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Challenges of Change. © 2010 ASCE

Choosing Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Technologies to Enhance

Integrated Watershed Management in Developing Countries
William W. Clarkson, Oklahoma State University, Tulsa, OK
Paul D. Robillard, World Water Watch, Cambridge, MA
Rebecca W. Harjo, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
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Introduction
Managing water resources for a variety of needs is one of the important tasks facing developing
countries. In recent years, watershed management techniques have been applied to the problem
of providing safe drinking water for human consumption while also conserving ample supplies
of water for human hygiene, livestock and crops, and other often-competing uses. Wastewater
treatment has received less attention in this context despite its critical role in preserving water
quantity and quality needs for all other uses.
Historically, wastewater development efforts have often focused on large-scale projects that at
times have been prone to failure and have exhibited poor sustainability and conservation of
resources. The purpose of this paper is to present decision-making tools for selecting wastewater
treatment technologies that work well to enhance integrated watershed management (IWM)
efforts in situations typically faced in less-developed regions of the world. IWM can be used to
resolve the very common and serious problem of ad hoc water supply and wastewater treatment.
Such piecemeal decision-making can result in poorly-treated or untreated wastewater discharges
impacting downstream water supplies.
Sustainable wastewater treatment systems must meet certain criteria, which allow for successful
implementation to meet local needs. Thus the starting point is to properly identify the needs and
the means of the locality for supporting any proposed waste handling solution. Emphasis should
be placed on treatment processes and systems that can function well and reliably in an
environment which requires minimal operational sophistication and reliance on costly energy
sources. A decision matrix is presented for rating wastewater treatment technologies on at least
the following criteria: environmental performance, economic factors, and social sustainability.
The latter category encompasses the local population’s acceptance of the technology and
responsibility for its maintenance and operation. Within this social framework, water
availability, climate, environmental and other local factors are matched with the proposed
application. For example, the system may be designed to provide wastewater treatment for
underserved populations on the fringes of rapidly growing cities, in smaller towns and villages,
or in rural areas with little or no existing water infrastructure. Life cycle analysis and
consideration of waste reduction and recycling methods are used in process selection. The
resulting decision-support matrix will assist planners and designers in choosing practical
wastewater treatment options that enhance water management efforts at local and regional
watershed levels.
Integrated Watershed Management
Initial efforts to establish IWM programs (also known as Integrated Water Resources
Management, IWRM) were based on themes from international forums, such as the Mar del

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Plata Conference (1977) and the International Conference on Water and the Environment (1992),
which proposed four guiding principles:
1. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development, and
the environment.
2. Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach,
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involving users, planners, and policy-makers at all levels.

3. Women play a central role in the provision, management, and safeguarding of water.
4. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an
economic good.
From these basic principles, IWM planning and implementation have evolved to diverse
interpretations and planning efforts. Consequently, definitions of IWM are quite broad:
“IWM is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water,
land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in
an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems” (GWP,
2000).
IWM as a Planning Tool for Managing Water Quality and Conservation
Integrated Watershed Management (IWM) requires a major redesign of water resources
allocation, operation and support systems. Typically national water resources management
systems in developing countries are highly centralized. The radical transformation of a
centralized water resource management system to a decentralized IWM process in one step is
virtually impossible to achieve. The criteria and goals of IWM are complex and take time to
develop. The water and sanitation sectors have traditionally been treated independently. Water
supply depends on sources that meet demand and satisfy quality criteria. Similarly, sanitation
systems are typically developed separately to collect, treat and discharge sewage to receiving
streams, estuaries, or ocean outfalls.
Wastewater collection and discharge are always troublesome, depending on the level of
treatment and downstream impacts. Since human health is of the greatest concern when
developing wastewater treatment systems, untreated discharge of municipal and industrial
wastewater is a significant threat to human health and welfare and also has a negative impact on
aquatic ecosystems.
IWM methods enforce or require a more universal solution, which protects supply source areas
and treats sewage flow to at least some basic level before discharge. Again, sustainability is
important, since protection of source areas and standard (or minimal) wastewater treatment
protects (and possibly improves) water quality in downstream watersheds and estuaries.
IWM introduces a new direction into water resources allocation and decision-making. A well-
functioning IWM involves active stakeholder groups at the national, provincial, regional, and
local level. Ideally, each group is supported by specialized expertise, information, data, tools,
and organizational resources to accomplish its goals. Other considerations include:

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• Land use, along with climate and hydrologic data, determine the water quantity and
quality environment. There is an ongoing need to collect flow and water quality data to
complement virtually all elements of IWM decision-making at all levels.

