its contribution to the compressive
strength and stability of asphalt pavements. It is applicable to coarse-graded, fine-graded and SMA
mixtures. The method can help explain why some Superpave mixes are difficult to compact. It also
provides insight as to why small gradation changes, which often occur during production and are
within allowable tolerance can cause significant changes to mixture volumetric properties and/or
field compactibility.
The Bailey Method is based on the principle that maximum compressive strength of an asphalt mix
is obtained when there is stone-to-stone contact between as many aggregate particles as possible.
The Bailey Method provides a good alternative for the design of rut-resistant mixes capable of passing
wheel tracking tests and refusal density. The approach also serves as a useful aid when adjusting at
the plant to improve air voids, VMA and the overall workability of the mix.
Further details can be found in Appendix C.

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8.6.3 Asphalt Concrete Mix Design Process

Ideally the design of an AC mix involves the following iterative process: 1
i. Establish candidate mixes with satisfactory volumetric composition.
ii. Testing to confirm that the compacted mix has the required properties for the expected traffic; 2
and, if necessary.
iii. Adjust the mix composition and re-test until the design requirements are satisfied.
3
iv. All asphalt mixes shall be subjected to water sensitivity tests by way of indirect tensile strength
tests (ratio of wet to dry ≥ 0.8)
Mix design for asphalt materials using the Marshall Method and the Superpave Mix Design Method 4
shall be based on the recommendations given in the Asphalt Institute Manual Series, MS-2.
The mix design of asphalt shall be undertaken using the following methods (Table 8.2). 5
Table 8.2 Mix Design Methods for Design Traffic Classes
Design
6
Mix Design Method Additional Notes
Traffic Class

Up to TC3 Marshall at 75 blows.

Special consideration for 7
severe sites.
Marshall and Vibrating Hammer. The mix design may
TC10 and TC50
make use of the Superpave aggregate gradation. The
Bailey method (described in the following section) may
Consider the use of
polymer-modified binders.
8
also be used for blending the aggregates.

Pavement Materials
Performance design is recommended at this level.
In lieu of that then: Marshall + Vibrating Hammer+
Consider the use of
TC80 and Gyratory compaction with Wheel Tracking, Roller slab
polymer-modified binders
TC150+ compaction with Wheel Tracking, or Superpave. In
or Rigid Pavements.
addition, flexural beam fatigue tests, and repeat load
creep tests may be requested by the design engineer

Notes: Please see Appendix B, C, D, and E for further guidance.

Severe sites
These are sites or sections where any of the combination of the following can occur:
1. Slow-moving commercial vehicles.
2. Steep gradients (both uphill and downhill) of slope greater than 6 %.
3. Where heavy vehicles are stationary e.g., at junctions, police check points, weighbridges, etc.
4. Roundabouts and tight curves.
Without sufficient knowledge of the degree of secondary compaction that will occur on severe sites
any selection of a level of Marshall compaction becomes arbitrary. In comparison, compaction to
refusal provides a ‘reference density’ because the aggregate structure cannot be compacted any
further. Particle size distributions can, therefore, be selected to give VMA that will accommodate
sufficient bitumen to ensure good workability during construction and retain a minimum of 3 per cent
VIM at refusal density. However, it is important that a compromise is reached between high VMA to
accommodate enough bitumen to make the mix workable and sufficient fines to provide a strong mix.
It is also important that the coarse aggregate is strong enough to withstand vibratory compaction
without significant breakdown of the particles.

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Dense wearing course mixes with low VMA will not be suitable for this type of surfacing because the
design bitumen content will be too low for the mix to be workable. Suitable particle size distributions
1 will be of the binder course type and the particle size distribution will probably pass beneath the
relevant Superpave restricted zone (see Asphalt Institute MS-2). A Marshall design should be carried
out on the selected mix but with no aggregate larger than 25 mm.
2
If the Marshall requirements are satisfied then coarse aggregate between 25 mm and 37.5 mm or 25
mm and 28 mm, depending upon the particle size distribution selected, may be included in the final
3 mix if desired. This will provide a better balance between maximum particle size and the thickness
of the layer to be constructed. The additional coarse aggregate should be from the same source as
the aggregate used in the Marshall design.
4 It is recommended that AC designed to refusal density is laid to a compacted thickness of 2.5 to 4
times the maximum aggregate particle size to obtain satisfactory workability. The layer thickness
can, therefore, range from 50 mm, for 0-20mm AC or 19mm NMS for Superpave grading, to more
5 than 100 mm.
Compaction to refusal could be achieved in the laboratory by applying several hundred blows of the
6 Marshall hammer to each face of the test briquettes but this is not practical. The preferred method is
to use an electric vibrating hammer which is more representative of field compaction and is a much
quicker operation. The test method is based on the Percentage Refusal Density (PRD) test (BSI,
7 1989) (Appendix E) which is also incorporated into a CEN Standard, prEN 12697-32).
The test moulds for this method are large enough to allow the design of mixes containing aggregate
particles larger than 25 mm. The apparatus is easily transportable and can be used to compact hot
8 mix samples anywhere on site provided a suitable power source is available.
Pavement Materials

The design bitumen content is determined by compacting samples to refusal using the method
described in Appendix B. The thickness of the compacted samples should be approximately the
same as the compacted layer to be laid on the road. Samples should be made at the bitumen content
which gives 6 per cent VIM in the Marshall test and at decreasing increments of 0.5 per cent until the
bitumen content which gives the 3 per cent VIM at refusal density can be identified.
The mix must be workable at the design bitumen content. If necessary, the particle size distribution
must be adjusted until VMA is high enough to accommodate sufficient bitumen. A minimum calculated
bitumen film thickness of 7 to 8 microns has been found to be a good indicator of a workable mix.
However, the overriding requirement is that at refusal density the VIM is 3 per cent. Pre-construction
compaction trials are essential to the selection of the final mix design (see Appendix B).
A flow chart summarising the mix design procedures are as shown in Figure 8.1 (Marshall),
Figure 8.2 (Superpave) and Figure 8.3 (performance testing). This approach is also applicable to the
design of fine-grained mixes (e.g., sand asphalt).

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Figure 8.1 Mix Design procedure for Dense-graded Mixes (AC, DBM) by Marshall Method
1
START Select aggregate and binder type

2
Select target grading and estimated optimum binder
content. Knowledge from prior projects or available
equations could be used. 3

Prepare and condition mix batches at the estimated

optimum binder content, and at two binder contents
4
below and two binder contents above. The interval
between the binder contents should be 0.5 %.
5
Undertake Marshall compaction at the appropriate
compaction level (number of blows). 6

Determine air voids, VMA, VFB, VFB and binder film 7

index, Marshall stability, and flow.
NO

8
Plot air voids, VMA, VFB, bulk density, Marshall stability, Specification

Pavement Materials
and flow against binder content. limits fulfilled?

YES
Select the optimum binder content that is within all
specifications. The optimum value should allow some
tolerances for each specification the limit.

Modified For Modified Marshall undertake

YES
marshall required? refusal density testing and
check the air voids content.

NO

Water sensitivity
END
(indirect tensile test)

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Figure 8.2 Mix Design Procedure for Dense-graded Mixes (AC, DBM) by Superpave Method
1
START Select aggregate and binder type

2
Select target grading and estimated optimum binder
content. Knowledge from prior projects or available
3 equations could be used.

4 Prepare and condition mix batches at the estimated

optimum binder content, and at two binder contents
below and two binder contents above. The interval
between the binder contents should be 0.5%.
5
Undertake gyratory compaction at the appropriate
6 compaction level (Nini, Ndes, and Nmax). See Appendix E.

7 Determine where required air voids, VMA, VFB, VFB

and binder film index.

8
Plot air voids, VMA, VFB, and bulk density against
Pavement Materials

binder content.

Add specification limits on the plots.

Select the optimum binder content that is within all

specifications. The optimum value should allow some
tolerances for each specification the limit.

Check densities and air voids at Nini, Ndes, and

Nmax for the optimum binder content if Superpave
design was used.

Or go to Performance Testing
END
Figure 8.3

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Figure 8.3 Procedure for Performance Testing

1
START Select aggregate and binder type

2
Optional tests, selected based on Traffic levels
as indicated in Table 8.2.
3
Water sensitivity (indirect tensile test).
Modify mix composition 4
– See Figure 8.2
Deformation resistance (wheel tracking test).
5

Fatigue resistance testing

(Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus)
6

Does the mix meet specification limits NO

7
or performance targets?

YES 8

Pavement Materials
END

8.6.4 Bitumen Stabilised Materials Mix Design Process

The mix design procedure consists of:
1. Preliminary Tests:
These include standard laboratory tests to determine the grading curve, moisture, density
relationships and Atterberg limits. Where the results indicate that some form of pre-treatment is
required, additional tests must be undertaken after such pre-treatment to ensure that the desired
results are achieved.
2. Level 1 Mix Design:
Level 1 starts with the preparation of samples that will be used to manufacture the specimens
required for all levels of mix design testing. 100 mm diameter specimens (Marshall briquette) are
compacted and cured for Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) testing. Test results are used to identify
the preferred bitumen stabilising agent, determine the optimum bitumen content and to identify
the need for filler, and, where required, the type and content of filler.
Level 1 mix design is sufficient for lightly trafficked pavements, which will carry less than 3 MCESA
(BSM50 and BSM100) - see materials Charts BM1 and BM2.
3. Level 2 Mix Design:
This level uses 150 mm diameter by 127 mm high specimens (Proctor specimens) manufactured
using vibratory compaction, cured at the equilibrium moisture content, and tested for Indirect
Tensile Strength to optimise the required bitumen content.
This level is recommended for roads carrying more than 3 MCESA (BSM100).

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4. Level 3 Mix Design:

1 This level uses triaxial testing on 150 mm diameter by 300 mm high specimens for a higher level
of confidence.
This step is recommended for design traffic exceeding 10 MCESA (BSM175).
2 If a Level 3 mix design is performed, it is not necessary to also do a Level 2 mix design.
BSM3 based on Level 1 mix design with adjusted material specifications is recommended for
3 LVSR base under this Manual.
The construction of BSMs includes in-situ recycling with recyclers, conventional construction
equipment, and in plant treatment. While Foamed Bitumen Stabilised Material (FBSM) requires
4 specialised plant to produce, alternatively with the availability of bitumen emulsion production plant,
Bitumen Emulsion Stabilised Material (BSM) can be produced using conventional equipment. BSM50
using bitumen emulsion is therefore recommended for the LVSR under this Manual.
5
The details of specifications for BSM50 are given in Chart BM1. The mix design procedures shall be
provided in the specifications.
6 Bitumen emulsion grade A4-60 (anionic grade emulsion of 60 % bitumen content) is the recommended
binder for the production of BSM, or if the BSM is to be made using GCS or highly granular material,
then K3-60 (cationic grade emulsion of 60 % bitumen content) should be used. Other bituminous
7 binders may also be used provided they can be demonstrated to be workable during construction. The
minimum residual binder content acceptable shall not be less than 1.0% by mass. It must be noted
that while the bitumen is intended to only coat the fines within the material to facilitate dispersion of
8 the bitumen, the treated material still acts as a granular material.
Natural materials with a PI above 12 % should be mechanically stabilised using suitable materials
Pavement Materials

such as sand, quarry dust or gravel before consideration for pre-treatment with lime, prior to bitumen
emulsion stabilisation.
The blended material shall be tested and classified on the basis of Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS).
Test specimens of 100 mm diameter are cured until they reach a constant (dry) mass, typically with
moisture contents of less than 0.5 %. Testing follows 7 days of curing at 40 ºC, without sealing
the specimens to determine the ITSdry value. Half the specimens are then soaked for 7 days
before testing to determine the ITSwet value. This procedure is aimed at evaluating the moisture
susceptibility of the BSM.
A flow chart summarising the mix design procedure is as shown in Figure 8.4.

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Figure 8.4 Mix Design Procedure for BSM

1
START

2
Determine mix requirements (grading,
plasticity, fines content, target density, etc).
3
Sampling of materials and blending to Modify mix
meet grading requirements. composition.
4
Trial mixing and compliance testing.
NO 5
Is the
Active filler selection (ITS testing on
no filler, lime, cement, or other).
material suitable?
6

Determination of optimum binder YES

7
content by ITS testing.

8
END

Pavement Materials
8.6.5 EME (High Modulus Asphalt) Mix Design Process
The design process is as follows:
1. Select appropriate mix components in terms of aggregate and binder.
2. A suitable grading is developed from the different aggregate fractions.
3. The binder content is determined based on a minimum richness modulus, similar to the film
thickness conventionally used in SA.
4. Using a trial mix design, specimens are compacted in a gyratory compactor. A maximum allowable
air void content after a set number of gyrations has to be met. This is the first of the performance
criteria, aimed at creating a workable mix.
5. Once workability criteria have been met specimens are subjected to a durability test.
6. Following satisfactory durability, the following structural performance criteria are assessed:
a. Minimum dynamic modulus.
b. Minimum level of resistance to permanent deformation.
c. Minimum fatigue life.
Specifications are given in Chart BB2.
A flow chart summarising the mix design procedure is as shown in Figure 8.5.

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Figure 8.5 Mix Design Procedure for EME (High Modulus Asphalt)
1
START

Assess
2 Select aggregate and binder. workability criteria by NO

gyratory compaction at
45 gyrations.
3 Formulate aggregate blends to meet
the grading requirements. YES

Water
4 sensitivity NO
Select binder contents based on the
richness modulus. (indirect tensile
test).
5
YES

6 Fatigue resistance testing YES

Deformation NO
resistance (wheel
(Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus).
tracking test).
7
END

8
8.6.6 Stone Mastic Asphalt Design Process
Pavement Materials

A critical aspect of SMA is to form a mastic (bitumen + fine aggregate + filler) that is voidless prior
to compaction, but in the presence of larger stone particles, the compacted air voids should be
3 % – 5 %.
The design of SMA consists of 3 main aspects:
1. Design of the stone skeleton.
2. Design of the mastic.
3. Design of the mix.
Design of the Stone Skeleton
1. The grading selected for a 14 mm nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) should have a pronounce
gap between 0.5 and 5 mm.
2. Determination of the volume of air in between the coarse aggregate particles when subjected to dry
rodding in accordance with AASHTO T19.
Design of the Mastic
1. The fine aggregate should be selected such that all particles should be between 0.075 mm and 2 mm.
2. Filler of less than 0.075 mm should be used.
3. The ratio of aggregate to filler should be 4:1 or higher by mass.
Design of the Mix
1. For a selected fine aggregate: filler ratio and bitumen content, the proportion of coarse aggregate
(2-14 mm) is varied e.g. 60 %, 75 %, and 80 %.
2. The overall voids of the compacted mix (Vibratory Hammer or Marshall). The target is between
3 % − 5 %.
3. A check to ensure that the voids (comprising the mastic + air) in between the coarse aggregates after
compaction of the mix is less than rodded voids determined by AASHTO T19 earlier in the design process.

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A flow chart summarising the mix design procedure is as shown in Figure 8.6. This approach is also
applicable to the design of other variations of gap-graded mixes (e.g., SMA without fibre). Specifications
are given in Chart SU11.
1

Figure 8.6 Mix Design Procedure for Stone Mastic Asphalt 2

START Select aggregate and binder.
3
Select target grading and estimated optimum binder
content. Knowledge from prior projects or available 4
equations could be used. Use the procedure Bailey
blending procedure to ensure 22% voids exist in the blend.

5
Prepare and condition mix batches at the estimated
optimum binder content, and at two binder contents below
and two binder contents above. The interval between the 6
binder contents should be 0.5%. Cellulose fibre (0.3 % by
mass of mixture) should be added to the mix.
7
Undertake Marshall compaction at the appropriate
compaction level (number of blows). 8

Pavement Materials
Determine air voids, VMA, VFB, VFB and binder film
index, Marshall stability, and flow.

Plot air voids, VMA, VFB, bulk density, Marshall stability,

and flow against binder content. NO

Mix within
Add specification limits on the plots. specification
limits?

Select the optimum binder content that is within all YES

specifications. The optimum value should allow some
tolerances for each specification the limit.

END

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8.7 Surface Dressing Design

1 The design of surface dressing involves the following steps:
1. Estimate the road surface temperature from Figure 8.7.
2 2. Select the appropriate bitumen grade from Figure 8.8.
3. Determine the Average Least Dimension (A.L.D.) of the chippings.

3 4. The determination of the chipping application rates is based on the Average Least Dimension
(A.L.D.) of the chippings. It is recommended that the A.L.D. be determined by direct measurements
rather than by estimating it from the median size and the Flakiness Index of the chippings. The
application rate of binder is based on the chipping application rate and read-off from a chart
4 (Figure 8.9).
5. Using the chippings application rate, determine the residual binder application rate from the
5 multipliers in Figure 8.9.
The chippings spread rates obtained from Figure 8.7 strictly apply to the lower seal(s) of multiple
surface dressings. For single surface dressings or the top seals of multiple surface dressings these
6 rates should normally be increased by about 10 %, to achieve a good coverage.
As regards the application of emulsion, K1-70 would run off the road if its rate exceeded about
7 1.2 l/m2 on a smooth primed base and 1.5 l/m2 on a chipping-seal. Consequently, with emulsion, the
application rates should be calculated as follows:
a. Determine the total amount of residual bitumen required.
8
b. Calculate the total amount of emulsion required.
Pavement Materials

c. Split this amount into 2 sprays for single surface dressing and 3 sprays for double surface
dressing, so that no run-off will occur, and the upper spray rate is minimsed. (Because of its low
viscosity, emulsion flows down and fills the voids between chippings).

Figure 8.7 Road Temperature from Air Temperature

50
10 MC 3000 application limits 50
48
46
44 K1-70 No limits
70
42 150/200 application limit
44
40 Temperatures in some
50
Kenyan Towns
80
38 80/100 application limit
Max Min
36 Mombasa 32 20
34 Voi 33 17
32 Moyale 31 15
Air temperature °C

30 Garissa 36 21
Lodwar 36 22
28
Magadi 37 22
26
Eldoret 28 9
24 Nakuru 29 9
22 Nairobi 27 12
20 Manyuki 26 7
18 Narok 27 7
16 Kisumu 31 15

14
18 Cool wet areas 45
12
10 Intermediate climate
8
28 Hot and dry areas 55
6
4
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Road temperature

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Figure 8.8 Viscosity-road Temperature Relationship

1
107
8
6
4 2
2
106
8
3
6
4

2
Light 4
traffic
105
8 Permissible Heavy 5
6 range traffic
4
6
2
Viscosity (cSt)

80
/1
00
104 18
0/ Pe 7
8 20 n
MC3000 40 0
6
0/ Pe
50 n
4 0 8
Pe
n

Pavement Materials
2
MC800

103
8
6
Coated chippings reduce MC250
4 lower temperature limit
by about 10°C

MC75

100
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Surface temperature (ºC)

Too fluid (drainage and whip-off) Too stiff (poor wetting)

Note: For precoated chippings, surface temperature should be shifted by 10 C lower before selecting a suitable bitumen grade.

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Figure 8.9 Chipping Spread Rate and Bitumen Rate Multipliers

1
14

2 13

als
se
al s
12

le
se

tip
Chipping spread (0.001m3/m2)

ul
3

m
ipl

of
ult
11

s
fm

al
se
lo

nt
ea

ue
10
4

ts

q
se
s
fir

b
su
d
an
9

nd
als

la
a
se

se
5
le

nd
ng

co
Si

Se
7

6 6

5
7
4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
8 Average least dimension (mm)
3.0
Pavement Materials

2.5
Total residual bitument spray rate (l/m2)

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30
Total chipping spread rate (0.0001m /m ) 3 2

Traffic v.p.d Multiplier Climate Multiplier Surface Texture Multiplier Chippings Multiplier
0 − 100 1.13 N. European 1.10 Primed base 1.00 Round/dusty 1.05

100 − 500 1.00 Tropical 1.06 V. lean bituminous 0.95 Cubical 1.00

500 − 1000 0.96 Temperate 1.03 Lean bituminous 0.85 Flaky (Fl<35) 0.95

1000 − 2000 0.90 Semi-Arid 1.00 Average bituminous 0.80 precoated 0.95

> 2000 0.85 Arid 0.95 V. rich bituminous 0.75

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8.8 Concrete
The Constituents of the concrete mix shall not contain harmful ingredients in such quantities as may 1
be detrimental to the durability of the concrete or cause corrosion of the reinforcement and shall be
suitable for the intended use in concrete.
2
Where possible locally available materials should be used for economic and environmental benefits.
This will also reduce damage to the road network.
3
8.8.1 More Environmentally Friendly Concrete (Geopolymer Concrete)
Designers should be aware that the production of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) involves large
CO2 emissions, which can contribute to global warming. 4
More environmentally friendly concretes are available such as Geopolymer concrete, also known as
Earth friendly concrete (EFC), as well as conventional cements and concretes. This concrete can 5
reduce CO2 emissions by 80 % compared to Portland cement. Other benefits include high flexural
strength, low shrinkage and good workability making it very suitable for use as a pavement concrete.
Instead of ordinary Portland cement, it contains a combination of by-products from industrial processes
6
such as water purification, waste incineration and steel production, along with quarry dust, agricultural
waste, and recycled aggregates. The formation of geopolymers is based on aluminosilicate, which
hardens when an alkaline activator is added (usually a combination of sodium silicate solution (water 7
glass) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH)).
The use of geopolymer concrete is still in the development stage worldwide, although it has been 8
rapidly advancing in Europe (not UK) and Australia.

Pavement Materials
8.8.2 Cement
Cement to be used for a road pavement shall comply with KS EAS 18-1 (Composition, specification
& conformity criteria for common cements) and should be tested in accordance with KS EAS 148-1
(Cement-Test methods).
They comprise finely ground powder of hydraulic binders or mixtures of hydraulic binders and non-
hydraulic binders. A hydraulic binder is a powder that reacts with water by hydration to form pastes
of insoluble hydrates which sets and hardens with time even under water.
Portland cement is the most common hydraulic binder and is formed by grinding Portland cement
clinker which is manufactured as follows:
a. Crushing and grinding of raw material consisting of calcareous material such limestone, required
provide lime (CaO), which makes approximately 75-85% of the raw material mix and shale, clays,
iron ore, bauxite and sand which provide the oxides of silica, aluminium and iron.
b. Blending the materials in correct proportions.
c. Burning the mix in a kiln to produce ‘clinker’.
d. Grinding the clinker (with approximately 5 % gypsum to control the setting time) to form a fine
powder.
Cement is usually mixed with coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and water (and sometimes other
additives) to form concrete.
As well as the basic Portland cement (known as CEM I), there are many different types of cement,
based on combinations of CEM I and other hydraulic binders (e.g. ground granulated blast furnace
slag, ggbs), and pozzolanic cements (e.g. fly ash, fa).

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There are five main cement types:

1 1. CEM I = Portland cement
2. CEM II = Portland composite cement

2 3. CEM III = Blast furnace cement

4. CEM IV = Pozzolanic cement
5. CEM V = Composite cement
3
The most common types of combinations of these cements are given in Table 8.3.
For concrete pavements, the following cement types are usually used. The general term ‘cement’ in
4 this Manual means any of the materials in (i) or the combinations in (ii) below:
i. Cements (Complying with KS EAS 18-1):
5 a. Portland cement CEM I
b. Portland-slag cement CEM II/A-S and CEM II/B-S
6 c. Blastfurnace cement CEM III/A, III/B and III/C
d. Portland-fly ash cement CEM II/A-V and CEM II/B-V
7 e. Pozzolanic cement CEM IV/A
ii. Combinations (Complying with KS EAS 18-1, BS EN 15167-1, -2, BS EN 450-1,-2).
8 a. Portland cement CEM I with ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) (as specified in BS
EN 15167-1 and BS EN 15167-2).
Pavement Materials

b. Portland cement CEM I with fly ash (fa) for use as a cementitious component in structural
concrete (BS EN 450-1 and BS EN 450-2).
c. Portland cement CEM I with pozzolanic additive (BS 6610).
Blended cements can have properties such as high early strength cement and limited shrinkage
cement.
In each cubic metre of fully compacted concrete the cement content shall be in accordance with
Table 8.4.

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 Pavement Materials
1

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(c) In Portland composite cements CEMII/A-M and CEM II/B-M, in Pozzolanic cements CEM IV/A and IV/B and in composite cements
Main Constituents % by mass (a)
Main Pozzolana Fly Ash Minor
Notation of 27 Types of Common Blast Silica Burnt additional
Cement Clinker Natural Limestone
Cements Furnace fume Natural Siliceous Calcareous Shale constituent
Type Calcined % by mass)
K S D(b) P q V W T L LL
CEM I Portland cement CEM I 95-100 - - - - - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/A-S 80-94 6-20 - - - - - - - - 0-5
Portland slag cement

CEM V/A and V/B the main constituents other than clinker shall be declared by designation of the cement.
CEM II/B-S 65-79 21-35 - - - - - - - 0-5

Notes: (a) Values in the table refer to the sum of the main and minor constituents (percentage by mass).
Portland silica fume
CEM II/A-D 90-94 - 6-10 - - - - - - - 0-5
cementt
CEM II/A-P 80-94 - - 6-20 - - - - - - 0-5
Portland pozzolana CEM II/B-P 65-79 - - 21-35 - - - - - - 0-5
cement CEM II/A-Q 80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-Q 65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - - 0-5
CEM II/A-V 80-94 - - - - 6-20 - - - - 0-5
Portland fly ash CEM II/B-V 65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - 0-5
CEM II cement CEM II/A-W 80-94 - - - - - 6-20 - - - 0-5
CEM II/B-W 65-79 - - - - - 21-35 - - - 0-5
Road Design Manual | Volume 3: Materials & Pavement Design For New Roads

Portland burnt shale CEM II/A-T 80-94 - - - - - - 6-20 - - 0-5

cement CEM II/B-T 65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 - - 0-5
CEM II/A-L 80-94 - - - - - - - 6-20 - 0-5

(b) The proportion of silica fume is limited to 10 %.

Portland limestone CEM II/B-L 65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 - 0-5
cement CEM II/A-LL 80-94 - - - - - - - - 6-20 0-5
Table 8.3 Common Types of Cement

CEM II/B-LL 65-79 - - - - - - - - 21-35 0-5

Portland composite CEM II/A-M 80-88 12-20 0-5
cement (c) CEM II/B-M 65-79 21-35 0-5
CEM III/A 35-64 36-65 - - - - - - - - 0-5
CEM III Blastfurnace cement CEM III/B 20-34 66-80 - - - - - - - - 0-5
CEM III/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - - - - 0-5
CEM IV/A 65-89 - 11-35 - - - 0-5
CEM IV Pozzolanic cement (c)
CEM IV/B 45-64 - 36-55 - - - 0-5
CEM V/A 40-64 18-30 - 18-30 - - - - 0-5
CEM V Composite cement (c)
CEM V/B 20-38 31-49 - 31-49 - - - - 0-5
 Road Design Manual | Volume 3: Materials & Pavement Design For New Roads

Table 8.4 Minimum Cement (or Combination) for 40 mm Max Aggregate

1 C32/40 C32/40
Class BS 8500-1 In slabs over- In at least
C40/50 C25/30 C16/20 C12/15 C8/10 C6/8
Cement laid by > 30 mm top 50 mm
2 asphalt of slabs
Minimum Portland
Cement CEM1 (KS BS8500 320 320 280 180 160 130 120
3 EAS 18-1) (kg/m3)
Minimum other
cements or
combinations − 340 340 300 180 160 130 120
4 permitted in (i) &
(ii) above (kg/m3)
Mixtures pre-blended or mixed on site
5 Maximum
proportion of 50 50 35 65 65 65 65 65
ggbs (%)
6 Max/Min.
proportions of fly 35/15 35/15 25/15 35/15 35/15 50/0 50/0 50/0
ash (%)
7 Minimum CEM1
220 220 255 200 160 − − −
content (kg/m3)
ggbs = granulated blast furnace slag, fa = fly ash, pfa = pulverised fly ash
8 Note: For 20 mm maximum size aggregate add 20 kg/m3, and for <20mm maximum size add 40 kg/m3.

Portland limestone cement should not be used in the top 50 mm of the road surface, as this would
Pavement Materials

increase the fine calcium carbonate content and lead to slipperiness. Microsilica may be used with
CEM I to obtain high early strength concrete.
For durability it is necessary to have a water/cement content ratio below 0.45 for pavement surface
slabs. The water/cement ratio is defined as the ratio of free water to total cementitious content of the
concrete.
High early strength cements, high cement content and a low water/cement ratios may be used when
there is a need to open a section of concrete pavement to traffic early. Prescribed concretes of fixed
proportions may be used in rapid construction for high early strength concrete. The proportions of
ingredients to be used should be decided by trial concrete mixes which when tested provide the
quality, consistence and strength development required for the particular application.
Both CEM I /fa and CEM I /ggbs concrete have a long-term increase in strength greater than CEM
I concrete for the same 28-day strength and provide greater durability and resistance to chemical
attack. If fa is included in the concrete, it permits lower water/cement ratios for a required consistence,
so providing denser concrete of lower permeability and greater durability.

