MODULE 8: GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING FOR EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

Definition of terms
Guidance:
• This literally means “to direct” “to point out”, “to show the path”.
• The assistance given by a more experienced person to a less experienced person to solve
certain major problems e.g educational, vocational, personal etc.
Guidance in educational institutions
• Process of exposure to useful information, to facilitate decision making for personal and
social development.
• The person providing guidance is well placed in knowledge and skills as well as more
exposed to give meaningful direction to the one they are guiding.
Principles of guidance
i. The dignity of the individual is supreme
ii. Each individual is different from every other individual.
iii. The primary concern of guidance is the individual in his own social settings.
iv. Personal perceptions of the individuals are the bases on which he or she acts.
v. The individual generally acts to enhance his or her perceived self.
vi. The individual able to learn and make choices that will lead to social improvement.
vii. Everyone may need personalized assistance from a competent professional personnel.
The principles of guidance are based on the following assumptions:
i. Every individual has talents.
ii. Excellence is possible
iii. Problems mar growth
iv. There are individual differences
v. Environment provides innumerable opportunities
Types of guidance
• Educational
• Vocational/career
• Personal guidance
Educational Guidance:
• includes the assistance in the choice of subjects, use of libraries, laboratories,
workshops, development of effective study habits, adjustment of school life e.t.c
Vocational Guidance:
• It is the assistance rendered to choosing and preparing for a suitable vocation.
Personal Guidance:
• Helps deal with the problems of personal adjustment in different spheres of life.
• E.g. emotional, social, ethical and moral as well as health problems.

Counselling
What is counselling?
• Process of assisting the counselee to make interpretations of facts relating to a choice,
plan or adjustment which he or she needs to make (Glenn F. Smith).
• Counseling is a series of direct contacts with the individual which aims to offer him
assistance in changing his or her attitude and behaviors (Carl Rogers)
 • Counselor focuses to empower clients to cope with their lives, explore options, make
their own decisions, and take responsibility for those decisions.
What is counseling in educational institutions?
• Emotional process where the teacher plays the role of a helper to enable a young person
deal with emotional issues that may be interfering with her/his ability to function
adaptively in any given situation.
• The role of the counselor is to
• make the learner aware of their emotional problems
• providing an enabling environment for expression and resolution of these issues
• Enable the learner adopt and practice new positive behavior.
Delivery of counseling:
• Counseling can be offered individually or through groups.
Individual counseling:
• It is a One-on-one counseling service offered to help students address concerns in a
number of areas including: Depression, anxiety, substance abuse, stress management,
family or other relationships, cultural identity, lesbian/bisexual/gay/transgender etc.
Group Counseling:
• a single counselor works with multiple clients in order to help them resolve their issues.

Types of counselling
i. Directive counselling
ii. Non-directive counselling
iii. Eclectic Counseling
Directive counseling: (counselor centered)
• The counselor directs the counselee to think by informing, explaining and advising.
Steps involved in directive counseling -
a) Analysis - to understand the client, information collected is analyzed.
b) Synthesis - data collected is summarized to understand client's strengths, weaknesses,
c) Diagnosis - drawing conclusions about the nature and causes of client's problem.
d) Prognosis - predicting the future development of the client's problem.
e) Counseling - brings about adjustment or readjustment in the client.
f) Follow‐up ‐ after counseling is over, the counselor helps the client to readjust

Merits
• Time saving and economical
• Gives happiness to the counselee as he gets a solution to his problem.
• Emphasis is on the intellectual rather than the emotional aspect.
Demerits
• Kills initiative
• Makes counselee helpless
• Does not guide counselee to be efficient and confident
• Undemocratic
• Counselee is made dependent
Non‐directive counseling: (client‐centered counseling)
• Counselee is made dependent counselor, the counselee understands the nature and cause
of his/her problem.
 • The counselor makes the client understand him or herself and creates an atmosphere in
which the client can work out his or her own understanding.
Merits
• Freedom of the individual
• Relieves tensions due to catharsis (release)
• Moves toward acceptance of himself
• Confronts weaknesses without feeling threatened
Demerits
• Time consuming
• Wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon
• Not all problems can be sorted out by talking
Eclectic counseling
• Bordin and Thorne are the chief proponents of eclectic counseling.
• This type of counseling allows the counselor to alternate between directive and
non‐directive methods.
• The counselor studies the needs of the client and selects the appropriate method.
Steps in Eclectic counseling
a) Intake interview - establish rapport - collect case history from parents, teachers e.t.c -
plan is formulated for diagnosis.
b) The collected information is given to the client to improve his/her self - understanding.
c) The counselee has to achieve emotional understanding. He has to change his perception
and attitude about himself and his situation (environment).
d) During the closing phase, the counselee makes decisions and plans, changes behavior and
solves his problems.

Difference between Guidance and Counseling

Guidance Counseling
Guidance is broader and comprehensive Counselling is inn-depth and narrow
Guidance is more external, helps a person understand Counselling helps people understand themselves
alternative solutions available to him and makes him andis an inward analysis. Alternative solutions are
understand his personality and choose the right solution proposed to help understand the problem at hand.
Guidance is mainly preventive and remedial andas well Counselling is remedial and as well preventive and
developmental developmental
Intellectual attitudes are the raw material of guidance Emotional rather than pure intellectual
attitude are raw material of the counselling process
Decision making is operable at an level intellectual level Counselling operates at an emotional level
in guidance
Guidance is generally education and is mostly Counselling is mostly offered for personal and
offered for personal career related problems social issues

Purpose of guidance and counseling program in learning institutions

• To support learners acquire self knowledge and interpersonal skills necessary for making
choices for a productive lifestyle, sustainable throughout their life time.
• To ensure the physical, emotional, social, and educational development of learners.
 • learners spend much time with teachers, thus are better placed to be counselors
• They can assume their counseling role at two levels – school and classroom.
The role of guidance and counseling in schools
a. Developmental Guidance: preventive interventions for HIV/AIDS, STIs, pregnancy,
and delinquency control.
b. Individual Pupil's Academic Planning and Performance: provide relevant support for
pupils' individual planning and development.
c. Responsive Services: G/C interventions, crisis intervention, parent out-reach, referral,
d. Systems Support: conducting workshops for parents and staff.

Rationale for guidance and counseling program in learning institutions

• The transfer of advanced technology, new lifestyles.
• Lack of capacity to handle changes affects how learners make personal, career, choices.
• Rate of learners graduating from educational institutions surpasses government's capacity
to create jobs to absorb them.
• Thus educators need to put strategies in place to help children make workable life choices

Importance of guidance and counseling program

1. Learners are given solutions on to deal with psychological problems affect their studies.
2. Learners develop problem solving skills which help them deal with issues in their lives.
3. Learners are advised on how to cope with different situations facing them
4. It helps to shape a learner’s behavior and instill discipline in learners.
5. Able to know what to do and how to do such things.
6. Learn how to live in harmony with others in the school community.
7. It bridges the gap between the learners and the school administration,
8. Learners get comprehensive pieces of advice on careers, courses and jobs
9. Talk about various things which they feel uncomfortable talking about with their parents..
10. they become better people because they are taught by the counselors about how to behave

Challenges requiring guidance and counseling

i. The HIV/AIDS pandemic, which has substantially increased the number of orphans
and has negatively, affected learning.
ii. Inadequate career opportunities, which have led to the current state of high
unemployment rates among school and college leavers.
iii. There are many family problems, e.g. violence against children, and stress in society.
iv. Drug and substance abuse leading to antisocial behavior.
Current government initiatives
– Strengthening the guidance and counseling section at the Ministry of Education.
– in servicing of teachers in guidance and counseling and
– ensuring that G&C units in schools work with NACADA and other partners to sensitize
teachers and parents on substance abuse prevention.

Components of Counselling
i. Personal Development: focuses on child growth and development and the
challenges the child faces as they grow
Issues of emphasis in personal development include:
 – Identity.
– Sexual maturation. Self-esteem development.
– Development of initiative and assertiveness.
– Improvement of emotional stability.
ii. Socio-emotional Development: focuses, mainly, on areas of socialization,
self-esteem, relationships, and good citizenship.
iii. Educational Development: focus will on the areas of study skills, maximum
utilization of resources, building academic strengths, and future educational planning.
iv. Career Vocational Development: focuses on the areas of career awareness, interests
and skills, and connecting classroom learning with future career decisions.
Developing a guidance and counseling plan
1. Conducting a needs assessment:
• What should be the priority goals of the institution?
• What are the performance deficiencies of the institution?
• What is the institution doing that it should not do?
• What is the institution doing that it should be doing?
• What desired competencies in the students should receive more emphasis?
• What deficiencies should be given more attention?
• Taking into account the fact that the resources that are available are limited,
• What programmes should be given more emphasis and what should be given less?
2. Data collection and analysis:
• Collection and analysis of data at the individual level (students, parents/guardians, and
school staff) and the school level (attendance, drop out trends, etc.).
• This data will be used to assist in other parts of the planning process (seeking
administrative support, board of management, and building foundational elements).
• Effective school guidance and counseling programs use multiple sources of data (existing
and new assessments) to determine the needs of the students in a school
3. Set program goals and objectives:
• In order to determine the goals and objectives of the program, it is important to assess the
current situation with regard to Guidance and Counseling.
• The program developer must clearly indicate the position of the organization in terms of
clients and their problems (gathered through a needs assessment).
• The general needs of the country, which existing programmes have not met, should also
be taken into account.
• After the identification of students' needs Guidance program should be to provide
beneficiaries with the skills and attitudes necessary to function fully in society.
• It emphasizes decision-making skills and the development of a positive selfimage.
• The program also emphasizes the need to assist young people to become responsible
citizens, who develop realistic and fulfilling plans for their lives based on
self-knowledge, their own needs and those of the environment.
• development of a complete person, capable of surviving in a complex world, and to
provide the information to fall back on when needs arise.
4. Identify available resources such as human resources, financial resources and policy
related resources:
• One measure of counseling program effectiveness is the ratios of the resources to the
benefit gained types of resources are considered.
 • Budget for the school counseling department should also include personnel, professional
books, office supplies, career guidance materials, audio-visual materials for psych
educational activities, development of curricular guides for school counseling
programmes and small group and large group counseling are
5. Selection of a Program Structure:
• A decision is then made on which content needs are to be addressed first.
• As the content is structured, the delivery methods are also considered.
• Since school guidance and counseling programmes consist of structured development
experiences, they must be presented through classroom and group activities.
• Various strategies can be used to assist clients to meet their objectives.
• It is important to select specific and appropriate strategies for implementation.
• The school Guidance Committee is part of the selection of the program structure, and the
established leadership is responsible for the design of the program.