• Dedicated local personnel are needed to sustain the capacity of IWM programs. Without
this component, the likelihood of system failure is high.
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• IWM programs require independent stakeholders to take advantage of information, data,

and support from other levels, as well as to contribute needs, data, and information for the
entire system to function as designed. This element of capacity building involves a
continual, longer-term, and more far-reaching process than most current systems.

• The technology to assist in IWM planning and operational management is well developed
and available. However, the use of technology should not overwhelm effective legal,
institutional and financial (LIF) structures or stakeholder participation processes.
Support of IWM Framework
Virtually all critics of current water management practices agree that centralized water
institutions have not been effective in allocating, protecting, and remediating water resources.
The emphasis on decentralization requires comprehensive changes in the institutional structure
of national water agencies. The fact that IWM principles and definitions provide little guidance
for institutional reform encourages each developing country to look at its current options from an
independent perspective. Although this is a logical, and to some extent, preferable method of
developing a national plan, it may not increase innovation or focus on key IWM elements.
Emerging water and sanitation initiatives are a response to the current situation and a call for
action. Such issues have numerous ramifications for developing nations, not just in water and
sanitation, but also in related investments impacting energy, agriculture, and economic growth.
Financial resources should come from both local and national sources. National water resources
laws should support all necessary watershed council and river basin functions including
monitoring, enforcement and penalty/subsidy arrangements. Inventories should be conducted in
all watersheds to determine current land uses, water supplies, and points of waste discharge.
These data should be included in a water budget (balance) format to assist watershed councils to
protect, plan, remediate, and problem-solve in an IWM framework.
Scale and Technology Issues
Scale is very important. The scale of watershed delineation criteria varies greatly from hundreds
to thousands of hectares or more depending on the extent of mixed land uses, population density
and physiographic features. Generally the public identifies with usage and importance of local
water resources. Watershed delineations that take advantage of these factors increase
participation and the effectiveness of planning, problem solving, and sustainability. River basins
are much larger in scale but still take advantage of the concept of a hydrologic unit for
coordinated water resources management.
Primary management units are watersheds. Watershed councils and river basin commissions
develop planning, protection, problem-solving and restoration capabilities in a complementary
manner. At the watershed level, micro-basins are delineated as special areas for protection of

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water supply source areas, irrigation districts or hydropower reservoirs, for example. The
watershed council or other local entity would have responsibility for day-to-day and ongoing
involvement and oversight of watershed programs. The national water plan should be a dynamic
process capable of assisting local and river basin organizations with support and resources.
Monitoring networks, geographic information systems, simulation models, contaminant loading
functions, water and wastewater treatment options, global positioning systems, web-based
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applications, and a host of other technology tools are available for certain IWM applications.
Care should always be taken to establish the appropriateness, accuracy, and cost of a technology
being considered. Also, the needs and capacity of users to utilize technology should be assessed.
Meeting IWM Needs with Capacity Building
In a sense, IWM is all about capacity building. The challenge of directing information, data, and
knowledge into a broad-based participatory process depends very much on the capacity of the
different stakeholders involved to contribute and utilize information in a way that results in a
successful outcome. Capacity in an IWM sense has more to do with strengthening and
empowering groups (local, regional, and provincial) to be able to express their needs and to
understand, discuss, and evaluate alternatives that are in their own interests yet are compatible
with the interests of other stakeholders.
Awareness and capacity building in the wastewater sector, particularly at the community level, is
critical. Continued discharges of untreated waste greatly exaggerate the upstream-downstream
problems associated with such practices. In addition to decreasing the quantity of fresh water
available locally, the costs associated with protection, treatment, and transmission from distant
sources increase. To summarize some key points about capacity building through IWM:

• Anticipation and the application of appropriate practices are needed to facilitate improved
capacity building in an IWM framework. An example would be rapid expansion of peri-
urban areas that greatly increases water and sanitation needs.

• Although solving one particular water allocation or management problem is important,

constructing a functioning IWM system for effective planning, management and conflict
resolution is essential.