8.8.3 Coarse Aggregate

Aggregates shall comply with KS EAS 131 (Concrete - Part 1: Specification, performance, production
and conformity.), KS 95 (Specification for natural aggregates for use in concrete), and KS 1238 Parts
1-20 (Methods of tests for aggregates).
The maximum aggregate size should not exceed one third (1/3) of the slab thickness. The maximum
aggregate size allowed is 40 mm (less for RCC), but the Contractor’s choice of size will depend on
construction methods, and his ability to achieve surface regularity, properly constructed joints, and
correct alignment of dowels.

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Larger aggregate provides more stable concrete in the lower layer, but smaller aggregate (max.
20 mm) is preferable in the top course for forming joints and achieving a good finish. Some engineers
choose aggregates to be less than 20 mm to minimise larger aggregate sinking to the bottom of the
1
mix when being spread and compacted (which can weaken the concrete).
For JRC or CRCB/CRCP pavements the maximum aggregate size shall not exceed on third (1/3) of 2
the spacing between longitudinal steel bars. If the spacing is less than 90 mm, the maximum size of
coarse aggregate (D) shall not exceed 20 mm.
The Contractor shall submit the declaration of performance for each aggregate to the Overseeing
3
Organisation prior to the incorporation of the aggregate into the works. The declaration of performance
shall demonstrate that the aggregate meets the specification requirements.
4
The properties of aggregates suitable for use in a concrete mix vary according to:
a. The natural properties of the material e.g., toughness, durability, soundness, density, water
absorption/porosity, surface microtexture and chemical properties e.g., alkali reactivity and
5
thermal expansion.
b. The properties that can be controlled e.g., shape, size, distribution, and cleanliness. 6
There are numerous tests for the suitability of aggregates in concrete mixes which include:
1. Resistance to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR). 7
2. Resistance to fragmentation for concrete surface slabs.
3. Flakiness Index. 8
4. Abrasion Resistance.

Pavement Materials
5. Chloride Content.
6. Water Absorption (WA) of the coarse aggregate.
7. Chemical requirements (Acid-soluble sulphate content of the aggregates and total sulphur
content of recycled aggregates).
8. Resistance to freeze/thaw - does NOT apply to Kenya.
Aggregate with a relatively high bond strength with the mortar, such as limestone, usually exhibit less
spalling than a siliceous gravel aggregate.
In concrete, it is beneficial to use aggregates with a low coefficient of thermal expansion (e.g.
limestone) so that slab movement, and hence problems at joints, are minimised. Limestone, however,
can be polished by traffic, leading to dangerously slippery road surfaces in the wet. In wet climates,
it can be prudent to limit limestone aggregate concrete to more lightly used roads or use a two-layer
approach to building the concrete slab, with non-limestone aggregate in the upper (surfacing) layer.
Coarse aggregates shall consist of clean, hard, strong, non-porous pieces of crushed stone or
crushed gravel. Continuously graded, or gap-graded, aggregates may be used, depending on the
grading of the fine aggregate.
Aggregates for all pavement concrete, including Lower Strength, shall comply with the relevant
standard. Coarse aggregate may be crushed air-cooled blast-furnace slag Category FI50 or FI35
for concrete of classes C16/20 to C25/30 and over class C25/30, respectively. Once the appropriate
gradings have been determined they shall not be varied without the approval of the Overseeing
Organisation.

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Reclaimed Aggregate
1 Reclaimed aggregate may be used as aggregate for all pavement quality concrete (apart from RCC)
provided that:
i. It shall not be added in quantities greater than 5 % by mass of the total aggregate if they are
2 undivided,
ii. Where the quantities of the reclaimed washed aggregates are greater than 5 % by mass of the
3 total aggregate, they shall be divided into separate coarse and fine aggregates and conform to
the relevant standards for recycled aggregates.
Crushed concrete, which complies with the quality and grading requirements of the relevant standard,
4 may also be used in all pavement concretes except exposed aggregate concrete surfacings.

8.8.4 Fine Aggregate

5
As with coarse aggregates, fine aggregates shall comply with KS EAS 131 (Concrete - Part 1:
Specification, performance, production and conformity.), KS 95 (Specification for natural aggregates
6 for use in concrete), and KS 1238 Parts 1-20 (Methods of tests for aggregates).It should be noted that
KS EAS 131 still references BS EN 12620+A1 (Aggregates for concrete), whereas it should probably
refer to KS 1238 (Specification for road aggregates and Methods of tests for aggregates).
7 Where natural sand is used as the fine aggregate, there is a temptation to use sand at the finer end
of the grading, as it is often cheap and plentiful and cheaper, but this will produce concrete with poor
workability, which can be particularly problematic in hotter climates, with more rapid hardening times.
8 It is better to use sand with gradings near the coarse limits.
Pavement Materials

8.8.5 Water
KS 2846 (Mixing water for concrete) should be used as the standard. It should be noted that KS EAS
131-1 (Concrete Part 1: Specification, performance, production, and conformity) is still current but
states that water for mixing in concrete shall conform to BS EN1008.
Water to be used for concrete should generally be free from oils, acids, alkalis, and organic impurities.
Generally water that is fit for drinking can be used for mixing and curing concrete.
However, when working in remote areas it may not be possible to get potable water and the project
may have to use water that is not potable. The following should be noted:
1. Soft water produces weaker concrete than hard water.
○ Soft water has hardness as CaCO3 = less than 50mg/l,
○ reasonably soft = 50 to 100 mg/l,
○ Slightly hard = 100 to 150 mg/l,
○ Reasonably hard = 150 to 250 mg/l,
○ Hard = 250 to 350 mg/l,
○ Very hard = more than 350mg/l.
○ Rainwater is usually soft as it has very little opportunity to absorb chemicals.
2. Water from marshes is generally not suitable for concrete.
3. Water containing decaying vegetation is undesired as this contamination interferes with cement
setting.
4. Salt water should generally NOT be used for any concrete works as it will corrode tie bars, dowel
bars and steel reinforcement. Sea water will also increase setting times and reduce the long-term
strength by up to 15 % (Neville, 2011) and increase the risk of efflorescence.

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8.8.6 Admixtures
Standards for admixtures are given in KS 2770 (Admixtures for concrete) and KS 2769 (Admixtures 1
for concrete - Test methods).
It should be noted that KS EAS 131-1 (Concrete Part 1: Specification, performance, production, and 2
conformity) states that Admixtures and any other additive materials should conform to BS EN 934-2.
Admixtures are optional and may be added to the cement or concrete mix by the designer to enhance
the properties of the concrete. Each type of admixture serves a different purpose and is used under 3
different circumstances. For example, they can improve the workability of the concrete, extend the
setting time, etc.
4
The most common types of admixtures include:
1. Retarders. These are the most common type of admixtures. They increase the setting time of
the concrete and can improve the workability /appearance of the concrete. 5
2. Pozzolans (e.g., crushed rock powder, bentonite, fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace
slag). These generally ‘improve’ concrete by converting Calcium Hydroxide (CH) (a by-product of
the hydraulic reaction between water and cement powder) to additional Calcium Silicate Hydrate
6
(CSH) which is the glue that binds the concrete aggregate. They are often added to Ordinary
Portland Cement, to control setting, increase durability, reduce cost and/or reduce pollution
without compromising the compressive strength. Plasticisers are also often used when pozzolanic 7
ash is added to concrete to improve strength.
3. Plasticisers (these can reduce water content in the mix, increase strength and maintain 8
consistency) Also beneficial in cements with added ggbs or pfa as the water reduction can
compensate for some of the early strength loss. Plasticisers or water reducing admixtures shall

Pavement Materials
comply with the relevant standard. Admixtures containing calcium chloride shall not be used.
4. Superplasticisers (Water-Reducing Admixtures) (e.g., lignosulfonates, hydro-carboxylic
acids, polycarboxylates and sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde). They are added to reduce
the amount of water needed for mixing and placing of concrete. They can improve the workability,
strength, durability, and shrinkage resistance of concrete by lowering the water to cement ratio.
They work by creating an electrostatic repulsion between cement particles, stopping them
clumping together and allowing them to disperse more evenly in the water. This reduces the
amount of water required to achieve a certain level of consistency or slump.
5. Air-entraining admixtures. The main application of this is to reduce freeze/thaw damage, so it
is not required for this purpose in Kenya. (Note that a C40/50 or stronger concrete, or a C32/40
concrete to be overlaid by at least 30 mm asphalt, is less susceptible to this damage anyway).
There may be occasions where air entrainment is used to increase workability, but it should be
noted that this can reduce its strength.
6. Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures (SRAs). These do not affect the mechanical properties of the
concrete, but they considerably reduce the shrinkage potential and shrinkage rate of the concrete
mix. It should be noted that the initial and final set may be delayed, and the concrete may bleed
for slightly longer.
7. Other types of admixtures include:
○ Accelerators (to speed up the setting process)
○ Corrosion inhibitors (to protect the steel bars/reinforcement)
○ Alkali aggregate expansion inhibitors and colour dyes.
The total amount of admixtures, if any, shall not exceed the maximum dosage recommended by the
admixture producer and shall not exceed 50 g of admixture (as supplied) per kilogram of cement
unless the influence of the higher dosage on the performance and the durability of the concrete is
established and taken into account. [KS EAS 131-1, Para 5.2.6]

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Admixtures used in quantities less than 2 g/kg of cement shall be dispersed in part of the mixing
water except where the admixture cannot be dispersed homogeneously in the mixing water (e.g.
1 because it forms a gel). In this case, other methods of feeding into the concrete may be used.
If the total quantity of liquid admixtures exceeds 3 l/m3 of concrete, its water content shall be taken
2 into account when calculating the water/cement ratio. [KS EAS 131-1, Para 5.2.6]
Where more than one admixture is used, the compatibility of the admixtures shall be checked in the
initial tests. The use of any chemicals to retard the curing process must be properly tested to ensure
3 their effectiveness and whether they have any damaging effects on the concrete.

4 8.8.7 Air Content

The maximum air content (as a percentage of the volume of the concrete) shall be as given in
Table 8.5.
5
Table 8.5 Maximum Air Content
Maximum Aggregate Size (mm) Maximum Air Content (% volume)
6
20 6.5
40 5.5
7
The air content shall be determined at the point of delivery to the paving plant by the pressure gauge
method at the rate of one determination per 300 m² of slab or at least 6 times per day, whichever is
8 the greater, in conjunction with tests for consistence and strength. For areas less than 300 m², the
rate shall be at least one determination to each 20 m length of slab or less constructed at any one
Pavement Materials

time or at least 3 times per day. If the air content exceeds the maximum specified limit in the required
specification, then the Contractor shall remove the concrete from the works.
Air entrainment is usually used to increase the durability of the concrete, particularly to protect it from
freeze/thaw damage which can result in surface scaling. The millions of microbubbles (each 0.1-
1.0mm in diameter) relieve the pressure as water in capillary cracks freezes and expands.
It should be noted that each 1 % of entrained air reduces the compressive strength of the concrete
by approximately 3-6 %. The usual amount of air entrainment is 3-6 % for durability, which equates
to a compressive strength reduction of 9-36 %.
If an air-entrained concrete is used, then the air-entraining agent shall be added at the mixer, by
an apparatus capable of dispensing the correct dose within the tolerance for admixtures given in
the specification, to ensure uniform distribution of the agent throughout the batch during mixing. It
should be noted that if transported long distances the amount of air in the concrete will reduce and
this should be taken into account.

8.8.8 Concrete Temperature

KS EAS 131-1 (Concrete - Part 1: Specification, performance, production & conformity) states that
the temperature of the fresh concrete shall not be less that 5 °C at the time of delivery.
Where a requirement for a different minimum temperature or a maximum temperature of fresh
concrete is necessary, they shall be specified also giving tolerances. Any requirement for artificial
cooling or heating of the concrete prior to delivery has to be agreed between the producer and the
user.

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8.8.9 Fibre Reinforced Concrete

1
Currently there does not appear to be a relevant KS or EAS standard for fibres, hence
general suitability for fibres is established the following standards:
• Steel fibres conforming to BS EN 14889-1. 2
• Polymer fibres conforming to BS EN 14889-2.
3
Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) (or specifically Steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC)) is concrete
containing short, discrete fibres that are uniformly distributed and randomly orientated. The fibres are
usually steel but glass, carbon, fibre, other synthetic materials (e.g., polyester or polypropylene) and
4
organic materials have also been used. Polymeric fibres are reported to be increasingly used for their
cost effectiveness and the fact that they don’t corrode when exposed to salt water, etc.
5
Fibres are usually used in concrete to make it more crack resistant and to bind the cracks together if
it does crack. The addition of fibres will have little effect on the concrete’s compressive strength but
does increase the flexural strength. For heavily trafficked roads, fibres should not replace the steel 6
bar reinforcement. FRC and SFRC are more widely used in thin overlay applications than in new
construction.
The most widely used fibres are steel and come in variety of shapes designed to improve their 7
anchorage in the concrete (e.g., wavy, crimped end or enlarged end). Steel fibres are typically
20 - 100 mm long (with 60 mm being the most common length) and a diameter of at least 50 mm.
8
The steel fibres are distributed into the concrete mix before laying – it can be difficult to get an even

Pavement Materials
distribution. Fibre length is very important - if they are too long then they tend to ‘ball up’ and interfere
with the workability of the concrete. An uneven distribution of fibres can have a negative effect on
the concrete strength.
Many sources say that fibres should NOT normally be used with conventional steel bar reinforcement
as the issue of reduced workability of the concrete can lead to poor compaction beneath the
reinforcement.
It should be noted that steel fibres added to FRC are often classed as a concrete enhancement.
SFRC can be expensive, and it is generally not economic to replace the steel reinforcement in
CRCB/CRCP with steel fibres. Steel fibres with zinc coatings should not be used unless it is shown
that hydrogen formation in the concrete is prevented.
Specialist knowledge is required for the use of FRC. The number of fibres added to a concrete mix is
expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the composite (concrete and fibres), termed 'volume
fraction' (Vf), with typical values ranging from 0.1 to 3 %. Distribution rates should be as recommended
by the manufacturer. Often, when using fibres, the concrete mix will need to be adjusted e.g., the
aggregate grading, maximum aggregate size may need to be changed and superplasticisers will
probably also be required. It is recommended that shrinkage reducing admixtures are used in all
FRC and SFRC.
The finished surface of the pavement should also be considered. If it is to remain a trafficked concrete
surface, then there are the issues of a) sharp steel fibres being exposed with possible risks to causing
punctures and injuring people walking on the road and b) rusted exposed steel fibres staining the
surface and being unsightly.

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8.8.10 Workability
1 For concrete workability standards and information on sampling, frequency, and type of testing for
conformity control, see KS EAS 131-1 and KS 594.

2 Workability/consistence of the fresh concrete mix is an important function of both the mix design and
the construction. It is one of the key factors in producing a concrete layer with good construction ability
and performance. Frequent testing of the concrete delivered to site is essential for quality control.
3 The workability of the fresh concrete mix can depend upon many factors including the water/cement
ratio (a high ratio will give a low strength but very workable mix), aggregate grading and shape, the
presence of fibres and/or admixtures, etc.
4
There is no direct test to measure workability/consistence, however useful indicator tests include:
1. The slump test (BS EN 12350-2). It is reported that the slump test is only suitable for concrete of
5 medium or high workability (i.e., a slump of 25-125 mm). For stiff mixes with low slump values, the
slump does not show the difference between concretes with different workability.
2. The Vebe test (BS EN 12350-3). Note that if the Vebe time is less than 5s or more than 30s, then
6 the Vebe test is unsuitable for the concrete consistence.
3. The compacting factor test (aka degree of compactability) (BS EN 12350-4).
7 The required workability of the fresh concrete mix will need to be different for each type of concrete
pavement and the method of laying the concrete. For example:

8 1. Roller compacted concrete requires a very stiff mix with a slump of practically 0 mm.
2. A mix suitable for slip-form construction will need a stiffer mix (because side forms are not used)
Pavement Materials

requiring a typical slump of 20-40 mm.

3. A mix suitable for mechanised fixed-form paving will need a typical slump of 35-50 mm.
4. A mix suitable for manual fixed-form paving will require a typical slump of 55-65 mm.

8.8.11 Concrete Mix Design

KS EAS 131-1 contains lots of useful information about Concrete Mix Design
It should be understood that there is no unique concrete mix ‘recipe’ that can be used for all types
of concrete pavement. The mix design process is often based on experience with past mixes and
knowledge of local aggregates and cements.
When cement is added to the other concrete components, there needs to be enough of each
component to produce a concrete layer with good performance. The following factors are key:
1. For fresh concrete – workability, compaction, curing, and no bleeding.
2. For hardened concrete – strength (flexural/compressive), durability, minimal shrinkage, and a
skid resistant surface.
The concrete mix design can be complex, as it needs to include many components, including:
1. The aggregate type/size/grading/shape.
2. The cement type/content.
3. Any admixtures.
4. Water content.
5. Any air entrainment.
6. Whether mix in plant method uses volume or mass batching.
7. Method of laying e.g., slip form paver, fixed form paver or fixed form manual, etc.

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There are five main stages of concrete mix design as described below and illustrated in Figure 8.10
and Figure 8.11.
1
Five Main Stages of Concrete Mix Design (UK BRE Design Method).
Stage 1: Deals with strength and leads to selection of the target water /cement ratio. 2
The standard deviation of the mix can be determined using values that will depend upon the
number of samples previously tested and the characteristic strength of the mix.
3
Firstly, the margin is required to calculate the target mean strength. This can either be
specified, or calculated using Calculation C1:

( )
(a value representing the % 4
Margin = k defective permitted below x s (the std deviation).
the characteristic strength)
Equation C1
5
The target mean strength (to 2 decimal places) can then be calculated using Calculation C2:
Target mean strength = Specified characteristic strength + M (Margin)
Equation C2 6
Using Table 2 for the mix strength of a mix made with a free-water/cement ratio of 0.5, the
strength class of cement and the aggregate to be used. 7
This strength value can be plotted in Figure 4 and a new parallel curve drawn until it crosses
a horizontal line representing the mean target strength. This will give a free-water/cement
ratio and this value can be compared with any maximum value already given. The lowest 8
of these values should be used.

Pavement Materials
Stage 2: Deals with workability to determine the free-water content (from Table 3), which will
depend upon type and max size of aggregate to give the specified slump/(or vebe time).
Stage 3: Combines Stage 1 and 2 results to determine the cement content. This uses
calculation C3:
free-water content
Cement content =
free-water/cement ratio
Equation C3
Stage 4: Determine the total aggregate content. Use an estimate of the density of the compacted
mix (from Figure 5) depending upon the free-water content and the relative density of the
combined aggregate. The total aggregate content can be estimated using Calculation C4:
Total aggregate content = Wet density of concrete – Cement content – Free water content.
Equation C4
Stage 5: Determine the fine and coarse aggregate contents.
This can be done using Figure 6 which shows recommended values for fine aggregate
content depending on the maximum size of aggregate, workability level .and the grading of
the fine aggregate (passing 600-micron sieve) and the free-water/cement ratio.
The coarse aggregate content can then be calculated using Calculation C5:
Coarse aggregate content = Total aggregate content (derived in Stage 4) – Fine aggregate content
Equation C5
It should be noted that the mix design process should give a satisfactory concrete mix for use in the
first trial mix, which should then be adjusted, as required.
After the concrete mix has been designed, it is essential that the contractor carries out laboratory, and

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 Specified Variables Additional Information Reference Data Mix Parameters Unit Proportions
1.1 Characteristic strength Calc. C1 1.3 Margin
1.2 Std deviation Figure 3
STAGE 1

1.3 Specified margin Calc. C2

1.5 Cement strength class Table 2 1.4 Target mean strength
1.6 Aggregate type
1.8 Maximum free Figure 4 1.7 Free water
water/cement ratio /cement ratio
2.3 Free water
STAGE 2

2.1 Slump (or vebe time) Table 3

/cement ratio
2.2 Maximum aggregate size
Figure 8.10 Flow Chart Showing 5 Stages of Concrete Mix Design

3.2 Maximum cement content Calc. C3

STAGE 3
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3.4 Modified free 3.1 Cement

water/cement ratio content
3.3 Minimum cement content
4.1 Relative density Figure 5 4.2 Concrete density
STAGE 4

of aggregate

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Calc. C4
4.3 Total aggregate content
Figure 6 5.3 Fine
STAGE 5

5.2 Proportions aggregate content

5.1 Grading of Calc. C5
of fine aggregate
fine aggregate 5.4 Coarse
aggregate content
KEY: = Optional = Alternative = Calculation = Mix design result Source: Design of normal concrete mixes 2nd Edition, BRE, 1997
Pavement Materials

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Figure 8.11 Continuation of the Design Flow Chart Showing 5 Stages of Concrete Mix Design
1

Pavement Materials

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then field, trials to evaluate both the fresh, and hardened, properties of the proposed concrete base
(and the cement-bound sub-base). The trials will need to demonstrate workability, compactability,
1 slip formability (if required), strength, a skid resistant surface with adequate texture depth, etc.
There isn’t enough space in this chapter to cover concrete mix design in detail, but many excellent
2 guides are available, some of which are shown below (alphabetical order by country):
Kenya
3 • KS EAS 131 Concrete Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity.
Australia
• Austroads (2021). Guide to Pavement Technology. Part 4C: Materials for Concrete Road
4 Pavements. AGPT04C-17, Edition 2.1, May 2021. Sydney, Australia: Austroads.
India
5 • Indian Roads Congress (2017). IRC 44-2017: Guidelines for Concrete Mix Design for Pavements,
3rd Revision, 2017.

6 South Africa
• South African Pavement Engineering Manual (SAPEM) (2014). Chapter 09: Materials Utilisation
and Design. 2nd Edition, 2014.
7 UK
• MCHW Volume 1: Specification for Highway Works, Series 1000: Road Pavements - Concrete
8 Materials. (For JUC, JRC, CRCP and CRCB the concrete strength class required is usually C40/50,
with a minimum of C32/40). This references the following British and European Standards:
Pavement Materials

○ BS 8500-1: Concrete. Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier.

○ BS 8500-2: Concrete. Specification for constituent materials and concrete.
○ BS EN 206: Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity.
○ BS EN 12350: Testing Fresh Concrete.
○ BS EN 12390: Testing Hardened Concrete.
○ BS EN 13877: Concrete Pavements – Materials & Requirements.
○ BRE (Teychenne D.C, Franklin, R. E. et al) (1997). Design of Normal Concrete Mixes. 2nd
Edition. Building Research Establishment Ltd. Watford, UK.
USA
• Portland Cement Association (2021). Design & Control of Concrete Mixtures. 17th Edn.
• American Concrete Institute (ACI) (2022). ACI PRC-211.1-22: Selecting Proportions for Normal,
and High-Density Concrete guide.
• American Concrete Institute (ACI) (2017). ACI PRC-325.14-17: Guide for Design and Proportioning
of Concrete Mixtures for Pavements, 2017 (to supplement PRC-211.1-22).
• AASHTO (2020). PP84 Standard Practice for Developing Performance Engineered Concrete
Pavement Mixtures.
During construction, the concrete mix will need frequent sampling and testing to ensure good quality
control and a consistency.

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8.8.12 Roller Compacted Concrete Design

Cement 1
The cement specifications for roller compacted concrete (RCC), with equivalent Kenyan Standards,
are given in Table 8.6 below as a guide only. There may well be other types of cement available in
Kenya (including more environmentally friendly cements) that would be suitable. 2
Table 8.6 RCC Cement Specifications
3
Minimum Cement or
Cement and Combinations
Combination Content
a. Portland cement CEM1 conforming to KS EAS 18-1. 270 kg/m3 4
b. CRCB/CRCP Design Portland-slag cement CEMII/A-S and CEMII/B-S
conforming to KS EAS 18-1.
c. Portland-fly ash cement CEMIIA-V and CEMIIB-V conforming to KS EAS 5
18-1.
270 kg/m3
• Where CEMIIA-V has a maximum siliceous fly ash content of 20 % and
CEMIIB-V has a maximum siliceous fly ash content of 35 %.
d. Pozzolanic cement CEMIV/A(V) conforming to KS EAS 18-1.
6
• Where CEMIV/A(V) has a maximum siliceous fly ash content of 35 %.
e. BS 8500-2 combination of Portland cement CEMI with not more than
35 % fly ash for use as a cementitious component in structural concrete 270 kg/m3 7
conforming to BS EN 450-1.
Notes: KS EAS 18-1: Cement - Part 1: Composition, specification & conformity criteria for common cements
8

Pavement Materials
Aggregate
Crushed gravel and recycled aggregates are not permitted in RCC as aggregate interlock is such an
important feature.
If RCC is to have a concrete surface then a maximum coarse aggregate size of 14 mm should be
specified to reduce the risk of segregation. If it is to be overlaid by asphalt, then a maximum size of
20 mm may be specified.
RCC has a higher proportion of fine aggregate than conventional concrete allowing better packing
and a closed finish to be achieved.
Applied finishes such as brushed or power-floated are generally not possible with RCC due to the
low amount of cement paste available.
BS 9227 (Hydraulically bound materials for civil engineering purposes. Specification for production
and installation in pavements) contains good advice on the selection of RCC for particular applications
and will help to generate confidence for pavement designers and specifiers in the use of RCC.
C40/50 RCC produced in accordance with the Specification could be relied upon to have a flexural
strength of 5 MPa at the specified lower level of field density. This permitted a design strength of
5 MPa to be adopted in the development of the RCC pavement design curves. It is important to
understand that the RCC tested was strictly in accordance with aggregate type and grading.
RCC aggregate grading is shown in Table 8.7.

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Table 8.7 RCC Aggregate Grading

1 Percent Passing by Mass *
Sieve (mm) 0/14 0/20

2 Min Max Min Max

31.5 100 100 100 100
20 100 100 90 100
3
14 86 100 78 94
10 72 95 62 86
4 8 68 90 56 80
4 52 74 38 59

5 2 41 61 28 48
1 30 50 19 39
0.5 20 37 15 31
6 0.25 11 25 9 23
0.125 6 15 6 15
7 0.063 2 10 2 10

Note: * The maximum coarse aggregate size of 20 mm is usually specified for RCC that is to be overlaid with asphalt. A maximum 14

8 mm can be specified if it is to have a concrete surface (to reduce the risk of segregation).
Pavement Materials

Mix Design Approach

There are four recognised methods of mixture proportioning for RCC:
1. Soil Compaction Method.
2. Solid Suspension Model.
3. Optimal Paste Volume Method.
4. Meet Specified Consistency Limits.
These approaches are described in detail in Production of Roller Compacted Concrete (PCA 2006),
but the most commonly applied approach for pavements is the Soil Compaction Method, where the
mixture is determined by optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. BS 9227 (Hydraulically
bound materials for civil engineering purposes. Specification for production and installation in
pavements), Annex E outlines this approach. The optimum moisture content and maximum dry
density of the mixture should be determined using the vibrating hammer method, detailed in BS EN
13286-4 (Unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures. Test methods for laboratory reference density
and water content. Vibrating hammer).