6. Development of action plan:

7. Monitoring and evaluating a program:

Monitoring and evaluation provides an opportunity to modify the program when necessary.
Evaluation helps to check:
– Program effectiveness;
– Program response to changing needs;
– Strengths and limitations of the program;
– Staff development; and reporting and follow-up

UNIT 2: BASIC COUNSELLING SKILLS

Self-awareness
• State of being conscious of one’s thoughts, feelings, beliefs, behaviours and attitudes,
and knowing how these factors are shaped by important aspects of one’s development
• The objective of self-awareness training is for the counsellor to develop the ability to
identify their personal reactions and utilize these reactions within the counseling
relationship.
• One may increase their self-awareness through selfassessment, life experience and
information (feedback).
Who Am I?
• A human being
• Unique and that makes me different from others
• Heredity
• Psychological make up
What Am I? In terms of:
• Values: Strengths and weaknesses
• Fears: Feelings
• Needs: Potential
Where Am I Going? This is reflected in:
• Goals: Life Plans
• Making Choices: Purposes
How Do I Get There? How to get there depends on:
• Resources and,
• Competences
Importance of self-awareness in counseling:
i. One tends to behave consistently and is more predictable
ii. One has clear image of self and thinks of self
iii. One tends to be more in charge of life
iv. One becomes more sensitive to other’s needs
v. One is able to handle situations in life
vi. It is crucial for personal growth

Stages in counseling (There are four stages/phases in the counseling process).iewing Workng
1. Interview stage
• This stage could also be referred to as the familiarization or introductory stage.
• it determines the success of other stages and the entire counseling relationship.
• The counselor and the client meet for the first time.
• The counselor makes effort to get acquainted with the client by establishing rapport.
• This is done by asking the client to sit down, so that he or she would be emotionally
relaxed in the counselor's office.
• The counselor inquires about the client's name, class, parents, friends, progress in school
and his mission to the counselor's office.
• Should be done such that the client does not feel as if he or she is being interrogated.
• The counselor assures the client that whatever is discussed will be kept confidential.
• to win the client's confidence hence open up to say his purpose for coming for help
• The client may or may not present his problem during this stage.
• The counselor should not be in a hurry to make the counselee disclose his/her mission.
• counselor needs to display patient, listen carefully, show empathy, show unconditional
positive regards; that is treating his clients with respect, warmth,
• This is very important as counselors are not expected to be segregative or discriminative
2. Working stage:
• This is the second difficult stage/phase of the counseling process.
• Here counselor fully engages the client in discussion about what to do and how it will be
done concerning the problem of the client.
 • If the client has not disclosed his/her mission in the first stage, the counselor now asks the
client. He uses questioning techniques to make the client open up.
• Questions such as: Are you okay? Can I help you? What is the matter? What has brought
you to my office?
• The client now responds.
• The counselor having listened to the client will suggest different techniques depending on
the nature of the problem presented on how the problem can be handled.
• Techniques usec include; - responding, exploring, restatement, interpretation,
confrontation, unconditional positive regards, empathy, silence to diagnose the problem.
• the client and counselor sets the goals for counseling
• The counselor here tells the client that counseling aids such as cassettes, radio, video, and
tape recorder may be used and the purpose for using them will be explained to the client.
• The counselor should also tell the client the number of sessions that the counseling
relationship may cover.
• This will depend on the nature of the problem.
• If the counselor needs to contact an ―outsider‖ who may be responsible for the problems
faced by the client, the permission and consent of the client must be sought.
• The counselor also takes the client through the methods to be used in solving the
problem. All these are done in the working stage of the counseling process.
3. Termination stage
• Bringing to an end the counseling relationship between the counselor and client.
The reasons for termination include:
(a). Counselling goals are achieved
• When the goals for counseling set by the client and the counselor have been realized to
the satisfaction of the client and counselor, the relationship can be called off temporarily
or permanently.
• Temporarily because the counselor may want to follow up the client to see if he is doing
well or putting into practice what has been discussed and suggested; and permanently if
client's problem is solved and may not need to see the counselor again.
• The client should be told that if he has problem in future, he should be free to see the
counselor.
(b). Un-cooperative attitude from the client:
• If after several attempt nothing good is coming out of the relationship, the counselor can
terminate the relationship temporarily.
(c). Client may decide not to continue:
• After some time, the client may decide not to continue for reasons best known to him.
(d) Referral to an expert/specialist:
• The counselor may discover that the client has problem that is beyond his or her
competence, area and experience, when this happens the client should be referred to the
appropriate quarters for specialized treatment.
(e) Practicum/internship may end before the counseling goals are achieved
• There may be instance when the practicum period will end without the counselor
achieving his purpose or the school may close for holiday,
(f). Death of counselor or client
• Counselling relationship may be terminated when the counselor or client dies.
4. Follow-up stage
 • This is the stage in a counseling process that you the counselor will want to know what is
happening to your client after termination.
• The follow-up aims at finding out whether the client is carrying out the decisions arrived
at before you ended the session and what problems are being experienced.
• However this stage may not be necessary for every client so you the counselor determine
with the client whether the stage of follow-up will be necessary.

You have been asked to counsel a 15-year-old youth who is experiencing difficulty in peer
relationships, both male and female. In addition, this student vacillates between wanting
to do well in school and not caring about grades.
• Discuss how you would undertake the counseling assignment.

Types of counseling skills

1. Attending Listen ing

3. RefctingEmpathizing
. Probing1. Attending
• Effective attending tells clients that you are with them and that they can share their world
with you.
• Effective attending puts you in position to listen carefully to what your clients are saying.
• The acronym SOLER can be used to help you to show your inner attitudes and values of
respect and genuineness
S- Squarely face your client. Adopt bodily posture that indicates involvement with your client
(A desk between you and your client may, create a psychological barrier between you).
O- Open posture. Crossed legs and crossed arms may be interpreted as diminished involvement
L- Lean. Lean toward the client (when appropriate) to show your involvement and interest.
E_ Eye contact. Eye contact shows that you are interested in what the client has to say.
R_ Relax. Do not fidget nervously or engage in distracting facial expressions.
2. Listening
• Capture and understand the messages clients communicate as they tell their stories,
whether those messages are transmitted verbally or nonverbally.
• Being listened to makes people feel:
– Respected
– Valued
– Affirmed
– Loved
– Appreciated
– Understood
Active listening involves the following four skills:
(a). Listening to understanding the client's verbal messages.
• The counselor has to listen to the mix of experiences, behavior and feelings the client
uses to describe his or her problem situation.
(b). Listening to and interpreting the client's nonverbal messages.
• Counselors should learn how to listen to and read nonverbal messages such as bodily
behavior, facial expressions, voice related behavior, observable physiological responses,
general appearance and physical appearance (fitness, height, weight, and complexion).
(c). Listening to and understanding the client in context.
• The counselor should listen to the whole person in the context of his or her social
settings.
(d). Listening with empathy.
• Empathic listening involves attending, observing and listening (―being with‖) in such a
way that the counselor develops an understanding of the client and his or her world.

Hindrances to active listening:

(a). Inadequate listening:
- distracted because they have problems of their own, feel ill, or social and cultural differences
between themselves and their clients.
(b). Evaluative listening:
- judging and labeling what the other person is saying as either right/wrong, good/bad,
acceptable/unacceptable, relevant/irrelevant etc.
(c). Filtered listening: listen through biased (often prejudiced) filters. Filtered listening distorts
our understanding of our clients.
(d). Labels as filters: Diagnostic labels can prevent you from really listening to your client. If
you see a client as ―that woman with Aids‖, your ability to listen empathetically to her problems
will be severely distorted and diminished.
(e). Fact-centered rather than person-centered listening: Listen to the client's whole context
and focus on themes and core messages.

3. Reflecting
Reflecting is a responding skill done by repeating roughly (restating) what has been said or
summarizing (rephrasing) what has been said.
Reflecting on content - techniques:
(i). Mirroring: reflecting and involves repeating almost exactly what the speaker says.
• It is usually enough to just repeat key words or the last few words spoken.
• This shows you are trying to understand the speaker's terms of reference and acts as a
prompt for him or her to continue.
• Be aware not to over mirror as this can become irritating and therefore a distraction from
the message.

Activity
Client: ―I think I am losing my mind!‖
Counselor: "you think you might be losing your mind?‖
• Discuss whether the counsellor is restating or rephrasing what the client has said?
Note that ‘restating' is repeating what the client has said almost word for word.
(ii). Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing involves using other words to reflect what the speaker has said.
• Paraphrasing shows not only that you are listening, but that you are attempting to
understand what the speaker is saying.
• When paraphrasing, do not introduce your own ideas or question the speaker's thoughts,
feelings or actions.
• Your responses should be non-directive and non-judgemental.
• It is very difficult to resist the temptation to ask questions and when this technique is first
used, reflecting can seem very stilted and unnatural.

Activity
Clients: "I guess I have to resist the paper. I did so poorly and don't know why I messed up that
way.‖
Counsellor: ―so you have decided to repeat the paper?‖
Client: Imagine I can't concentrate at work anymore, I have lost my appetite, my boyfriend has
left me and I feel so tired all the time!‖
Counsellor: ―are you saying that you feel like you are losing it?‖
• Discuss whether the counsellor is restating or rephrasing the clients words?
Note that rephrasing is summarizing what has been said in your own words

(b). Reflecting on feelings

• An open-ended, respectful manner of what the client is communicating verbally and
nonverbally, both directly through words and nonverbal behaviors.
• It is important for the helper to think carefully about which words he/she chooses to
communicate these feelings back to the client.
4. Empathy
• It is a skill used to communicate the counsellor’s understanding of the client's world.
Empathy process involves:
• Listening Struggling to understand the issue.
• Understanding with the client.
• Holding the hand of a crying client, allowing a crying client to cry, offering tissue to a
crying client, acknowledging the feelings through words etc.
• listening to clients, understanding them and their concerns as best as we can
• Counselor must temporarily forget about his or her own frame of reference and try to see
the client's world.
• Recognize and acknowledge the feelings of another person without experiencing those
same emotions.
• Share with the client in either a verbal or non-verbal way.
Some of the stumbling blocks to effective empathy include:
(a). Avoid distracting questions. ask questions to get more information from the client in order
to pursue their own agendas.
(b). Avoid using clichés. Clichés are hollow, and they communicate the message to the client
that his or her problems are not serious. Avoid saying: ―I know how you feel‖ because you
don't.
(c). Empathy is not interpreting. The counselor should respond to the client's feelings and
should not distort the content of what the client is telling the counselor.
(d). Empathy is not the same as sympathy. To sympathize with a client is to show pity,
condolence and compassion all well-intentioned traits but not very helpful in counseling.
5. Probing
• Probing is a verbal intervention (tactics) which aims at helping clients to talk about and
defines them more correctly and specifically.
• Used to gather information, increase clarity, stimulate thinking, or create discussion.
• Probes can take the form of statements, questions, requests, single word or phrases and
non-verbal prompts.

Purpose of probing:
a) To encourage non-assertive or reluctant clients to tell their stories
b) To help clients to remain focused on relevant and important issues
c) To help clients to identify behaviors and feelings that give a fuller picture to their story,
d) To help clients to move forward in the helping process
e) To help clients understand themselves and their problem situations more fully
Note: Keep the following in mind when you use probes or questions:
• Use questions with caution.
• Don't ask too many questions. They make clients feel ―grilled‖
• Don't ask a question if you don't really want to know the answer!
• If you ask two questions in a row, it is probably one question too much.
• Although close-ended questions have their place, avoid asking too many close ended
questions that begin with ―does‖, ―did‖, or ―is‖.
• Ask open-ended questions - that is, questions that require more than a simple yes or no
answer. Start sentences with: ―how‖, ―tell me about‖, or ―what‖.
• Open-ended questions are non-threatening and they encourage description.
• Ask questions that challenge the client to think
• In asking questions, keep the focus on the client.
• Ask questions that help the client achieve their goal of counselling.
Communication model in counseling
The Egan model: The Egan model (Egan G., 'The Skilled Helper', 1998) aims to help the
counselor and client addresses 3 main questions:
• What is going on?'
• 'What do I want instead?'
• 'How might I get to what I want?
Below is a description of the Egan communication model in detail:-
Stage 1 - Current Scenario: What's going on?
• Stage 1 is about providing a safe place for the speaker to tell their story in their own way,
1a - An expansive part:
• The helper encourages the speaker to tell their story, and by using good active listening
skills and demonstrating the core conditions, helps them to explore and unfold the tale,
and to reflect.
1b - A challenging part:
 • Skills in 1b are: Challenging; different perspectives, patterns and connections, should and
ought, to, negative self-talk, blind spots (discrepancies, distortions, incomplete
awareness, things implied, what's not said), ownership, specifics, and strengths.