• IWM should lead to measures of improved watershed health (confirmed by monitoring

data) and the capacity to anticipate and deal with future problems and likely decisions.
Penalties to polluters, which raise funds for river basin commissions and watershed councils,
also act as an incentive to stop polluting. Modest community charges can be linked to local
operation and maintenance activities. Each watershed should develop a unique formula for
equitable charges. In addition, the complex structure of IWM requires increased emphasis on
sustainable systems where the many elements of efficient data collection, stakeholder
involvement, and support functions work effectively in unison.
Sustainability
Sustainable design should be based on a workable definition of sustainability. Perhaps the most
commonly-quoted sustainability definition is from the World Commission on Environment and

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Development (or the Brundtland Commission report): “development that meets the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs” (WCED, 1987). Various definitions can be found that focus more or less on societal
factors or man’s impact on the natural world. For example, Muga and Mihelcic (2008) point out
that “there is no consensus on the definition of sustainability” but that “it strives for the
maintenance of economic well-being, protection of the environment and prudent use of natural
resources, and equitable social progress which recognizes the just needs of all individuals,
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communities, and the environment.”

The Sustainable Water Pollution Engineering Committee of the ASCE Environmental and Water
Resources Institute (EWRI) also continues to grapple with the definition of sustainability. As
summarized by Hilger (2009), while “sustainability concepts are something of a moving target,”
the committee’s aim is to promote incorporation of the following sustainability design criteria
into wastewater treatment projects: “less use of virgin materials, water, non-renewable energy;
less production of waste, polluted water, air, or soil; more use of reclaimed materials, facilities
that generate more energy than they use, biodegradable materials, and integrated designs.” In
summary, “sustainability is about maintaining the natural systems that support human life” and at
its core is likened to “the science of ensuring that our species can persist.”
Wastewater Treatment Options
When considering options for wastewater treatment within the framework of integrated
watershed management, it is important to place the system in proper context in terms of location,
population served, and the state of infrastructure development. Some research has focused on
one or two wastewater treatment technologies for developing countries, while others have
attempted to survey a broader range of options. In the latter category, data on some of the most
frequently used wastewater treatment options in developing countries, including stabilization
ponds, activated sludge, trickling filters, anaerobic systems, and land disposal, were compiled by
von Sperling (1996). He makes the interesting observation that more types of wastewater
treatment systems may be considered for developing country applications than in the more
developed world, due to a wider range of effluent standards and local conditions. In addition, a
different set of criteria is regarded as critical. In the developing world, the four most important
factors in choosing a wastewater treatment method are construction costs, sustainability,
operational costs, and simplicity. In developed countries, these categories would lag in
importance behind treatment efficiency, reliability, sludge disposal, land requirements, and
environmental impacts (von Sperling, 1996).
Household and Village Scale: Latrine Systems
The most basic requirement for sanitation is the provision of a system for handling human waste
safely and, preferably, so that it is not offensive. In many household and small village situations
in the developing world, water is not piped to the community at all or is only provided in central,
communal cisterns or wells. In such situations, where water is unavailable for toilet flushing, the
next best alternative is probably the composting latrine. With careful attention to design, these
latrine systems can provide an acceptable level of comfort and sanitation. They represent a
quantum leap for villagers who otherwise would have no sanitary facilities at all. Composting
latrines require more attention to their upkeep than simpler pit privies, but they repay this effort