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8.9 Materials Classification

8.9.1 General 1
The materials are classified as follows:
Natural or blended (Mechanically Stabilised) granular materials coded with the letter 'G', followed by 2
a number denoting the minimum CBR strength measured after 4 days’ soak on the sample moulded
and compacted at OMC to the densities specified in the individual materials charts.
Hydraulically Improved Granular materials (Cement/HRB/Lime) coded with letters 'HIG', followed by 3
a number denoting the minimum CBR strength measured after 7 days cure and 7 days soak.
Hydraulically Modified Stone (Cement/HRB) coded with letters “HMS”, followed by a number denoting
the minimum UCS in kPa (cylinder strength) measured after 7 days cure and 7 days soak. HRB
4
denotes Hydraulic Road Binder complying with BS EN 13282-1.
Hydraulically Bound Stone (Cement/HRB) coded with letters 'HBS', followed by a number denoting 5
the minimum UCS in kPa (cylinder strength) measured after 7 days cure and 7 days soak.
Bitumen Stabilised Materials coded with letters BSM, followed by a number denoting the minimum 6
indirect tensile strength in kPa tested after 7 days of curing and 7 days of soaking.
The rest of the materials bear the acronym of the material name.
7
The materials for capping and pavement structures have been classified as indicated in Table 8.8
and detailed in the Material Specification Charts that follow this table.
8

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Table 8.8 Material Codes and Abbreviated Specifications

1 Code Material Application Chart
Granular Materials
(Clayey and Silty Sands, Natural Gravels and Natural Materials blended with Crushed Stone Aggregates)
2
G3 Clayey and silty sands of minimum 4 days soak CBR of 3 %. Embankment fill material only. GM1
Clayey and silty sands, natural gravels or natural materials
Lower capping on subgrade class
3 G8 blended with up to 20 % stone aggregates of minimum 4 days
soak CBR of 8 %.
S1 to convert to S2.
GM2

Clayey and silty sands, natural gravels or natural materials Capping on subgrade classes S1
G10 blended with up to 30 % stone aggregates of minimum 4 days and S2 subgrade for foundation GM3
4 soak CBR of 10 %. Class F1.
Clayey and silty sands, natural gravels or natural materials Capping on subgrade classes S1
G14 blended with up to 30 % stone aggregates of minimum 4 days to S3 for foundation classes F1 GM4
soak CBR of 14 %. and F2.
5 Clayey and silty sands, natural gravels or natural materials
G20 blended with up to 30 % stone aggregates of minimum 4 days Gravel Wearing Course material. GM5
soak CBR of 20 %.
6 Clayey and silty sands, natural gravels or natural materials Capping on subgrade classes S3
G23 blended with up to 30 % stone aggregates of minimum 4 days and S4 for foundation classes F2 GM6
soak CBR of 23 %. and F3.
Clayey and silty sands, natural gravels or natural materials
7 G25 blended with up to 30 % stone aggregates of minimum 4 days
Sub-base for traffic classes TC0.5
and TC0.25.
GM7
soak CBR of 25 %.
• Base for traffic classes TC0.1
Clayey and silty sands, natural gravels or natural materials
8 G30 blended with up to 30 % stone aggregates of minimum 4 days
and TC0.025.
GM8
soak CBR of 30 %. • Sub-base for traffic classes
TC1, TC3 and TC10.
Pavement Materials

• Capping on subgrade classes

Clayey and silty sands, natural gravels or natural materials S3 to S5 for foundation classes
blended with up to 30 % stone aggregates of minimum 4 days F2 to F4.
G45 GM9
soak CBR of 45 %; OR crushed stone gravel, crusher run of • Base for Traffic classes TC0.5
indeterminate CBR but complying with the gradation. and TC0.25, and sub-base for
TC1-TC10.
Natural gravels or natural materials blended with up to 30 %
stone aggregates of minimum 4 days soak CBR of 80 %; OR Base for Traffic classes TC1, TC3
G80 GM10
crushed stone gravel, crusher run of indeterminate CBR but and TC10, and sub-base for TC17.
complying with the gradation.
Graded Crushed Stone
Crushed stone aggregates Class F of minimum 4 days soak Base for traffic classes TC0.025
GCS-F
CBR 30 %. Mostly weathered rock. and TC0.1.
Crushed stone aggregates Class E of minimum 4 days soak Base for traffic classes TC0.25
GCS-E CBR of 50 %, maximum ACV 35 % and LAA 50 %. Mostly soft and TC0.5, and sub-base for TC1
stone, and partially weathered rock. to TC10
Crushed stone aggregates Class D of minimum 4 days soak
Base for traffic classes TC1, TC3
GCS-D CBR of 80 %, maximum ACV 35 % and LAA 50 %. Mostly
and TC10, and sub-base for TC17.
partially weathered granites, basalts, and other rocks.
GCS Class C of maximum ACV 30 % and LAA 40 %. Mostly Base and Sub-base for traffic
GCS-C
fresh corals, and metamorphic rocks. classes TC1 and TC3.
• Base and Sub-base for traffic GM11
GCS Class B of maximum ACV 28 % and LAA 35 %. Mostly class TC10.
GCS-B
fresh granites, basalts, and other igneous rocks.
• Sub-base for traffic class TC17.
• Base for traffic class TC17.
• Sub-base for traffic class TC30
and TC50.
GCS Class A of maximum ACV 25 % and LAA 30 %. Mostly
GCS-A • Capping on subgrade classes
fresh granites, basalts, and other igneous rocks.
S5 to S6 for foundation class
F5 for traffic class TC80 and
above.

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Table 8.8 Material Codes and Abbreviated Specifications (continued)

Code Material Application Chart 1

Graded Crushed Stone (continued)

HPS
Hand Packed Stone of maximum ACV 40 % and LAA 60 %.
Mostly fresh trachytes, soft stone, basalts, and other igneous
Sub-base and Base for traffic
GM12
2
classes TC0.25 to TC10.
rocks.
Base for TC3 to TC30 traffic.
MAC
Dry-bound and wet-bound macadam. Complies with parent rock
requirements for GCS grades
Sub-base for TC3 to TC150 GM13 3
and higher
Hydraulically Improved Materials and Hydraulically Bound Materials

HIG50
Lime and hydraulically improved granular material of minimum Sub-base for traffic class
HM1 4
CBR of 50% after 7 days cure and 7 days soak. TC0.25 and TC0.5.
• Sub-base for traffic classes
TC1, TC3 and TC10.
HIG60
Lime and hydraulically improved granular material of minimum
CBR of 60% after 7 days cure and 7 days soak. • Base for traffic class TC
HM2 5
0.025 and TC0.1.
Lime and hydraulically improved granular materials of minimum Base for traffic classes TC0.25
HIG100
CBR of 100% after 7 days cure and 7 days soak. and TC0.5.
HM3
6
• Base for traffic class TC1,
TC3 and TC10.

Lime and hydraulically improved granular materials of minimum

• Sub-base for traffic class
TC17, TC30 and TC50.
7
HIG160 CBR of 160% and UCS 1.0 to 2.0 MPa after 7 days cure and 7 HM4
days soak • Capping on subgrade classes
S5 to S6 for foundation class
F5 for traffic class TC80 and 8
above.

Pavement Materials
• Base for traffic Class TC1,
TC3 and TC10.
• Sub-base for traffic class
Hydraulically modified stone of minimum UCS 1.0 MPa and TC17, TC30 and TC50.
HMS1 HM5
maximum UCS 2.5 MPa after 7-day cure and 7-day soak • Capping on subgrade classes
S5 to S6 for foundation class
F5 for traffic class TC80 and
above.
• Base for traffic class TC17,
Hydraulically bound stone of minimum UCS 3.0 MPa after 7-day TC30 and TC50.
HBS3 HB1
cure and 7-day soak • Sub-base for traffic class
TC80 and higher.
• Base for traffic class TC17,
TC30 and TC50.
Hydraulically bound stone of minimum UCS 6.0 MPa after 7-day
HBS6 • Sub-base for concrete HB2
cure and 7-day soak
pavement for traffic class
TC150 and higher.
• Base for traffic class TC50
and higher.
Hydraulically bound stone of minimum UCS 9.0 MPa after 7-day
HBS9 • Sub-base for concrete HB3
cure and 7-day soak
pavement for traffic class
TC150 and higher.

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Table 8.8 Material Codes and Abbreviated Specifications (continued)

1 Code Material Application Chart
Bitumen Stabilised Materials

2 BSM50 Bitumen Stabilised Material of minimum soaked ITS of 50 kPa.

Base for TC0.25, TC0.5, and
TC1 traffic.
BM1
• Base for traffic class TC3,
and TC10.
3 BSM100 Bitumen Stabilised Material of minimum soaked ITS of 100 kPa.
• Sub-base for TC17 and
BM2
TC30.
• Base for traffic class TC17 and
4 BM175 Bitumen Stabilised Material of minimum soaked ITS of 175 kPa. TC30. BM3
• Sub-base for TC50 and higher.
Bituminous Mixes for Road Base and Surfacing
5 DBM
Dense Bitumen Macadam of minimum Marshall Stability 9 kN Base for traffic class TC17 and
BB1
and Modulus 5000 MPa. higher.
Base for traffic class TC50 and
EME EME Asphalt of minimum modulus 8000 MPa. BB2
higher.
6 Sand bitumen mix (silty clayey sand) of minimum Marshall
SBMa Surfacing for TC1 to TC10. BB3
Stability 3.75 kN.
Sand bitumen mix (clean sand) of minimum Marshall Stability
7 SBMb
2.5 kN.
Surfacing for TC1 to TC10. BB4
Surfacing for traffic up to 6000
DSD Surface dressing made with single sized aggregates SU1
vpd/lane.

8 ESS
Emulsion slurry made with aggregate, cement and emulsion.
Should usually be applied as a second or third seal. For LVSRs,
Surfacing for traffic up to 2000
SU2
vpd/lane.
it should be used in two layers if it is the only seal.
Pavement Materials

Cold mix asphalt made with emulsion and graded stone 0/10 or Surfacing for TC0.25, TC0.5,
CMA SU3
0/14 TC1, and TC3.
Otta seal made with graded aggregate and soft penetration Surfacing for TC0.25, TC0.5,
OTA SU4
bitumen or cut-back or emulsion TC1, and TC3.
Sand seal made with clean well graded sand and soft
penetration bitumen or cut-back or emulsion. If not a second Surfacing for traffic up to 500
DSS SU5
seal, then it must be applied in at least two layers). Split vpd/lane.
application encouraged.
Sand bitumen mix of minimum Marshall Stability 3 kN and
SAN Surfacing for TC1 and TC3. SU6
Modulus 1000 MPa.
Gap graded asphalt of minimum Marshall Stability 3 kN and
GAP Surfacing for TC1 and TC3. SU7
Modulus 1500 MPa.
Flexible asphalt of minimum Marshall Stability 6 kN and Modulus
ACII Surfacing for TC1 and TC3. SU8
2500 MPa.
High stability asphalt concrete of minimum Marshall Stability 9
ACI Surfacing for TC10 or higher. SU9
kN and Modulus 4000 MPa.
High stability asphalt concrete (for binder course) of minimum
ACIb Surfacing for TC10 or higher. SU10
Marshall Stability 9 kN and Modulus 4000 MPa.
Stone mastic asphalt of minimum Marshall Stability 9 kN and
SMA Surfacing for TC50 or higher. SU11
Modulus 5000 MPa.
Cobblestones, Concrete Paving Blocks, and Cement Concrete for Rigid Pavements
Surfacing for TC0.25, TC0.5,
ICB Interlocking cobblestone paving of minimum UCS 25 MPa PB1
TC1.
IPB Interlocking concrete paving blocks of minimum UCS 25 MPa Surfacing for all levels of traffic. PB2
Surfacing/Base for TC1 and
CP-1 Concrete for TC1 and lower CP-1
lower.
Concrete for jointed unreinforced concrete (JUC), jointed
Surfacing/Base for TC1 and
CP-2 reinforced concrete (JRC), continuously reinforced concrete CP-2
higher.
pavement (CRCP)
CP-3 Concrete for continuously reinforced concrete base (CRCB) Base for TC1 and higher. CP-3
CP-4 Concrete for roller compacted concrete (RCC) Base for TC1 and higher. CP-4

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8.9.2 Charts for Natural Gravels

1
Materials Specification Charts
GRANULAR MATERIALS
Chart GM1 G3 Material 2
Materials Requirements
Natural silty/sandy/gravelly clays, silty/clayey sands conforming to the following requirement: 3
CBR at 100% MDD (AASHTO T99) and 4 days soak (%) Min 3
Swell (%) Max. 3.0
Max. size 1/2-layer thickness or 50 mm whichever is lesser 4
Liquid Limit Max. 70
Plasticity Index (%) Max. 50
5
Application
Fill material only.
6
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
7
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION: 8
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers

Pavement Materials
• Minimum dry density: 100 % MDD (AASHTO T99)
• Compaction moisture content: 75 to 100 % OMC (AASHTO T99)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 250 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 GRANULAR MATERIALS
Chart GM2 G8 Material

2 Materials Requirements
Natural silty/sandy/gravelly clays, silty/clayey sands, sands conforming to the following requirement:
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) and 4 days soak (%) Min 8
3 Swell (%) Max. 3.0
Max. size 1/2-layer thickness or 50 mm whichever is lesser
Liquid Limit Max. 70
4 Plasticity Index (%) Max. 50

Application
5 Lower capping on S1 to convert it to S2.
Construction Procedures
6 Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.

7 LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
8 • Minimum dry density: 100 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: 75 to 100 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 250 mm
Pavement Materials

• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

GRANULAR MATERIALS 1
Chart GM3 G10 Material

Materials Requirements 2
Natural or blended silty/sandy/gravelly clays, silty/clayey sands, sands, or gravels conforming to the following
requirement:
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) and 4 days soak (%) Min 10 3
Swell (%) Max. 2.5
Max. size 2/3-layer thickness or 80 mm whichever is lesser
Plasticity Index (%) Max. 30 4
Liquid Limit Max. 50
Coefficient of Uniformity Min 6
5
Application
Lower capping on S1 and S2 subgrade for foundation class F1. 6
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.
7
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
8
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers

Pavement Materials
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: 75 to 100 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 150 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 GRANULAR MATERIALS
Chart GM4 G14 Material

2 Materials Requirements
Natural or blended silty and clayey sands, sands, gravels, volcanic gravel (scoria), conforming to the following requirement:
Gravels
3 Max. size (mm) 10 - 50
Passing 0.075 mm sieve (%) Max. 50
Sands, silty and clayey sands
4 Max. size (mm) 0.5 – 10
Passing 0.075 mm sieve (%) Max 50
All materials
5 CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) and 4 days soak (%) Min 14
Swell (%) Max. 1.0

6 Plasticity Index (%) Max. 30

Plasticity Modulus Max. 2500
Organic Matter (%) Max 2
7 Coefficient of Uniformity Min 6

Application
8 Capping on subgrade classes S1 to S3 for foundation classes F1 and F2.
Construction Procedures
Pavement Materials

Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.

Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: 75 to 100 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm

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Materials Specification Charts

GRANULAR MATERIALS 1
Chart GM5 G20 Material

Materials Requirements 2
Natural gravel or mixtures of natural gravels, volcanic gravel (scoria) and sand or up to 30% of natural stone, crushed
stone, scarified pavement material or milled bituminous pavement material conforming to the following requirement:
Bearing strength & plasticity properties Grading After Compaction for 3
Gravel Wearing Course
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO Min 20 % by weight passing
T180) and 4 days soak (%) Sieve (mm) Class 1 Class 2 4
Swell (%) Max. 1.0 37.5 - 100
Plasticity Index (%) Wet areas 5 – 20 28 100 95 – 100
Dry areas 5 – 25 20 95 – 100 85 – 100 5
Plasticity Modulus Max. 30 14 80 – 100 65 – 100
10 65 – 100 55 – 100
5 45 – 85 35 – 92 6
2 30 – 68 23 – 77
1
0.425
25 – 56
18 – 44
18 – 62
14 – 50
7
0.075 12 – 32 10 – 40

Application
8

Pavement Materials
Also used as Gravel Wearing Course (GWC) material.
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between 80 and 100 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 GRANULAR MATERIALS
Chart GM6 G23 Material

2 Materials Requirements
Natural or blended silty and clayey sands, sands, or gravels conforming to the following requirement:
Gravels
3 Max. size (mm) 10 – 50
Passing 0.075 mm sieve (%) Max 40
Sands, silty and clayey sands
4 Max. size (mm) 0.5 – 10
Passing 0.075 mm sieve (%) Max 50
All materials
5 CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) and 4 days soak (%) Min 23
Swell (%) Max. 1.0

6 Plasticity Index (%) Max. 25

Plasticity Modulus Max. 2500
Organic Matter (%) Max 2
7 Coefficient of Uniformity Min 6

Application
8 Capping on classes S2 and S3 subgrades for foundation classes F2 & F3.
Construction Procedures
Pavement Materials

Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.

Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: 75 to 100 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

GRANULAR MATERIALS 1
Chart GM7 G25 Material

Materials Requirements 2
Natural or blended silty and clayey sands, sands, or gravels conforming to the following requirement:
Natural Gravels
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) and 4 days soak (%) Min 25 3
Swell (%) Max. 1.0
Max. size 2/3 of layer thickness or 80 mm whichever is lesser
Uniformity Coefficient Min. 6 4
Plasticity Index (%) Wet areas Max 15
Dry areas Max 20
Plasticity modulus Max 250
5
Clayey and Silty Sands
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) and 4 days soak (%) Min 25
6
Swell (%) Max. 1.0
Passing 2 mm sieve (%) Max. 95
Passing 0.075 mm sieve (%) Min 10 – Max 30 7
Uniformity Coefficient Min. 6
Plasticity Index (%) Wet areas Min 5 – Max 15
Dry areas Min 5 – Max 20 8
Plasticity modulus Max 250

Pavement Materials
Application
Sub-base material for TC0.5 and TC0.25 traffic.
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.50 %.
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between 80 and 100 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 GRANULAR MATERIALS
Chart GM8 G30 Material

2 Materials Requirements
Bearing strength & plasticity properties Grading After Compaction
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) Min 30 % by weight
Sieve (mm)
3 and 4 days soak (%) passing
Plasticity Index (%) Max 12 50 100
Plasticity Modulus Max 250 37.5 80 – 100
4 Swell(%) Max 0.5 28
20 60 – 100
10
5 Mechanical Stabilisation 5 30 – 100
These requirements and limitations also apply to mixtures of natural gravel 2 20 – 95
and sand and of natural gravel and up to 30% of stone (crushed or not). 1.18 17 – 75
6 0.300 9 – 50
0.425 7 – 33

7 0.075 5 – 25

Application
8 Sub-base material for TC1, TC3, and TC10, and base for TC0.025 & TC0.1.
Construction Procedures
Pavement Materials

Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.

Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
LAYING: by grader or better by paver
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum acceptable dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between 80 and 100 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm.
Higher relative compaction may be specified to increase bearing strength, provided the nodule hardness is
adequate.

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Materials Specification Charts

GRANULAR MATERIALS 1
Chart GM9 G45 Material

Materials Requirements 2
Bearing strength & plasticity properties Grading After Compaction
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) Min 45 % by weight
Sieve (mm)
and 4 days soak (%) passing 3
Los Angeles Abrasion (%) Max. 70 50 100
Aggregate Crushing Value (%) Max. 40 37.5 90 – 100
Plasticity Index (%) Max 10 28 75 – 95 4
Plasticity Modulus Max 250 20 60 – 90
Mechanical Stabilisation 10 40 – 75
These requirements and limitations also apply to mixtures of natural gravel 5 29 – 65 5
and sand and of natural gravel and up to 30% of stone (crushed or not) 2 20 – 45
1.18 17 – 40
0.425 12 – 31
6
0.075 5 – 25

7
Application
Capping on S3 subgrade for foundation classes F2 to F4. Sub-base for TC1-TC10 and base for TC0.5 & TC0.25
traffic.
8

Pavement Materials
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
LAYING: by grader or better by paver
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum acceptable dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between 80 and 100 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm.
Higher relative compaction may be specified to increase bearing strength, provided the nodule hardness is adequate.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 GRANULAR MATERIALS
Chart GM10 G80 Material

2 Materials Requirements
Bearing strength & plasticity properties Grading After Compaction
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) Min 80 % by weight
Sieve (mm)
3 and 4 days soak (%) passing
Los Angeles Abrasion (%) Max. 50 50 100
Aggregate Crushing Value (%) Max. 35 37.5 95 – 100
4 Plasticity Index (%) Max 10 28 80 – 100
Plasticity Modulus Max 250 20 60 – 100
Mechanical Stabilisation 10 35 – 100
5 These requirements and limitations also apply to mixtures of natural gravel 5 20 – 95
and sand, and up to 30 % of stone (crushed or not). 2 12 – 80
1 10 – 65
6 0.425 7 – 50
0.075 4 – 20

7 Application
Base for TC1, TC3, and TC10, and sub-base for TC17. In areas with annual rainfall less than 500 mm, if permission
8 has been sought and granted by the Chief Engineer Materials, material of CBR 60 % may be used as an alternative
to G80 base for TC1.
Pavement Materials

Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
LAYING: by grader or better by paver
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum acceptable dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between 80 and 105 % OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm.
Higher relative compaction may be specified to increase bearing strength, provided the nodule hardness is adequate.

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8.9.3 Charts for Graded Crushed Stone, Hand Packed Stone, and Macadam

Materials Specification Charts

1
GRANULAR MATERIALS AND SOILS
Chart GM11 Graded Crushed Stone (GCS) 2
Materials Requirements
GCS Class Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E
3
Nominal Size (mm) − 0/30 0/30 0/40 0/60 0/50 0/50
BS Sieve Percentage by Weight Passing

Grading Envelope
(mm)
75 − − − 100 − −
4
63 − − − 95 - 100 − −
50 − − 100 85 - 100 100 100
37.5 100 100 90 -100 75 - 95 90 -100 90 -100 5
28 90 -100 90 -100 75 - 95 60 - 87 80 - 100 75 - 95
20 65 - 95 65 - 95 60 - 90 50 - 80 60 - 100 60 - 90
10 40 - 70 40 - 70 40 - 75 30 - 67 35 - 90 40 - 75 6
6.3 30 - 55 30 - 55 30 - 63 23 - 58 − −
5 − − − − 20 - 75 29 - 65
2 20 - 40 20 - 40 20 - 45 13 - 40 12 - 50 20 - 45 7
1 15 - 32 15 - 32 15 - 35 7 - 32 10 - 40 17 - 40
0.425 10 - 24 10 - 24 10 - 26 4 - 20 7 - 33 12 - 31
0.075 4 - 10 4 - 10 4 - 12 0 - 10 4 - 20 5 - 12
Parameter Percentage
8
Stone Physical LAA Max. 30 35 40 40 50 50

Pavement Materials
Requirements ACV Max. 25 28 30 30 35 35
SSS Max. 12 12 12 12 20 −
FI Max. 20 25 30 30 − −
CR Min. 100 100 80 80 − −
PI Max. NP NP NP NP 6 10
Sand E Min. 40 40 − − − −
CBR Min. 28 − − − 80 45
Elastic Modulus (MPa) Min 500 500 400 400 350 300
Application Base TC0.25 &
TC17 TC10 TC3&TC1 TC3&TC1 TC1 - TC10
TC0.5
Sub-base TC30&TC50 TC17 TC3&TC1 TC3&TC1 TC17 TC1 - TC10

Construction Procedures
Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E
Minimum compacted 125 mm 125 mm 125 mm 125 mm 150mm 125 mm 125 mm
thickness
Maximum compacted 200 mm 200 mm 200 mm 200 mm 200 mm 200 mm 200 mm
thickness
LAYING Paver Paver or Grader
COMPACTION Percent of MDD (VH) % MDD AASHTO T180
Dry Density Average 98 98 98 96
Minimum 96 96 96 94 95 95
Percent of SG
Average 85 85 82 82
Minimum 82 82 80 80
Percent of OMC (VH) % OMC AASHTO T180
80 – 100 80 – 100 80 – 100 80 – 100 80 – 100 17 - 40
GCS Class Equivalent to G30 material and the specifications are in accordance with Chart GM8.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 HAND PACKED STONE
Chart GM12 Hand Packed Stone (HPS)

2 Materials Requirements
Parent Rock
Properties Class A Class B Class C
3 UCS at 7 days soak Min 20 MPa Min 10 MPa Min 3 MPa
CBR at 95% MDD (AASHTO T180) and 4 days soak (%) Min 80 Min 60 Min 50
Los Angeles Abrasion (%) Max 50 Max 50 Max 60
4 Aggregate Crushing Value (%) Max 35 Max 35 Max 40
Plasticity Index (%) Max 10 Max 10 Max 10
Application
5 Base TC10 TC3 TC1
Sub-base TC10 TC1 - TC3

6 Filler (0/10mm Aggregates) Stone Dimensions

Sieve Size (mm) % Passing Dimension 150mm Stone 200mm Stone
10 100 Length (mm) 150 200
7 6.3 90-100 Width (mm) 100 - 150 100 - 200
4 75-95 Breadth (mm) 100 - 150 100 - 200
2 50-70
8 1 33-50
0.425 20-33
Pavement Materials

0.300 16-28
0.150 10-20
0.075 6-12

Traffic Limitations
Sub-base and Base for TC0.25 to TC10 traffic.
Construction Procedures
COMPACTION:
• A Sub-base of minimum G30 must be provided; constructed as other sub-bases.
• Pack stones tightly, wedge stones with smaller stone chips using hammers and steel rods.
• Provide appropriate surfacing of base.

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Materials Specification Charts

DRY AND WET-BOUND MACADAM 1
Chart GM13 Macadam (MAC)

Materials Requirements 2
Parent Rock
Properties Class A Class B Class C
LAA (%) Max. 30 35 40 3
ACV (%) Max. 25 28 30
SSS (%) Max. 12 12 12
FI (%) Max. 20 25 30
4
CR Min. 100 100 80
PI (%) Max.
Sand E (%) Min.
NP
40
NP
40
NP
40
5
Application
Base TC30 TC10 TC3 6
Sub-base TC50 – TC150 TC30 TC10
Particle Size Distribution
Aggregates Filler (0-5mm Aggregates) 7
Sieve Size (mm) % Passing Sieve Size (mm) % Passing
75 100 2 100
50 85-100 1 85-99 8
37.5 35-70 0.425 55-90

Pavement Materials
28 0-15 0.150 25-45
20 0-10 0.075 0-10

Construction Procedures
COMPACTION:
• A Sub-base of minimum G30 must be provided. Compact the aggregate in layers not exceeding twice the
maximum stone size. Spread filler and vibrate in until no further movement. Brush of any loose fines and continue
until design thickness is achieved.
• Minimum roller size should not be less than 10 tonnes.

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8.9.4 Charts for Hydraulically Improved Granular Materials and Hydraulically

Bound Stone
1
Materials Specification Charts
HYDRAULICALLY IMPROVED GRANULAR MATERIAL (HIG)
2 Chart HM1 HIG of Minimum CBR 50 % (HIG50)

Materials Requirements
3 Material Before Treatment Cement/HRB
Experience has shown that materials which comply with the Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to
following requirements are generally suitable for improvement. KS EAS 18-1 or HRB complying with BS EN 13282.
4 Material Classification Min G14 Amounts Required
Grading for Natural Max. Size 10 – 15 mm Plastic Gravels (%) 2–4
Gravels Passing 0.075mm sieve Max. 40 Sands and Clayey Sands (%) 2–3
5 Grading for Sands, Max. Size 0.5 – 10 mm Lime
Silty and Clayey Sands Passing 0.075mm sieve Max. 50 Hydrated calcium lime
6 Plasticity Index (%) Max. 30 (See standard specification)
Plasticity Modulus Max 2,500 Amounts Usually Required (%) 1–4
Organic Matter Max. 2
7 Extra Requirements Passing 0.425mm Sieve Min. 15
for Lime Treatment Plasticity Index (%) Min. 10
Treated Material
8 HIG50: CBR of Laboratory mix at 95% MDD (modified AASHTO) and 7 days cure + 7 days soak: 50 %,
PI min 5 % - max 12 %. PM max 250.
Pavement Materials

Application
Sub-base for TC0.25 and TC0.5
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: ±0.50 %.
MIXING: in place (pulvimixer or travel plant)
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between OMC-2 and OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Time allowed to complete compaction and finishing: 2 hrs (cement), 4 hrs (lime)
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm.

PROTECTION AND CURING:

• Time allowed to place protection: 8 hours (lime), 4 hours (cement)
• No traffic permitted for first 7 days

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Materials Specification Charts

HYDRAULICALLY IMPROVED GRANULAR MATERIAL (HIG) 1
Chart HM2 HIG of Minimum CBR 60 % (HIG60)

Materials Requirements 2
Material Before Treatment Cement/HRB
Experience has shown that materials which comply with the Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to
following requirements are generally suitable for improvement. KS EAS 18-1 or HRB complying with BS EN 13282. 3
Material Classification G20 Amounts Required
Grading for Natural Max. Size 10 – 15 mm Plastic Gravels (%) 2–4
Gravels Passing 0.075mm sieve Max. 40 Sands and Clayey Sands (%) 2–4 4
Grading for Sands, Max. Size 0.5 – 10 mm Lime
Silty and Clayey Sands Passing 0.075mm sieve Max. 50 Hydrated calcium lime
Plasticity Index (%) Max. 25 (See standard specification) 5
Plasticity Modulus Max 2,500 Amounts Usually Required (%) 2–4
Organic Matter Max 1,200
6
Extra Requirements Passing 0.425mm Sieve Min. 15
for Lime Treatment Plasticity Index (%) Min. 10
Treated Material 7
HIG60: CBR of Laboratory mix at 95 % MDD (modified AASHTO) and 7 days cure + 7 days soak: 60 %,
PI min 5 % - max 12 %. PM max. 250.
8
Application

Pavement Materials
Sub-base for TC1, TC3, TC10 and base for TC0.025 and TC0.1
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±15 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: ±0.50 %
MIXING: in place (pulvimixer or travel plant)
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between OMC-2 and OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Time allowed to complete compaction and finishing: 2hrs (cement), 4hrs (lime)
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 15 mm

PROTECTION AND CURING:

• Time allowed to place protection: 8 hours (lime), 4 hours (cement)
• No traffic permitted for first 7 days

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Materials Specification Charts

1 HYDRAULICALLY IMPROVED GRANULAR MATERIAL (HIG)
Chart HM3 HIG of Minimum CBR 100 % (HIG100)

2 Materials Requirements
Material Before Treatment Cement/HRB
Experience has shown that materials which comply with the Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to
3 following requirements are generally suitable for improvement. KS EAS 18-1 or HRB complying with BS EN 13282.
Material Classification G25 Amounts Required
Grading for Natural Max. Size 10 – 50 mm Plastic Gravels (%) 2–4
4 Gravels Passing 0.075mm sieve 5 – 35 Sands and Clayey Sands (%) 2–3
Grading for Sands, Max. Size 1 – 10 mm Lime
Silty and Clayey Sands Passing 0.075mm sieve Max. 40 Hydrated calcium lime
5 Plasticity Index (%) Max. 20 (See standard specification)
Plasticity Modulus Max 250 Amounts Usually Required (%) 2–4

6 Organic Matter Max. 1

Extra Requirements Passing 0.425mm Sieve Min. 15
for Lime Treatment Plasticity Index (%) Min. 10
7 Treated Material
HIG100: CBR of Laboratory mix at 95 % MDD (modified AASHTO) and 7 days cure + 7 days soak: 100 %,
PI max 8 %. PM max. 250. Other properties as indicated in Table 5.1
8
Application
Pavement Materials

Base for TC0.25 and TC0.5 traffic

Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %
MIXING: in place by grader or by pulvimixer or travel plant. Then apply water by a bowser capable of spraying water
evenly over the surface.
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between OMC-2 and OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Time allowed to complete compaction and finishing: 2 hrs (cement), 4 hrs (lime)
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Time allowed to place protection: 8 hours (lime), 4 hours (cement)
• No traffic permitted for first 7 days

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Materials Specification Charts

HYDRAULICALLY IMPROVED GRANULAR MATERIAL (HIG) 1
Chart HM4 HIG of Minimum CBR 160 % (HIG 160)

Materials Requirements 2
Material Before Treatment Cement/HRB
Experience has shown that materials which comply with the Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to
following requirements are generally suitable for improvement. KS EAS 18-1 or HRB complying with BS EN 13282. 3
Material Classification G30 Amounts Required
Grading for Natural Max. Size 10 – 50 mm Plastic Gravels (%) 2–4
Gravels Passing 0.075 mm sieve 5 – 35 Sands and Clayey Sands (%) 2–4 4
Grading for Sands, Max. Size 1 – 10 mm Lime
Silty and Clayey Sands Passing 0.075 mm sieve Max. 40 Hydrated calcium lime
Plasticity Index (%) Max. 12 (See standard specification) 5
Plasticity Modulus Max 250 Amounts Usually Required (%) 2–4
Organic Matter Max. 1
Extra Requirements Passing 0.425 mm Sieve Min. 15
6
for Lime Treatment Plasticity Index (%) Min. 10
Treated Material
7
HIG160: CBR of Laboratory mix at 95 % MDD (modified AASHTO) and 7 days cure + 7 days soak: 160 %,
PI max 6 %. PM max. 250.