Useful questions in 1b are:

– How do others see it/you?
– Is there anything you've overlooked?
– What does he/she think/feel?
– What would s/he say about all this?
– Any other way of looking at it?
1c -Focusing and moving forward:
• Helper seeks to move the speaker from stuckness to hope by helping them choose an area
that they have the energy to move forward on, that would benefit them.
• Skills in 1c are: Facilitating focusing and prioritizing an area to work on.
Useful Questions in 1c are:
– What in all of this is the most important?
– What would be best to work on now?
– What would make the most difference?
Stage 2 - Preferred scenario: What do I want instead?
• Help the speaker to open up of what they really want, and how things could be better.
• This stage is very important in generating energy and hope.
2a - A creative part:
• The helper helps the speaker to brainstorm their ideal scenario; 'if you could wake up
tomorrow with everything just how you want it, what would it be like?'
• The speaker is encouraged to broaden their horizon and be imaginative
Skills in 2a: Brainstorming, facilitating imaginative thinking, i.e. Quantity vs. Quality
• Anything goes - have fun
• Write down ideas verbatim, don't analyze or judge
• Keep prompting - 'what else?'
• Don't hurry, allow lots of time
• Useful Questions in 2a include:
– What do you ideally want instead?
– What would be happening?
– What would you be doing/thinking/feeling?
– What would you have that you don't have now?
– What would it be like if it were better / a bit better?
2b - A reality testing part:
• Speaker formulates goals which are specific, measurable, achievable/appropriate (for
them, in their circumstances), realistic (with reference to the real world), and have a time
frame attached, i.e. SMART goals.
• Goals which are demanding yet achievable are motivating.
• Skills in 2b are: facilitating selecting and reality checking with respect to internal and
external landscape.
• Useful Questions in 2b are:
– What exactly is your goal?
– How would you know when you've got there?
– What could you manage/are you likely to achieve?
– Which feels best for you?
– Out of all that, what would be realistic?
– When do you want to achieve it by?
2c - Moving forward:
• This stage aims to test the realism of the goal before the person moves to action, and to
help the speaker check their commitment to the goal by reviewing the costs and benefits
to them of achieving it.
• Is it worth it?
• "It feels risky but I need to resolve this."
• Skills in 2c are: facilitation of exploring costs and benefits, and checking commitment to
goal.
• Useful Questions in 2c include:
– What will be the benefits when you achieve this?
– How will it be different for you when you've done this?
– What will be the costs of doing this? Any disadvantages/downsides to doing this?
Stage 3 - Action strategies: How will I get there?
• This is the 'how' stage... how will the person move towards the goals they have
• Identified in Stage 2?
• It is about possible strategies and specific actions, about doing something to get started,
whilst considering what/who might help and hinder making the change.
3a - Another creative part!
• The speaker is helped to brainstorm strategies - 101 ways to achieve the goal – again with
prompting and encouragement to think widely.
• What people, places, ideas, organizations could help?
• The aim is to free up the person to generate new ideas, breaking out of old mind-sets.
• "There were gems of possibilities from seemingly crazy ideas". Skills in 3a are:
Facilitation of brainstorming.
• Useful Questions in 3a include:
– How many different ways are there for you to do this?
– Who/what might help?
– What has worked before/for others?
– What about some wild ideas?
3b - Focusing in on appropriate strategies
• What from the brainstorm might be selected as a strategy that is realistic for the speaker,
in their circumstances, consistent with their values?
• Force field analysis can be used here to look at what internal and external factors are
likely to help and hinder action and how these can be strengthened or weakened
respectively.
• "I would feel comfortable trying to have a conversation with him about how he sees
things".
• Skills for Stage 3b: Facilitation of selecting and reality checking.
• Useful Questions for 3b include:
– Which of these ideas appeals most?
– Which is most likely to work for you?
– Which are within your resources/control?
3c - Moving to action:
• The aim is to help the speaker plan the next steps.
• The strategy is broken into bite-size chunks of action. Here the speaker is doing almost
all the work, producing their action plan.
• The helper works with them to turn good intention into specific plans with time scales.
• Whilst being encouraging, it's also important not to push the speaker into saying they'll
do things to please the helper.
• "I will make sure we have time together before the end of the month.
• I will book a meeting, so that we can be sure of quiet uninterrupted time. I will organize
this before Friday".
• Skills for 3c are: Facilitation of action planning.
• Useful Questions for 3c include:
– What will you do first? When?
– What will you do next? When?
• If the end point of producing an action plan has been reached, the experience of trying it
out could be the starting point for a followup mentoring/co-mentoring session.
Qualities of an effective counsellor
• Empathy: Being in the shoes of the client/feeling with them.
• Confidentiality: Nothing leaves the counseling room unless agreed upon
• Non Judgmental: A counselor is there to listen and not to condemn.
• Attention: Listening and giving the client full attention.
• Showing interest: Clients feel valued in you show interest in their life
• Honesty: Information given should be accurate and precise.
• Respect: Respect for the client’s culture and beliefs.
• Moving at the client’s pace: Giving client time and space.
• Controlling the session: Staying focused on the counseling situation.
• Accepting client’s problems: No showing surprise or shock on what the client says.
• Allowing feelings expression: Allowing clients to express anger, sadness, crying etc.
Role of the teacher/instructor as a counselor
• Teachers/ instructors are guides for student’s career selection
• guide learners in subject selection hence are shaping of learners’ future
• role models and sources of inspiration and responsible to build the character of learners
• are the bridges connecting parents and schools - learners success in their educational
pursuits becomes possible when teachers, parents and student work together
Confidentiality and Ethics
• You can't help a client effectively unless she knows you won't betray her secrets.
• Treat all clients equally.
• Respect your clients as you interact with them. Be faithful and truthful to your clients
Guidelines in maintaining client confidentiality
a. Take every reasonable precaution to preserve the confidentiality of information
acquired throughout your contact with clients.
b. protect the identity and privacy of clients except when subject to the requirements
of the law or you have the expressed permission of clients
c. Ensure that the colleagues and other staff whom you work with are also aware of
the need to maintain client confidentiality.
 d. When you communicate information about your practice or your research in
counseling, ensure you protect the identity of clients associated with it.
e. Safeguard any records you keep about client, whether written or stores in
computer systems.
f. At the outset of counseling, make clear to clients the rights they have about
accessing the information you hold about them.
g. Where there is evidence and a compelling reason to breach confidentiality, as with
the admission of serious crime, clients should be made aware of their position and
the appropriate third party.
h. The recording of counseling sessions by audio, video, photographic or other
electro-reproductive means should only be conducted with the prior and expressed
agreement with clients.
i. In any demonstration of counseling skills or public work with clients you should
ensure you obtain their written permission and specify the conditions under which
such sessions should take place.
j. Take all reasonable steps to ensure that the client records over which you have
control only exist for as long as it is necessary to identify individuals.
Reasons for making Referrals to other Agencies
– The client has another need. (E.g. they want information or advice).
– The counselor lacks specific skills or competencies.
– The client requires a specialist (e.g. there is an apparent mental health problem).
– The counselor knows the client beyond the professional basis.
– The counselor and client are not establishing a therapeutic relationship for some reason
– The counselor has difficulty with the issues being discussed because they have some kind of
personal meaning or take them outside of their comfort zone.
– No progress is being made.
– The client is partaking in disruptive behavior that might be harmful to themselves or others.

UNIT 3: DISCIPLINE IN LEARNING INSTITUTIONS

The concept of discipline
• Physical and psychological punishments go against the rights of the child as they belittle
a child and harm his/her development innumerous ways.
What is discipline?
• Discipline is the practice of care and respect towards others and towards self.
• We teach the learners by the way we behave towards them.
Differences between discipline and punishment

Discipline Punishment
Never includes forms of violence, neither physical nor It is a physical or psychological form of violence
humiliating
Questions the action, never the person Questions the person's dignity, not the action
It offers an alternative behavior It is not related to wrong action and neither is it proportional
to it. It produces fear and obligation to obey, not learning
It is always an action related to the wrong behavior and It is not related to wrong action and neither is it proportional
proportional to it, to produce positive learning in the child to it. It produces fear and obligation to obey, not learning
It is not imposed with authority It is based on an abuse of power
It is always thought out and planned It is faster and easier, does not require time to plan and think
Children participate as much as possible, and at least they It never includes child participation
are informed of the norms and the consequences
It includes non-violent forms of punishment It teaches children that people who love need
punishment them

What does the law say about punishment?

- The constitution: Article 53 of the Constitution provides that every child has the right
“to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence,
inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labor”.
- The Basic Education Act (2013) the following provisions have been made:
– Regulations: The Cabinet Secretary may make regulations to prescribe discipline, corrective
measures and expulsion to facilitate compliance.
– Hearing: A delinquent pupil and parent/guardian must be afforded an opportunity of being
heard.
– Outlaws physical and psychological punishments: No pupil shall be subjected to torture
and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in any manner, whether physical
or psychological.
3. Legal notice number 56 of 2001: banned corporal punishment in schools.
Consequences of corporal punishment include:
• Learners can get infections and physical illness
• Learners experience anger, shame, humiliation depression or thoughts of suicide, revenge
• Become fearful of trying new things, answering questions leading to slow learning and
declining performance.
• Learners may end up bullying other children, or as adults, continue the cycle of domestic
violence since they learn that violence is an acceptable way of imposing their views on
someone less powerful than themselves.
• Learners may have difficulty trusting adults who abuse them repeatedly.

Reflect on these case studies in the context of positive discipline.

1. A girl while trying to hide her crying and grief said, "My father and mother would always beat
me up because they wanted me to do household chores rather than study, so I ran away from my
home."
2. A father asked his son to stop chewing gum and remove it. The son replied, "You too might
have chewed gum when you were a child". When he heard this, the father thrashed his son.
3. A father sent his son to his cousin to get reading, writing and religious lessons from him. One
day the father saw scratches on his son's face. He asked what happened. The boy replied that the
Mullah had hit him because he couldn't read his lesson. When he heard this, the father too began
to beat and insult him. The son's ears started aching very badly. The father later said, "I have
taken him to the doctor many times, but he is still not cured."
4. The teacher explained a lesson to the class and put a question to a girl. The girl couldn't
answer because she didn't understand the language of instruction. The teacher made her stand
outside in the sun without water till she fainted.