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with odor-free operation, minimal insect and disease vector attraction, and stabilized humus that
is virtually pathogen-free and safe for use as a soil conditioner.
Users must be willing to maintain composting latrines, which means following rules for daily
usage and periodically engaging in manual mixing and removal of the compost. These tasks can
be made easier by thoughtful planning and design. Engagement of the village community early
and often throughout the planning, construction, and implementation phases of building such
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facilities is considered crucial to success. Another key element in making these systems fulfill
their potential is that there must be a good source of readily available organic material, such as
crop residues or wood chips, to use as bulking agent in the compost mixture. This may be more
of an issue than it might appear in some situations where natural vegetation is sparse and every
available plot of land is used for subsistence agriculture.
Typical composting latrine design includes the following basic elements: toilet on elevated level,
with composting chamber below fitted with an outside access door. An aspect of design that can
make the system work better is provision of dual composting chambers with separate access
ports on the upper level. With one toilet in place over one of the chambers, the other access port
is covered. Periodically, the position of the toilet is switched, so that one side can be actively
filling and composting, while the other is maturing to be emptied and prepared for the next batch.
There are various design solutions to make this process work smoothly, but all require that
someone take responsibility for actually implementing the operation of the system. This may
begin with installations associated with centers such as schools or meeting houses, where village
leaders or others in authority can better ensure their proper use and people become accustomed
to them before constructing more latrines in neighborhoods or individual homes.
Household and Village Scale: Water-Based Systems
It is important in rural areas to treat wastewater at the household or village level. In areas that
have adequate percolation, traditional in-ground septic systems could be used. Ponds and
constructed wetlands can be implemented at a village level. The efficiency of a pond or wetland
depends of the local environment, ambient temperature and other factors. Even if these methods
are not extremely efficient in a certain location, any treatment will help preserve the local
environment from damage due to human waste compared with no treatment at all. Water-based
systems may be implemented wherever piped water is provided to homes and other buildings, so
that flush toilet systems can be installed. Wastewater treatment options include: septic tanks,
reed beds and other constructed wetlands, land treatment processes, ponds and lagoons, sand
filters, and possibly some mechanical unit operations and processes.
Septic tanks are among the most-used wastewater systems worldwide. They have the advantage
of simplicity and minimal operational requirements, provided they are sized adequately, and then
designed and installed correctly. They have the advantage of avoiding direct effluent discharge
to water bodies if an adequate drainfield is available to accept the septic tank effluent and
distribute it through permeable soil.
Constructed wetlands and reedbeds have been studied extensively for wastewater treatment
applications at village and larger scale in both developed and developing countries. Solano et al.
(2004) present data from a year and a half-long pilot-scale study of subsurface-flow constructed
wetlands incorporating cattail (Typha sp.) and common reed (Phragmites sp.). The study was

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conducted in Spain in a region with Mediterranean climate and significant temperature variation
between summer (mean maximum 22°C) and winter (mean minimum 5°C) temperatures.
Influent raw wastewater concentrations were high (mean BOD 327-616 mg/L, COD 557-905
mg/L, and TSS 272-433 mg/L), indicative of municipal wastewater generation in situations
commonly found in the developing world where water usage is minimal. Concentrations of
phosphorus and nitrogen compounds were commensurately high. These conditions may lend
themselves to more treatment options such as land treatment and anaerobic processes in addition
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to constructed wetlands. Although constructed wetlands are being used increasingly for
treatment of septic effluents in small villages, the aim of this study was to test their effectiveness
on raw wastewaters as a stand-alone treatment alternative. Results were encouraging, as BOD
removals varied from 63-93%, COD from 50-88% and TSS from 58-88%. Lower removals were
associated with the cooler seasons but did not always exclusively correlate to winter operations.
Another aspect of the study was to evaluate the production of biomass for fuel, which would
make this type of system more useful in a village setting. Reeds and cattails performed equally
well in terms of wastewater treatment and had equally high heating values (17-20 MJ/kg), but
cattails produced almost twice the amount of biomass (Solano et al., 2004). Small-scale
constructed wetlands are not limited to tropical climates, as this study as well as others in the US
(Reed, 1991) and UK (Griffin and Upton, 1999) have shown. Dixon et al. (2003) applied life
cycle analysis (LCA) and found that reedbeds compared favorably to aerated biofilter package
wastewater treatment plants for environmental impacts during construction and operation phases.
Ponds and lagoons are commonly used to treat wastewater from various sized communities. For
example, Oakley et al. (2000) report that 34 waste stabilization pond treatment systems had been
built to serve populations of 5,000 to 80,000 in the Central American countries of El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua in the preceding 15 years, and that 14 more systems were
in the final design or construction phases. Those included at least two very large systems for San
Pedro Sula, Honduras (population 640,000) and Managua, Nicaragua (population 1,000,000).
Results have been largely acceptable, although producing more effective pathogen reductions
and minimizing the cost of periodic grit and sludge removal are among a list of concerns.
Land treatment systems provide another option for wastewater treatment, also requiring
relatively large land areas, but offering equal or better effluent quality as ponds and lagoons
while addressing some of the shortcomings and concerns. Rapid infiltration, overland flow, and
slow-rate irrigation systems can all produce superior effluent quality for groundwater recharge or
surface discharge. Compared to ponds and lagoons, the combination of biological treatment
from soil microbial communities and physical/chemical filtration through plant roots and soil
provides exceptional treatment capacity for BOD, COD, TSS, and pathogen reduction in systems
with few mechanical components and minimal or no concerns for sludge management.
Larger Communities: Cities and Peri-Urban Areas
Urban centers can utilize standard mechanized wastewater treatment options such as activated
sludge or biotower systems if the water distribution and wastewater collection infrastructure is
sufficiently developed, or they may take advantage of lower-tech options such as ponds and
lagoons, as previously cited in Central America. Peri-urban areas (defined as the rapidly-
growing perimeter areas of cities) present unique challenges due to high population densities
without developed infrastructure. They are characterized by explosive population growth, often