8
Application

Pavement Materials
Sub-base for TC17, TC30, and TC50 and base for TC1, TC3, and TC10. Capping on subgrade classes S5 to S6 for
foundation class F5 for traffic class TC 80 and above.
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %
MIXING: in place by grader or by pulvimixer or travel plant. Then apply water by a bowser capable of spraying water
evenly over the surface.
LAYING: by grader
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between OMC-2 and OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Time allowed to complete compaction and finishing: 2 hrs (cement), 4 hrs (lime)
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm.
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Time allowed to place protection: 8 hours (lime), 4 hours (cement)
• No traffic permitted for first 7 days

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Materials Specification Charts

1 HYDRAULICALLY MODIFIED STONE (HMS)
Chart HM5 HMS of Minimum UCS 1.0 MPa (HMS1)

2 Materials Requirements
Material Before Treatment Cement/HRB
Experience has shown that materials which comply with the Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to KS
3 following requirements are generally suitable for improvement. EAS 18-1 or HRB complying with BS EN 13282.
Material Classification Estimated Amounts Required
Min G45 or GCS-A to GCS-D 1 – 2 % for GCS-A, GCS-B, GCS-C.
4 2 – 3 % for GCS-D or G45.
Treated Material
HIG160: CBR of Laboratory mix at 95 % MDD (modified AASHTO) and 7 days cure + 7 days soak: 160 %,
5 PI max 6 %. PM max. 250.
UCS (MPa): 7 days cure + 7 days soak 1.0 – 2.5 (max) MPa (Cylinder) or minimum
CBR 160 %
6 Plasticity Index (%) after 7 days soak <6
Plasticity Modulus after 7 days soak <250

7 Application
Sub-base for TC17, TC30, and TC50 and base for TC1, TC3, and TC10. Capping on subgrade classes S5 to S6 for
foundation class F5 for traffic class TC80 and above.
8
Construction Procedures
Pavement Materials

Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm

Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %
MIXING: Stationary plant or pulvimixer
LAYING: Paver
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between OMC-2 and OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Time allowed to complete compaction and finishing: 2 hrs (cement or HRB)
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Time allowed to place protection: 4 hours (cement or HRB)
• No traffic permitted for first 7 days

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Materials Specification Charts

HYDRAULICALLY BOUND STONE (HBS) 1
Chart HB1 HBS of Minimum UCS 3.0 MPa (HBS3)

Materials Requirements 2
Material Before Treatment Cement/HRB
Experience has shown that materials which comply with the Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to KS
following requirements are generally suitable for improvement. EAS 18-1 or HRB complying with BS EN 13282. 3
Material Classification Estimated Amounts Required
Min G45 or GCS-A to GCS-D 2 – 3 % for GCS-A, GCS-B, GCS-C.
3 – 4 % for GCS-D of G45. 4
Treated Material
UCS (MPa): 7 days cure + 7 days soak 3 – 6 MPa (Cylinder)
Strength ratio soaked/OMC >0.8 5
Plasticity Index (%) after 7 days soak <6
Plasticity Modulus after 7 days soak <250
6

Application 7
Sub-base for TC80 and higher, and base for TC17, TC30 and TC50. Capping on subgrade classes S5 to S6 for
foundation class F5 for traffic class TC 80 and above.
8
Construction Procedures

Pavement Materials
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %
MIXING: Stationary plant or pulvimixer
LAYING: Paver
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between OMC-2 and OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Time allowed to complete compaction and finishing: 2 hrs (cement or HRB),
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Time allowed to place protection: 4 hours (cement or HRB)
• No traffic permitted for first 7 days

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Materials Specification Charts

1 HYDRAULICALLY BOUND STONE (HBS)
Chart HB2 HBS of Minimum UCS 6.0 MPa (HBS6)

2 Materials Requirements
Material Before Treatment Cement/HRB
Experience has shown that materials which comply with the Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to KS
3 following requirements are generally suitable for improvement. EAS 18-1 or HRB complying with BS EN 13282.
Material Classification Estimated Amounts Required
Min GCS-A, GCS-B and GCS-C 3 – 4 % for GCS-A, GCS-B and GCS-C.
4 Treated Material
UCS (MPa): 7 days cure + 7 days soak 6 – 9 MPa (Cylinder)
Strength ratio soaked/OMC > 0.8
5 Plasticity Index (%) after 7 days soak < NP
Plasticity Modulus after 7 days soak < N/A

6
Application
Sub-base for TC150 and higher, and base for TC17, TC30 and TC50.
7 Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.
8 Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %
MIXING: Stationary plant or pulvimixer
Pavement Materials

LAYING: Paver
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (AASHTO T180)
• Compaction moisture content: between OMC-2 and OMC (AASHTO T180)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Time allowed to complete compaction and finishing: 2hrs (cement or HRB),
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Time allowed to place protection: 4 hours (cement or HRB)
• No traffic permitted for first 7 days

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Materials Specification Charts

HYDRAULICALLY BOUND STONE (HBS) 1
Chart HB3 HBS of Minimum UCS 9.0 MPa (HBS9)

Materials Requirements 2
Material Before Treatment Cement/HRB
Experience has shown that materials which comply with the Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to KS
following requirements are generally suitable for improvement. EAS 18-1 or HRB complying with BS EN 13282. 3
Material of GCS-A Estimated Amounts Required 4–5%
Stone Grading Coarse Aggregate (mm) >2
Sieve Size (mm) % Passing Crushing Ratio (%) 80 4
37.5 100 Flaxiness Index (%) 25
28 90 – 100 Los Angeles Abrasion (%) 35
20 65 – 95 Aggregate Crushing Value (%) Max 28
5
10 40 – 70 Combined Aggregate Requirements
6.3 30 – 55 Fines (Passing 0.425mm) Non-plastic
6
2 18 – 40 Sand Equivalent (%) Min. 40
1 13 – 32 S.S.S (%) 12
0.425 9 – 24 Organic Matter (%) 0.3 7
0.075 0-6
Treated Material
UCS (MPa): 7 days cure + 7 days soak 9 – 15 MPa (Cylinder Strength). No result less 8
than 6 MPa, No strength to exceed 15 MPa.

Pavement Materials
Strength ratio soaked/OMC >0.8

Application
Sub-base for TC50 and higher. Sub-base for concrete pavement for traffic class TC150 and higher.
Construction Procedures
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 125 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %
MIXING: Stationary plant
LAYING: Paver
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Dry Density: 96 % target density established in the test BS 5835 and 85 % specific gravity of stone (Oven-dry
value)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Time allowed to complete compaction and finishing: 2hrs (cement or HRB),
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm.
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Time allowed to place protection: 4 hours (cement or HRB)
• No traffic permitted for first 7 days.
• Protection by bituminous seal coat (preferably emulsion)

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8.9.5 Charts for Bitumen Stabilised Materials

1
Materials Specification Charts
BITUMEN STABILISED MATERIALS (BSM)
2 Chart BM1 BSM of Minimum ITS 50 kPa (BSM50)

Materials Requirements
3 Material Before Treatment Bitumen Stabiliser and Active Filler
Material Class Min G30, or recycled Bitumen Binder: Slow setting A3 and A4 anionic and K3 cationic
asphalt pavement emulsions, foamed bitumen.
Lime for Pre-Treatment and Active Filler
4 CBR after 4-day soak Min 30 % Hydrated Calcium Lime: See standard specification
Plasticity Index Max 12 % Amounts Usually Required: pre-treatment 1 to 2 % and maximum of
1 % as active filler.
5 Organic Mater Max 1 %
Grading Modulus 1.2 – 2.7 Cement for Active Filler
Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to KS EAS 18-1 or
6 HRB complying with BS EN 13282.
Amounts required: Max 1 %
Recommended Residual Binder Content
Material Residual Bitumen (%)
7 Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement 1.75 – 2.50
Graded Crushed Rock 2.25 – 3.00

8 Gravels of CBR ≥ 30 %
Gravels/sands of CBR ≥ 20 %
2.5 – 3.25
2.5 – 4.0
Treated Material
Pavement Materials

The mix shall comply with the following specifications:

Property Specimen curing regime & moisture conditions Specification (%)
ITS dry (kPa) 100 mm diameter Marshall specimen cured for 72 hours at 40°C 125 - 225
ITS wet (kPa) 100 mm diameter Marshall specimen cured for 72 hours at 40°C 50 - 100
and soaked for 24 hours
UCS soaked (kPa) UCS specimen cured for 72 hours at 40°C and soaked for 4 days Min 500
CBR soaked (%) CBR specimen cured for 72 hours at 40°C and soaked for 4 days Min 50
TSR Tensile Strength Ratio:(ITSwet/ ITSdry)× 100 % Min 50%

Application
Base for TC0.25, TC0.5, and TC1 traffic.
Construction Procedures
Use bitumen emulsion A4-60 %. Dilute with suitable water (40 % of bitumen content of emulsion).
Minimum permissible residual bitumen content is 2.0 %.
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
MIXING: In place by travel plant, pulvimixer, disc harrow or grader (least preferred) and stationary batching in a plant
or labour based using hand tools i.e. pans.
LAYING: by grader, paver or labour. Laying should not be done in wet weather conditions.
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (Vibratory hammer)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm.
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Not applicable, allows immediate trafficking

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Materials Specification Charts

BITUMEN STABILISED MATERIALS (BSM) 1
Chart BM2 BSM of Minimum ITS 100 kPa (BSM100)

Materials Requirements 2
Material Before Treatment Bitumen Stabiliser and Active Filler
Material Class Min G45, or recycled Bitumen Binder: Slow setting A3 and A4 anionic and K3 cationic
asphalt pavement emulsions, foamed bitumen. 3
Lime for Pre-Treatment and Active Filler
CBR after 4-day soak Min 45 % Hydrated Calcium Lime: See standard specification
Plasticity Index Max 10 % Amounts Usually Required: pre-treatment 1 to 2 % and maximum of
1 % as active filler.
4
Organic Mater Max 1 %
Grading Modulus 1.2 – 2.7 Cement for Active Filler
Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to KS EAS 18-1 or 5
HRB complying with BS EN 13282.
Amounts required: Max 1 %
Recommended Residual Binder Content
Material Residual Bitumen (%)
6
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement 1.75 – 2.50
Graded Crushed Rock 2.25 – 3.00
7
Gravels of CBR ≥ 30 % 2.5 – 3.25
Gravels/sands of CBR ≥ 20 % 2.5 – 4.0
Treated Material 8
The mix shall comply with the following specifications:
Property Specimen curing regime & moisture conditions Specification (%)

Pavement Materials
ITS dry (kPa) 100 mm diameter Marshall specimen cured for 72 hours at 40°C 200 - 275
ITS wet (kPa) 100 mm diameter Marshall specimen cured for 72 hours at 40°C 100 - 150
and soaked for 24 hours
TSR Tensile Strength Ratio:(ITSwet/ ITSdry) ×100 % Min 60

Application
Base for TC3 and TC10 traffic. Sub-base for TC17 and TC30.
Construction Procedures
Use bitumen emulsion A4-60 %. Dilute with suitable water (40 % of bitumen content of emulsion) or use foamed
bitumen. Minimum permissible residual bitumen content is 2.0 %.
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
MIXING: In place by travel plant (if foamed bitumen is used then the machine should be capable of foaming).
LAYING: by grader, paver or labour. Laying should not be done in wet weather conditions.
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (Vibratory hammer)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm.
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Not applicable, allows immediate trafficking

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Materials Specification Charts

1 BITUMEN STABILISED MATERIALS (BSM)
Chart BM3 BSM of Minimum ITS 175 kPa (BSM175)

2 Materials Requirements
Material Before Treatment Bitumen Stabiliser and Active Filler
Material Class Min GCS-C, or Bitumen Binder: Slow setting A3 and A4 anionic and K3 cationic
3 recycled asphalt emulsions, foamed bitumen.
pavement Lime for Pre-Treatment and Active Filler
CBR after 4-day soak Min 80 % Hydrated Calcium Lime: See standard specification
4 Plasticity Index Max 6 % Amounts Usually Required: pre-treatment 1 to 2 % and maximum of
Organic Mater Max 1 % 1 % as active filler.

Grading Modulus 1.2 – 2.7 Cement for Active Filler

5 Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to KS EAS 18-1 or
HRB complying with BS EN 13282.
Amounts required: Max 1 %
6 Recommended Residual Binder Content
Material Residual Bitumen (%)
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement 1.75 – 2.50
7 Graded Crushed Rock 2.25 – 3.00
Gravels of CBR ≥ 30 % 2.5 – 3.25
Gravels/sands of CBR ≥ 20 % 2.5 – 4.0
8 Treated Material
The mix shall comply with the following specifications:
Pavement Materials

Property Specimen curing regime & moisture conditions Specification (%)

ITS dry (kPa) 100 mm diameter Marshall specimen cured for 72 hours at 40 °C ≥275
ITS wet (kPa) 100 mm diameter Marshall specimen cured for 72 hours at 40 °C ≥175
and soaked for 24 hours
TSR Tensile Strength Ratio:(ITSwet/ ITSdry) ×100 % Min 70

Application
Base for TC17 and TC30 traffic. Sub-base for TC50 and higher.
Construction Procedures
Use bitumen emulsion A4-60 %. Dilute with suitable water (40 % of bitumen content of emulsion) or use foamed
bitumen. Minimum permissible residual bitumen content is 2.0 %.
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.
Cross-fall tolerance: +0.25 %.
MIXING: In place by travel plant (if foamed bitumen is used then the machine should be capable of foaming).
LAYING: by grader, paver or labour. Laying should not be done in wet weather conditions.
COMPACTION:
• Using vibratory steel drum rollers
• Minimum dry density: 95 % MDD (Vibratory hammer)
• Maximum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm
• Thickness tolerance: final compacted thickness shall not be less than the specified by more than 10 mm.
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Not applicable, allows immediate trafficking

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8.9.6 Charts for Bituminous Mixes for Bases and Surfacing

Materials Specification Charts 1
BITUMINOUS BASE MATERIALS
Chart BB1 Dense Bitumen Macadam (DBM)
2
Materials Requirements
Bituminous Binder: 30/50, 50/70, and 80/100 penetration grade bitumen at a content rate of minimum 4 %
determined through mix design. 3
Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm
Sieve Size Nominal Size (mm) Crushing Ratio (%) 100
(mm) 37.5 25 LAA Max. 30 4
50 100 ACV Max. 25
37.5 90 – 100 100 SSS Max. (%) 12
25 – 90 90 – 100 FI Max. (%) 20 5
19 – 90 Fine Aggregate (mm) < 2
12.5 Sand Equivalent Min.(%) 40
9.5 Mineral Filler 6
6.3 Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral mat-
2.36 15 - 41 19 - 45 ter. Shall be non-plastic
1.18 Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100 7
0.300 Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75
0.150 Bulk Density in Toluene 0.5 -0.9 g/ml
0.075 0-6 1-7 8
Usual Bit. (%) Min. 4 Min. 4

Pavement Materials
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size (mm) 37.5 25.0 Notes: An aggregate gradation that passes
below the PCS control point is classified as
Primary Control Sieve (mm) 9.5 4.75
'coarse graded'. A gradation that passes above
PCS Control Point (% passing) 47 40 the PCS control point is classified as 'fine graded'.

Mix Requirements (See Appendix D and E)

MARSHALL:
• Compactibility Test as in Part 1 of BS 5835 to be used in choosing a bitumen content for a trial mix.
• Voids in total mix: 3 % – 8 %.
• As an alternative to the above grading, the Bailey Method may be used to determine a suitable grading.
• Trial Pavement Mixes: From Cores: Voids in compacted mixes: Maximum 7 % (average of at least 5 cores).
○ Marshall Stability: 9 kN at 2 x 75 blows, Flow = 2-4 mm, Dust/Binder ratio = 0.6 to 1.2.
○ Indirect tensile strength: Min. 800 kPa at 25 °C.
○ Tensile strength ratio (wet/dry): Min. 80 %.
• APPLICATION: Base material for TC17 and higher.
SUPERPAVE:
• Compaction levels: Ninitial, Ndesign, and Nmaximum – See Appendix E.
• Compactibility Test as in AASHTO R35 for choosing a trial mix (See Appendix E).
• Voids in total mix: 4 %.
• Grading as per the above envelopes.
• Trial Pavement Mixes: From Cores: Voids in compacted mixes: Maximum 6 % (average of at least 5 cores).
○ Density: 96 % @ Ndesign and 98 % @ Nmaximum (See Appendix E).
Application
Surfacing for TC80 and higher.
Performance Requirements for TC80 and Higher
Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test: Max. rut = 15 mm at 60 °C after 10000 passes (5000 cycles).
Fatigue test (4-point bending beam): Min. ratio of final stiffness to initial stiffness after 1 million cycles
at 400 microstrain = 50 %.
Dynamic Creep Test: Min. Creep Modulus at 40°C = 10 MPa.
Construction Procedures
MIXING: In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: 80/100 (130 - 150°C); For Superpave dependent on selected binder.

(...Continues on next page)

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Construction Procedures (...continued)

1 LAYING: By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures 80/100 (120 °C - 150 °C); For Superpave dependent on
selected binder.
COMPACTION:
2 • Mean density: 95 % of refusal density (no individual result should be below 93%).
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: 80°C (60/70) and 70 °C (80/100); For Superpave dependent on
selected binder.
3 • Steel wheel roller (5000-7000 kg/m of roll width).
• Pneumatic tyred roller (Min. 4 tonnes per wheel).
• Vibratory rollers (Min. 200 kg/m of roll width).
• Minimum compacted layer thickness: 60 mm (19 and 12.5 NMAS) and 75 mm (25 and 37.5 NMAS).
4 • Maximum compacted layer thickness: 100 mm (19 and 12.5 NMAS) and 125 mm (19 and 12.5 NMAS).

8
Pavement Materials

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Materials Specification Charts

BITUMINOUS BASE MATERIALS 1
Chart BB2 Enrobé À Module Élevé (High Modulus Asphalt) (EME)

Materials Requirements 2
Bituminous Binder: 10/20 or 20/30 penetration grade bitumen at a content rate of minimum 4 % determined through
mix design.
Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm 3
Sieve Size Nominal Size (mm) Crushing Ratio (%) 100
(mm) 0/10 0/14 0/20 LAA Max. 35
50 ACV Max. 28 4
40 SSS Max. (%) 12
31.5 1 100 FI Max. (%) 25
20 100 90 - 99 Fine Aggregate (mm) < 2 5
14 100 90 - 99 70 - 95 Sand Equivalent Min.(%) 40
10 90 - 99 - 55 - 90 Mineral Filler
6.3 60 - 80 42 - 65 42 - 75 Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral matter. 6
4 35 - 65 - - Shall be non-plastic
2 27 - 42 19 - 42 18 - 35 Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100
0.250 8 - 18 8 - 18 8 - 18 Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75 7
0.063 5-9 5-9 5-9 Bulk Density in Toluene 0.5 -0.9 g/ml
Usual Bit. (%) Min. 5.5 Min. 5.3 Min. 5.1
Gyratory Comp. 80 100 120 8

Pavement Materials
Mix Requirements
Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test: Maximum proportional deformation (%) = 7.5 at 60 °C.
Minimum laboratory dynamic modulus (4-point bending beam): = 8000 MPa @ 20 °C and 5 Hz.
Voids in total mix: 3 % - 5 %.
Application
Base material for TC50 and higher.
Construction Procedures
MIXING: In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: To be determined for specific sources.
LAYING: By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures: To be determined for specific sources.
COMPACTION:
• Mean density: 96 % maximum theoretical density determined in the laboratory (no individual result should be
below 93 %).
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: To be determined for specific sources.
• Steel wheel roller (5000-7000 kg/m of roll width).
• Pneumatic tyred roller (Min. 4 tonnes per wheel).
• Vibratory rollers (Min. 200 kg/m of roll width).
• Minimum compacted layer thickness: 60 mm.
• Maximum compacted layer thickness: 100 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 BITUMINOUS BASE MATERIALS
Chart BB3 Sand Bitumen Mixture (SBM) - Bitumen Stabilised Silty Clayey Sand

2 Materials Requirements
Silty Clayey Sand Bituminous Binder
Free of soluble salts, organic and other deleterious matter. Anionic emulsion A3 or cut-back MC 250 or MC 800
3 Passing 0.075 mm (%) Max. 10 - 30 Usual Amount (%) 2.5 - 5 (residual)
Liquid Limit Max. 40 SSS Max. (%) 12
Plasticity Index (%) Max 15 FI Max. (%) 20
4 Treated Material
Traffic Class/Specification
Parameter
TC10 TC3-TC1
5 Marshall Stability (kN): Minimum 5.25 3.75
Flow Value (mm) 2-4 2-5

6 Water Absorbed after 7 days soak (Max %) 4 4

Application
7 Suitable for TC1 to TC10 (where risk of overloaded axles is low).
Construction Procedures
8 MIXING: In place, bitumen temperatures (pulvimixer or travel plant).
LAYING: By grader.
Pavement Materials

COMPACTION:
• Mean density: 95 % Laboratory design Marshall density (no individual result should be below 93%).
• Minimum thickness compacted in one layer: 200 mm.
• Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

BITUMINOUS BASE MATERIALS 1
Chart BB4 Sand Bitumen Mixture (SBM) - Clean Sand

Materials Requirements 2
Bituminous Binder:
60/70 or 40/50 penetration grade bitumen at a content 3 % – 4.5 % rate determined through mix design.
Sand Bituminous Binder 3
Free of soluble salts, organic and other deleterious matter. Bitumen 40/50 or 60/70 pen or emulsion A2 or A3
Passing 0.075 mm (%) Max. 20 Usual Amount (%) 3 - 4 (residual)
Sand Equivalent (%) Min. 30 Mineral Filler 4
Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral matter.
Shall be non-plastic
Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100 5
Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75
Sand Mix Requirements (mm) TC10 TC3-TC1
Marshall Stability (kN): Minimum 3 2.5 6
Flow Value (mm) 2-4 2-5

Application
7
Suitable for TC1 to TC10 (where risk of overloaded axles is low).
Construction Procedures 8
MIXING: In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: 60/70 (130 – 150°C); 80/100 (120 - 140°C).

Pavement Materials
LAYING: By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures 130°C (60/70) and 125°C (80/100) or by labour-based
methods.
COMPACTION:
• Mean density: 95% Laboratory design Marshall density (no individual result should be below 93%).
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: 80°C (60/70) and 90°C (40/50).
• Thickness of compacted layer: 100-150 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 SURFACING MATERIALS
Chart SU1 Surface Dressing

2 Materials Requirements
Bituminous Binder: Cationic emulsion K1-70 and 80/100, 150/200 penetration grade bitumen, MC 300, polymer-
modified bitumens.
3 Chippings Grading Chippings Requirements
Sieve Size Nominal Size (mm) Chipping Class 1 2 3 4
(mm) 14/20 10/14 6/10 3/6 LAA Max. 20 25 30 35
4 28 100 – – – ACV Max. 16 20 23 26
20 85 – 100 100 – – SSS Max. (%) 12 12 12 12
14 0 – 30 85 – 100 100 – FI Max. (%) 20 20 25 25
5 10 0–7 0 – 30 85 – 100 100 Angularity (all classes)
6.3 – 0–7 0 – 30 85 - 100 Minimum size of stone to be at least 4 times maximum
size of chippings.
6 5 – – 0 – 10 – Cleanliness (all classes)
3 – – – 0 – 30 Passing 0.075 mm (%) 1

7 2
0.5
0–2
–
0–2
–
0–2
–
0 – 10
0–2
Free of deleterious matter.

Crushed Rock Sand (wholly derived from crushed stone)

8 Sieve Size (mm) % Passing by Weight

6.30 100
Pavement Materials

0.300 0 – 15
0.150 0–2

Traffic Limitation
Total traffic on 2 lanes (veh./day) in
>6,000 2,000 – 6,000 500 – 2,000 <500
year of application of chippings
Chippings class required 1 2 3 4
Construction Procedures
Use of K1-70 bitumen emulsion should only be considered if other options are not possible. It requires very high
spray rates to attain the specified residual binder content which makes it flow off the surface during spraying on
steep and elevated sections. Economically, it has high ex-factory and transport cost components and therefore only
viable if produced on site. 80/100 PG bitumen may be blended with up to 5% kerosene depending on road surface
temperature to enable uniform spray rate.
SPRAYING:
• By bitumen distributor.
• Spraying temperatures: K1 – 70: 75 – 85°C; and 80/100 PG : 160 - 170°C.
• The rate of application shall not vary by more than ±10%.
SPREADING THE CHIPPINGS:
• By mechanical spreader.
• Time allowed (after spraying) to spread chippings: 1 minute.
• The rate of application shall not vary by more than ±10%.
ROLLING:
• Preferably by pneumatic tyred rollers (minimum 1 tonne per wheel).
• Steel wheeled rollers of less than 8 tonnes accepted.
• Time allowed (after spraying) to start rolling: 2 minutes.
TRAFFIC CONTROL:
• Speed must be restricted to 30 km/hr until chippings are held.

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Materials Specification Charts

SURFACING MATERIALS 1
Chart SU2 Emulsion Slurry Seal

Materials Requirements 2
Anionic Emulsion:
A4-60 (slow-setting slurry), or Cationic emulsion K1-60 (quick-setting slurry), K3-65 (slow-setting slurry)
Aggregate Grading Aggregate 3
Sieve size % by Weight Passing Shall be free of organic and other deleterious matter.
(mm) Type I Type II Type III
(Fine) (Normal) (Coarse)
Sand Equivalent Min. 40
4
10 – – 100 Percentage of Crusher Dust (all classes)
6.3 – 100 80 – 95 Slurry Class A (%) Min. 50
5 – 90 – 100 70 – 90 Slurry Class B (%) Min. 25 5
2 100 60 – 87 40 – 65 Mineral Filler
1 60 – 85 40 – 67 25 – 45
0.425 30 – 48 22 – 38 15 – 28
Cement complying to KS EAS 18-1, HRB complying to
BS EN 13282, Hydrated Lime or other non-plastic mineral
6
0.300 25 – 42 18 – 30 12 – 25 matter
0.150 15 – 30 10 – 20 7 – 18
Usual Amount (%) 1 (by weight) 7
0.075 10 - 20 5 - 15 5 - 15

Application
8
For traffic up to 2000 vpd/lane. Should usually be applied as a second or third seal. For LVSRs, it should be used in
two layers if it is the only seal.

Pavement Materials
Mixture
EMULSION: 15 – 25 % (by weight of dry aggregate)
WATER : 10 – 25 % (by weight of dry aggregate)
Rate of Application
130 – 250 m2/m3 (4 – 8 litre/m2)
Construction Procedures
MIXING: By concrete mixer or preferably slurry machine.
LAYING: By slurry machine.
CURLING: No traffic until cured to a firm condition (no pick-up by tyres).
ROLLING: If required, by pneumatic tyred roller.
NOTE: The wet track abrasion test gives some guidance for initial emulsion content, and application rate selection. However, for
all roads carrying substantial traffic it is considered necessary to observe the performance of trial sections under traffic before
selecting a job mix and application rate.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 SURFACING MATERIALS
Chart SU3 Cold Mix Asphalt Seal

2 Materials Requirements
Cationic Emulsion: K3-65 (slow setting) or anionic emulsion A3, and suitable aggregates.
Aggregate Grading Aggregate Requirements
3 Sieve Size % By Weight Passing LAA Max. 40
(mm) 0/10 0/14 ACV Max. 30
20 100 100 SSS Max. (%) 12
4 14 100 90 - 100 FI Max. (%) 25
10 90 - 100 70 - 95 Sand Equivalent Min 40
6.3 62 - 90 55 - 85 Binder Content
5 4 50 - 80 46 - 75 Sand Equivalent Min.(%) 40
2 35 - 65 35 - 60 Properties of Compacted Mix

6 1 25 - 50 25 - 45 Modified Marshall Stability at

0.425 14 - 33 14 - 32 50 blows, 24 hr oven cure at 40°C Min 3000
0.300 11 - 27 11 - 27 and 1 hr soak (N)

7 0.150 6 - 17 6 - 17 Voids in Total Mix (%) 3–8

0.075 3-8 3-8 Flow (mm) 2–5
Mineral Filler Stability loss after immersion (%) Max 50
8 Cement, Lime or other non-plastic materials Aggregate Coating (%) Min 50
Pavement Materials

Application
Suitable for traffic classes TC0.25, TC0.5 & TC1& TC3
Construction Procedures
MIXING: In a stationary plant, concrete mixer or in pans using labour.
LAYING: By paver and labour using guide rails.
CURLING: No traffic until cured to a firm condition (no pick-up by tyres). Quarry dust or sand may be applied to
facilitate immediate passage of traffic.
ROLLING: Preferably a combination of pneumatic tyred roller and steel drum roller maximum 8 tonne.