Rationale for discipline

Discipline is a major component of education due to the following reasons:-
1. Conducive learning environment:
 • Without discipline teaching and learning process cannot be accomplished. It is a first step
in creating a learning environment.
2. Socialization:
• Teachers have to teach their students which behaviors are expected in which situations.
• Discipline helps the individual to acquire knowledge, habits, interests and ideals which
are conducive to ones wellbeing, ones fellows and society as a whole.
Alternative discipline methods
1. Positive reinforcement:
• Use of positive reinforcement techniques reduces the frequency of student misbehavior.
• Teachers can reward students in a variety of simple ways.
• An instructor can praise a pupil in front of the student's classmates
• Award special certificates to children who perform well or are particularly caring, or list
their names on notice boards.
• A teacher can write positive comments in a child's exercise book.
• Teachers can hold competitions and give material rewards to those who do well.
• Teacher can punish a particular pupil by ignoring that pupil's attempts to be disruptive.
• If the teacher is not angered by the pupil's misdeed, then the student is less likely to
perform the act in the future.
• Denial of what the child has come to value is a form of punishment,
2. Guidance and counseling:
• They may not have enough to eat, they may travel a long distance to school, their parents
may expect them to work when they are not at school, they may need to take care of their
younger siblings, or their parents may quarrel often.
• These external factors affect their abilities to concentrate and the amount of time and
energy they can devote to school.
• Under these circumstances, beating a child is unlikely to be a productive punishment,
according to educators and psychologists who oppose corporal punishment.
• A teacher is more likely to elicit appropriate behavior if the teacher can understand the
situation that the child faces and offer guidance and counseling to the student and the
student's family.
• If the learner knows that there is someone who cares about his or her problems, the
problems become easier to carry, even if there is no way to change them."
3. Alternative punishments:
• Teachers should impose non-physical disciplinary measures as an alternative to beatings.
• Students required to write a statement describing the negative effects of their behavior, or
to apologize for the mistake in front of their classmates.
• Misbehaving child may be required to sit on a chair or a mat at the back of the room and
think about their mistake and of ways to improve their behavior.
• Teachers can ask the child to perform additional academic work.
• Student to bring their parents to school to talk about the student's behavior.
• by assigning non-abusive physical tasks.
• Ask students to perform light chores, to water or weed a school shamba, or to fix what
they have broken: "Learners who build chairs are not apt to break them.
• Learners who wash walls are not apt to make them dirty on purpose.
• If learners are reinforced for keeping their schoolyard neat and clean, they are less likely
to throw trash on it," according to the Namibian Ministry of Education and Culture.
 • These punishments should be administered thoughtfully and not in exploitative manner.

Setting rules and expectations:

• teacher should makes clear their expectations at the beginning of the term,
• If students know rules in advance, they’re not surprises when penalizes for break them.
• Students are more likely to perceive the punishment as just, to maintain their respect for
the teacher, and to obey the guidelines if the regulations are made explicit than if not.

Discipline practices
1. Establishing a school-wide behavior support system:
• School rules, teaching appropriate behavior, intervention plans, teaching of social skills.
2. Assisting students in the development of resiliency skills:
• Resiliency is the ability to ―bounce back from adversity, to overcome the negative
influences or risk factors that often stop students from becoming successful
Strategies that develop include:
• Developing supportive relationships with students
• Maintaining positive and high expectations for all students
• Providing opportunities for children to participate and contribute
• Providing growth opportunities for students
• Ensuring that all students have a caring adult in their lives (mentoring)
• Teaching students they are capable and have strengths
• Providing opportunities for self-assessment and self-reflection
• Providing opportunities to work with other students (cooperative learning)
• Programs such as mentoring, teacher advisory systems, school counseling, and support
groups all address resiliency issues.
3. Assisting students in developing pro-social skills:
• Taught to students to ensure that they obtain the necessary skills required to function
socially in society, e.g., anger management, conflict resolution, empathy.
4. Developing administrative procedures and policies for dealing with behavioral concerns:
• e.g. suspension policies, teacher proactive time out, contracts, daily communication,
debriefing, and family group conferencing.
Delinquency/misbehavior
• Delinquency is a form of anti-social behavior.
• Delinquent behavior does not conform to social norms and values.

Causes of juvenile delinquency:

1. Socio-economic factors:
• Negative consequences of social and economic development, in particular economic
crises, political instability, and the weakening of major institutions .
2. Cultural factors:
• Delinquent behavior often occurs in social settings in which the norms for acceptable
behavior have broken down.
3. Urbanization:
 • Rural groupings rely mainly on family and community control as a means of dealing with
antisocial behavior and exhibit markedly lower crime rates.
4. Media:
• Television and movies have popularized the ―cult of heroes‖, which promotes justice
through the physical elimination of enemies.
Media bring an individual to violence in three ways.
– Movies that demonstrate violent acts excite spectators, and the aggressive energy can then be
transferred to everyday life, pushing an individual to engage in physical activity on the
streets. This type of influence is temporary, lasting from several hours to several days.
– television can portray ordinary daily violence committed by parents or peers
– Violence depicted in the media is unreal and has a surrealistic quality; wounds bleed less, and
the real pain and agony resulting from violent actions are very rarely shown, so the
consequences of violent behavior often seem negligible. Over time, television causes a shift
in the system of human values and indirectly leads children to view violence as a desirable
and even courageous way of reestablishing justice.
5. Exclusion:
• The growing gap between rich and poor has led to the emergence of ―unwanted others‖.
6. Peer influence:
• Membership in a delinquent gang, like membership in any other natural grouping, can be
part of the process of becoming an adult.
• Juvenile gang members consider their group a family.
• In some areas those who are not involved in gangs continually face the threat of assault,
oppression, harassment or extortion on the street or at school.

Causes of misbehavior:
1. They want to test whether caregivers/teachers will enforce rules:
• They are literally trying to see where the boundaries are, or, if they exist at all.
2. They experience different sets of expectations between school and home:
• If they are receiving mixed messages from home and school they will feel uneasy inside
and express this through more testing than normal and will feel an inner sense of stress.
3. They do not understand the rules, or are held to expectations that are beyond their
developmental levels:
• Sometimes, parent expectations go beyond their child's abilities. Discipline and guidance
strategies should always take into account the child's developmental level.
4. They want to assert themselves and their independence:
• They start to want control over certain areas of their life so that they can feel capable and
independent.
5. They feel ill, bored, hungry or sleepy:
• When children's basic needs aren't met regularly each day they are always more likely to
misbehave, cry, throw a tantrum, etc.
6. They lack accurate information and prior experience:
• When children do something such as go to cross a road for the first time, they do not
know that they are supposed to look both ways, so we all know that we must explain to
them to look left and look right, etc.
7. They have been previously "rewarded" for their misbehavior with adult attention:
 • No parent would ever think of purposefully rewarding bad behavior, but it subtly happens
quite often.
• Negative attention is still attention so if they misbehave and their parent either yells or
spanks, they have just been rewarded.

8. They copy the actions of their parents:

• what children see and experience in the home is what their normal is
• if they see their parents yelling, they will yell. If they get spanked, they will likely use
hitting to express their anger or frustration.
Risk factors linked to delinquency and misbehavior
1. Prenatal:
• Brain development shows that neural connections regulating responses to stress are
formed in the first 33 months of life.
• A child who grows up in a chaotic or abusive environment is more likely to have an
over-reactive flight-or-fight reflex.
• One who cannot maintain self-control under stress has a greater inclination to violence.
2. Family:
• there is a very strong connection between child neglect; mistreatment and delinquency
- Children who were victims of violence were more likely to report engaging in violence.
• Victims of child abuse or neglect are likely to subject their own children to abuse.
• Extreme exposure to violence, children may develop post-traumatic stress syndrome,
which makes it more difficult to form appropriate relationships, cause an increased
tolerance for violence and lead to difficulty learning new information.
3. Peer groups:
• Consistent involvement in a delinquent peer group is likely to lead to delinquent
behavior.
4. Psychological, behavioral, and mental characteristics.
• There is relationship between hyperactivity, concentration or attention problems,
impulsivity and risk taking and later violent behavior.
• Low verbal IQ and delayed language development have both been linked to delinquency;
Children with low academic performance, low commitment to school, and low
educational aspirations during the elementary and middle school grades are at higher risk
for child delinquency than are other children.
5. School policies.
• There is a link between school policies concerning repetition, suspension and expulsion
and juvenile delinquency.
• Schools with formal and severe punishment structures in place had more incidents of
students misbehaving.
6. Neighborhood.
• Disorganized neighborhoods have weak social control networks which allow criminal
activity to go unmonitored.
Models of discipline
1. The Kounin Model: With-it-ness, alerting, and group management.
• The ripple effect: when you correct one learner's behavior, it tends to change the behavior
of others.
 • The teacher needs to be with it to know what is going on everywhere in the room at all
times.
• Smooth transitions between activities and maintaining momentum are key to effective
group management.
• Optimal learning takes place when teachers keep pupils alert and held accountable for
learning.
• Boredom [satiation] can be avoided by providing variety to lessons, the classroom
environment and by pupil awareness of progress.
2. The Neo-Skinnerian model: shaping desired behavior
• Behavior is conditioned by its consequences. Behavior is strengthened if followed
immediately by reinforcement. Behavior is weakened if it is not reinforced.
• ["Extinction."] Behavior is also weakened if it is followed by punishment.
• In the beginning stages of learning, reinforcement provided every time the behavior
occurs produces the best results.
• Behavior can be maintained by irregular reinforcement.
• Reinforcers include verbal approval, smiles, "thumbs up," high grades, free reading time
goodies, prizes and awards.
3. The Ginott Model: Addressing the situation with sane messages.
• Discipline is little-by-little, step-by-step. The teacher's self-discipline is key.
• Model the behavior you want in students.
• Use sane messages when correcting misbehavior. Address what the student is doing,
don't attack the student's character [personal traits]. Labeling disables.
• Use communication that is congruent with student's own feelings about the situation and
themselves.
• Invite cooperation rather than demanding it.
• Teachers should express their feelings--anger--but in sane ways. "What you are doing
makes me very angry. I need you to ...."
• Sarcasm is hazardous.
• Praise can be dangerous; praise the act, not the student and in a situation that will not turn
peers against the pupil.
• Apologies are meaningless unless it is clear that the person intends to improve.
• Teachers are at their best when they help pupils develop their self-esteem and to trust
their own experience.
4. The Glasser Model: good behavior comes from good choices.
• Glasser's recent work focuses on the class meeting as a means of developing classwide
discipline.
• See the chapter on The Classroom Meeting in Joyce and Weil, Models of Teaching.
• [For those who have their classes under control and would like to try to go beyond
teacher-imposed discipline, William Glasser's approach is worth serious consideration.
• Students are rational beings capable of controlling their own behavior.
• Help pupils learn to make good choices, since good choices produce good behavior.
• Do not accept excuses for bad behavior. Ask, "What choices did you have?
• Why did you make that choice? Did you like the result? What have you learned?"
• Reasonable consequences should always follow good or bad student behavior. [Usually
developed in classroom meetings,] class rules are essential to a good learning climate,
they must be enforced.
 • Classroom meetings are a good way to develop and maintain class behavior. [The group
diagnoses the problem and seeks solutions.]
5. The Dreikurs Model: confronting mistaken goals.
• Discipline is not punishment. It means self-control.
• The teacher's role is helping pupils to impose limits on themselves.
• Teachers can model democratic behavior by providing guidance and leadership and
involving pupils in setting rules and consequences.
• All students want to belong. Their behavior is directed to belonging.
• Misbehavior is the result of their mistaken belief that it will gain them peer recognition.
[It is usually a mistake to assume that misbehavior is an attack directed at the teacher.]
• Misbehavior is directed at mistaken goals: attention-getting, power-seeking, revenge, and
displaying inadequacy.
• The trick is to identify the goal and act in ways that do not reinforce mistaken goals.
• Teachers should encourage students' efforts, but avoid praising their work [?] or
character. [Others disagree.]
• Support the idea that negative consequences follow inappropriate behavior by your
actions.
6. The Fred Jones Model: Body language, incentive systems, and providing efficient help:
• Frederick Jones model is based on extensive observation of classroom teachers and
student behavior.
• Teachers find the model is easy to understand because it is a refinement of the practices
of effective teachers into a system.
• About 50% of classroom time is lost due to student misbehavior and being off task.
• Most of lost time can be avoided by systematically employing effective body language,
incentive systems, and efficient individual help.
• Effective body language [limit setting acts] causes students to stop misbehavior without
being costly in teacher time: eye contact, facial expression [calm, no nonsense look],
posture [first step in "moving in"], signals and gestures, and physical proximity.
• Incentive systems motivate students to start doing the right thing, maintain on- task
behavior, and behave properly.
• Positive instructional support. Students are motivated to complete work when teachers
are able to move quickly from pupil to pupil [praise, prompt, and leave] and provide help
efficiently [Visual Instruction Plans (VIPs)].
• Back-up Systems. A series of responses the teacher can call upon after the above fails.
• Setting the stage. Their teacher should do to manage a classroom effectively
• Students like classrooms to be well-managed.
• A well-administered discipline plan with incentives saves time so that the content of the
course can be studied more effectively.
• The teacher that is "too busy" to teach rules and enforce them promptly will be forever
out of time.
7. The Canter Model: Assertively taking charge
• Marlene and Lee Canter have developed a discipline model based on thousands of hours
observing teachers in the classroom.
• What they have included in their model is based on what the successful teachers do.
Assertive Discipline is a direct and positive approach to make it possible for the teacher to teach
and the students to learn.
It is based on several principles:
a) Teachers should insist on responsible behavior.
b) When teachers fail, it is typically due to poor class control. They can't teach and the kids
are denied the opportunity to learn.
c) Many teachers believe that firm control is stifling and inhumane. False. Firm control
maintained humanely is liberating.
d) Teachers have basic rights as educators
e) Students have basic rights as learners
f) These needs/rights and conditions are met by a discipline plan by which the teacher
clearly states the expectations, consistently applies the consequences, and never violates
the best interests of the pupils.
g) The assertive teacher is more effective than the nonassertive or the hostile teacher.
The Roger model:
• Rogers (1997) proposed a model of managing behaviors that aims to assist workers to
help young people to own and manage their behaviors.
• The goal of the model is not necessarily to stop the challenging behaviors from occurring.
• Rather, when they do occur, the teacher assists the young person to manage the process
which, ultimately, contributes to the positive development of that young person
Guiding principles for intervention;-
– Behavior ownership
– Self-discipline
– Respect for mutual rights
– Self esteem
– Relationship building.
• These goals are concerned with the developmental tasks that are so important for a young
person to achieve in order to grow into competent adulthood.
• The developmental perspective recognizes that young people never exist in isolation -
they are always involved in relationships with others.
• It is the relationship between the worker (teacher) and young person that this model
addresses.
Developing a school discipline plan
• School discipline plans describe what will be done to positively intervene in the variety
of challenging, disruptive, and sometimes, volatile student behaviors confronted by
educators in their classrooms and schools.
Components of the school discipline plan
1. School discipline philosophy: Write a clear statement of discipline philosophy which
reflects how the school will respond to student misconduct.
2. School-wide rules: Clear schoolwide rules help students understand the misconduct for
which they will be held accountable. School rules are also important because
- They guide the establishment of rules for discrete school environments, such as
classrooms and common areas.
- eliminate uncertainty about the behavioral expectations for all students,
- Students are more likely to follow the rules when they are known to all, clearly stated,
- fairly and consistently enforced and viewed by all as being important to the common
good
 3. Rules for specific school areas: State rules for conduct in specific areas such as
classrooms, school buses, libraries, auditoriums, playgrounds, and cafeterias.
4. Responses to student misconduct: Clearly spell out the measures to be taken in
response to student misbehavior.