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due to migration of people from rural regions seeking paying jobs, and by chaotic development
with a high proportion of substandard and/or semi-permanent housing units.
Several studies have focused on innovative treatment systems which may be better suited to meet
the needs of rapidly-growing areas such as these. One theme is decentralization of wastewater
collection and treatment systems (Tjandraatmadja et al., 2005), which may provide increased
opportunities for resource conservation (i.e. in-line treatment and “sewer mining”) and reduction
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of the required capacity of treatment works (i.e. timed sewer discharges from intermediate
collection points, collection and treatment of septic tank effluents). Another idea is to build the
wastewater treatment system around an anaerobic biological treatment process, such as the well-
established upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) or expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB)
(Lettinga, 1996). Emerging technologies include anaerobic membrane reactors for municipal use
(Jeison and van Lier, 2008). In general, anaerobic processes become more feasible with higher
concentrations of organic matter in sewage resulting from relatively low water usage. In such
cases, anaerobic treatment processes may be preferable to more energy-intensive aerobic options
such as activated sludge.
Yu et al. (1997) put forward a scheme based on a review of published literature which would
incorporate an anaerobic first stage of treatment using UASB or anaerobic baffled reactor
(ABR), followed by effluent polishing through a reed bed or stabilization pond, possibly
incorporating support media to increase active biomass. This system design was proposed for
subtropical and tropical regions to take advantage of high treatment efficiency with low capital
and operational costs and relatively simple operational requirements.

Special Circumstances: Arid Regions

Certain regions present special challenges in developing water and wastewater infrastructure.
Water conservation is key when deciding appropriate wastewater treatments in arid regions.
Separate graywater systems for the reuse of water can drastically reduce the amount of effluent
that must be treated. Low-flush or no flush toilets can even further reduce water usage in a
wastewater system.
Urine-separating latrines can also be used in rural areas and in villages. Water usage in these
systems is extremely minimal. The separated urine could then be reused as an agricultural
fertilizer after it is conditioned and aged. The solid wastes could also undergo anaerobic
treatment to be used as fertilizer. The treatment and waste transportation costs can make this an
expensive alternative in some locations. Composting toilets can be a much cheaper alternative to
urine-separating latrines.
Sustainable Treatment Process Selection
We propose a set of criteria for consideration to ensure that wastewater treatment processes are
selected with sustainability in mind and that systems are developed that are consistent with the
goals of integrated watershed management (IWM) for the region where the project is located.
Social Sustainability:
● Do the majority of the people desire wastewater treatment?
● Do religious or cultural beliefs prohibit a specific practice?
● Would a wastewater treatment facility make the community a better place?

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Environmental Sustainability:
● Are there currently problems caused by human wastes?
● Will the products of a treatment plant cause less or more environmental harm than
the present situation?
Economic Sustainability:
● Is there local funding available for the operation of a wastewater treatment plant?
● Is there a reliable, affordable energy source available?
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Organizational Sustainability:
● Will a wastewater treatment facility help the community grow in an organized
manner?
● Who will own the plant and be responsible for future operation and maintenance?

Wastewater Treatment System Decision Matrix

One example of a possible decision matrix resulting from an analysis of community needs and
the foregoing discussion of wastewater treatment alternatives is presented in Table 1 on the
following page. This matrix can be used for initial feasibility and funding of new wastewater
treatment facilities. It does not cover every aspect of wastewater treatment design and represents
only one possible outcome, but this decision-making exercise can narrow the technology choices
to an appropriate few. Final detailed design should incorporate local considerations.
Discussion and Conclusions
The crisis in water supply directly impacts community health, which is increasingly threatened as
contamination of fresh water supplies escalates. IWM places additional requirements on
wastewater treatment systems by judging supply and sanitation coverage areas partly on their
performance. If wastewater treatment systems are effective in sustaining high quality water
delivery (source areas) and minimizing in-stream and downstream impacts, they have achieved
IWM objectives. Sanitation is a major limiting factor. Anticipated and projected decreases in
uncontaminated fresh water supplies due to increased municipal contamination should be
estimated in national and regional IWM planning.
There is increased global interest in Integrated Watershed Management (IWM) as a mechanism
to resolve water quantity and quality challenges. Although IWM approaches vary greatly, the
goal of all IWM methods is the efficient and equitable allocation and management of water
resources at national, provincial, regional, and community levels. International Development
Organizations (IDOs) are emphasizing the urgency of countries to develop long-term and
sustainable water and sanitation programs within the context of an IWM framework. These
efforts would apply to all developing countries. Lack of vision, planning, and the will to change
societal habits and behavior will only create greater problems in the future. The emerging global
water crisis has numerous ramifications for developing nations, not just in water and sanitation
issues, but also in related projects impacting energy, agriculture and economic growth in general.
Without a sense of urgency, impending water crises and conflicts are inevitable and much more
difficult to resolve.

