-CYTO-  After DNA replication, each chromosome consists

MITOSIS VS. MEIOSIS of two copies of the genome joined at an area

MITOSIS called centromere.
 Mitosis is the process by which a cell replicates its  In most human cells, S phase takes 8 to 10 hours.
chromosomes and the segregates them, producing  G2 occurs after the DNA has been replicated but
two identical nuclei in preparation from cell before mitosis begins.
division.
 Mitosis is generally followed by equal division of
the cell's content into two daughter cells that have
identical genomes.
 The long strands of chromosomal material in
replicated chromosomes are called chromatids.,
and if attached at a centromere, they are called a
sister chromatids.

CELL CYCLE DURING INTERPHASE

GO QUIESCENCE Nondividing
cell
G1 GAP 1 Cell growth (10
hours)
S DNA DNA
SYNTHESIS replication (8
hours)
G2 GAP 2 Protein
synthesis (4
hours)
M MITOSIS Mitosis (1
hour) followed
by cytokinesis
or cell division

INTERPHASE
 It is a phase where cell cycle where the cell grows,
replicates its DNA, and prepares for cell division.
It's not a resting phase, but it is an active period
with three sub-phases G1, S, and G2.
 Interphase is important because it is the
groundwork for the successful completion of the
M-phase (Mitosis phase). PROPHASE
 During interphase, a cell continues the basic  The first stage of mitosis, DNA -coils tightly. The
biochemical function of life, while also replicating coiling shortens and thickens the chromosomes,
its DNA and some organelles. easing their separation. Microtubules assemble
 A cell can exit the cycle at GI to enter the quiet from tubulin' building blocks in the cytoplasm,
phase called GO. forming spindles.
 A cell in GO is alive and maintains its specialized  Towards the end of prophase, the nuclear
characteristics but does mot replicate its DNA or membrane breaks down. The nucleolus is no
divide. From GO, a cell may also proceed to mitosis longer visible.
and divide, or die. METAPHASE
 Apoptosis may ensure id the cell's DNA is so  Chromosomes attach to the spindle at their
damaged that cancer might result. centromeres and align along the center of the cell,
 G0, then, is when cell's fate is either decided or put which is called the equator.
on hold.  Metaphase chromosomes are under great tension,
 During G1, which follows mitosis, the cell resumes but they appear motionless because they are
synthesis of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. pulled with equal force on both sides, like a tug-of-
These molecules will contribute to building the war rope.
extra plasma membrane required to surround the ANAPHASE
two new cells that form from the original one.  The plasma membrane indents at the center,
 Slowly, they divide the cells such as those in the where the metaphase chromosomes line up. A
liver, may exit at G1 and enter GO, where they band of microfilaments forms in the inside face of
remain for years. In contrast, the rapidly dividing the plasma membrane, constricting the cell down
cells in bone marrow speed through G1 in 16-24 the middle.
hours.  Microtubule movements stretch the dividing cell.
 Cells of the early embryo may skip G1 entirely. During the very brief anaphase, a cell fleetingly
 During S phase, the cell replicates its entire contains twice the normal number of
genome. chromosomes because each chromatid becomes an
 independently moving chromosome, but the cell  These four daughter cells only have half the
has not yet physically divided. number of chromosomes of the parent cell they are
TELOPHASE haploid.
 It is the final stage of mitosis.  Meiosis produces our sec cells or gametes - egg and
 The cell looks like a dumbbell with a set of sperm cells.
chromosomes at each end. The spindle falls apart, MEIOSIS
and nucleoli and the membranes around the nuclei
re-form at each end of the elongated cell. Meiosis I
 Division of the genetic material is now complete  Interphase
 During cytokinesis, organelles and macromolecules  Prophase I
are distributed between the two daughter cells.  Metaphase I
 Finally, microfilament band contracts like a  Anaphase I
drawstring, separating the newly formed cells.  Telophase I and cytokinesis
APOPTOSIS Meiosis II
 Apoptosis is a rapidly and neatly dismantles a cell  Prophase II
into membrane-enclosed pieces that a phagocyte  Metaphase II
can gulp up.  Anaphase II
 Like mitosis, apoptosis is a continuous process.  Telophase II and cytokinesis
 It begins when a "death receptor" on the cell's MEIOSIS I
plasma membrane receives a signal to die. Within Interphase I
seconds, enzymes called caspases are activated  The DNA in the cell is copied resulting in two
inside the doomed cells, stimulating each other and identical full set of chromosomes.
snipping apart various cell components.  Outside of the nucleus are two centrosomes, each