• This section should also address the following questions:

– What are the obligations of responsible adults to respond to specific incidents of student
misconduct?
– How will school officials inform responsible adults of their responsibilities under the
discipline system adopted by the school?
– How will school officials inform parents and students about the school's responses to specific
types of misconduct?
– How will appropriate training and instruction be provided to students on methods of conflict
resolution, peer mediation and anger management?
– How will the school inform parents about disciplinary action involving their children?
– How will school officials respond to significant threats or crisis situations?
– How will the school respond to off-school misconduct?
– What procedures will apply to misconduct resulting in suspension from school sponsored
activities?

UNIT 4: ADOLESCENT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Adolescent development
• The term adolescence comes from the Latin verb adolescence, which means ―to go into
adulthood (from the ages of 11 to 19)
• It is a period of rapid physical, cognitive, sexual, social and emotional changes.
The stages of adolescence include:-
• Early adolescence - 11 to 13 years old
• Middle adolescence - 14 to 17 years old
• Late adolescence (early adulthood) - 18 to 20 years old
Types of adolescent development
1. Physical development
Girls:
• Girls may begin to develop breast buds as early as 8 years old. Breasts develop fully
between ages 12 and 18.
• Pubic hair, armpit and leg hair usually begin to grow at about age 9 or 10, and reach adult
patterns at about 13 to 14 years.
• beginning of menstrual periods occurs about 2 years after pubic hair and early breast
appear.
• It may occur as early as age 9, or as late as age 16.
• Girls growth spurt peaks around age 11.5 and slows around age 16.
Boys:
• Boys may begin to notice that their testicles and scrotum grow as early as age 9.
• Soon, the penis begins to lengthen. By age 17 or 18, their genitals are usually at their
adult size and shape.
• Pubic hair growth -- as well as armpit, leg, chest, and facial hair -- begins in boys at about
age 12, and reaches adult patterns at about 17 to 18 years.
• Having regular nocturnal emissions (wet dreams) marks the beginning of puberty in boys.
Wet dreams typically start between ages 13 and 17, with the average at about 14.5 years.
• Boys' voices change at the same time as the penis grows. Nocturnal emissions occur with
the peak of the height spurt.
Illustration of the physical development of adolescents

Note
• If a boy matures early, he may have higher self-esteem (positive behaviour) or may
• Develop deviant, risky behaviour (negative behaviour).
• If a girl matures early, she may have higher popularity/cultural dependence (positive
behaviour) or may develop low self-esteem (negative behaviour).
• If a boy matures later, he may have higher levels of creativity, inventiveness (positive
behaviour) or may develop Low self-esteem, low social competence (negative
behaviour).
• If a girl matures later, she may develop thinner build (positive behaviour) or may develop
social withdrawal (negative behaviour).
 • Puberty means lots of physical, social, and emotional changes for adolescents.
• And going through puberty early can have positive and negative effects on teens. Suggest
some ways of supporting early developers.
Social development
Peers and identity development: During adolescence, teenagers try to establish a coherent,
stable identity.
The role of peers: Young people want to belong. Teens often hang out with different groups to
find a place where they belong. Peers provide recognition, advice, and encouragement.
Peer pressure: generally, boys are more vulnerable to peer pressure than girls. peers really
influence day-to-day identity choices (like dress or music choices), the family has a powerful
effect on adolescents' basic values and choices.
Harness positive peer pressure:
• Peer pressure‖ often implies a negative influence, but peer pressure can be positive, too.
To harness the power of positive peer pressure:
– Encourage teens to talk to each other about their thoughts, feelings and experiences.
They might be surprised to learn that not everyone is having sex.
– Ask a recent ―graduates of your program to serve as a peer educator or mentor to new
participants. Teens are more likely to pay attention to messages about healthy behavior
when this comes from someone they identify with.
Social development milestones
(a). Become more independent:
• Adolescence is a gradual transition to being an independent person.
• Physical changes and appearances both enable adolescents to become more self-sufficient
and cause adults to treat them with respect.
(b). Develop close relationships with people outside of their families:
• These close, peer relationships are key to healthy social development:
– Teens naturally start to distance themselves from their families.
– Teens' peer relationships change in various ways.
– Spending more time with peers than children do.
– Becoming less monitored by adults.
– Having greater contact with opposite-sex friends.
– Interacting in increasingly larger groups of friends (which helps form a social identity).
– Teens start dating and having romantic relationships.
c). Develop an increased need for and capacity for intimacy:
• During adolescence, young people develop an increase in the need for intimacy, the
capacity to have intimate relationships, and the desire to express this increased capacity.
• At the same time, adolescents are learning to think of themselves as sexual beings, to deal
with sexual feelings, and to enjoy physical contact with others.
(d). Learn about their own sexuality and learn to integrate gender identity and sexual
orientation into their self-concepts:
• Emerging sexuality presents adolescents with a lot of questions:
– What are the sources of their new feelings?
– What role should sex play in their lives?
– How should they control their new body functions?
– Which partners should they choose, and how should they relate to them?
– How much experimentation are they comfortable with?
 • Greater autonomy and less dependence on parents.
• More intimate relationships with peers. As less time is spent with family, peers become
important during this time.
• Beginning of establishing an identity.
• Reason in adult terms about moral issues and values.
The brain development of adolescents includes:
The Amygdala and the Frontal Cortex:
• Amygdala and the frontal cortex are regions of the brain that develop at different times.
• The amygdala, which processes stress and other emotions, and is responsible for
instinctual reactions like fear and aggressive behavior, matures early.
• On the other hand, the frontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for judgment,
self-control, emotional regulation, rational thought, goal setting, morality, and
understanding consequences, is not yet fully developed in teenagers.
• This area of the brain develops dramatically during adolescence and into the mid-20s.
What does this mean for adolescents?
• Pictures of the brain in action show that adolescents' brains function differently from
those of adults when making decisions and solving problems.
• Adolescents' actions are guided more by the amygdala and less by the frontal cortex.
• That means that teens' responses to situations are rooted in emotion rather than
rationality.
• In other words, the last part of the brain to fully develop is one of the most
important—it's the area that gives people the ability to make rational decisions.
• Because the part of the brain that helps us think before we act isn't fully developed until
adulthood, in stressful situations teens are more likely to:
– Think one thing and feel another.
– Act from impulses that differ from thoughts or feelings.
– Misread or misinterpret social cues and emotions.
– Engage in risky or inappropriate behaviour.

What can you do to assist?