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Table 1. Wastewater Treatment System Decision Matrix

Cities Villages/Towns Rural

(Developed (No Technology)
Technology)
• Activated sludge • Anaerobic baffled • Pond or
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system for high reactors. constructed

volumes through a Secondary wetland
Tropical single treatment treatment with • Composting toilets
Temperatures facility pond or
• Anaerobic constructed
reactors for wetland
multiple medium-
volume facilities
• Secondary
activated sludge
Moderate • Traditional • Aerobic systems • In ground
Temperatures / activated sludge • Land treatment, anaerobic septic
Sufficient Water system constructed systems
Resources wetlands • Rock-reed filters
• Separate • Separate • Separate
graywater systems graywater systems graywater systems
for reuse for reuse for reuse
Arid/Water • Low-flush or no • Urine-separating • Urine-separating
Stressed flush toilets latrines if socially latrines if socially
• Traditional acceptable acceptable
activated sludge • Composting or • Composting toilets
system low-flush toilets
• Tertiary treatment
of wastewater and
sludge for reuse
• Secondary or • Biological or • Onsite aerobic or
tertiary treatment physical-chemical anaerobic
Fragile Local to remove specific systems to remove treatment at a
Environment pollutants excess N from household level
• Sludge incinerated effluent • Pond or
or disposed offsite • BOD and COD constructed
treated with pond wetland
or constructed • Composting toilets
wetland

10

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National water resources agencies and IDOs should make water and wastewater treatment
systems the backbone of IWM applications. The implementation of wastewater treatment
systems should be the first step in the development of an IWM structure. This strategic decision
reinforces the objectives of all water and wastewater treatment units and management systems.
Giving highest priority to drinking water and wastewater treatment would establish a foundation
for IWM institutional implementation in the protection of source areas within delineated IWM
hydrologic units. The long-term protection and sustainability of these source areas would
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include both surface and groundwater sources. Top priority for water and wastewater treatment
systems in all IWM efforts also places public health as the main criteria from which to build
consensus and stakeholder involvement.
Sustainability considerations should be foremost in process selection for wastewater treatment.
Sustainability encompasses meeting the costs of planning, design, construction, and operation of
treatment systems, and successfully achieving treatment goals while gaining acceptance by the
population for whom the facilities are intended. By asking simple questions related to the
community’s needs, resources, and commitment to maintaining the treatment system and
matching the data with available treatment processes, designers can generate a set of options
appropriate for a given situation that can be summarized in a decision matrix showing the best
matches of technologies to needs. This process should result in more sustainable solutions to
wastewater treatment problems and better protection of fresh water supplies in support of IWM
objectives at local, regional, and national levels.
References
Dixon, A., Simon, M. and Burkitt. T. (2003). Assessing the environmental impact of two options
for small-scale wastewater treatment: comparing a reedbed and an aerated biological filter
using a life cycle approach. Ecol. Eng., 20, 297-308.
GWP (2000). Global Water Partnerships. Secretariat, Stockholm, Sweden.
Griffin, P. and Upton, J. (1999). Constructed wetlands: A strategy for sustainable wastewater
treatment at small treatment works. J. Chem. Inst. Wat. & Envr. Mangt., 13(12), 441-446.
Hilger, H. (2009). The definition of sustainability. EWRI Currents (www.EWRInstitute.org),
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International Conference on Water and the Environment (1992). The Dublin Statement on Water
and Sustainable Development, Dublin, Ireland. UN Publications (www.unp.un.org), New
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Jeison, D. and van Lier, J.B. (2008). Anaerobic wastewater treatment and membrane filtration: a
one night stand or a sustainable relationship? Wat. Sci. Tech., 57(4), 527-532.
Lettinga, G. (1996). Sustainable integrated biological wastewater treatment. Wat. Sci. Tech.,
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