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Materials Specification Charts

SURFACING MATERIALS 1
Chart SU4 Otta Seal

Materials Requirements 2
Bituminous Binder: MC 3000 and 150/200 Pen. Grade Bitumen
Aggregate Grading Aggregate Requirements
vpd at construction 3
Sieve Size Test Designation.
% By Weight Passing <100 >100
(mm)
10% FACT (Dry) 90 kN 110 kN
20 100 Wet/Dry Strength Ratio 0.60 0.75 4
14 65 – 100 LAA Max. Max 40
10 45 – 95 ACV Max. (%) Max 30
6.3 25 – 80 Plasticity Index Max. (%) Max 10
5
4 15 – 65 FI Max. (%) Max 30
2 10 – 50
6
1 5 – 40
0.425 3 – 30
0.075 0 – 10 7
Traffic Limitations
Total traffic on 2 lanes single car- 8
riageway in both directions (veh. /
day) in year of application of aggre- <100 100 – 1000 >1000

Pavement Materials
gates. Surfacing for TC0.25, TC0.5 &
TC1& TC3
Bitumen Binder MC 3000 150/200 Pen 150/200 Pen
Construction Procedures
SPRAYING:
• By bitumen distributor.
• Spraying temperatures: MC 3000: 135 – 155 °C; 150/200 Pen. Grade: 165 – 180 °C.
• The rate of application shall not vary by more than ±10%.
SPREADING THE CHIPPINGS:
• By mechanical spreader.
• Time allowed (after spraying) to spread chippings: 5 minutes.
• The rate of application shall not vary by more than ±10%.
ROLLING:
• Preferably by pneumatic tyred roller (minimum 1 tonne per wheel) at hottest 2 hrs of the day every day for first 4
days.
• Steel wheeled roller of less than 8 tonnes accepted for maximum of 4 passes only.
• Time allowed (after spraying) to start rolling: 2 minutes.
TRAFFIC CONTROL:
• Speed must be restricted to 30 km/hr until aggregates are held.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 SURFACING MATERIALS
Chart SU5 Sand Seal

2 Materials Requirements
Bituminous Binder: MC 800, MC 3000 & K1-70.
Aggregate Grading Aggregate Requirements
3 Sieve Size Sand Equivalent. Max. 40
% Passing
(mm) Plasticity Index (%) Non-plastic
6.3 100 Residue Binder Amount 0.9 to 1.2 litre/m2
4 5 95 - 100 Sand Spread Rate 6 to 7 litre/m2
4 90 - 100

5 2 50 - 95
1 20 - 80
0.6 10 - 50
6 0.425 3 - 25
0.3 0 - 15
0.15 0-8
7 0.075 0-5

Traffic Application
8 Total traffic on 2 lanes single carriageway in both directions (veh. /day).
Pavement Materials

Less than 100 vpd Sand seal is applied directly on the base layer. (2 seals preferred).
100 to 500 vpd Second seal on Surface Dressing or Otta Seal. Split application preferred for better
performance.
Construction Procedures
SPRAYING:
• By bitumen distributor.
• Spraying temperatures: MC 800: 110 – 135 °C; MC 3,000: 135 – 155 °C; Emulsions at ambient temperature
• The rate of application shall not vary by more than ±10%.
SPREADING THE CHIPPINGS:
• By labour based methods
• Time allowed (after spraying) to spread chippings: 1 minute.
• The rate of application shall not vary by more than ±10%.
ROLLING:
• Preferably by pneumatic tyred roller (minimum 1 tonne per wheel) at hottest 2 hrs of the day every day for first 2
days.
• Steel wheeled roller of less than 8 tonnes accepted for maximum of 4 passes only.
• Time allowed (after spraying) to start rolling: 5 minutes.
TRAFFIC CONTROL:
• Speed must be restricted to 30 km/hr until aggregates are held.

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Materials Specification Charts

SURFACING MATERIALS 1
Chart SU6 Sand Asphalt

Materials Requirements 2
Bituminous Binder: 60/70 or 80/100 penetration grade bitumen at a content 6 % – 10 % rate determined through
mix design.
Aggregate Grading Aggregate 3
Sieve Size Sand Equivalent 40
% Passing
(mm) SSS Max. (%) 12
10 100 Mineral Filler 4
6.3 95 - 100 Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral matter. Shall be non-plastic
2 70 - 100 Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100
1 47 - 95 Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75
5
0.425 20 - 75 Bulk Density in Toluene 0.5 - 0.9 g/ml
0.300 15 - 60 Sand Asphalt Mix Requirements
6
0.150 8 - 30 Marshall Stability (kN) 3–9
0.075 4 - 12 Flow Value (mm) 2–6
Uniformity
Min. 5 Voids in Total Mix (%) 5 – 10 7
Coefficient

Pavement Materials
Application
Sand asphalt is suitable for TC1 to TC3 (where risk of overloaded axles is low).
Construction Procedures
MIXING:
• In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: 60/70 (130 – 150 °C); 80/100 (120 - 140 °C)
LAYING:
• By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures 130 °C (60/70) and 125 °C (80/100) or by labour-based methods.
COMPACTION:
• Minimum density: 96 % Laboratory design Marshall density.
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: 80 °C (60/70) and 70 °C (80/100).
• Steel wheel roller (5-7 kg/mm of roll width).
• Pneumatic tyred roller (Min. 2 tonnes per wheel).
• Minimum compacted layer thickness: 25 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 SURFACING MATERIALS
Chart SU7 Gap Graded Asphalt

2 Materials Requirements
Bituminous Binder: 60/70 penetration grade bitumen at a content rate determined through mix design.
Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm
3 Nominal Size Aggregate Class a b c
Sieve Size (mm)
Coarse Aggregate (mm) LAA Max. (%) 30 35 40
19 100 ACV Max. (%) 25 28 30
4 12.5 38 - 100 SSS Max. (%) 12 12 12
9.5 0 - 69 FI Max. (%) 20 25 25

5 2.36 0-2 Fine Aggregate < 2 mm

Sand Equivalent (%) 40
Sieve Size (mm) Fine Aggregate
SSS Max. (%) 12
6 1.18 100 Mineral Filler
0.425 70 - 97 Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral matter. Shall be non-plastic
0.300 49 - 93 Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100
7 0.150 16 - 58 Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75
0.075 0 - 20 Bulk Density in Toluene 0.5 -0.9 g/ml

8 Gap Mix Requirements

Marshall Stability (kN) 3–9
Pavement Materials

Flow Value (mm) 2–6

Marshall Quotient (kN/mm) 2.0
Voids in mortar of mix (%) 3–9
Filler/bitumen ratio 0.9 – 1.3
MIX DESIGN: #
1. Prepare mixture of fine aggregate and filler to give 1:6 ratio by mass of filler to fine aggregate retained on 0.075
mm sieve. Determine the optimum bitumen content which gives maximum Marshall Quotient.
2. By adding coarse aggregate and reducing bitumen content, the Marshall Quotient may be increased to the
specified value. 20 % coarse aggregate will increase quotient by a factor of approx. 1.5, 30 % by 1.9, 40 % by 2.4
and 55 % by 3.0. For an increase in coarse aggregate the revised bitumen content is given by:
3. Nominal bitumen content = (Optimum bitumen content (100-S)/100) + 2.3(S)/100. Where S = % of coarse
aggregate added.
4. Prepare mixes in accordance with BS 594 at nominal bitumen content from (2) to check specified requirements.

Application
Surfacing for TC1 and TC3.
Construction Procedures
MIXING:
• In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: 60/70 (130 – 150 °C); 80/100 (120 - 140 °C)
LAYING:
• By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures 130 °C (60/70) and 125 °C (80/100).
COMPACTION:
• Mean density: 96 % Laboratory design Marshall density (no individual result should be below 93%).
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: 80 °C (60/70) and 70 °C (80/100).
• Steel wheel roller (5-7 kg/mm of roll width).
• Pneumatic tyred roller (Min. 2 tonnes per wheel).
• Minimum compacted layer thickness: 25 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

SURFACING MATERIALS 1
Chart SU8 Asphalt Concrete (ACII) Continuously Graded

Materials Requirements 2
Bituminous Binder: 60/70 or 80/100 penetration grade bitumen at a content rate of 5.5% – 7.5% determined through
mix design.
Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm 3
Nominal Size (mm)
Aggregate Class a b c
Sieve Size (mm) Coarse Aggregate
0/10 0/14 LAA Max. (%) 30 35 40 4
28 - - ACV Max. (%) 25 28 30
20 - 100 SSS Max. (%) 12 12 12
14 100 90 - 100 FI Max. (%) 20 25 25 5
10 90 - 100 70 - 95 Fine Aggregate < 2 mm
6.3 62 - 90 55 - 85 Sand Equivalent (%) 40
2 35 - 65 35 - 60 SSS Max. (%) 12
6
1 25 - 50 25 - 45 Mineral Filler
0.425 14 - 33 14 - 32 Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral matter. Shall be non-plastic.
7
0.300 11 - 27 11 - 27 Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100
0.150 6 - 17 6 - 17 Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75
0.075 3-8 3-8 Bulk Density in Toluene 0.5 -0.9 g/ml 8

Pavement Materials
ACII Mix Requirements
Crushing Ratio (%) 60
Marshall Stability (kN) 4–7
Flow Value (mm) 2–5
Voids in total mix (%) 3–8

Application
Surfacing for TC1 and TC3.
Construction Procedures
MIXING:
• In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: 60/70 (130 – 150 °C); 80/100 (120 - 140 °C)
LAYING:
• By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures 130 °C (60/70) and 125 °C (80/100).
COMPACTION:
• Mean density: 96 % Laboratory design Marshall density (no individual result should be below 93%).
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: 80 °C (60/70) and 70 °C (80/100).
• Steel wheel roller (5-7 kg/mm of roll width).
• Pneumatic tyred roller (Min. 2 tonnes per wheel).
• Minimum compacted layer thickness: 25 mm.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 SURFACING MATERIALS
Chart SU9 Asphalt Concrete Surfacing − Wearing Course (AC-WC)

2 Materials Requirements
Bituminous Binder: 60/70, and 80/100 penetration grade bitumen at a content rate of 5.5% – 7.0% determined
through mix design. For Superpave, the binder is dependent on analysis of temperature data for the study site.
3 Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm
Nominal Size (mm) Crushing Ratio (%) 100
Sieve Size (mm)
12.5 9.5 LAA Max. (%) 30
4 50 ACV Max. (%) 25
37.5 SSS Max. (%) 12
25 FI Max. (%) 20
5 19 100 Fine Aggregate < 2 mm
12.5 90 - 100 100 Sand Equivalent (%) Min 40

6 9.5 90 90 - 100 Mineral Filler

6.3 Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral matter. Shall be
2.36 28 - 58 32 - 67 non-plastic.

7 1 Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100

0.300 Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75
0.150 Bulk Density in Toluene 0.5 -0.9 g/ml
8 0.075 2 - 10 2 - 10
Usual Bit. (%) Min. 5.5% Min. 5.5%
Pavement Materials

Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size (mm) 12.5 9.5 Notes: An aggregate gradation that passes
below the PCS control point is classified as
Primary Control Sieve (mm) 2.36 2.36 “coarse graded”. A gradation that passes
above the PCS control point is classified as
PCS Control Point (% passing) 39 47 “fine graded”.

Mix Requirements (See Appendix D and E)

• APPLICATION: Surfacing for TC10 and higher.
SUPERPAVE:
• Compaction levels: Ninitial, Ndesign, and Nmaximum – See Appendix E.
• Compactibility Test as in AASHTO R35 for choosing a trial mix (See Appendix E).
• Voids in total mix: 4 %.
• Grading as per the above envelopes.
• Trial Pavement Mixes: From Cores: Voids in compacted mixes: Maximum 6 % (average of at least 5 cores).
○ Density: 96 % at Ndesign and 98 % at Nmaximum (See Appendix E).
Performance Requirements for TC80 and Higher
Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test: Max. rut = 15 mm at 60 °C after 10,000 passes (5,000 cycles).
Fatigue test (4-point bending beam): Min. ratio of final stiffness to initial stiffness after 1 million cycles
at 400 microstrain = 50 %.
Dynamic Creep Test: Min. Creep Modulus at 40°C = 10 MPa.
Construction Procedures
MIXING: In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: 80/100 (130 - 150 °C); For Superpave dependent on selected binder.

(...Continues on next page)

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Construction Procedures (...continued)

LAYING: By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures 80/100 (120 °C - 150 °C); For Superpave dependent on 1
selected binder.
COMPACTION:
• Mean density: 95 % of refusal density; (no individual result should be below 93 %); For Superpave: 94 % 2
theoretical maximum density
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: 80 °C (60/70) and 70 °C (80/100); For Superpave dependent on
selected binder
• Steel wheel roller (5000-7000 kg/m of roll width)
3
• Pneumatic tyred roller (Min. 4 tonnes per wheel)
• Vibratory rollers (Min. 200 kg/m of roll width)
• Minimum compacted layer thickness: 60 mm (19 and 12.5 NMAS) and 75 mm (25 and 37.5 NMAS) 4

Pavement Materials

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Materials Specification Charts

1 SURFACING MATERIALS
Chart SU10 Asphalt Concrete Surfacing − Binder Course (AC-BC)

2 Materials Requirements
Bituminous Binder: 30/50, 60/70, and 80/100 penetration grade bitumen at a content rate of 5.0% – 6.5% determined
through mix design. For Superpave, the binder is dependent on analysis of temperature data for the study site.
3 Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm
Sieve Nominal Size (mm) Crushing Ratio (%) 100
Size (mm) 25 19 12.5 9.5 LAA Max. (%) 30
4 50 ACV Max. (%) 25
37.5 100 SSS Max. (%) 12
25 90 - 100 100 FI Max. (%) 20
5 19 90 90 - 100 100 Fine Aggregate < 2 mm
12.5 90 - 100 100 Sand Equivalent (%) Min 40

6 9.5 90 90 - 100 Mineral Filler

6.3 Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral matter. Shall be
2.36 19 - 45 23 - 49 28 - 58 32 - 67 non-plastic.

7 1 Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100

0.300 Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75
0.150 Bulk Density in Toluene 0.5 - 0.9 g/ml
8 0.075 1-7 2-8 2 - 10 2 - 10
Usual Min. Min. Min. Min.
Pavement Materials

Bit. (%) 5.0 % 5.0 % 5.5 % 5.5 %

Notes: An aggregate gradation
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size (mm) 25.0 19.0 12.5 9.5
that passes below the PCS
control point is classified as
Primary Control Sieve (mm) 4.75 4.75 2.36 2.36 'coarse graded'. A gradation
that passes above the PCS
control point is classified as
PCS Control Point (% passing) 40 47 39 47
'fine graded'.

Mix Requirements (See Appendix D and E)

APPLICATION: Surfacing for TC10 and higher.
SUPERPAVE:
• Compaction levels: Ninitial, Ndesign, and Nmaximum – See Appendix E.
• Compactibility Test as in AASHTO R35 for choosing a trial mix (See Appendix E).
• Voids in total mix: 4 %.
• Grading as per the above envelopes.
• Trial Pavement Mixes: From Cores: Voids in compacted mixes: Maximum 6 % (average of at least 5 cores).
○ Density: 96 % at Ndesign and 98 % at Nmaximum (See Appendix E).
Performance Requirements for TC80 and Higher
Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test: Max. rut = 15 mm at 60 °C after 10,000 passes (5,000 cycles).
Fatigue test (4-point bending beam): Min. ratio of final stiffness to initial stiffness after 1 million cycles
at 400 microstrain = 50 %.
Dynamic Creep Test: Min. Creep Modulus at 40 °C = 10 MPa.
Construction Procedures
MIXING: In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: 80/100 (130 - 150 °C); For Superpave dependent on selected binder.
Construction Procedures (...continued)
LAYING: By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures 80/100 (120 °C - 150 °C); For Superpave dependent on
selected binder.

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COMPACTION:
• Mean density: 95 % of refusal density (no individual result should be below 93 %); For Superpave: 94 %
theoretical maximum density
1
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: 80 °C (60/70) and 70 °C (80/100); For Superpave dependent on
selected binder
• Steel wheel roller (5000-7000 kg/m of roll width) 2
• Pneumatic tyred roller (Min. 4 tonnes per wheel)
• Vibratory rollers (Min. 200 kg/m of roll width)
• Minimum compacted layer thickness: 100 mm (19 and 12.5 NMAS) and 125 mm (19 and 12.5 NMAS)
3

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Materials Specification Charts

1 SURFACING MATERIALS
Chart SU11 Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)

2 Materials Requirements
Bituminous Binder: Polymer modified binder. 40/50 or 60/70 penetration grade bitumen at a content rate of minimum
5% determined through mix design.
3 Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm
Nominal Size (mm) Crushing Ratio (%) 100
Sieve Size (mm)
0/9.5 0/12.5 0/19 LAA Max. (%) 35
4 50 ACV Max. (%) 28
37.5 SSS Max. (%) 12
25 100 FI Max. (%) 25
5 19 100 90 - 100 Fine Aggregate < 2 mm
12.5 100 90 - 100 50 - 88 Sand Equivalent (%) Min 40

6 9.5 90 - 95 50 - 80 25 - 60 Mineral Filler

6.7 Cement, Lime, Limestone or other mineral matter.
4.75 30 - 50 20 - 35 20 - 28 Shall be non-plastic.

7 2.36 20 - 30 16 - 24 16 - 24 Passing 0.425 mm (%) 100

1.18 - 21
0.300 - 15 - Passing 0.075 mm (%) 75
8 0.075 8 - 12 8 - 11 8 - 11 Bulk Density in Toluene 0.5 - 0.9 g/ml
Usual Bit. (%) Min. 6.2 % Min. 5.8 % Min. 5.4 %
Pavement Materials

Mix Requirements
• Designed in similar way as Asphalt Concrete Type II
• Marshall Stability: Min. 6 kN
• Marshall Quotient: > 2.5
• Voids in mineral aggregate: > 17
• Voids in total mix: 3 % - 5 %
• Voids filled with bitumen: 71 % - 92 %
• ITS wet/dry ratio: 70 %
• Dust to binder ratio = 1.0-1.5
• Binder film thickness: >8 µm
• Fibre content: 0.3% to 0.5%
Performance Requirements for TC80 and Higher
Hamburg Wheel Tracking Test: Max. rut = 15 mm at 60°C after 10,000 passes (5,000 cycles).
Fatigue test (4-point bending beam): Min. ratio of final stiffness to initial stiffness after 1 million cycles
at 400 microstrain = 50 %.
Dynamic Creep Test: Min. Creep Modulus at 40°C = 10 MPa.
Application
Base material for TC50 and higher.
Construction Procedures
MIXING: In stationary plant, bitumen temperatures: To be determined for specific sources.
LAYING: By mechanical paver at minimum temperatures: To be determined for specific sources.
COMPACTION:
• Mean density: 95 % maximum theoretical density determined in the laboratory (no individual result should be
below 93 %).
• Minimum temperature at end of compaction: To be determined for specific sources.
• Steel wheel roller (5000 - 7000 kg/m of roll width).
• Pneumatic tyred roller (Min. 4 tonnes per wheel).
• Vibratory rollers (Min. 200 kg/m of roll width).
• Minimum compacted layer thickness: 60 mm.
• Maximum compacted layer thickness: 100 mm.

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8.9.7 Charts for Cobblestones, Concrete Block Paving, and Cement Concrete for
Rigid Pavements 1
Materials Specification Charts
PAVING BLOCKS
Chart PB1 Cobblestone Paving
2

Materials Requirements
Cobblestone, Kerbstones and Intersection Stones
3
Cobblestone Dimension Qualities

Category Type
Length
(mm)
Breadth
(mm)
Depth
(mm)
Compressive strength at
28 days cure (MPa)
Min 25 4
10 100 100 100 Water Absorption (%) Max 10
Cubical Shape 11/13 110 – 130 110 – 130 130 Los Angeles Abrasion (%) Max 50
5
14/17 140 - 170 140 - 170 150 Specific Gravity 2 – 2.8
Stretcher Shape 13 ≥ 130 110 110 Tolerance
16 ≥ 160 110 – 130 150 Faces raw chiselled with max 5 mm roughness 6
20 ≥ 200 140 – 160 150 difference, crack-free and clean

Kerbstone and Intersection Stone Dimension 7

• Kerbstones shall be rectangular blocks of 400 mm (length) x 100 mm (width) x 200 mm (depth) precast, or
chiselled, or machine cut.
• The intersection stones shall comprise of the first two rows of cobblestone as specified above laid adjacent to the
kerbstone.
8

Pavement Materials
Bedding and Joint Filler Material
This shall be naturally occurring clean sand or crushed rock fines, free from clay, lumps or other deleterious material
with a grading curve falling within the following envelope:
Nominal Sieve Size (mm) Percentage by Mass Passing (%)
10.00 100
5.00 90 – 100
2.36 75 – 100
1.18 55 – 90
600 µm 34 – 70
300 µm 8 – 35
150 µm 0 – 10
75 µm 0–3
Application
Base/Surfacing for low-speed areas with Traffic classes: TC0.25, TC0.5 and TC1 traffic.
Construction Procedures
• Sub-base/Foundation material shall be at least G30 in accordance with Chart GM8.
• Kerbs shall be set & embedded in concrete (class 15/20) to line/levels per design/drawings.
• After installation of kerbs, prime sub-base with MC 70 or MC 30 cutback bitumen depending on the permeability
of the underlying material. Allow prime to cure/dry.
• Apply bedding sand on the sub-base to a thickness of 25 – 50 mm.
• Pack stones tightly, brush sand into gaps between stones, compact with a light non-vibratory roller or plate
compactor.
• Brush in more sand, leave it on surface for 2 weeks after traffic opening, then brush off.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 PAVING BLOCKS
Chart PB2 Concrete Block Paving Surfacing

2 Materials Requirements
Precast Concrete Blocks
These shall be manufactured in compliance to KS 827 and are graded in the following strength categories:
3 Nominal Compressive
Grade Traffic Application
Thickness (mm) Strength (N/mm2)
80 49
4 Heavy Duty (H)
60 49
Main roads & heavy industrial applications

Medium Duty (M) 60 35 Estate roads and parking areas

Light Duty (L) 50 25 Domestic driveways, parking areas & sidewalks
5 Categories of Paving Blocks by Dimension Gradings of Aggregates for Concrete Blocks
Category Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness Sieve Size (mm) % Passing

6 Type R 200 100 As above 14.00 100

Any shape fitting within a 295mm square 10.00 85 – 100
Type S coordinating space, having a work size of not 6.30 0 – 55
7 less than 80mm
5.00 0 – 10

Bedding and Joint Filler Material

8 This shall be naturally occurring clean sand or crushed rock fines, free from clay, lumps or other deleterious material
with a grading curve falling within the following envelope:
Pavement Materials

Nominal Sieve Size (mm) Percentage by Mass Passing (%)

10.00 100
5.00 90 – 100
2.36 75 – 100
1.18 55 – 90
600 µm 34 – 70
300 µm 8 – 35
150 µm 0 – 10
75 µm 0–3
Application
PCB + sand layer as Base/Surfacing for low-speed traffic as indicated above.
Construction Procedures
• Sub-Base/Foundation material shall be at least G30 in accordance with Chart GM8.
• The kerbs shall be set in concrete class C15/20 to line and levels as per design drawings.
• After kerb installation, the sub-base shall be primed with MC 70 / MC 30 cutback bitumen depending on the
permeability of the underlying material. Allow prime to cure/dry.
• Apply bedding sand on the sub-base to a thickness of 25 – 50 mm.
• Pack blocks tightly, brush sand into spaces between PCB, compact with a light non-vibratory roller or plate
compactor.
• Brush more sand in. Leave loose sand on surfacing for 2 weeks after opening to traffic, then brush off.

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Materials Specification Charts

CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT 1
Chart CP1 Cement Concrete (Class 25) (C25)

Materials Requirements 2
Combined Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm Requirements
% by Weight Passing Crushing Ratio (%) Min. 80
Sieve Size (mm)
0/9.5 LAA Max. (%) 35 3
37.5 100 ACV Max. (%) 28
28 90 - 100 FI Max. (%) 25
20 65 - 95 Combined Aggregate Requirements
4
10 40 - 70 Fines (passing 0.425 mm) Non-plastic
5 30 - 55 Sand Equivalent Min. 30
5
2 18 - 40 SSS Max. (%) Max. 12
1 13 - 32 Organic Matter (%) Max. 0.3
0.425 9 - 24 6
0.075 0-6

Application 7
Pavement and surfacing on steep sections.
Construction Procedures
8
PROCEDURES:
• Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 100 mm, Tolerance ±10 mm.

Pavement Materials
• Mixing: In stationary concrete mixers
• Laying: by labour, within prefixed formwork or using a fixed form paver.
COMPACTION:
• Using poker vibrators or any other suitable approved method e.g., vibrating beams, roller screed.
• After compaction and after initial set, drag brush transversely across the surface to provide rough surface for
traffic use.
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Maximum time from mixing to final vibration 45 mins, unless proven otherwise through the action of retarding
admixtures.
• 24hrs after construction, cover with sand and apply water/cure for 7 days.
• No traffic permitted for 7 days.
• Seal slab joints with emulsion slurry.
Cement
Portland cement (CEM I – 42.5 MPa) complying to KS EAS 18-1
Mix Design
Cube (150 mm) compressive strength after 28 days curing to be greater than 25 MPa.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
Chart CP2 JUC/JRC/CRCP Concrete (1-400 MCESA)

2 This is for general paving. Other specialised paving concretes are available e.g., salt water resistant or
sulphate resistant. The maximum size of coarse aggregate (D) is usually 40 mm, but when the spacing
between longitudinal reinforcement is less than 90 mm, D is 20 mm. Also, 20 mm is preferable to achieving
for forming joints and a good surfacing.
3
Aggregate gradings are to be determined can be taken from KS 95 (see below) or can be determined
during the mix design process and can vary according to the required strength, maximum aggregate size,
4 method of laying, available materials, etc. See KS 95, KS 594, KS EAS 131-1, BS EN 206, BS EN 12620 and
BS 8500 and Design of normal concrete mixes 2nd Edn, BRE Ltd). Producer to minimise risk of Alkali-Silica
Reaction (ASR) and demonstrate this by Aggregate Reactivity tests.
5 Materials Requirements
All-in Aggregate Grading (KS 95) Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm Requirements (KS 1238)

6 Sieve Size % by Weight Passing Flakiness Index

≤50 uncrushed gravel
≤40 crushed rock/gravel
(mm)
D = 20 mm D = 40 mm Max Shell Content >10mm, Max. 8 % by mass
7 37.5 100 95-100 Oven dry: 10% Fines Value or ≥100
20 95-100 45-80 Max Agg. Impact Value 30 %
5 35-55 25-50 Max Acid Soluble Sulphate content AS ≤ 0.8 % or 0.2 % by mass
8 0.6 10-35 8-30 Drying shrinkage ≤ 0.075 %
0.15 0-8** 0-8* Los Angeles Abrasion Max 50/40/35/30
Pavement Materials

0.075 0 - 4** 0 - 4** Total Sulphur Content S1 (≤1 %)

* 10 for crushed rock sand. Combined Aggregate Requirements
** varies from 2 to 11 based on aggregate type.
Fines (passing 0.075 mm) Non-plastic
Sulphates Max 4 % by mass
Non-Concrete Products Max 1 % by mass
Reinforced Concrete: 0.03, 0.05 or 0.2, 0.4, 1.0
Chloride Content % by mass of cement

Application
Pavement with concrete surfacing. CRCP can also be built with 30 mm asphalt surfacing.
Construction Procedures
PROCEDURES:
• Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 150 mm (URC/JRC), 200mm (CRCP). Tolerance ±6 mm.
• Slip membrane: for JUC and JRC it is required, for CRCP it is not required.
• Mixing: Usually using ready mixed concrete from plant.
• Laying: Usually with fixed form or slip-form paver but can be hand laid.
COMPACTION:
• Using poker vibrators, vibrating beams, roller screed or any other approved method.
• After compaction and initial set, add surface texture by dragging tined rake or brush transversely across the sur-
face (or other approved method).
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• After compaction, cover with plastic sheeting/wet sand or apply curing compound/ bitumen emulsion spray or
spray with water for min. 7 days. Tentage can protect from rain damage.
• No traffic permitted for 7 days
• For JUC and JRC, joints between slabs should be sealed with approved joint sealant.