• Best Practices: Walk adolescents through the decision-making process BEFORE they
encounter a risky situation. Teens who undergo learning and positive experiences help build
complex, adaptive brains.
Strategies to support healthy adolescent brain development
• Encourage teens to have healthy lifestyles and offer opportunities for positive
experiences.
• Provide meaningful opportunities for teens to exercise logic and apply analytical and
decision making skills to build up those brain functions.
• Encourage teens to take healthy risks.
• Taking such risks will help to develop a stronger frontal cortex, effectively giving the
teen more valuable life skills.
• Allow teens to make mistakes so that they can learn from them.
Cognitive development
• Jean Piaget describes cognitive development as a sequence of the four following stages:
– Sensory-motor stage.
– Preoperational stage.
– Stage of concrete operations.
– Stage of formal operations.
a) Sensory-motor stage (birth to 2 years):
• During this stage senses, reflexes, and motor abilities develop rapidly.
• Intelligence is first displayed when reflex movements become more refined, such as
when an infant will reach for a preferred toy, and will suck on a nipple and not a pacifier
when hungry.
• Understanding of the world involves only perceptions and objects with which the infant
has directly experienced.
• Actions discovered first by accident are repeated and applied to new situations to obtain
the same results.
• Toward the end of the sensory-motor stage, the ability to form primitive mental images
develops as the infant acquires object permanence.
• Until then, an infant doesn't realize that objects can exist apart from him or herself.
b) Preoperational stage (2-7 years):
• The child in the preoperational stage is not yet able to think logically.
 • With the acquisition of language, the child is able to represent the world through mental
images and symbols, but in this stage, these symbols depend on his own perception and
his intuition.
• The preoperational child is completely egocentric.
• Since they know the world only from their limited experience, they make up explanations
when they don't have one.
c) Stage of concrete operations (7-11years):
• The stage of concrete operations begins when the child is able to perform mental
operations.
• Piaget defines a mental operation as an interiorized action, an action performed in the
mind.
• Mental operations permit the child to think about physical actions that he or she
previously performed.
• The primary characteristic of concrete operational thought is its reversibility.
• The child can mentally reverse the direction of his or her thought.
• Conservation is the major acquisition of the concrete operational stage.
• Piaget defines conservation as the ability to see that objects or quantities remain the same
despite a change in their physical appearance.
• Children learn to conserve such quantities as number, substance (mass), area, weight, and
volume; though they may not achieve all concepts at the same time.
d) Stage of formal operations (11-16 years):
• The child in the concrete operational stage deals with the present, the here and now; the
child who can use formal operational thought can think about the future, the abstract, the
hypothetical.
• Piaget's final stage coincides with the beginning of adolescence, and marks the start of
abstract thought and deductive reasoning.
• Thought is more flexible, rational, and systematic.
• The individual can now conceive all the possible ways they can solve a problem, and can
approach a problem from several points of view.
• The adolescent can think about thoughts and ―operate on operations, not just concrete
objects.
• He or she can think about such abstract concepts as space and time.
• The adolescent develops an inner value system and a sense of moral judgment.
He or she now has the necessary ―mental tools‖ for living his life.
Inconsistent use of cognitive capacities
• There is often a difference between what young people are capable of thinking and how
thought influences behavior.
• These cognitive capacities progressively become part of the young person's repertoire.
• But adolescents don't use these new abilities consistently over time or over a variety of
situations.
• Teens may have mature thought processes sometimes but not all the time.
• As teens mature, their decision making skills increase.
• Try to understand each adolescent's level of cognitive development.
Some characteristics of adolescent thinking can interfere with teens' ability to use adult-like‖
thinking and planning on a consistent basis, increasing the likelihood of taking risks and
engaging in unsafe behavior:
 a) Focused on the present: Many adolescents either seem unable to think about the
future—that is, they can't think beyond the present—or they discount the future and
weigh more heavily the short-term risks and benefits when making decisions.
b) Feelings of invulnerability: Many teenagers think that they're invincible and that they
can't get hurt. These contribute to adolescents weighing risks differently than adults do.
c) Seeking novel and varied experiences: adolescents value new experiences more than
adults do, they may undertake risky behaviors even though they may recognize possible
harmful consequences, including physical and social risks.
How you can help?
• Some risk-taking is not only normal, it's a healthy part of adolescent development,
helping teens learn more about themselves and test out their abilities.
• Encourage teens to take healthy risks. Adrenaline-charged sports like rock climbing,
martial arts, or mountain biking can provide plenty of thrills.
• Attention- seekers might find that they love the rush of performing on stage. So these are
the issues related to cognitive development of adolescents.

Adolescence and intimacy

• Intimacy refers to the development of relationships characterized by self- disclosure,
trust, and concern.
• Individuals can be intimate without being sexual.
• The growth of intimacy is a central feature of adolescent psychosocial development.
Perspectives of adolescence intimacy
Sullivan's theory of interpersonal development:
• Harry Stack Sullivan's interpersonal approach to development emphasized the
interpersonal needs that emerge through the course of childhood and adolescence.
• Sullivan believed that the satisfaction of interpersonal needs lead to feelings of security,
while the frustration of interpersonal needs lead to feelings of anxiety.
• According to Sullivan, this process is cumulative, such that children who do not have
their interpersonal needs met will have difficulty finding security in interpersonal
relationships during adolescence.
• Sullivan believed that the need for intimacy first arises in preadolescence in same-sex
friendships.
• The onset of puberty brings with it the new need for sexual contact and intimacy in
opposite sex friendships in early adolescence. By late adolescence, the young person is
ready to find a place in the adult world.
Erikson's view of intimacy:
• Erik Erikson's psychosocial view of human development posits that adolescence is the
pivotal developmental period for figuring out who you are and what you can become
(identity versus identity diffusion).
• Once this psychosocial crisis has been handled successfully, the young person is capable
of entering into a truly intimate relationship during young adulthood (intimacy versus
isolation).
• In Erikson's view one cannot be truly intimate until he or she has a sense of identity.
Attachment theory
 • Attachment theory is focused on the relationships and bonds between people, particularly
long-term relationships, including those between a parent and child and between romantic
partners.
• Attachment is an emotional bond with another person.
• Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a
tremendous impact that continues throughout life.
• He suggested that attachment also serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus
improving the child's chances of survival.
• Bowlby viewed attachment as a product of evolutionary processes.
• While the behavioral theories of attachment suggested that attachment was a learned
process, Bowlby and others proposed that children are born with an innate drive to form
attachments with caregivers.
• Throughout history, children who maintained proximity to an attachment figure were
more likely to receive comfort and protection, and therefore more likely to survive to
adulthood.
• Through the process of natural selection, a motivational system designed to regulate
attachment emerged.
• So what determines successful attachment? Behaviorists suggest that it was food that led
to forming this attachment behavior, but Bowlby and others demonstrated that nurturance
and responsiveness were the primary determinants of attachment.
• The central theme of attachment theory is that primary caregivers who are available and
responsive to an infant's needs allow the child to develop a sense of security.
• The infant knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the
child to then explore the world.
• Early attachments were the result of receiving comfort and care from a caregiver rather
than simply the result of being fed.
Stages in attachment include:
Pre-Attachment Stage
• From birth to 3 months, infants do not show any particular attachment to a specific
caregiver. The infant's signals, such as crying and fussing, naturally attract the attention
of the caregiver and the baby's positive responses encourage the caregiver to remain
close.
Indiscriminate Attachment
• Between 6 weeks of age to 7 months, infants begin to show preferences for primary and
secondary caregivers. Infants develop trust that the caregiver will respond to their needs.
While they still accept care from others, infants start distinguishing between familiar and
unfamiliar people, responding more positively to the primary caregiver.
Discriminate Attachment
• At this point, from about 7 to 11 months of age, infants show a strong attachment and
preference for one specific individual. They will protest when separated from the primary
attachment figure (separation anxiety), and begin to display anxiety around strangers
(stranger anxiety).
Multiple Attachments
• After approximately 9 months of age, children begin to form strong emotional bonds with
other caregivers beyond the primary attachment figure. This often includes the father,
older siblings, and grandparents.
Adolescence sexuality and reproductive health
• Teenage pregnancy, teenage childbearing and teenage acquisition of sexually transmitted
diseases has consequences on education access and equity.
• Freud's theory of psychosexual development is divided into five stages.
1. Oral Stage:
• The oral stage occurs in an infant's life from birth to 18 months.
• During this time, an infant is focused with receiving oral pleasure.
• This occurs through breast or bottle feeding, or sucking on a pacifier.
• It is believed that if an infant receives too much or too little oral stimulation, they may
develop a fixation or a personality trait that is fixated on oral gratification.
• It is believed that these people may focus on activities that involve the mouth such as
over eating, biting the fingernails, smoking, or drinking.
• The theory states that these people may develop personality traits such as becoming
extremely gullible or naive, always following others and never taking the lead, and
becoming extremely dependent upon others.

2. Anal Stage:
• The anal stage is directly related to a child's awareness of bowel control and gaining
pleasure through the act of eliminating or retaining feces.
• Freud's theory puts the anal stage between 18 months and three years.
• It is believed that when a child becomes fixated on receiving pleasure through controlling
and eliminating feces, a child can become obsessed with control, perfection, and
cleanliness.
• This is often referred to as anal retentive, while anal expulsive is the opposite.
• Those who are anal expulsive may be extremely disorganized, live in chaos, and are
known for making messes.
3. Phallic Stage:
• Freud believes the phallic stage or the Oedipus or Electra complexes occurs during a
child is three to six years of age.
• The belief is that male children harbor unconscious, sexual attraction to their mothers,
while female children develop a sexual attraction to their father.
• Freud taught that young boys also deal with feelings of rivalry with their father.
• These feelings naturally resolve once the child begins to identify with their same sex
parent.
• If a child becomes fixated during this phase, the result could be sexual deviance or a
confused sexual identity.
4. Latency Stage:
• The latency stage is named so because Freud believed there weren't many overt forms of
sexual gratification displayed.
• This stage is said to last from the age of six until a child enters puberty.
• Most children throughout this age form same sex friendships and play in a manner that is
non-sexual.
• Unconscious sexual desires and thoughts remain repressed.
5. Genital Stage:
 • Freud believed that after the unconscious, sexual desires are repressed and remain
dormant during the latency stage, they are awakened due to puberty.
• This stage begins at puberty and develops with the physiological changes brought on
through hormones.
• The prior stages of development result in a focus on the genitals as a source for pleasure
and teens develop and explore attractions to the opposite sex.
• The genital stage is the last stage of the psychosexual development theory.
Adolescents at risk
• Certain sub-groups of adolescents, including those who are very young, pregnant, or
marginalized are considered to be at high-risk.
Sub-groups that are at risk by definition include:-
i. Very young adolescents (10-14 years), especially girls, are at risk because of
their limited life experience, they may not recognize the sexual nature of
abusive or exploitative actions.
ii. Pregnant adolescent girls, particularly those under 16, are at increased risk of
obstructed labor, a life-threatening obstetric emergency that can develop when
the immature pelvis is too small to allow the passage of a baby through the
birth canal.
iii. Marginalized adolescents, including those who are HIV+, those with
disabilities, non-heterosexual adolescents, indigenous groups and migrants
may face difficulties accessing services because of stigma, prejudice, culture,
language and physical or mental limitations.
iv. Adolescents separated from their families (parents or siblings) and
adolescent heads of household lack the livelihood security and protection
afforded by the family structure, which puts them at risk for poverty and SEA.
v. Survivors of sexual violence and other forms of genderbased violence
(GBV) are at risk of unwanted pregnancy, unsafe abortion, STIs including
HIV, mental health, psychosocial problems and social stigmatization.
vi. Adolescent girls selling sex are at risk of unwanted pregnancies, unsafe
abortion, STIs and HIV. They are at risk of abusing drugs and alcohol and of
SEA. For adolescents below age 18, this is considered to be sexual
exploitation of children.
vii. Children Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups (CAAFAG),
Members of armed forces and groups in general, including adolescents, are at
high risk of HIV infection given their age range, mobility, and risk-taking
attitudes.
viii. Female combatants, girls associated with fighting forces, abductees and
dependents Girls may have been forced to have sex with commanders or other
soldiers. are at risk of unwanted pregnancies, abortions, STIs/HIV infection.
There are various emerging issues concerning the sexual behavior of adolescents:-
a) Characteristics: The sexual behavior of adolescents is characterized as follows:
• Women: almost half of young women have sex by the time they turn 18. And more than
one in ten (13%) have sex by the time they are 15.
• Men: Young men start having sex at an earlier age. Sixty percent had sex by age 18, and a
quarter had sex by age 15.
• Sub-Saharan Africa: 30% of unmarried women (15-19 years) have had sex
b) The outcomes of sexual behavior among adolescence: These include:-
• 70% of adolescents in Kenya engage in high risk unprotected sex
• STI's, HIV/AIDS
• Increased risks of unwanted pregnancies
• Unsafe abortions resulting into severe illnesses
• Complications following abortions causing infertility and deaths
c) Risks of early child bearing: These include:-
• Less education hence lower future income
• for young mothers
• Social rejection by community
• Obstructed labor resulting into permanent
• injury or death for mother and infant
• Premature and low birth weight deliveries
d) Unsafe abortions:
• Globally, 2.5million unsafe abortions occur among adolescents aged 15-19 years.
The dangers of unsafe abortions include:-
– Serious health risks
– Death-abortions and child birth are the leading causes of death among the 15-19 aged
adolescents.
– Lifelong regrets.
• In Kenya, research shows that 4 in every 10 women in Kenya who die from unsafe
abortions are adolescents
e) Contraceptive use:
• Contraceptive use among the adolescents is very low In Sub-Saharan Africa only 35% of
unmarried sexually active women use modern contraception
• In Kenya only 5% of sexually active adolescents use modern contraceptive methods
f) Female Genital Cutting (FGC)
• Between 100 million and 180 million women worldwide have undergone FGC practice.
• Every day some 600 girls worldwide are at risk of undergoing FGC.
• In Kenya, 20% of women aged 15-19 years have undergone FGC.
• The practice of FGC is currently outlawed in Kenya under the children's Act of 2001.
Female Genital Cutting has serious consequences on women:
– Infections, pain and bleeding which can lead to shock and possibly death.
– Prolonged and obstructed labor.
– Fistula.
– Inability to enjoy sexual rights.
What can be done towards handling adolescent sexuality problems?
i. Provide sexual and reproductive health information and services to adolescents.
ii. Put in place proper Legislation.
iii. Support multi-sectoral programmes.
iv. Provide health education to adolescents such as responsible sexual behavior,
HIV/AIDS, sexuality, family planning.
v. Encourage parents to actively involve in adolescent reproductive health issues.
vi. Train more peer educators to reach out the adolescents.
vii. Provide integrated health services to adolescents such as family planning information
and services.
 viii. Establish adolescent-friendly services.
ix. Adolescent-friendly services have quality information necessary for informed consent
x. Increase opportunities for women's education and employment.
xi. Encourage alternative rites of passage other than FGC.