ROLE OF KILLER ENZYMES containing a pair of centrioles; these structures are
 Destroy enzymes that replicate and repair DNA; critical for the process of cell division.
 Activate enzymes that cut DNA into similarly sized  During interphase, microtubules extend from these
pieces; centrosomes.
 Tear apart the cytoskeleton, collapsing the nucleus Prophase I
and condensing the DNA within;  The copied chromosomes condense into X-shaped
 Cause mitochondria to release molecules that structures that can be easily seen under a
increase caspase activity and end the energy microscope.
supply;  Each chromosome is composed of two sister
 Abolish the cell's ability to adhere to each other chromatids containing identical genetic
cells; and information.
 Attract phagocytes that dismantle the cell  Chromosome are then pair up so that both copies
remnants. of chromosome 1 are together, both copies of
APOPTOSIS chromosome 2 are together, and so on.
 Dying cell characteristic appearance that undergo  The pair of chromosomes may then exchange bits
Apoptosis - it is rounds up as contacts with other of DNA is a process called recombination or
cells are cut off, and the plasma membrane crossing over.
undulates, forming bulges called blebs.  At the end of Prophase I the membrane around the
 The nucleus bursts, releasing DNA pieces, as nucleus in the cell dissolves away, releasing the
mitochondria decompose. Then cell shatters. chromosomes.
 Almost instantly, pieces of membrane encapsulate  The meiotic spindle, consisting of microtubules
the cell fragments, which prevents inflammation. and other proteins, extends across the cell between
 Within an hour, the cell is gone. the centrioles.
Metaphase I
 The chromosome pairs line up next to each other
along the centre (equator) of the cell
 The centrioles are now at opposite poles of the cell
with the meiotic spindle extending from them.
 The meiotic spindle fibres attach to one
chromosome of each pair.
Anaphase I
 The pair of chromosomes are then pulled apart by
the meiotic spindle, which pulls one chromosome
to the opposite pole.
 In meiosis I, the sister chromatids stay together.
This is different to what happens in mitosis and
meiosis II.
Telophase I and cytokinesis
 The chromosomes nds complete their move to the
MEIOSIS opposite poles of the cell.
 Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides  At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes
twice to produce four cells containing half the father together.
original amount of genetic information.  A membrane forms around each set of
 During meiosis one cell divides twice to form four chromosomes to create two new nuclei.
daughter cells.  The single cell then pinches in the middle to form
two separate daughter cells each containing a full
 set of chromosomes within a nucleus. This process MEIOSIS II
is known as cytokinesis.
MEIOSIS II
Prophase II
 Now there are two daughter cells, each with 23
chromosomes (23 pairs of chromatids).
 In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes
condense again into visible X-shaped structures
that can be easily seen under a microscope.
 The membrane around the nucleus in each
daughter cell dissolves away releasing the
chromosomes.
 The centrioles duplicate.
 The meiotic spindle forms again
 In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes
(pair of sister chromatids) line up end-to-end along
the equator of the cell.
 The centrioles are now at opposites poles in each
of the daughter cells.
 Meiotic spindle fibres at each pole of the cell attach
to each of the sister chromatids.
Metaphase II
 In each of the two daughter cells the chromosomes
(pair of sister chromatids) line up end-to-end along
the equator of the cell.
 The centrioles are now at opposites poles in each
of the daughter cells.
 Meiotic spindle fibres at each pole of the cell attach
to each of the sister chromatids.
Anaphase II
 The sister chromatids are then pulled to opposite
poles due to the aetion of the meiotic spindle.
 The separated chromatids are now individual
chromosomes.
Telophase II and cytokinesis
 The chromosomes complete their move to the
opposite poles of the cell.
 At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes
gather together.
 A membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes to create two new cell nuclei.
 This is the last phase of meiosis, however cell
division is not complete without another round of
cytokinesis.
 Once cytokinesis is complete there are four
granddaughter cells, each with half a set of
chromosomes (haploid):
 in people with XY chromosomes, these four
cells are all sperm cells
 in people with XX chromosomes, one of the
cells is an egg cell while the other three are
polar bodies (small cells that do not develop
into eggs).

MEIOSIS I