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Cement
PAV2 from BS8500-1. Portland cement (CEM I), Portland -slag cement (CEM II/A-S & II/B-S), Blastfurnace cement 1
(CEM III/A and III/B), Portland-fly ash cement CEM II/A-V and II/B-V) and Pozzolanic cement (CEM IV/A) complying
to KS EAS 18-1.
Steel Reinforcement (for JRC and CRCP) 2
Longitudinal: 12- or 16-mm diameter. See RDM 3.5 for spacings.
Transverse: 12 mm diameter at 600 mm spacing.
Mix Design 3
For JUC/JRC usually C40/50 concrete, but design can incorporate Mean Cube (150 mm) strength after 28 days = 30,
35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 MPa.
For CRCP usually C40/50 concrete (or C32/40 if constructed with >30 mm asphalt surfacing). 4
Design can incorporate Flexural strengths (at 28 day) of 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0 MPa.

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Materials Specification Charts

1 CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
Chart CP3 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Base (1-400 MCESA)

2 As CRCB is to be overlaid with at least 100 mm asphalt, the concrete can be of a lesser standard than
a concrete pavement with a concrete surfacing e.g., JUC, JRC or CRCP. The maximum size of coarse
aggregate (D) is usually 40 mm, but when the spacing between longitudinal reinforcement is less than 90
mm, D is 20 mm.
3
Aggregate gradings are to be determined can be taken from KS 95 (see below) or can be determined
during the mix design process and can vary according to the required strength, maximum aggregate size,
4 method of laying, available materials, etc. See KS 95, KS 594, KS EAS 131-1, BS EN 206, BS EN 12620 and
BS 8500 and Design of normal concrete mixes 2nd Edn, BRE Ltd). Producer to minimise risk of Alkali-Silica
Reaction (ASR) and demonstrate this by Aggregate Reactivity tests.
5 Materials Requirements
All-in Aggregate Grading (KS 95) Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm Requirements (KS 1238)

6 % by Weight Passing Flakiness Index

≤50 uncrushed gravel
Sieve Size ≤40 crushed rock/gravel
(mm) >10mm, Max. 8 % by mass
D = 20 mm D = 40 mm Max Shell Content
7 5-10mm Max. 20 % by mass
37.5 100 95-100 Oven dry: 10% Fines Value or ≥100
20 95-100 45-80 Max Agg. Impact Value 30 %
8 5 35-55 25-50 Max Acid Soluble Sulphate Content AS ≤ 0.8 % or 0.2 % by mass
0.6 10-35 8-30 Drying Shrinkage ≤ 0.075 %
Pavement Materials

0.15 0-8** 0-8* Los Angeles Abrasion Max 50/40/35/30

0.075 0 - 4** 0 - 4** Total Sulphur Content S1 (≤1 %)
* 10 for crushed rock sand. ** varies from 2 to 11 Combined Aggregate Requirements
based on aggregate type.
Fines (passing 0.075 mm) Max 50/40/35/30
Sulphates Max 4 % by mass
Non-Concrete Products Max 1 % by mass
Reinforced Concrete: 0.03, 0.05 or 0.2, 0.4, 1.0
Chloride Content % by mass of cement

Application
Main pavement layer. Also requires an asphalt surfacing (minimum thickness 100mm).
Construction Procedures
PROCEDURES:
• Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 150 mm (URC/JRC), 200mm (CRCP). Tolerance ±6 mm.
• No slip membrane required.
• Mixing: Usually using ready mixed concrete from plant.
• Laying: usually by fixed form or slip-form paver.
COMPACTION:
• Using poker vibrators or any other suitable approved method e.g., vibrating beams, roller screed.
• After compaction and after initial set, drag tined rake, brush etc, transversely across the surface to provide
surface texture.
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• After compaction, apply a curing compound or a bitumen emulsion spray or wet sand or a mist/fog/light spray of
water for at least 7 days. Tentage can protect from rain.
• No traffic permitted for 7 days.
Cement
PAV2 from BS8500-1. Portland cement (CEM I), Portland -slag cement (CEM II/A-S & II/B-S), Blastfurnace cement
(CEM III/A and III/B), Portland-fly ash cement CEM II/A-V and II/B-V) and Pozzolanic cement (CEM IV/A) complying
to KS EAS 18-1
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Steel Reinforcement (for JRC and CRCP)

Longitudinal: 12- or 16 mm diameter. See RDM 3.5 for spacings. 1
Transverse: 12 mm diameter at 600mm spacing.
Mix Design
C32/40. Minimum Characteristic Cube (150 mm) strength after 28 days curing = 40 MPa. 2
Flexural strength = 5 MPa.

Source: UK DMRB, CD226, MCHW Vol 1 Series 1000 & NG1000, BS 882, BS EN 12620+A1, BS 8500, 3
Design of normal concrete mixes 2nd Edn, BRE Ltd).

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Materials Specification Charts

1 CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
Chart CP4 Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) (1-400 MCESA)

2 Aggregate gradings can be taken from MCHW (see below). See KS 95, KS 594, KS EAS 131-1, BS EN 206,
BS EN 12620 and BS 8500 and Design of normal concrete mixes 2nd Edn, BRE Ltd). The concrete producer
is to minimise risk of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) and demonstrate this by Aggregate Reactivity tests.

3 The cement type, aggregate type/grading and water content used in RCC is different to that used in other
types of concrete pavement in order to produce a drier, stiffer, zero slump concrete.

4 Materials Requirements
All-in Aggregate Grading Coarse Aggregate > 2 mm Requirements
Sieve Size % by Weight Passing Flakiness Index ≤50 uncrushed gravel
5 (mm) 0/14* 0/20* Max Shell Content >10mm, Max. 8 % by mass
31.5 100 100 Oven Dry: 10% Fines Value or ≥100
20 100 90 - 100 Max Agg. Impact Value 30 %
6 14 86 - 100 78 - 94 Max Acid Soluble Sulphate Content AS ≤ 0.8 % or 0.2 % by mass
10 72 - 95 62 - 86 Drying Shrinkage ≤ 0.075%
8 68 - 90 56 - 80 Los Angeles Abrasion Max. 35 (LA 35)
7 4 52 - 74 38 - 59 Total Sulphur Content S1 (≤1%)
2 41 - 61 28 - 48 Magnesium Sulphate MS18
1 30 - 50 19 - 39 Combined Aggregate Requirements
8 0.5 20 - 37 15 - 31 Fines (passing 0.425 mm) Non-plastic
0.25 11 - 25 9 - 23 Sulphates Max 4% by mass
Pavement Materials

0.125 6 - 15 6 - 15 Non-Concrete Products Max 1% by mass

0.063 2 - 10 2 - 10
* The maximum coarse aggregate size of 20 mm is
usually specified for RCC that is to be overlaid with
asphalt. A maximum 14 mm can be specified if it is
to have a concrete surface.

Application
RCC is the main pavement layer. An additional asphalt surfacing is usually added.
Construction Procedures
PROCEDURES:
• Laid in one layer. Minimum compacted layer thickness = 165 mm, Tolerance ±6 mm.
• Mixing: Usually using ready mixed concrete from plant.
• Laying: by slip-form paver. No formwork required.
• Applied finishes (e.g. brushed) are generally not possible. An asphalt surfacing (min 90 mm thick) is usually added
for skid resistance and ride quality purposes.
COMPACTION and INDUCED CRACKING:
• After laying, rolling should be carried out by vibratory rollers followed by a PTR (Pneumatic Tyred Roller) if
required and finished with a static roller for an even finish.
• Often, rolling alone does not create enough cracks. Additional transverse ‘joints’ should be created by grooving
the fresh concrete to form straight vertical grooves (<20 mm wide, at 2.5 m centres +/-0.3m), to a depth of ¼ to 1/3
the slab thickness over the full width of the pavement. Bitumen emulsion is then poured/sprayed into the groove
to form a crack-inducing membrane. During final compaction of the mixture, by rolling, the groove surface shall be
fully closed along its full length.
• Longitudinal cracks shall also be induced, using the procedure specified above, under each lane line and the
edge line between the nearside lane and a hard shoulder.
• Saw-cutting of hardened RCC as an alternative to induced cracking is NOT permitted.
• No trafficking within 7 days unless RCC achieves 20 MPa.
PROTECTION AND CURING:
• Apply curing compound asap after laying or if asphalt layer is to be added then a prime coat of bitumen emulsion
can be used as the curing membrane for the RCC layer.

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Aggregate
Crushed gravel/recycled aggregates are not allowed as aggregate interlock is so important. 1
Cement
Portland cement (CEM I), Portland -slag cement (CEM II/A-S & II/B-S), Portland-fly ash cement CEM II/A-V and
II/B-V) and Pozzolanic cement (CEM IV/A). Minimum cement/combination content = 270 kg/m3. Complying with KS 2
EAS 18-1.
Steel Reinforcement (for JRC and CRCP)
Longitudinal: 12- or 16-mm diameter. See RDM 3.5 for spacings.
3
Transverse: 12 mm diameter at 600mm spacing.
Mix Design
4
C40/50 concrete with minimum flexural strength = 5 MPa.
i.e. Minimum characteristic cube (150 mm) strength after 28 days curing = 50 MPa.
5

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Bibliography
1 1. Bell F.G. (1992) Open excavation in rock masses Chapter 21 in Engineering in Rock Masses.
edited by F.G Bell, Butterworth Heinemann.

2 2. Chaddock, B. and Roberts, C. (2006) Road foundation design for major UK highways, PPR 127.
Crowthorne, Berkshire: TRL Limited.
3. Courteille, G., & Serfass, J. P. (n.d.). Survey of Subgrade Conditions in Kenya and their
3 Influence on Pavement Performance. Report 345. Nairobi: Ministry of Works Materials Branch.
4. Deschamps, R. J., Hynes, C.S. and Bourdeau, P. (1999) Embankment widening design
4 guidelines and construction procedures. Joint Transportation Research Program, Report No.
FHWA/IN/JTRP-99/4.
5. Duncan-Williams, E., & Attoh-Okine, N. (2008). Effect of geogrid in granular base strength
5 – An experimental investigation. Construction and Building Materials 22(11):2180-2184. DOI:
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.08.008

6 6. Highways England (2020). Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. CS 229 Data for pavement
assessment.
7. Horner P.C. (1988) Earthworks. ICE Construction Guides, Thomas Telford London, 2nd Edition.
7 London: Thomas Telford.
8. Look, B.G. (2007) Handbook of geotechnical investigation and design tables. Leiden: Taylor
8 & Francis.
9. Moayed, R., & Nazari. M. (2013). Effect of Utilization of Geosynthetic on Reducing the Required
Thickness of Subbase Layer of a Two Layered Soil. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1063417.
9
10. PCA (2006). Production of Roller-Compacted Concrete. Portland Cement Association –
Bibliography

2006. www.cement.org/pavements.
11. Powell, W.D., Potter, J.F., Mayhew, H.C. and Nunn, M.E. (1984) The structural design of bituminous
roads, LR 1132. Crowthorne, Berkshire: Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
12. SABITA. (2011). Manual 28: Best practice for the design and construction of slurry seals. Sabita,
Howard Place, South Africa. ISBN 978-1-874968-42-9.
13. TRL. (1999). Overseas Road Note 18. A guide to the pavement evaluation and maintenance
of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Crowthorne, Berkshire,
UK: Transport Research Laboratory.

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Bibliography

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Appendices
1 Appendix A: Axle Loads and Equivalence Factors
Appendix A.1 Typical EFs for Class A Roads
2
Road Statistic B MGV HGV-1 HGV-2 OM OH OAT
Mean EF 0.888 1.389 2.672 3.055 - - -
3 Migori -
Rongo
EF Standard Deviation 0.784 2.719 5.545 4.191 - - -
85th Percentile EF 1.756 2.004 6.972 9.405 - - -
Mean EF 0.645 0.352 1.194 2.146 - - -
Rongo -
4 Migori
EF Standard Deviation 0.878 0.991 1.53 2.873 - - -
85th Percentile EF 1.119 0.541 2.251 4.117 - - -
Mean EF 0.379 0.225 0.754 0.448 - - -
Ahero -
5 Oyugis
EF Standard Deviation
85th Percentile EF
0.551
0.660
0.929
0.177
2.196
0.289
0.206
0.628
-
-
-
-
-
-
Oyugis - Mean EF 1.122 1.091 4.796 8.06 - - -
Ahero EF Standard Deviation 2.512 3.071 7.177 11.384 - - -
6 85th Percentile EF 1.512 1.699 11.334 22.608 - - -
Kisii - Mean EF 1.495 0.173 0.139 - - - -
Oyugis EF Standard Deviation 2.674 0.676 0.227 - - - -
7 85th Percentile EF 3.47 0.075 0.209 - - - -
Oyugis- Mean EF 0.539 1.887 4.888 2.452 - - -
Kisii EF Standard Deviation 0.940 2.696 5.264 3.304 - - -
8 Kisii-
85th Percentile EF
Mean EF
1.099
0.930
4.66
0.764
7.126
1.147
5.587
4.965
-
-
-
-
-
-
Rongo EF Standard Deviation 1.205 1.812 1.754 7.442 - - -
85th Percentile EF 1.637 1.836 2.422 8.971 - - -
9 Rongo - Mean EF 0.962 0.795 3.883 3.719 - - -
Kisii EF Standard Deviation 0.978 1.959 5.177 7.835 - - -
85th Percentile EF 1.602 1.647 7.691 7.58 - - -
10 Nairobi - Mean EF 0.931 0.538 1.258 1.361 0.439 1.258 1.771
Nakuru EF Standard Deviation 0.467 0.889 7.158 1.095 0.850 1.942 1.162
Appendices

85th Percentile EF 1.366 1.121 0.983 2.159 0.952 2.391 2.787

Nakuru - Mean EF 0.693 0.744 0.649 1.004 1.488 0.121 0.152
Nairobi EF Standard Deviation 0.464 1.18 1.369 2.009 2.548 0.177 0.360
85th Percentile EF 1.083 1.086 1.09 1.759 2.923 0.232 0.094
Nairobi - Mean EF 4.15 2.064 2.624 8.828 - - -
Naivasha EF Standard Deviation 3.257 4.172 5.315 12.368 - - -
85th Percentile EF 7.047 4.679 3.492 11.824 - - -
Naivasha Mean EF 3.003 3.262 4.266 9.305 - - -
- Nairobi EF Standard Deviation 1.847 7.957 8.448 40.593 - - -
85th Percentile EF 5.094 5.767 6.596 11.418 - - -
Mean EF 1.177 1.575 5.069 7.874 - - -
Taveta -
EF Standard Deviation 1.854 3.81 7.834 12.732 - - -
Voi
85th Percentile EF 1.748 3.549 11.86 13.47 - - -
Mean EF 0.450 0.395 0.665 1.047 - - -
Voi -
EF Standard Deviation 0.439 0.929 1.209 1.922 - - -
Taveta
85th Percentile EF 0.903 0.680 2.309 1.62 - - -
Mean EF 1.156 1.964 4.292 5.524 - - -
Mombasa
EF Standard Deviation 0.929 2.417 5.039 4.875 - - -
- Nairobi
85th Percentile EF 1.944 3.102 7.893 8.792 - - -
Mean EF 0.618 0.488 0.490 0.567 - - -
Nairobi -
EF Standard Deviation 0.440 1.211 0.799 0.981 - - -
Mombasa
85th Percentile EF 0.986 0.823 1.118 1.114 - - -
Key:
B: denotes Buses MGV: denotes Medium Goods Vehicles HGV-1: denotes Heavy Goods vehicles HGV-2: denotes Articulated
Trucks OM: denotes Oil Tankers – Medium Vehicle OH: denotes Oil Tankers - Heavy Vehicle OAT: denotes Oil Tankers -
Articulated Truck

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Appendix A: Axle Loads and Equivalence Factors

Appendix A.2 Typical EFs for Class B Roads 1
Road Statistic B MGV HGV-1 HGV-2 OM OH OAT

Busia -
Mean EF 2.604 1.234 3.273 3.301 - - - 2
EF Standard Deviation 1.565 3.197 4.469 8.967 - - -
Kisumu
85th Percentile EF 4.301 2.203 7.323 3.662 - - -
Kisumu -
Mean EF 3.596 2.433 4.026 23.788 - - - 3
EF Standard Deviation 2.099 4.007 7.485 19.967 - - -
Busia
85th Percentile EF 5.868 5.196 7.511 40.763 - - -
Kisumu
- Mau
Mean EF
EF Standard Deviation
4.911
2.135
2.646
5.365
4.669
7.401
8.893
19.944
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
Summit 85th Percentile EF 7.074 5.822 8.494 15.996 - - -
Mau Mean EF 4.644 3.36 8.063 16.295 - - -
Summit - EF Standard Deviation 2.422 6.056 12.569 20.578 - - - 5
Kisumu 85th Percentile EF 6.719 6.249 13.592 24.148 - - -
Mai Mahiu Mean EF 2.875 1.381 4.519 8.816 - - -
- Narok EF Standard Deviation 3.847 3.058 5.974 7.708 - - - 6
85th Percentile EF 6.572 2.769 7.727 18.461 - - -
Narok - Mean EF 2.629 1.441 2.73 5.105 - - -
Mai Mahiu EF Standard Deviation
85th Percentile EF
4.023
4.746
3.383
2.566
4.657
4.965
6.054
10.77
-
-
-
-
-
-
7
Kaplong - Mean EF 18.835 12.615 15.889 21.34 - - 34.959
Narok EF Standard Deviation 18.159 15.076 18.277 18.008 - - 16.323
85th Percentile EF 39.237 23.873 31.256 42.547 - - 56.882 8
Narok - Mean EF 19.161 12.062 15.981 31.256 - -
Kaplong EF Standard Deviation 18.992 13.63 17.157 28.312 - - -
85th Percentile EF 40.684 20.791 34.212 56.313 - - - 9
Key:

10
B: denotes Buses MGV: denotes Medium Goods Vehicles HGV-1: denotes Heavy Goods vehicles HGV-2: denotes Articulated
Trucks OM: denotes Oil Tankers – Medium Vehicle OH: denotes Oil Tankers - Heavy Vehicle OAT: denotes Oil Tankers -
Articulated Truck

Appendices

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Appendix A: Axle Loads and Equivalence Factors

1 Appendix A.3 Typical EFs for Class C Roads
Road Statistic B MGV HGV-1 HGV-2 OM OH OAT
2 Gilgil -
Mean EF 0.515 2.215 9.698 15.031 - - -
EF Standard Deviation 1.135 4.914 9.697 28.461 - - -
Nyahururu
85th Percentile EF 0.713 5.056 20.578 20.148 - - -
3 Nyahururu
Mean EF 0.537 1.643 3.691 6.16 - - -
EF Standard Deviation 0.639 4.449 7.492 10.61 - - -
- Gilgil
85th Percentile EF 0.888 2.535 9.178 13.765 - - -
4 Bondo -
Mean EF
EF Standard Deviation
1.893
2.064
0.220
0.567
0.651
1.434
0.538
0.491
-
-
-
-
-
-
Kisian
85th Percentile EF 4.076 0.222 0.841 0.893 - - -
Kisian - Mean EF - 1.626 - - - - -
5 Bondo EF Standard Deviation - 2.018 - - - - -
85th Percentile EF - 2.972 - - - - -
Njabini - Mean EF 0.047 0.011 0.022 0.042 - - -
6 Olkalau EF Standard Deviation 0.318 0.049 0.046 0.088 - - -
85th Percentile EF 0.022 0.006 0.025 0.042 - - -
Olkalau - Mean EF 0.008 0.073 0.215 0.092 - - -
7 Njabini EF Standard Deviation
85th Percentile EF
0.022
0.015
0.217
0.079
0.256
0.425
0.122
0.187
-
-
-
-
-
-
Kaloleni- Mean EF 0.440 0.314 4.018 7.628 - - -
Mazeras EF Standard Deviation 2.471 0.891 5.296 10.904 - - -
8 85th Percentile EF 0.541 0.442 10.031 22.269 - - -
Mazeras - Mean EF 0.472 0.929 2.659 4.554 - - -
Kaloleni EF Standard Deviation 0.361 1.907 3.522 7.387 - - -
9 85th Percentile EF 0.867 1.805 4.939 9.473 - - -
Embakasi Mean EF - 1.855 2.223 6.133 - - -
-Ruiru EF Standard Deviation - 3.432 3.936 7.058 - - -
10 Ruiru -
85th Percentile EF
Mean EF
-
-
4.083
0.708
4.126
1.183
9.904
1.901
-
-
-
-
-
-
Embakasi EF Standard Deviation - 1.205 1.383 3.048 - - -
Appendices

85th Percentile EF - 1.453 2.407 3.658 - - -

Key:
B: denotes Buses MGV: denotes Medium Goods Vehicles HGV-1: denotes Heavy Goods vehicles HGV-2: denotes Articulated
Trucks OM: denotes Oil Tankers – Medium Vehicle OH: denotes Oil Tankers - Heavy Vehicle OAT: denotes Oil Tankers -
Articulated Truck

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Appendix A: Axle Loads and Equivalence Factors

Appendix A.4 Typical EFs for Class D Roads 1
Road Statistic B MGV HGV-1 HGV-2 OM OH OAT
Mean EF 0.709 0.167 6.422 - - - - 2
Nyeri -
EF Standard Deviation 1.738 0.306 9.712 - - - -
Kamakwa
85th Percentile EF 0.669 0.406 12.57 - - - -
Mean EF 0.745 0.396 3.433 - - - - 3
Kamakwa -
EF Standard Deviation 1.357 0.804 3.546 - - - -
Nyeri
85th Percentile EF 1.784 0.944 7.606 - - - -
Nyeri -
Mean EF 0.200 1.793 1.772 0.533 - - - 4
EF Standard Deviation 0.366 9.933 2.307 0.252 - - -
Ihururu
85th Percentile EF 0.519 0.145 4.72 0.658 - - -
Ihururu -
Nyeri
Mean EF
EF Standard Deviation
0.682
1.204
0.231
0.512
1.226
1.681
0.378 -
-
-
-
-
-
5
85th Percentile EF 1.776 0.426 3.18 0.378 - - -
Kahuro - Mean EF 0.193 0.215 1.354 2.079 - - -
Muranga EF Standard Deviation 0.280 0.431 2.623 2.334 - - - 6
85th Percentile EF 0.447 0.503 2.861 4.12 - - -
Muranga - Mean EF 0.173 0.321 1.464 0.234 - - -
Kahuro EF Standard Deviation 0.220 0.682 1.774 0.185 - - - 7
85th Percentile EF 0.296 0.708 3.524 0.326 - - -
Kagio- Mean EF 0.627 0.674 0.855 1.958 - - -
Kerugoya EF Standard Deviation
85th Percentile EF
0.590
1.036
2.363
1.044
1.206
1.854
1.889
4.017
-
-
-
-
-
-
8
Kerugoya - Mean EF 0.206 0.150 0.120 0.136 - - -
Kagio EF Standard Deviation 0.199 0.840 0.080 0.078 - - -
85th Percentile EF 0.454 0.056 0.172 0.229 - - - 9
Molo - Mean EF 0.454 2.584 1.111 2.215 - - -
Olenguruone EF Standard Deviation 0.197 5.427 2.737 3.206 - - -
85th Percentile EF 0.649 6.207 0.350 4.252 - - - 10
Olenguruone Mean EF 0.316 0.385 3.336 2.421 - - -

Appendices
- Molo EF Standard Deviation 0.274 1.627 3.552 - - -
85th Percentile EF 0.443 0.550 7.424 2.421 - - -
Isiolo - Ruiri Mean EF 0.733 1.855 10.581 3.509 - - -
EF Standard Deviation 0.960 1.862 7.989 4.762 - - -
85th Percentile EF 1.707 3.549 17.976 5.866 - - -
Ruiri - Isiolo Mean EF 0.205 0.508 0.909 0.688 - - -
EF Standard Deviation 0.268 1.089 2.626 - - -
85th Percentile EF 0.383 1.032 0.756 0.688 - - -
Key:
B: denotes Buses MGV: denotes Medium Goods Vehicles HGV-1: denotes Heavy Goods vehicles HGV-2: denotes Articulated
Trucks OM: denotes Oil Tankers – Medium Vehicle OH: denotes Oil Tankers - Heavy Vehicle OAT: denotes Oil Tankers -
Articulated Truck

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Appendix B: Refusal Density Testing (Vibrating Hammer Method)

1 Appendix B.1 Equipment
The equipment and the method of compaction used in the vibrating hammer test procedure for
2 compacting AC to refusal density is based on the Percentage Refusal Density (PRD) test (BSI, 1989).
A minimum of 8 moulds and 9 base plates are recommended for a refusal mix design. The complete
equipment list is:
3
i. A tamping foot with a diameter of 102 mm.
ii. A tamping foot with a diameter of 146 mm.
4 iii. 2 x shanks for the tamping feet.
iv. 8 x 152-153 mm diameter split moulds.
5 v. 9 x base plates.
vi. A vibrating hammer with a power consumption of 750 watts or more, operating at a frequency of
50 or 60 Hz.
6
The equipment can also be used for field control testing.

7 Appendix B.2 Vibrating Hammer Compaction

The refusal density test can be carried out on
8 i. Mixes prepared in the laboratory.
ii. Hot mix sampled at the asphalt plant or on site.
9 iii. Cores cut from the road.
Compaction of Loose Mix Material
10 Trial samples should be made to determine the mass of material required to give a compacted
thickness which is approximately the same as the layer to be constructed. As discussed in Chapter
Appendices

6 the selected maximum stone size in the mix may be influenced by the thickness of the layer to be
constructed.
The moulds, base plate and tamping foot should all be pre-heated, and samples should be mixed so
that they can be compacted immediately at an initial temperature of 140 ± 5 °C for 80/100 penetration
grade bitumen and 145 ± 5 °C for 60/70 penetration grade bitumen.
The small tamping foot is used for most of the compaction sequence. The hammer must be held
firmly in a vertical position and moved from position to position in the prescribed order, i.e. referring to
the points of a compass the order should be N, S, W, E, NW, SE, SW, NE. At each point compaction
should continue for between 2 and 10 seconds, the limiting factor being that material should not be
allowed to 'push up' around the compaction foot. The compaction process is continued for a total of
2 minutes ± 5 seconds. The large tamping foot is then used to smooth the surface of the sample.
To ensure refusal density is achieved the compaction process should then immediately be repeated
on the other face of the sample. A spare baseplate, previously heated in the oven, is placed on top
of the mould which is then turned over. The sample is driven to the new base plate with the hammer
and large tamping foot. The compaction sequence is then repeated. The free base plate should be
returned to the oven between compaction cycles.

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Compaction of cores to refusal density

Pre-construction field trials, and subsequent monitoring for quality control purposes, will involve the 1
compaction to refusal of 150 mm diameter cores cut from the compacted surfacing in accordance
with the procedure given in BS 598: Part 104:1989. In summary, any material from underlying layers
should be removed and the dimensions of the core measured with callipers. The core must then be
dried at a temperature which does not cause distortion of the core, but in any event the temperature
2
must not exceed 45 °C. Drying for 16 hours at 40 °C is normally sufficient to achieve constant mass.
This is defined as being a change in mass of no more than 0.05 % of the mass of the core over a
2-hour period.
3
The core is then allowed to cool to ambient temperature and weighed before determining its bulk
density. When the core is permeable, this is likely to be the case when samples are taken before 4
trafficking, accurate measurement of bulk density is difficult. BS 598: Part 104 gives the option of
coating the core with wax. To make it easier to remove the wax after determining the core’s bulk
density it can be cooled in a refrigerator and dusted with talcum powder before waxing. The use of the 5
physical measurements of the core should be considered as an additional or alternative procedure.
However, several accurate measurements must be made on each dimension. It is important that an
agreed procedure is established at the start of a project. 6
After determination of its bulk density and removal of any wax coating, the core is placed in a split
mould, heated to the appropriate test temperature, and subjected to refusal compaction as described
above. The sample is allowed to cool before removing it from the mould and then, after reaching 7
ambient temperature, its bulk density is determined.
The Percentage Refusal Density (PRD) is calculated using the following formula: 8
Bulk Density of Core
PRD = x 100
Bulk Density after PRD compaction
Equation B.1
9
When a core of dense wearing course material is to be compacted to refusal it is probable that
it will need to be broken down into a loose state prior to compaction. This is because air voids in 10
dense wearing course mixes often become ‘sealed-in’ and prevent further densification that may

Appendices
occur under traffic. Initial comparison tests should be carried out on complete and broken-down
cores to determine if this effect applies to the material being tested.

Appendix B.3 Refusal Density Design

Firstly, a Marshall design should be carried out to ensure that the aggregate to be used in the
production of AC for severe sites will meet the Marshall design requirements for very heavy traffic
described in Chapter 8 of this manual.
Sometimes there is a choice of aggregate sources or sizes that are available for making AC. In this
case the final choice of particle size distribution will be influenced by factors such as workability
and sensitivity of the mix to variations in bitumen content. The VMA in a mix has a significant effect
on these properties.
Figure E.1 shows the relationship between VIM, bitumen content, and VMA (measured at 3 per
cent VIM) for a range of mixes compacted to refusal density. For a design VIM of 3 %, mixes with
VMA less than 13 % will have a very low bitumen content and will be difficult to compact.