Reflection
Reflect on the following quotation by Mahatma Gandhi in terms of its applicability in our
schools. “Sexual science is of two kinds, that which is used for controlling or overcoming the
sexual passion, and that which is used to stimulate and feed it. Instruction in the former is as
necessary a part of a child's education, as the latter is harmful and dangerous, and fit, therefore,
only to be shunned. The sex education that I stand for must have for its object the conquest and
sublimation of the sex passion. Such education should automatically serve to bring home to
children the essential distinction between man and brute, to make them realize that it is man's
special privilege and pride to be gifted with the faculties of head and heart both, that he is a
thinking no less than feeling animal, and to renounce the sovereignty of reason over the blind
instincts is, therefore, to renounce a man's estate. In man, reason quickens and guides the
feeling; in brutes, the soul lies ever dormant. “ (Mahatma Gandhi)
Adolescence and morality
• The way people choose to live their lives according to a set of guidelines or principles
that govern their decisions about right versus wrong, and good versus evil.
• To understand adolescence and morality, it is important that we focus on the following
three areas:
- Moral development
- Faith development
- Adolescence and religion
Level 1 - Pre-conventional:- This level has two stages as follows:-
Stage 1 - Pre-conventional (obedience and punishment orientation):
• The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed set of rules which he or
she must unquestioningly obey.
• For example, in a case of theft of medicine, a child at this stage will say that the thief was
wrong to steal because it's against the law or it's bad to steal.
• When asked to elaborate, the child at this stage usually responds in terms of the
consequences involved, explaining that stealing is bad because you'll get punished.
• Kohlberg calls stage 1 thinking ‗pre-conventional' because children do not yet speak as
members of society. Instead, they see morality as something external to themselves, as
that which the big people say they must do.
Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange:
• At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down
by the authorities.
• For example, in a case of theft, children might point out, the thief might steal medicine if
he wanted his wife to live, but that he doesn't have to if he wants to marry someone
younger and better-looking.
• This stage is self-interest driven. Stage 2 reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs
of others, but only to a point where it might further the individual's own interests.
• Children at stage 2 are still said to reason at the preconventional level because they speak
as isolated individuals rather than as members of society.
Level 2 - conventional: This level is made up of a further 2 stages as follows:-
Stage 3. Good interpersonal relationships:
• At this stage children, who are by now usually entering their teens, see morality as more
than simple deals.
• They believe that people should live up to the expectations of the family and community
and behave in “good' ways.
• Good behavior means having good motives and interpersonal feelings such as love,
empathy, trust, and concern for others.
• In the case of theft of medicine, an adolescent at this stage may answer that the thief had
the right to steal the medicine to save his wife or his intentions were good for trying save
the life of someone he loves.
• Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences
in terms of a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like respect,
gratitude and the "golden rule".
Stage 4 - Maintaining the Social Order:
• In this stage, young people reason that it is important to obey laws, dictums and social
conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society.
• Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in
stage three.
• A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong.
• If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would — thus there is an obligation and a
duty to uphold laws and rules.
• At stage 4, adolescents become more broadly concerned with society as a whole.
• Now the emphasis is on obeying laws, respecting authority, and performing one's duties
so that the social order is maintained.
 • In response to the theft of medicine, the adolescents would say that they understand that
the thief's motives were good, but they cannot condone the theft.
• What would happen if we all started breaking the laws whenever we felt we had a good
reason?
• The result would be chaos; society couldn't function.

Level 3 - Post-conventional:
This level is made up of a further 2 stages as follows:-
Stage 5 - Social contract and individual rights:
• At stage 5, people begin to ask, "What makes a good society?"
• They begin to think about society in a very theoretical way, stepping back from their own
society and considering the rights and values that a society ought to uphold.
• They then evaluate existing societies in terms of these prior considerations. Stage 5
respondents basically believe that a good society is best conceived as a social contract
into which people freely enter to work toward the benefit of all.
• They recognize that different social groups within a society will have different values, but
they believe that all rational people would agree on two points.
• First they would all want certain basic rights, such as liberty and life, to be protected; and
second, they would want some democratic procedures for changing unfair law and for
improving society.
• In response to the theft case we have discussed in the previous stages, stage 5 respondents
make it clear that they do not generally favor breaking laws; laws are social contracts that
we agree to uphold until we can change them by democratic means.
Stage 6 - Universal principles:
• In stage 6, laws are valid only in so far as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment
to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
• Kohlberg's conception of justice follows that of the philosophers Kant and Rawls, as well
as great moral leaders such as Gandhi and Martin Luther King.
• According to these people, the principles of justice require us to treat the claims of all
parties in an impartial manner, respecting the basic dignity, of all people as individuals.
• The principles of justice are therefore universal; they apply to all.
• Thus, for example, we would not vote for a law that aids some people but hurts others.
• The principles of justice guide us toward decisions based on an equal respect for all. Until
recently, Kohlberg had been scoring some of his subjects at stage 6, but he has
temporarily stopped doing so,
• For one thing, he and other researchers had not been finding subjects who consistently
reasoned at this stage.
Case study
Haraka was offered a cigarette by his new friend. He gives reasons that it is illegal for youth to
smoke. He may choose not to smoke because he believes that if he smokes, he should be punished
for breaking the law. He understands the intent of the law is for his own benefit and protection,
but he also understands the law serves to benefit the larger society because when young people
become addicted to nicotine it poses a cost and a health risk to others.
• Discuss the stage of moral reasoning of Haraka?

Faith development of adolescents

• According to Fowler, adolescents are in stage 3 of faith development as presented below:-
Stage 1 - "Intuitive-Projective" faith (ages of 3 to 7): At this stage the child;-
- Trust is placed in what a child sees and hears from parents or guardians.
- Absorbs all the taboos/beliefs from the family around them and mirrors them back.
Stage 2 - "Mythic-Literal" faith (mostly in school children): At this stage the individual's
- Power to think, to unify experience and to trace patterns of cause and effect enables
him/her to order his/her experience.
- have a strong belief in the justice and reciprocity of the universe,
Stage 3 - "Synthetic-Conventional" faith (arising in adolescence; ages of 12 - 18 can extend
to adulthood): This stage is characterized by
- Conformity to religious authority and the development of a personal identity.
- The ability to think abstractly has fully developed
- Interpersonal relationships are now very significant.
- Approval is important at this stage. However rebellious we may view ourselves to be, at
this stage we are actually conformists. It is a time of going with a particular faithcurrent,
Stage 4 - "Individuative-Reflective" faith (usually mid-twenties to late thirties): This is a
stage of struggle.
- Begins to develop own spiritual beliefs (and no longer relies on others).
- Takes personal responsibility for his or her beliefs and feelings.
Stage 5 - "Conjunctive" faith (mid-life crisis): In this stage
- Realizes that absolute answers cannot be found and starts to trust ―the mystery.
- Accepts new views and have higher level of relationships.
- There is a total surrender to the Divine.
- resolves conflicts from previous stages by a complex understanding of "truth" that cannot
be explained by any particular statement.
Stage 6 - "Universalizing" faith, or what some might call "enlightenment": The individual
- treat any person with compassion as he or she views people as from a universal and
should be treated with universal principles of love and justice. It is called universalizing
faith because one becomes an activist for the universe.
Adolescents and religion
(a). Positive impact: The positive role of religion and spirituality in adolescents' lives include:-
• Linked with positive outcomes for adolescents.
• Plays a role in adolescents' health and whether they engage in problem behaviors.
• Many religious adolescents internalize their religion's message about caring and concern
for people
(b). Negative impact: The negative aspects of religion in adolescents lives include:-
i) Cults:
• Cults have a negative impact on adolescents.
• organization whose characteristics are not drawn from existing religious traditions
• It is controlled by a charismatic leader.
• It fosters the idea that there is only one correct set of beliefs and practices.
• It demands unquestionable loyalty and obedience. It uses mind-control techniques.
• Deception and deceit are used in recruiting and interacting with the outside world.
• Members' labor and finances are exploited.
• Members are willing to die or kill themselves if the leader says it's necessary.
 • Many individuals who become cult members are in a transitional phase of life such as
one who has moved to a new area, lost a job, dropped out of school or given up
Features of cults include:-
• They believe that theirs is the only truth.
• They are forbidden to have anything to do with ex members.
• They are not allowed to disagree with or question the beliefs of the group.
• They are not allowed to read literature other than their own publications.
• They often believe ―the end justifies the means.‖ Therefore lying and misrepresenting
themselves to the public is allowed if it furthers their cause.
• They have secret beliefs that are withheld from outsiders and new members.
• Their main agenda is recruitment and group growth.

ii) Radicalisation:
• This is a process by which an individual or group comes to adopt extreme political,
social, or religious ideals that reject the status quo or reject and/or undermine
contemporary ideas and expressions of freedom of choice.
Common settings used by the groups for recruitment of youth include:
– Schools, after-school activities, religious institutions, refugee camps, and the Internet.
– recruiters will place themselves within large groups of young persons (e.g., at mosques or
schools), where they will attempt to ―spot potential recruits to pull
– Groups use gateway organizations (e.g., scouting groups) that provide access to young
persons who support (or can be grown to support) the group's cause.
• Specifically, school-aged youth have been used to carry out terrorist attacks or serve on
the front line in battles against the opposing forces.
• The groups use youth to support operations because they are more likely to evade
detection by security forces.
• Young persons are perpetrating attacks for the groups because there are not enough
willing adults.