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Figure B.1 Examples of VIM and VMA Relationships for Mixes Compacted to Refusal
1

8
The particle size distributions and the related restricted zones developed in the SHRP programme
9 provide a practical method of describing the characteristics of an aggregate grading. It is important
to remember that the SHRP restricted zone was originally introduced to restrict the amount of
rounded pit sand in an asphalt mix. However, it was also recognised that aggregate gradings that
10 avoided the restricted zone would have larger VMA. The choice of particle size distribution will be
influenced by the intended layer thickness. It is recommended, therefore, that samples are made
to three binder course particle size distributions, complying with the requirements, and using
Appendices

aggregates from the same sources as those used for the Marshall tests. Two aggregate particle
size distributions should pass below the restricted zone by differing degrees and one should pass
above the zone. This will provide a range of VMA values and give a good basis for mix selection.
If the finer mix meets the criteria, it may also prove to be less sensitive to segregation and tougher
than the coarser mixes.
To carry out the mix design it is recommended that duplicate samples are made at the bitumen
content which gives approximately 6 % VIM in the Marshall test and then at decreasing increments
of not more than 0.5 %. Tests at four bitumen contents should be sufficient to allow the bitumen
content which gives 3 % VIM at refusal to be identified. Each sample is subjected to refusal
compaction, allowed to cool overnight then tested to determine its bulk density. The maximum
specific gravity of the mixes (AASHTO T 209/ASTM D2041) must also be determined so that VIM
in each compacted sample can be accurately determined.
The best balance in mix properties will be obtained with the densest mix which can accommodate
sufficient bitumen to make the mix workable, but which is also as insensitive as possible to
variations in proportioning during manufacture and to segregation. Clearly more confidence in mix
properties will be gained if the final particle size distribution, allowing for the coarser aggregate, is
not dissimilar to the mix used for the Marshall test. If there is any doubt then the Marshall tests can
be carried out on the new mix, but omitting any material larger than 25 mm.

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Whilst designing to refusal density will provide rut resistant mixes, experience may show that
designing to 3 % VIM at refusal is unnecessarily severe. To improve long-term durability, it may
be appropriate to design for a higher bitumen content which gives 2 % VIM at refusal density.
1
However, accurate determination of VIM is absolutely essential, and this level of detail will need to
be developed based on local experience.
2
Compaction Specifications for AC Designed to Refusal Density.
The relative level of compaction required in the constructed layer of AC is based on a comparison
of the actual bulk density of a core cut from the compacted layer with the density of the same core 3
after it has been compacted to refusal density. A mix should be laid and compacted on the road
to give a mean value of not less than 95 % of its refusal density and no individual value should be
less than 93 % of its refusal density. 4
Because the mix has been designed to refusal density there is every advantage in compacting the
mix to the highest density possible. Careful use of vibrating rollers during part of the compaction
sequence can make it relatively easy to achieve mean densities above 95 per cent.
5
Durability of AC Surfacings Designed to Refusal Density
As described above, the minimum specified density in the compacted layer is 93 per cent of refusal 6
density and, since the target VIM at refusal density is 3 %, VIM can be expected to range from 8 to
10 %. It will therefore be permeable to air and water. The initial rate of compaction under traffic will
be an important factor in determining the long-term durability of the layer but, because the mix has 7
been designed to be resistant to compaction and because compaction outside of the wheel tracks
may be slight, it is essential to seal mixes designed by this method as part of the construction
process. 8
Another factor which will affect long term durability is the degree of age-hardening that will develop
during the life of the road. Such hardening will depend upon the VIM at the time of construction,
climatic factors, and traffic loading at the road site.
9
Figure E.2 shows the rate of change in bitumen penetration in a DBM layer with a nominal
maximum stone size of 37.5 mm. The material was laid on a level site, where traffic speeds were 10
high, and was surfaced with a Cape seal as part of the construction process. The figure shows

Appendices
that even when sealed, dense mixtures with high bitumen content and low VIM can age harden to
penetrations of less than 30 within four years. However, this is a relatively slow rate of hardening
compared with the rate that is observed in unsealed surfacing mixes that would then become very
brittle and suffer from ‘top down’ cracking.
Where a surface dressing is to be applied it should be constructed as soon as the surfacing is hard
enough to prevent excessive embedment of the chippings into the layer. Because AC designed
to refusal density will have a high content of relatively coarse aggregate it should be possible to
construct a surface dressing soon after the AC has been constructed. Surface hardness tests can
be used to determine the optimum time for sealing work. A slurry seal or Cape seal (a slurry seal
on a single surface dressing) can also be used to surface the AC layer.

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Figure B.2 Relationship Between Age and Bitumen Penetration for Surface Dressed Bitumen Macadam Base
1

7 Appendix B.4 Transfer of Refusal Density Mix Design to Compaction Trials

Samples of binder course which have been compacted from the loose state in the laboratory may
8 have densities between 1.5 % and 3 % lower than for the same material compacted in the road,
cored, and compacted to refusal in the PRD test. This is an indication of the effect of the different
compaction regimes which produce different orientations of the aggregate particles. Refusal
9 densities of laboratory-compacted loose samples and of cores cut from the compaction trials and
then subjected to refusal compaction should be compared to determine if this difference occurs.
They will ensure that the densities of cores and loose material compacted in the laboratory can be
10 properly compared.
A minimum of three trial lengths should be constructed with bitumen contents at the laboratory
Appendices

optimum (see above) for refusal density (giving 3 % VIM) and at 0.5 % above and below the
optimum. The trials should be used to:
i. Confirm that the mix is workable and can be compacted to a satisfactory density.
ii. Establish the best rolling patterns for the available road rollers.
iii. Obtain duplicate sets of cores so that the maximum binder content which allows 3 % VIM to be
retained at refusal density can be confirmed.
For a given level of compaction in the Marshall test, VMA decreases to a minimum and then
increases as bitumen content is increased. However, samples compacted to refusal density
will usually have relatively constant values of VMA over a range of bitumen contents before the
aggregate structure begins to become ‘over filled’ and VMA increases. This means that during
the trials it will be a relatively simple matter to determine the sensitivity of the mix to variations
in bitumen content and to confirm the bitumen content required to give a minimum of 3% VIM at
refusal density. If necessary, the aggregate grading can be adjusted to increase VMA which will
reduce the sensitivity of the mix.
A minimum of 93 % and a mean value of 95 % of refusal density is recommended as the
specification for field compaction of the layer. From these trials and the results of the laboratory
tests, it is then possible to establish a job mix formula. After this initial work, subsequent
compliance testing based on analysis of mix composition and refusal density should be quick,
especially if field compaction is monitored with a nuclear density gauge. This initial procedure is
time consuming but is justified by the long-term savings that can be made by extending pavement
service life and minimising eventual rehabilitation costs.

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Appendix C: Bailey Aggregate Blending Method

Appendix C.1 Basic Principles 1
To develop a method for combining aggregates to optimise aggregate interlock and provide
the proper volumetric properties, it is necessary to understand some of the controlling factors 2
that affect the design and performance of these mixtures. The explanation of coarse and fine
aggregates given in the following section provide a background for understanding the combination
of aggregates. The Bailey Method builds on that understanding and provides more insight into the
combination of aggregates for use in an asphalt mixture.
3
The Bailey Method uses two principles that are the basis of the relationship between aggregate
gradation and mixture volumetrics: 4
• Aggregate packing.
• Definition of coarse and fine aggregate. 5
With these principles, the primary steps in the Bailey Method are:
• Combine aggregates by volume. 6
• Analyse the combined blend.

Appendix C.2 Aggregate Packing

7
Aggregate particles cannot be packed together to fill a volume completely. There will always be
space between the aggregate particles. The degree of packing depends on: 8
• Type and amount of compactive energy. Several types of compactive force can be used,
including static pressure, impact (e.g., Marshall hammer), or shearing (e.g., gyratory shear
compactor or California kneading compactor). Higher density can be achieved by increasing
9
the compactive effort (i.e., higher static pressure, more blows of the hammer, or more tamps
or gyrations).
10
• Shape of the particles. Flat and elongated particles tend to resist packing in a dense

Appendices
configuration. Cubical particles tend to arrange in dense configurations.
• Surface texture of the particles. Particles with smooth textures will re-orient more easily into
denser configurations. Particles with rough surfaces will resist sliding against one another.
• Size distribution (gradation) of the particles. Single-sized particles will not pack as densely
as a mixture of particle sizes.
• Strength of the particles. Strength of the aggregate particles directly affects the amount of
degradation that occurs in a compactor or under rollers. Softer aggregates typically degrade
more than strong aggregates and allow denser aggregate packing to be achieved.
The properties listed above can be used to characterise both coarse and fine aggregates. The
individual characteristics of a given aggregate, along with the amount used.
in the blend, has a direct impact on the resulting mix properties. When comparing different sources
of comparably sized aggregates, the designer should consider these individual characteristics
in addition to the Bailey Method principles presented. Even though an aggregate may have
acceptable characteristics, it may not combine well with the other proposed aggregates for use in
the design. The final combination of coarse and fine aggregates, and their corresponding individual
properties, determines the packing characteristics of the overall blend for a given type and amount
of compaction. Therefore, aggregate source selection is an important part of the asphalt mix
design process.

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Appendix C.3 Coarse and Fine Aggregate

1 The traditional definition of coarse aggregate is any particle that is retained by the 4.75 mm sieve.
Fine aggregate is defined as any aggregate that passes the 4.75 mm sieve (sand, silt, and clay size
material). The same sieve is used for 9.5 mm mixtures as 25.0 mm mixtures.
2
In the Bailey Method, the definition of coarse and fine is more specific in order to determine the
packing and aggregate interlock provided by the combination of aggregates in various sized
3 mixtures. The Bailey Method definitions are:
• Coarse Aggregate: Large aggregate particles that when placed in a unit volume create voids.
• Fine Aggregate: Aggregate particles that can fill the voids created by the coarse aggregate in
4 the mixture.
From these definitions, more than a single aggregate size is needed to define coarse or fine. The
5 definition of coarse and fine depends on the nominal maximum particle size (NMPS) of the mixture.
In a dense-graded blend of aggregate with a NMPS of 37.5 mm, the 37.5 mm particles come
together to make voids. Those voids are large enough to be filled with 9.5 mm aggregate particles,
6 making the 9.5 mm particles fine aggregate. Now consider a typical surface mix with a NMPS of
9.5 mm. In this blend of aggregates, the 9.5 mm particles are considered coarse aggregate.

7 In the Bailey Method, the sieve which defines coarse and fine aggregate is known as the primary
control sieve (PCS), and the PCS is based on the NMPS of the aggregate blend. The PCS is
defined as the closest sized sieve to the result of the PCS formula:
8 PCS = NMPS × 0.22
Where,
9 PCS = for the overall blend
NMPS = NMPS for the overall blend, which is one sieve larger than the first sieve that retains
10 more than 10 % (as defined by Superpave terminology). The factor 0.22 is an average, any
value between 0.18 and 0.28 is acceptable.
Appendices

Appendix C.4 Combining Aggregates by Volume

All aggregate blends contain an amount and size of voids, which are a function of the packing
characteristics of the blend. In combining aggregates we must first determine the amount and size
of the voids created by the coarse aggregates and fill those voids with the appropriate amount of
fine aggregate.
Mix design methods generally are based on volumetric analysis, but for simplicity, aggregates are
combined on a weight basis. Most mix design methods correct the percent passing by weight to
percent passing by volume when significant differences exist among the aggregate stockpiles. To
evaluate the degree of aggregate interlock in a mixture the designer needs to evaluate a mixture
based on volume.
To evaluate the volumetric combination of aggregates, additional information must be gathered. For
each of the coarse aggregate stockpiles, the loose and rodded unit weights must be determined,
and for each fine aggregate stockpile, the rodded unit weight must be determined.
These measurements provide the volumetric data at the specific void structure required to evaluate
interlock properties.

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Appendix C.5 Loose Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate

The loose unit weight of an aggregate is the amount of aggregate that fills a unit volume without 1
any compactive effort applied. This condition represents the beginning of coarse aggregate
interlock (i.e., particle-to-particle contact) without any compactive effort applied.
2
The loose unit weight is determined on each coarse aggregate using the shovelling procedure
outlined in AASHTO T-19: Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate, which leaves the aggregate
in a loose condition in the metal unit weight bucket. The loose unit weight (density in kg/m3)
is calculated by dividing the weight of aggregate by the volume of the metal bucket. Using the
3
aggregate bulk specific gravity and the loose unit weight, the volume of voids for this condition is
also determined. This condition represents the volume of voids present when the particles are just
into contact without any outside compactive effort being applied.
4

Appendix C.6 Rodded Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate 5

The rodded unit weight of aggregate is the amount of aggregate that fills a unit volume with
compactive effort applied. The compactive effort increases the particle to particle contact and
decreases the volume of voids in the aggregate. The rodded unit weight is determined on each 6
coarse aggregate using the rodding procedure outlined in AASHTO T-19: Unit Weight and Voids in
Aggregate, which leaves the aggregate in a compacted condition in the metal unit weight bucket.
The rodded unit weight (density in kg/m3) is calculated by dividing the weight of aggregate by the 7
volume of the metal bucket. Using the aggregate bulk specific gravity and the rodded unit weight,
the volume of voids for this condition is also determined. This condition represents the volume of
voids present when the particles are further into contact due to the compactive effort applied. 8
Appendix C.7 Chosen Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate
9
The designer needs to select the interlock of coarse aggregate desired in their mix design.
Therefore, they choose a unit weight of coarse aggregate, which establishes the volume of coarse
aggregate in the aggregate blend and the degree of aggregate interlock. 10
In the Bailey Method, coarse graded is defined as mixtures which have a coarse aggregate

Appendices
skeleton. Fine-graded mixtures do not have enough coarse aggregate particles (i.e., larger than the
PCS) to form a skeleton, and therefore the load is carried predominantly by the fine aggregate. To
select a chosen unit weight the designer needs to decide if the mixture is to be coarse-graded or
fine-graded. The loose unit weight is the lower limit of coarse aggregate interlock. Theoretically, it
is the dividing line between fine-graded and coarse-graded mixtures. If the mix designer chooses
a unit weight of coarse aggregate less than the loose unit weight, the coarse aggregate particles
are spread apart and are not in a uniform particle-to-particle contact condition. Therefore, a fine
aggregate skeleton is developed and properties for these blends are primarily related to the fine
aggregate characteristics.
The rodded unit weight is generally considered to be the upper limit of coarse aggregate interlock
for dense-graded mixtures. This value is typically near 110 % of the loose unit weight.
As the chosen unit weight approaches the rodded unit weight, the amount of compactive effort
required for densification increases significantly, which can make a mixture difficult to construct in
the field.
For dense-graded mixtures, the chosen unit weight is selected as a percentage of the loose unit
weight of coarse aggregate. If the desire is to obtain some degree of coarse aggregate interlock (as
with coarse-graded mixtures), the percentage used should range from 95 % to 105 % of the loose
unit weight. For soft aggregates prone to degradation the chosen unit weight should be nearer
to 105% of the loose unit weight (2). Values exceeding 105 % of the loose unit weight should be
avoided due to the increased probability of aggregate degradation and increased difficulty with field
compaction.

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With fine-graded mixtures, the chosen unit weight should be less than 90% of the loose unit
weight, to ensure the predominant skeleton is controlled by the fine aggregate structure.
1
For all dense-graded mixtures, it is recommended the designer should not use a chosen unit
weight in the range of 90 % to 95 % of the loose unit weight. Mixtures designed in this range have
2 a high probability of varying in and out of coarse aggregate interlock in the field with the tolerances
generally allowed on the PCS.
It is normal for an aggregate blend to consolidate more than the selected chosen unit weight due
3 to the lubricating effect of asphalt binder. Also, each coarse aggregate typically contains some
amount of fine material when the unit weights are determined, which causes both unit weights
(i.e., loose and rodded) to be slightly heavier than they would have been, had this material been
4 removed by sieving prior to the test. Therefore, a chosen unit weight as low as 95% of the loose
unit weight can often be used and still result in some degree of coarse aggregate interlock.

5 After selecting the desired chosen unit weight of the coarse aggregate, the amount of fine
aggregate required to fill the corresponding VCA is determined.

6 Appendix C.8 Rodded Unit Weight of Fine Aggregate

For dense-graded mixtures, the voids created by the coarse aggregate at the chosen unit weight
7 are filled with an equal volume of fine aggregate at the rodded unit weight condition. The rodded
unit weight is used to ensure the fine aggregate structure is at or near its maximum strength.
Rodded unit weight is determined on each fine aggregate stockpile as outlined in the rodding
procedure in AASHTO T-19: Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate, which leaves the aggregate
8 in a compacted condition in the unit weight container. For most fine aggregates, which typically
have a NMPS of 4.75 mm or less, a proctor mould, 100-mm diameter is used, which is a metal
mould, approximately 0.9 litre in volume. The rodded unit weight (density in kg/m3) is calculated by
9 dividing the weight of the aggregate by the volume of the mould. In a dense-graded mixture, the
rodded unit weight is always used to determine the appropriate amount of fine aggregate needed
to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate at the chosen unit weight condition. A chosen unit weight
10 is not selected. Note that the rodded unit weight is not determined for dust sized material, such as
mineral filler (MF) or bag house fines.
Appendices

Appendix C.9 Determining a Design Blend

The only additional information required other than that typically used in a dense-graded mix
design is the corresponding unit weight for each coarse and fine aggregate [excluding MF, bag
house fines, and recycled asphalt pavement (RAP)]. The following decisions are made by the
designer and used to determine the individual aggregate percentages by weight and the resulting
combined blend:
• Bulk specific gravity of each aggregate.
• Chosen unit weight of the coarse aggregates.
• Rodded unit weight of the fine aggregates.
• Blend by volume of the coarse aggregates totalling 100 %.
• Blend by volume of fine aggregates totalling 100 %.
• Amount of 0.075 mm material desired in the combined blend if MF or bag house fines are being
used.

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The following steps are presented to provide a general sense of blending aggregates by volume.
1. Pick a chosen unit weight for the coarse aggregates, kg/m3. 1
2. Calculate the volume of voids in the coarse aggregates at the chosen unit weight.
3. Determine the amount of fine aggregate to fill this volume using the fine aggregates rodded unit 2
weight, kg/m3.
4. Using the weight (density) in kg/m3 of each aggregate, determine the total weight and convert to
individual aggregate blend percentages. 3
5. Correct the coarse aggregates for the amount of fine aggregate they contain and the fine
aggregates for the amount of coarse aggregate they contain, in order to maintain the desired
blend by volume of coarse and fine aggregate. 4
6. Determine the adjusted blend percentages of each aggregate by weight.
7. If MF or bag house fines are to be used, adjust the fine aggregate percentages by the desired 5
amount of fines to maintain the desired blend by volume of coarse and fine aggregate.
8. Determine the revised individual aggregate percentages by weight for use in calculating the
combined blend. 6

Appendix C.10 Analysis of the Design Blend 7

After the combined gradation by weight is determined, the aggregate packing is analysed further. The
combined blend is broken down into three distinct portions, and each portion is evaluated individually.
The coarse portion of the combined blend is from the largest particle to the PCS. These particles are 8
considered the coarse aggregates of the blend.
The fine aggregate is broken down and evaluated as two portions. To determine where to split the 9
fine aggregate, the same 0.22 factor used on the entire gradation is applied to the PCS to determine
a secondary control sieve (SCS). The SCS then becomes the break between coarse sand and fine
sand. The fine sand is further evaluated by determining the tertiary control sieve (TCS), which is
determined by multiplying the SCS by the 0.22 factor.
10

Appendices
An analysis is done using ratios that evaluate packing within each of the three portions of the
combined aggregate gradation. Three ratios are defined: Coarse Aggregate Ratio (CA Ratio), Fine
Aggregate Coarse Ratio (FAc Ratio), and Fine Aggregate Fine Ratio (FAf Ratio).
These ratios characterise packing of the aggregates. By changing gradation within each portion
modifications can be made to the volumetric properties, construction characteristics, or performance
characteristics of the asphalt mixture.

Appendix C.11 CA Ratio

The CA Ratio is used to evaluate packing of the coarse portion of the aggregate gradation and to
analyse the resulting void structure. Understanding the packing of coarse aggregate requires the
introduction of the half sieve. The half sieve is defined as one half the NMPS. Particles smaller
than the half sieve are called 'interceptors.' Interceptors are too large to fit in the voids created by
the larger coarse aggregate particles and hence spread them apart. The balance of these particles
can be used to adjust the mixture’s volumetric properties. By changing the quantity of interceptors
it is possible to change the VMA in the mixture to produce a balanced coarse aggregate structure.
With a balanced aggregate structure the mixture should be easy to compact in the field and should
adequately perform under load. The equation for the calculation of the coarse aggregate ratio is
given by:
% Passing Half Sieve − % Passing PCS
CA Ratio =
100% − % Passing Half Sieve

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The packing of the coarse aggregate fraction, observed through the CA Ratio, is a primary factor
in the constructability of the mixture. As the CA Ratio decreases (below ~1.0), compaction of the
1 fine aggregate fraction increases because there are fewer interceptors to limit compaction of the
larger coarse aggregate particles. Therefore, a mixture with a low CA Ratio typically requires a
stronger fine aggregate structure to meet the required volumetric properties. Also, a CA Ratio
2 below the corresponding range suggested in Table F1-1 could indicate a blend that may be prone
to segregation. It is generally accepted that gap-graded mixes, which tend to have CA Ratios below
these suggested ranges, have a greater tendency to segregate than mixes that contain a more
3 continuous gradation. As the CA Ratio increases towards 1.0, VMA will increase. However, as this
value approaches 1.0, the coarse aggregate fraction becomes 'unbalanced' because the interceptor
size aggregates are attempting to control the coarse aggregate skeleton. Although this blend may
4 not be as prone to segregation, it contains such a large quantity of interceptors that the coarse
aggregate fraction causes the portion above the PCS to be less continuous. The resulting mixture
can be difficult to compact in the field and have a tendency to move under the rollers because it does
5 not want to 'lock up.' Generally, mixes with high CA Ratios have a S-shaped gradation curve in this
area of the 0.45-power grading chart. Superpave mixtures of this type have developed a reputation
for being difficult to compact.
6 As the CA Ratio exceeds a value of 1.0, the interceptor-sized particles begin to dominate the formation
of the coarse aggregate skeleton. The coarse portion of the coarse aggregate is then considered
'pluggers,' as these aggregates do not control the aggregate skeleton, but rather float in a matrix of
7 finer coarse aggregate particles.

Table C.1 Recommended Ranges of Aggregate Ratios

8
For dense-graded mixes e.g. AC
NMAs (mm)
9 Ratios
37.5 25.0 19.0 12.5 9.5 4.75
CA Ratio 0.80 - 0.95 0.70 - 0.85 0.60 - 0.75 0.50 - 0.65 0.40 - 0.55 0.30 - 0.45
10 FAc Ratio
FAf Ratio
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
0.35 - 0.50
Appendices

For Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)

NMAs (mm)
Ratios
37.5 25.0 19.0 12.5 9.5 4.75
CA Ratio - - 0.35-0.50 0.25-0.40 0.15-0.30 -
FAc Ratio - - 0.60-0.85 0.60-0.85 0.60-0.85 -
FAf Ratio - - 0.65-0.90 0.65-0.90 0.65-0.90 -
Note: FAc = fine aggregate coarse, Faf = fine aggregate fine. These ranges provide a starting point where no prior experience exists
for a given set of aggregates. If the designer has acceptable existing designs, they should be evaluated to determine a narrower
range to target for future designs.

Appendix C.12 Coarse Portion of Fine Aggregate

All of the fine aggregate (i.e., below the PCS) can be viewed as a blend by itself that contains a
coarse and a fine portion and can be evaluated in a manner similar to the overall blend. The coarse
portion of the fine aggregate creates voids that will be filled with the fine portion of the fine aggregate.
As with the coarse aggregate, it is desired to fill these voids with the appropriate volume of the
fine portion of the fine aggregate without overfilling the voids. The equation that describes the fine
aggregate coarse ratio (FAc) is given in Equation 3. As this ratio increases, the fine aggregate (i.e.,
below the PCS) packs together tighter. This increase in packing is due to the increase in volume of
the fine portion of fine aggregate. It is generally desirable to have this ratio less than 0.50, as higher
values generally indicate an excessive amount of the fine portion of the fine aggregate is included
in the mixture. A FAc Ratio higher than 0.50, which is created by an excessive amount of natural

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sand and/or an excessively fine natural sand should be avoided. This type of a blend normally shows
a 'hump' in the sand portion of the gradation curve of a 0.45 gradation chart, which is generally
accepted as an indication of a potentially tender mixture. The equation for the calculation of the FAc
1
Ratio is given by:

FAc =
% Passing SCS 2
% Passing PCS
If the FAc Ratio becomes lower than the range of values in Table F1-1, the gradation is not uniform.
These mixtures are generally gap-graded and have a 'belly' in the 0.45-power grading chart, 3
which can indicate instability and may lead to compaction problems. This ratio has a considerable
impact on the VMA of a mixture due to the blending of sands and the creation of voids in the fine
aggregate. The VMA in the mixture will increase with a decrease in this ratio. 4
Appendix C.13 Fine Portion of Fine Aggregate
5
The fine portion of the fine aggregate fills the voids created by the coarse portion of the fine aggregate.
This ratio shows how the fine portion of the fine aggregate packs together. One more sieve is needed
to calculate the FAf, the TCS. The TCS is defined as the closest sieve to 0.22 times the SCS. The 6
equation for the FAf Ratio is given by:
% Passing TCS
FAf = % Passing SCS 7
The FAf Ratio is used to evaluate the packing characteristics of the smallest portion of the aggregate
blend. Similar to the FAc Ratio, the value of the FAf Ratio should be less than 0.50 for typical dense- 8
graded mixtures. VMA in the mixture will increase with a decrease in this ratio.

Appendix C.14 Summary of Ratios 9

CA Ratio – This ratio describes how the coarse aggregate particles pack together and, consequently,
how these particles compact the fine aggregate portion of the aggregate blend that fills the voids
created by the coarse aggregate.
10

Appendices
FAc Ratio – This ratio describes how the coarse portion of the fine aggregate packs together and,
consequently, how these particles compact the material that fills the voids it creates.
FAf Ratio – This ratio describes how the fine portion of the fine aggregate packs together. It also
influences the voids that will remain in the overall fine aggregate portion of the blend because it
represents the particles that fill the smallest voids created.
These ratios are valuable for evaluating and adjusting VMA. Once an initial trial gradation is evaluated
in the laboratory, other gradations can be evaluated on paper to choose a second trial that will have
an increased or decreased VMA as desired. When doing the paper analysis, the designer must
remember that changes in particle shape, strength and texture must be considered as well. The
ratios are calculated from the control sieves of an asphalt mixture, which are tied to the NMPS. Table
C-2 provides the listing of control sieves for various asphalt mixture sizes (both dense-graded mixes
and stone mastic asphalt). The values in determining the aggregate ratios are the percent passing
the control sieves for the final combined blend. The recommended range for the ratios is shown in
Table C-2.

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Table C.2 Recommended Ranges of Aggregate Ratios

1 Control NMAs (mm)
Sieve 4.75
37.5 25.0 19.0 12.5 9.5
2 Half Sieve 19.0 12.5 9.5 ** 4.75 2.36
PCS 9.5 4.75 4.75 2.36 2.36 1.18
SCS 2.36 1.18 1.18 0.60 0.60 0.30
3 TCS 0.60 0.30 0.30 0.150 0.150 0.075

Note: ** The nearest 'typical' half sieve for a 12.5-mm NMPS mixture is the 4.75 mm. However, the 6.25 mm sieve actually serves
4 as the breakpoint. Interpolating the percent passing value for the 6.25-mm sieve for use in the CA Ratio will provide a more
representative ratio value.

10
Appendices

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Appendix D: A Summary of the Marshall and Modified Marshall Asphalt Mix Design
Appendix D.1 General 1
Mix design for asphalt materials using the Marshall Method shall be based on the recommendations
given in the Asphalt Institute Manual Series, MS-2. The standard Marshall method is suitable for the 2
design and field control of AC mixtures containing aggregates with a maximum size of up to 25 mm.
For aggregates with maximum size of 37.5 mm, the 152.4 mm mould should be used. The main steps
involve: 3
1. Selection and blending of aggregates to achieve the particle size distributions shown the
materials specification charts (BB1, SU8-SU10) in section 8.9. This often requires blending of 4
or 5 aggregate fractions. 4
2. Selection of the appropriate grade of bitumen (see materials specification charts BB1, SU8-
SU10 in section 8.9). 5
3. Estimation of the design bitumen content.
4. Mixing of the aggregate and bitumen for at least 5 bitumen contents to obtain several and 6
compaction at the appropriate level representing the design traffic.
5. Determination of volumetric properties bulk specific gravity (BSG), voids in mineral aggregate
(VMA) and voids filled with bitumen (VFB), voids in the mix (VIM), stability, and flow 7
(specification charts BB1, SU8-SU10) in section 8.9).
6. Check of the minimum theoretical film thickness. 8
7. Checking for the water sensitivity through modified Lottman test (AASHTO T283). The ITSwet/
ITSdry ratio should be 0.8 or higher.
9
8. Conducting other performance tests (wheel tracking and fatigue testing).
9. Reformulation of the mix until the design mix requirements (see materials specification charts 10
(BB1, SU8-SU10) in section 8.9) have been achieved.

Appendices
Appendix D.2 Materials
For the initial mix design it is advisable to obtain sufficient quantities of coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, filler and bitumen to allow tests to be repeated if necessary or to test different aggregate
gradings. For each Marshall design a total of 25 kg of aggregate and 5 litres of bitumen are needed
to allow for some wastage. The materials used must be representative of those to be used on the
project.
For AC taken from an asphalt plant it is important to complete the Marshall compaction before the
samples have cooled below the recommended compaction temperature.
Aggregates
Bulk samples taken from each source of nominal size aggregate are reduced in the laboratory by
riffling or quartering to give enough material to complete the mix design programme. If additional filler
is to be added during production, then sufficient material should be obtained from the relevant source
for use in the mix design process.
It is important that the sieve sizes used for the sieve analysis of the aggregates are the same as
those specified in the final mix gradation.
Design of Aggregate Grading
Using the results of the sieve analysis obtained for each source of aggregate a blend is computed

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which conforms to the specified aggregate particle size distribution. This can be most easily achieved
using a computer spreadsheet or by graphical methods such as those described in the Asphalt
1 Institute Manual MS-2. It may be found necessary to change one or more of the aggregate sources
to meet the specified particle size distribution.
2 The selection of aggregate sources may also be constrained by the number of cold feed bins that are
available at the plant. It is preferable to obtain additional cold feed bins rather than pre-mixing two
sources of aggregate before placing into a cold feed bin.
3 Bitumen
A bulk sample of bitumen should be taken from either the storage tank or the delivery tanker.
4 Bitumen samples should not be kept at the mixing temperature for longer than an hour during any
test procedure.
Determination of mixing and compaction temperatures
5 The following properties of the bitumen are measured:
i. Penetration at 25 °C.
6 ii. Softening point.
iii. Viscosity at approximately 105 °C to 115 °C, 135 °C and 160 °C.
7 iv. Specific gravity.
The results of tests i) to iii) are plotted on a bitumen test data chart (Whiteoak, 1990) (Appendix B)
from which the ranges of ideal mixing and compaction temperature can be obtained.
8
The specific gravity of bitumen is required for the volumetric design of the mix.

9 Appendix D.3 Preparation of Test Samples

Mass of Aggregate Required
10 The amount of aggregate required for each sample is that which will be sufficient to make compacted
specimens 63.5 ± 1.27 mm high. This is normally approximately 1.2 kg and should be confirmed by
Appendices

compacting a trial sample of 1.2 kg of blended aggregate mixed at the estimated optimum bitumen
content (see below). If the height of the trial specimen falls outside the specified limits then the weight
of aggregate used should be adjusted according to the following equation:
63.5* Weight of Aggregate Used
Adjusted Weight =
Specimen Height (mm) Obtained
Equation D.1

Having determined the weight of aggregate required, a minimum of 21 samples of aggregate,

complying with the design particle size distribution, are placed in metal containers. Fifteen samples
are heated to a temperature not exceeding 28 °C above the mixing temperature as determined above.
Design Bitumen Content
The design bitumen content for the selected blend of aggregates is determined by testing specimens
prepared at bitumen contents which span the expected design value. The expected design value is
estimated from the following formula:
DBC = 0.035 a + 0.04b + Kc + F
Equation D.2

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Where,
DBC = approximate design bitumen content, per cent by weight of mix 1
a = per cent of mineral aggregate retained on the 2.36 mm sieve
b = per cent of mineral aggregate passing the 2.36 mm sieve and retained on the 0.075 mm sieve
c = per cent of mineral aggregate passing the 0.075 mm sieve 2
K = 0.15 for 11-15 % passing the 0.075 mm sieve
0.18 for 6-10 % passing the 0.075 mm sieve
3
0.20 for 5 % or less passing the 0.075 mm sieve
F = 0 - 2 %. Based on absorption of bitumen; in the absence of other data,
a value of 0.7 is suggested. 4
The aggregate samples are used to make triplicate specimens at the estimated optimum bitumen
content and at two increments of 0.5 per cent above and below this optimum. If the estimated
bitumen content proves to be different to the actual value, then it may be necessary to use the spare 5
aggregate samples to make specimens at one or two additional bitumen contents.
Mixing 6
Before mixing, the half-litre containers of bitumen are heated in an oven to the ideal mixing
temperature as determined above. Mixing should be done in a mechanical mixer with a bowl capacity
of approximately 4 litres. The mixing bowl, mechanical stirrers and any other implements to be used 7
in the mixing procedure must be pre-heated to the mixing temperature. The heated aggregate sample
is placed in the mixing bowl and thoroughly mixed using a trowel or similar tool. A crater is formed in
the centre of the mixed aggregate into which the required weight of bitumen is poured. Mixing with 8
the mechanical mixer will then produce a mixture with a uniform distribution of bitumen.
Compaction
9
The pre-heated mould, base plate, filling collar and an inserted paper disc should be pre-assembled
so that the sample can be compacted immediately after mixing is completed.
The mould is filled with the mixed material and the contents spaded vigorously with a heated spatula 10
or trowel, 15 times around the perimeter and 10 times over the interior. The surface of the material is

Appendices
then smoothed to a slightly rounded shape onto which another paper disc is placed.
The temperature of the mix prior to compaction must be within the determined limits. The mould,
base plate and filling collar are transferred to the Marshall compaction apparatus and the sample
compacted by the specified number of blows of the Marshall hammer. After compaction, the
mould assembly is removed and dismantled so that the mould can be inverted. The equipment is
reassembled, and the same number of blows is applied to the inverted sample. The mould assembly
is then placed on a bench where the base plate, filling collar and paper discs are removed.
The mould and the specimen are allowed to cool in air to a temperature at which there will be no
deformation of the specimen during extraction from the mould using an extrusion jack. The compacted
briquette is labelled and allowed to cool to room temperature ready for testing the following day. The
whole procedure is then repeated on the remaining prepared samples. The briquettes are then
tested to determine their volumetric composition and strength characteristics.

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Appendix D.4 Testing of Specimens

1 Bulk Specific Gravity Determination
The bulk specific gravity is determined for each briquette at 25 °C in accordance with the test
procedure described in AASHTO T 166 (ASTM D2726).
2
Determination of VIM
The maximum specific gravity of the mixes at each bitumen content must be determined to enable
3 VIM to be calculated (see below). After completion of stability and flow tests, two of each triplicate
set of briquettes are dried to constant weight in an oven at 105 °C 5 °C. Each pair of briquettes is
combined to give bulk samples to be tested in accordance with the AASHTO T 269 (ASTM D2041)
4 procedure for the determination of maximum specific gravity of the mixes.
Test Data
5 The test results are plotted and smooth ‘best fit’ curves drawn. The graphs plotted are:
i. VIM v bitumen content.
ii. VFB v bitumen content.
6
iii. VMA v bitumen content.
iv. Stability v bitumen content.
7 v. Flow v bitumen content.
vi. Bulk Specific Gravity of mix v bitumen content.
8 Confirmation of Design Bitumen Content
The design bitumen content is obtained from the relationship between VIM and bitumen content
determined in the Marshall test. The VIM requirement is paramount after which it is necessary to
9 ensure that all of the remaining specified mix criteria are also met.
If any of the criteria are not met or if it is considered that a more economical mix can be designed,
10 then the whole design procedure will have to be repeated using an alternative blend of aggregates,
particle size distribution or both.
Appendices

Appendix D.5 Volumetric Analysis

Because it is the volume of the individual components that is important for satisfactory mix design,
the bulk specific gravity (BSG) of each type of material must be measured so that volumes can be
computed from the weights when necessary. The nomenclature and test methods used for volumetric
analysis are shown in Table D.1.

Table D.1 Volumetric Nomenclature and Test Methods

Determined by test method
Volumetric Description Nomenclature
ASTM AASHTO
Bulk Specific Gravity of Coarse aggregate Gca C127 T85
Constituents

Bulk Specific Gravity of Fine aggregate Gfa C128 T84

Bulk Specific Gravity of Mineral Filler Gf D854 T100
Bulk Specific Gravity of Total Aggregate Gsb - -
Bulk Specific Gravity of Bitumen Gb D70 T228
a)

Bulk Specific Gravity of compacted material Gmb D2726 T166

Maximum Specific Gravity of loose material Gmm D2041 T209
Air Voids VIM D3203 T269
b) Mixed
material

Effective Bitumen Content Pbe - -

Voids in Mineral Aggregate VMA - -
Voids filled with Bitumen VFB - -

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The BSG’s of the individual coarse aggregate fractions, the fine aggregate and mineral filler fractions
are used to calculate the Bulk Specific Gravity (Gsb) of the total aggregate using the following formula:
1
P1 + P2 + .... Pn
Gsb = P P .... P
1 n
+ 2+
G1 G 2 .... G n Equation D.3 2
Where,
Gsb = bulk specific gravity for the total aggregate 3
P1, P2 ... Pn = individual percentages by weight of aggregates
G1, G2 .. Gn = individual bulk specific gravities of aggregates
4
During the production of AC it is essential that the plant produces the same aggregate blend as
obtained in the laboratory design. Adjustments must be made if the laboratory design is expressed
in terms of volume since the plant will be set up to proportion by mass. 5
To complete the volumetric analysis of a bituminous mix it is necessary to determine the maximum
specific gravity (Gmm) of the loose AC, the BSG of the compacted material (Gmb) and the SG of the
bitumen (Gb) used in the mix. 6

Appendix D.6 Calculation of Volumetric Properties of Individual Components

7
Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate
When based on the Gmm of a bituminous mixture, the effective SG of the aggregate, Gse, includes
all void spaces within the aggregate particles, except those that absorb bitumen, and is determined 8
using:
100 − Pb
Gse = 100 Pb
− 9
Gmm Gb
Equation D.4
Where, 10
Gse = effective specific gravity of aggregate

Appendices
Gmm = maximum specific gravity of mixed material (no air voids)
Pb = bitumen content at which AASHTO T209 (ASTM D2041) test (Gmm) was performed, percent
by total weight of mixture
Gb = specific gravity of bitumen
Maximum Specific Gravity of Mixtures with Different Bitumen Contents
The determination of Gmm is of paramount importance to volumetric analysis. It is recommended that
the determination should be carried out in duplicate or triplicate.
The Gmm for a given mix must be known at each bitumen content to allow the VIM to be calculated.
Gmm can be measured at each bitumen content and a plot of VMA against bitumen content should
produce a smooth relationship. This will indicate if any test result is suspect and that it should be
repeated.
The Asphalt Institute suggest an alternative procedure because the precision of the test is best
when the mixture is close to the design bitumen content. By calculating the effective SG (Gse) for the
measured Gmm, using Equation C4 the Gmm for any other bitumen content can be obtained as follows:

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100
Gse =
1 Ps Pb
+
Gse Gb Equation D.5
Where,
2 Gmm = maximum specific gravity of mixture (no air voids)
Ps = aggregate content, percent by total weight of mixture
Pb = bitumen content, percent by total weight of mixture
3 Gse = effective specific gravity of aggregate
Gb = specific gravity of bitumen
4 Bitumen Absorption
Bitumen absorption is expressed as a percentage by weight of aggregate and is calculated using:
5 Pba =
100(Gse − Gsb)Gb
GseGsb
Equation D.6
6 Where,
Pba = absorbed bitumen, percent by weight of aggregate
Gse = effective specific gravity of aggregate
7
Gsb = bulk specific gravity of total aggregate
Gb = specific gravity of bitumen
8
Effective Bitumen Content of the Mix
The effective bitumen content does not include absorbed bitumen. It is calculated using:
9 Pba Ps
Pbe = Pb −
100
Equation D.7
10 Where,
Pbe = effective bitumen content, percent by total weight of mix
Appendices

Pb = bitumen content, percent by total weight of mix

Pba = absorbed bitumen, percent by weight of aggregate
Ps = aggregate content, percent by total weight of mix
Percent Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
The Voids in Mineral Aggregate includes the volume of air between the coated aggregate particles
and the volume of effective bitumen. It is expressed as per cent by weight of total mix using:
Gmb Ps
VMA = 100 −
Gsb
Equation D.8
Where,
VMA = voids in mineral aggregate
Gmb = bulk specific gravity of compacted mix
Gsb = bulk specific gravity of total aggregate
Ps = aggregate content, percent by total weight of mix
In order to achieve a balance of mix properties it is important that the aggregate structure of an AC
has sufficient VMA. The minimum VMA required is related to the nominal aggregate size as shown
in Table D.2.

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Table D.2 Minimum VMA Specified for AC Mixes

Minimum VMA (%) 1
Nominal maximum aggregate size (mm)
VIM = 4.0 % VIM = 5.0%
37.5 11.0 12.0
25 12.0 13.0
2
19 13.0 14.0
12.5 14.0 15.0
9.5 15.0 16.0 3

Percent Air Voids in a Compacted Mix 4

The air voids, VIM, in a compacted mix is the volume of air between the coated aggregate particles.
It is calculated using:
5
VMA = 100 (G mm
Gmm
− Gmb
)
Equation D.9
Where, 6
VIM = air voids in compacted mix, percent of total volume
Gmm = maximum specific gravity of mix 7
Gmb = bulk specific gravity of compacted mix
Marshall criteria are as shown in Table D.3.
8
Table D.3 AC Wearing Course Specifications

Category and No. of blows of Marshall VIM at Optimum 9

VFB (%) Bitument Content (%)
design traffic compaction hammer
Heavy 751 65 - 75 3-5
Medium 502 65 - 78 3-5 10
Light 35 70 - 80 3-5

Appendices
Notes: 1: For the 152.4 mm diameter mould, the number of blows = 112 2: For the 152.4 mm diameter mould, the number of blows = 75

Percent Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB) in a Compacted Mix

The voids filled with bitumen, VFB, is the percentage of VMA that is filled with bitumen. It is calculated
using:
VMA = 100
VMA − VIM
(

VMA ) Equation D.10
Where,
VFB = voids filled with bitumen (per cent of VMA)
VMA = voids in mineral aggregate, per cent of bulk volume
VIM = air voids in compacted mix, percent of total volume

Appendix D.7 Stability and Flow Testing

After measuring the bulk specific gravity the briquettes are immersed in a water bath at 60°C ± 1°C
for 35 ± 5 minutes. Each briquette is then removed and tested on a Marshall crushing apparatus to
determine the stability and flow values. The mean value of stability and flow for each triplicate set of
briquettes is calculated and recorded.

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Appendix D.8 Selection of the Mix Design

1 The selection is aided by plotting graphs of the various design specification criteria against the bitumen
contents used in the mix design test (Figure D1), and then developing a diagram of the volumetric
properties of each mix and the bitumen content range in which they are achieved. An example of
2 the diagram is given in Table D.4. The key driver is the VIM in the median of the specification range
(usually 4 %). Then VMA, VFB, stability and flow are checked for the compliance with the specified
design criteria.
3
Figure D.1 An Example of Volumetric Plots at Various Bitumen Contents

10
Appendices

Table D.4 An Example of Acceptable Bitumen Range Complying with Design Criteria
% Range of Bitumen Content Giving
MS-2 Criteria Compliance with MS-2 Criteria
Mix Property
(Example Only) (Example Only)
VIM 3-5% 4.4 – 5.3
VMA 13% minimum 3.5 – 4.9 (remaining on ‘dry’ side)
VFB 65 – 75 % 4.3 – 4.9
Stability 8 kN minimum 3.5 – 5.5

Stability
Mix Property

VBF
VMA
VIM
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Bitumen Content
Bitumen content giving 4 % VIM Complies with requirements

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Appendix D.9 Bitumen Film Thickness

Bitumen film thickness can be estimated using the following formula: 1
Be 1 1
F = 100 − B * A * S *106
Equation D.11 2
Where,
F = Film thickness 3
Be = Effective bitumen content of AC (% by mass of mix)
B = Total bitumen content of AC (% by mass of mix)
4
A = Surface area of aggregate blend (m2/kg)
S = Density of bitumen at 25°C (m2/kg)
‘A’, the surface area of the aggregate blend, is calculated from: 5
(2 + 0.02a + 0.04b + 0.08c + 0.14d + 0.3e + 0.6f + 1.6g)*0.20482
Equation D.12 6
Where,
a = percentage passing 4.75 mm sieve
b = percentage passing 2.36 mm sieve
7
c = percentage passing 1.18 mm sieve
d = percentage passing 0.600 mm sieve 8
e = percentage passing 0.300 mm sieve
f = percentage passing 0.150 mm sieve
g = percentage passing 0.075 mm sieve
9
An average bitumen film thickness of 7 to 9 microns can be used as a guide when assessing the
suitability of a particular design bitumen content.
10

Appendices
Appendix D.10 Water Sensitivity Assessment
The water sensitivity of the selected mix should be checked through modified Lottman test (AASHTO
T 283). The ITSwet/ITSdry ratio should be 0.8 or higher.

Appendix D.11 Modified Marshall Mix Design

Mixes for modified Marshall design must first meet all the requirements of the Marshall Mix described
above. In addition to that, the critical modified steps involves the requirement to retain air voids of
3 % - 5 % after refusal compaction. This procedure is detailed in Appendix B. In Kenya, to achieve
this, the particle size distribution of the aggregates used conforms to that of Superpave mixes.
The Bailey aggregate blending method described in Appendix C may also be used to select the
appropriate aggregate grading.

Appendix D.12 Conducting Other Performance Tests

For design traffic class TC80, selection of the design mix should be enhanced by undertaking a
wheel tracking test (AASHTO T 324) to verify the rut resistance of the mix and the four-point bending
beam test (AASHTO T 321) to guard against fatigue cracking.

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Appendix E: A Summary of the Superpave Asphalt Mix Design

1 Appendix E.1 General
Mix design for asphalt materials using the Superpave Mix Design Method shall be based on the
recommendations given in the Asphalt Institute Manual Series, MS-2. The standard Superpave mix
2 design method is suitable for the design and field control of AC mixtures containing aggregates with
a maximum size of up to 37.5 mm. The main steps involve:

3 1. Determination of the high and low pavement temperatures for design and selecting bitumen and
aggregate materials that meet the design criteria.
2. Developing an aggregate blend that will meet the Superpave requirements.
4 3. Mixing and short-term aging the selected binder and aggregate blend.
4. Compacting specimens utilising the Superpave gyratory compactor according to design traffic
levels.
5
5. Analysing the volumetric properties of the mixture.
6. Selecting the best aggregate and asphalt blend that meets the specified design criteria for the
6 mixture.
7. Performance testing of the mixture for moisture sensitivity.
8. Conducting other performance tests (wheel tracking and fatigue testing).
7
Appendix E.2 Materials for Superpave
8 Pavement Temperature and Selection of Grade of Bitumen
The recommended procedure for the selection of the correct grade of bitumen is to determine
both high and low pavement design temperatures. The high temperature relates to the pavement
9 temperature at a depth of 20 mm below the road surface whilst the low temperature is determined
for the surface of the road. These are obtained from pavement temperature maps, or correlations of
air temperature to pavement temperature, or site-specific studies. The Performance Grade bitumen
10 (or PG binder) is then selected to suit the temperature conditions, and this may be further adjusted if
traffic loading conditions justify it. Final selection of the grade of bitumen then takes into account the
Appendices

actual designations of standard grades of binders as given in Asphalt Institute Manual Series MS-26.
For example, the bitumen grade required for a high design temperature of 52 °C and a low design
temperature of -10 °C is designated PG52-10. Further adjustments are recommended to take account
of severity of traffic loading conditions since the basic binder selection is based on the assumption
of typical fast free-flowing traffic.
Performance Tests for Bitumen
For any given road temperature and traffic loading the selected bitumen must also satisfy specified
requirements. These are:
i. A minimum flash point temperature.
ii. A maximum viscosity of 3 Pas at 135 °C.
iii. Minimum dynamic shear at a temperature appropriate to the road site.
iv. After Rolling Thin Film Oven test:
a. maximum percent loss in mass; and
b. minimum dynamic shear at a temperature appropriate to the road site.
v. After ageing in a Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV):
a. Maximum dynamic shear at a temperature appropriate to the road site.
b. Physical hardening, tests on beams of bitumen.
c. Creep stiffness criteria.
d. Direct tension failure criteria.

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The equipment required to carry out the bitumen performance tests listed above is relatively complex
and expensive and well-trained technicians will be needed to operate it. A period of ‘calibration’
will also be needed. During this time it will be necessary to establish procedures for estimating the
1
appropriate maximum and minimum road surfacing temperatures. Also, it cannot be assumed that
there will be a range of bitumens available from which a suitable material can be selected.
The target design binder content can be estimated from experience or as per the Marshall Method
2
(Equation D.2).
Aggregate Properties 3
The properties specified, are:
i. Coarse aggregate angularity. 4
ii. Fine aggregate angularity.
iii. Flat/elongated particles.
5
iv. Clay content.
v. Combined Bulk Specific Gravity.
vi. Combined Apparent Specific Gravity.
6
Angularity is specified to ensure that good internal friction is obtained in the aggregate structure
so as to resist deformation of the asphalt under traffic. Limiting elongation reduces the chances of 7
particle breakage under load and limiting the clay content enhances the bonding between bitumen
and aggregate particles.
8
Source properties relate to the following properties:
i. Toughness.
ii. Soundness. 9
iii. Deleterious material.
Toughness is measured by the Los Angeles abrasion test. Soundness is measured by the sodium 10
or magnesium sulphate soundness test. Deleterious materials are measured by the clay lumps and

Appendices
friable particles test. Aggregate particle size distributions must satisfy the requirements summarised
in Tables E.1 and E.2.
Aggregate and binder specific gravities must be measured as specified in Table D.1, Appendix D.

Appendix E.3 Compaction for Superpave Mix Design

A gyratory compactor is used which provides a method of compaction that is more representative
of compaction under road rollers than is the Marshall hammer. The specification of the gyratory
compactor is important and the basic requirements for the Superpave compactor are:
i. A constant pressure of 600 kPa on the compacting ram.
ii. A constant rate of rotation of the mould at 30 gyrations per minute.
iii. The mould is positioned at a compaction angle of 1.16 degrees.

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Table E.1 Particle Size Distribution for Superpave AC Wearing Courses

1 % Passing sieve size | Nominal maximum size (mm) (%)
Sieve 19 12.5 9.5
Size
Control Points Restricted Zone Control Points Restricted Zone Control Points Restricted Zone
2 (mm)
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max Min. Max. Min. Max.
25 100 -
3 19 90 100 100 -
12.5 90 90 100 100 -
9.5 90 90 100
4.75
4 90
2.36 23 49 34.6 34.6 28 58 39.1 39.1 32 67 47.2 47.2
1.18 22.3 28.3 25.6 31.6 31.6 37.6
5 0.6 16.7 20.7 19.1 23.1 23.5 27.5
0.3 13.7 13.7 15.5 15.5 18.7 18.7
0.075 2 8 2 10 2 10
6
Table E.2 Particle Size Distribution for Superpave AC Roadbase and Binder Courses

7 Sieve
% Passing sieve size | Nominal maximum size (mm) (%)
37.5 25
Size
Control Points Restricted Zone Control Points Restricted Zone
(mm)
8 Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
50 100 -
37.5 90 100 100 -
9 25 90 90 100
19 90
4.75 34.7 34.7 39.5 39.5
10 2.36 15 41 23.3 27.3 19 45 26.8 30.8
1.18 15.5 21.5 18.1 24.1
Appendices

0.6 11.7 15.7 13.6 17.6

0.3 10 10 11.4 11.4
0.075 0 6 1 7

In principle, asphalt mixes should be designed to be more resistant to compactive forces as either
road temperature or design traffic loading increases.
The number of gyrations, defined as ‘Initial’ (Ninitial), ‘Design’ (Ndesign) and ‘Maximum’ (Nmaximum),
needed to achieve these three specified levels of compaction should agree with the values shown in
Table E.3. Other design requirements are also given in Table E.4.

Table E.3 Superpave Gyratory Compaction Effort

Design Traffic % Compaction Parameters

(esa x 106) N initial N design N maximum
< 0.3 6 50 75
0.3 – 3 (Note 2) 7 75 115
3 – 30 8 100 160
>30 9 125 205
Notes:
1. Design traffic is the anticipated traffic level expected on the design lane over a 20-year period. Regardless of the actual design life
of the roadway, determine the design ESA for 20 years and choose the appropriate N design level.
2. The agency may, at its discretion, specify this level of compaction for an estimated design traffic level of between 3 and <10 million
esa. (See Asphalt Institute, Manual Series No. 2 (MS-2) for other conditions.

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Table E.4 Superpave AC Design Requirements

Required Relative
Minimum Voids in Mineral Aggregate Range 1
(VMA) (%) of Voids Range
Design Density (% of theoretical
Nominal maximum Aggregate Size Filled of Filler
traffic maximum specific gravity)
(esa x 106)1 (mm) with
Bitumen
Binder
Ratio
2
N initial N design N max 37.52 253 19 12.5 9.5 4 (%)
< 0.3 ≥ 91.5 703 - 80
0.3 - 3 ≥ 90.5 65 - 78
3
3 - 10 96.0 ≥ 98.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 0.6 - 1.2 5

10 - 30 ≥ 89.0 65 - 75 4
≥ 30 4
Notes:
1. Design traffic is the anticipated project traffic level expected on the design lane over a 20-year period. Regardless of the actual
design life of the roadway, the design traffic is determined for 20 years.
5
2. For 37.5 mm nominal maximum aggregate size mixtures, the specified lower limit of the VFB shall be 64 % for all design traffic levels.
3. For 25.0 mm nominal maximum aggregate size mixtures, the specified lower limit of the VFB shall be 67 % for design traffic levels <
0.3 million esa. 6
4. For 9.5 mm nominal maximum aggregate size mixtures, the specified VFB range shall be 73 to 76 % for design traffic levels > 3
million esa.
5. If the aggregate gradation passes beneath the boundaries of the restricted zone specified in Tables E.1 or E.2, the filler to bitumen 7
ratio range may be increased from 0.6 – 1.2 to 0.8 –1.6.

Appendix E.4 Volumetric Analysis 8

The samples are compacted to the appropriate number of gyrations selected from Table E.3. During
compaction the height of the sample is monitored and, knowing the mass of the mix and the volume
of the mould, the bulk specific gravity of the mix can be calculated for any number of gyrations. 9
After compaction each sample is allowed to cool partially before being extracted from the mould.
After fully cooling its bulk specific gravity (AASHTO T 166/ASTM D 2726) and maximum specific 10
gravity (Gmm) AASHTO T 209/ASTM D 2041) are determined.

Appendices
Note that the volumetric properties are computed as per the Marshall Method described in
Appendix D.

Appendix E.5 Selecting the Design Mix

A complete mix design, covering a range of bitumen contents, can then be carried out on samples
made to the selected grading. It is then a simple matter to calculate the volumetric properties of the
samples at any number of gyrations and to determine a bitumen content which gives 4 % VIM at
Ndesign. The criteria which must be met at this bitumen content are summarised in Table E.4. The
selection is aided by plotting graphs of the various design specification criteria against the bitumen
contents used in the mix design test (Figure E.1), and then developing a diagram of the volumetric
properties of each mix and the bitumen content range in which they are achieved. An example of
the diagram is given in Table E.5. The key driver is the VIM in the median of the specification range
(usually 4 %). Then VMA, VFB, stability and flow are checked for the compliance with the specified
design criteria.

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Figure E.1 An Example (Superpave) of Volumetric Plots at Various Bitumen Contents

1

10
Appendices

Table E.5 An Example (Superpave) of Acceptable Bitumen Range Complying with Design Criteria

% Range of Bitumen Content Giving

MS-2 Criteria Compliance with MS-2 Criteria
Mix Property
(Example Only) (Example Only)
VIM 4% 5.0
VFB 65 – 75 % 4.7 – 5.3
VMA 13% minimum 4.0 – 6.0
% Gmm ≤ 89 4.0 – 6.0
Dust to bitumen ratio 0.6 – 1.2 4.0 – 6.0

VFB
Mix Property

VMA
%Gmm@Nini
Dust/bit
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Bitumen Content
Bitumen content giving 4 % VIM Complies with requirements

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Appendix E.6 Moisture Sensitivity

The sensitivity to moisture of the design mix is assessed by carrying out the AASHTO T 283 test 1
procedure. Six specimens are compacted to give 7 per cent air voids and three of the specimens are
subjected to partial vacuum saturation. For regions which experience cold winters, freezing followed
by 24-hour thawing at 60 °C is an optional procedure after saturation. The indirect tensile strength of 2
the treated specimens must be at least 80 per cent of that of the remaining three specimens which
are not subjected to saturation.
3
Appendix E.7 Conducting Other Performance Tests
For design traffic class TC80, selection of the design mix should be enhanced by undertaking a 4
wheel tracking test (AASHTO T 324) to verify the rut resistance of the mix and the four-point bending
beam test (AASHTO T 321) to guard against fatigue cracking.
5

10

Appendices

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Published by TRL

Prepared for: Materials Testing & Research Division

State Department for Roads
Ministry of Roads and Transport
Machakos Road, Industrial Area
P.O. Box 11873 - 00400
NAIROBI
State Department for Roads
Ministry of Roads and Transport
Works Building
REPUBLIC OF KENYA
MINISTRY OF ROADS AND TRANSPORT
Ngong Road
P.O. Box 30260 – 00100
NAIROBI