Differences between a cult and a religion

a) Religious movements focus on attempting to better the lives of members as well as
non-members;
- Cults direct their energies in serving their own purposes and those of the cult's leader.
b) Religious movements do not use deception or coercive influence in recruiting members

UNIT 5: CRISIS AND TRAUMA INTERVENTION

Crises:
• people are in a state of crisis when they face an obstacle to important life goals
• crisis is an experience of difficulty that exceeds the person's coping mechanisms.
The following are characteristics of crisis events:
– The event precipitating the crisis is perceived as threatening.
– There is an apparent inability to modify or reduce the impact of stressful events.
– There is increased fear, tension, and/or confusion.
– There is a high level of subjective discomfort.
– A state of disequilibrium is followed by rapid transition to an active state of crisis.
Trauma:
 • The word “trauma”‖ is derived from the Greek word “wound”.‖
• A traumatic event causes physical, emotional, psychological, or mental harm.
• Responses to a traumatic event include intense fear, helplessness, horror and attachment.
• Chronic trauma interferes with neurobiological development and the capacity to
integrate information into a cohesive whole.
• Developmental trauma sets the stage for unfocused responses to subsequent stress.
Symptoms of crises and trauma
Emotional and psychological symptoms
• Shock, denial, or Confusion, difficulty in
• disbelief concentrating
• Anger, irritability, mood swings
• Anxiety and fear
• Withdrawing from others
• Guilt, shame, self-blame
• Feeling disconnected or
• Feeling sad or hopeless numb
Physical symptoms
– Insomnia or nightmares Fatigue
– Being startled easily Difficulty in
– Racing heartbeat concentrating
– Aches and pains Edginess and agitation
– Muscle tension
Symptoms of crises and trauma among children and adolescents
• Regressive behaviours e.g Thumb-sucking, bedwetting, fear of the dark, and other past
problematic behaviours can recur.
• Fear and anxiety are likely to be exhibited in separation anxiety and clinging behaviours.
• Children may have difficulty leaving a parent's side.
• Children who are kept at home experience greater anxiety when they later return to the
classroom.
• Adolescents display generalized anxiety rather than the specific fears observed in
younger children:-
– As adolescents' anxiety affects academic performance, leads to poor concentration
– An increase in aggressive and oppositional behaviour.
– Controlling anger and frustration becomes a challenge for adolescents in crisis.
– Adolescents display an increase in rebellious and risk- taking behaviours.
– They tend to defy rules both at home and at school.
– Antisocial behaviours of substance abuse, alcoholism
– sadness, loss of interest, and increase or decrease in appetite and sleeping can occur.
– Adolescents are likely to display moodiness and social withdrawal.
– adolescents are at risk for suicide, caregivers should be alert for suicidal ideation
– Denial is an effort to cope with the reality of the crisis.
– they may continue to use denial as a coping mechanism.
Trauma recovery tips:-
1. Don't let the traumatized learners be isolated:
• Talk about their feelings and ask for the help they need.
• They can be encouraged to turn to a trusted family member, friend, counselor, clergyman.
 • Participate in social activities particularly doing ―normal‖ things with other people that
have nothing to do with the traumatic experience.
• Join a support group for trauma survivors. Being with others who are facing the same
problem can help reduce their sense of isolation and hearing how others cope, can help
inspire them.
• Volunteer as well as helping others. Volunteering can be a great way to challenge the
sense of helplessness that often accompanies trauma.
2. Help traumatized learners stay grounded:
• Stick to a daily routine, with regular times for waking, sleeping, eating, working, and
exercise. Make sure to schedule time for relaxing and social activities, too.
• Break large jobs into smaller, manageable tasks, by taking pleasure from the
accomplishment of achieving something, even it's a small thing.
• Find activities that make them feel better and keep their minds occupied so that they are
not dedicating all their energy and attention to focusing on the traumatic experience.
• Allow them to feel what they felt when they feel it. Acknowledge their feelings about the
trauma as they arise and accept them. Accepting their feelings is necessary for healing.
3. Take care of your health:
• A healthy body increases the ability of traumatized learners to cope with stress from a
trauma.
• Get plenty of sleep. After a traumatic experience, worry or fear may disturb their sleep
patterns. Lack of sleep can make their trauma symptoms worse and make it harder to
maintain their emotional balance.
• Exercise regularly. Regular exercise boosts serotonin, endorphins, and other feel-good
brain chemicals. It also boosts self-esteem and helps to improve sleep.
• Eat a well-balanced diet. Eating small, well-balanced meals throughout the day will help
them keep their energy up and minimize mood swings.
• Reduce stress. Making time for rest and relaxation will help them bring their life back
into balance.
Response to crises and trauma
• From your experience as an education manager, you may have noticed how people
respond to crises and trauma. There are 4 main aspects of response to crises and trauma:-

Assessment of trauma
1. Contact emergency services:
• to ensure the individual's safety; members of the individual's social support network are
much more critical.
2. Supporting, caring and accepting:
• Understanding and accepting the psychological state an individual is in is paramount.
• These are times when an individual is in inordinate amounts of pain and cannot comfort
themselves, if treated humanely and respectfully they will not get to a state in which they
are a danger.
• In these situations it is best to provide a supportive, caring environment and communicate
to the individual that no matter the circumstance they will be taken seriously and not just
as a sick, delusional individual.
3. Inquiry:
• If deemed appropriate, the assessing clinician may proceed by inquiring about both the
traumatic event and the outcomes experienced (e.g., posttraumatic symptoms,
dissociation, substance abuse, somatic symptoms, psychotic reactions).
• Such inquiry occurs within the context of established rapport and is completed in an
empathic, sensitive, and supportive manner.
4. Monitoring activation:
• During assessment, individuals may exhibit activation responses in which reminders of
the traumatic event trigger sudden feelings (e.g., distress, anxiety, and anger), memories,
or thoughts relating to the event.
• Because individuals may not yet be capable of managing this distress, it is necessary to
determine how the event can be discussed in such a way that will not ―re- traumatize‖
the individual.
5. Psychological tests:
• Lastly, assessment of psychological trauma might include the use of self-administered
psychological tests.
• Individuals' scores on such tests are compared to normative data in order to determine
how the individual's level of functioning compares to others in a sample representative of
the general population.
Trauma therapy
• Trauma disrupts the body's natural equilibrium, freezing you in a state of hyper arousal
and fear. In essence, your nervous system gets stuck in overdrive.
• Successful trauma treatment must address this imbalance and reestablish your physical
sense of safety.
Therapies used in the treatment of emotional and psychological trauma:
i. Somatic experiencing
• Takes advantage of the body's unique ability to heal itself.
• The focus of therapy is on bodily sensations, rather than thoughts and memories about the
traumatic event.
• By concentrating on what's happening in your body, you gradually get in touch with
trauma-related energy and tension.
• From there, your natural survival instincts take over, safely releasing this pent-up energy
through shaking, crying, and other forms of physical release.
ii. EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing)
 • Incorporates elements of cognitive-behavioral therapy with eye movements or other
forms of rhythmic, leftright stimulation.
• These back-and-forth eye movements are thought to work by ―unfreezing‖ traumatic
memories, allowing you to resolve them.
iii. Cognitive-behavioral therapy
• Helps you process and evaluate your thoughts and feelings about a trauma.
• While cognitive-behavioral therapy doesn't treat the physiological effects of trauma, it
can be helpful when used in addition to a body-based therapy such as somatic
experiencing or EMDR.

Trauma-informed care
• Trauma-informed care is a cultural shift in the way we perceive someone seeking services
- from what's wrong with you, to what happened to you.
• It's the assumption that the person coming through your door for services has a trauma
history - and probably one that goes back further than the issue that brought them to you
to begin with.
• Trauma-informed approaches view trauma as the central issue that can make your
programs more effective while providing the support that survivors need to heal.
• In this environment, your services will understand, anticipate, and respond to what the
survivor needs - when and where they need it.
• It's meeting a survivor ―where they are‖ and as a unique person with her/his own set of
circumstances, rather than presuming that you've seen their situation before.

What does trauma-informed care offer?

• Improves our desired outcomes
• Supports trauma recovery by reducing re-traumatization and providing corrective
emotional experience
• Decreases our own vicarious trauma or compassion fatigue
What are the core principles of trauma-informed care?
• Awareness: Everyone knows the role of trauma
• Safety: Ensuring physical and emotional safety
• Trustworthiness: Maximizing trustworthiness, making tasks clear, and maintaining
appropriate boundaries
• Choice: Respect and prioritize consumer choice and control
 • Collaboration: Maximizing collaboration and sharing of power with consumers
• Empowerment: Prioritizing consumer empowerment and skillbuilding
Crisis intervention
• Every crisis is different, but all crises require immediate intervention to interrupt and
reduce crisis reactions and restore affected individuals to precrisis functioning.
i. Pre-Intervention:
• Before responding to a community or individual in crisis, find out as much as possible.
• Individuals in a crisis have difficulty remembering details, and asking questions for
which they may not have answers may be perceived as disempowering.
• To prevent one from becoming overwhelmed by the crisis, alert supportive people such as
supervisors, family, colleagues to introduce stress-reduction procedures immediately.

ii. Assessment:
• Identify the victim's current concerns and triggers or precipitants to the crisis.
• Make the evaluation quick, accurate, and comprehensive.
• Gathering information about how similar crises were handled in the past
• Establishing what worked and what did not is useful in designing current interventions.
• An ecological chart may be helpful in identifying sources of help and support.
iii. Disposition:
• Allow the client to talk as little or as much as possible about the event.
• The telling and retelling of a trauma can assist in the healing process.
• Psycho-educational information on what actions can be taken to maintain safety and
stabilization are valuable in empowering clients.
• Information helps them know what to expect so they will not be later taken by surprise.
• Decisions on how to handle the crisis are made by exploring options with clients, an
action that supports client empowerment.
• Additionally, decisions that include active client participation promote client compliance.
• Thinking creatively with clients can resolve most problems.
• Since crisis intervention requires short-term involvement, it is important to refer a client
to others.
iv. Referral and resource list:
• Keeping a referral and resource list is an important aspect of crisis work.
• The effective crisis responder researches and maintains information regarding agencies
and programs in a client's community that can be sources of future help.
• Visit these agencies before referring a client to them.
• Such visits increase the responder's familiarity with the services of the referral resources.
• Knowing whether they have a waiting list, sliding scale of payment, or whether they give
priority to crisis victims is important additional information.
• Once a list is generated, make sure that phone numbers, addresses, are contantly updated.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)? Is a reaction to an extreme traumatic event.
- Events e.g. death, threat of death, serious physical injury, or threat to physical integrity.
- Experiences e.g. combat, sexual/physical assault, serious accident, human-made/natural
disasters, incarceration or torture, and being diagnosed with a lifethreatening illness
Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
i. Re-experiencing of the trauma (including memories, nightmares, and/or flashbacks);
 ii. Avoidance of internal/external cues associated with the trauma (feelings of numbness)
iii. Increased arousal (insomnia, irritability, impaired concentration, and hypervigilance)
iv. Emotional numbing (Feeling detached, lack of emotions, loss of interest in activities.)
What can cause traumatic stress in children and adolescents?
• Floods
• Violent crimes such as kidnapping, rape or murder of a parent
• Sniper fire, and school shootings
• Motor vehicle accidents, such as automobile and plane crashes
• Severe burns
• Exposure to community violence
• War
• Peer suicide
• Sexual and physical abuse
Methods of assessing Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
• questionnaires,
• interviews and
• Biological tests.
Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
1. Psychiatric Medications:
• These include medication(s) depending on the individual's specific symptoms and any
other mental health difficulties (e.g., depression, panic attacks).
2. Education for client and family about PTSD:
• Education is very important, both for the client and the family. It typically addresses the
nature of PTSD (e.g., symptoms, cause, and triggers), communication skills,
problem-solving skills, and anger management.
3. Group Therapy:
• The acknowledgment by victims that they are not alone, can support others, and can
safely share their traumatic experiences within a responsive social context provides an
opportunity for healing.
• Groups have a variety of formats, including: process oriented, trauma oriented (e.g.,
telling one's story), present-day focused (e.g., coping skills), and/or psychoeducational
(e.g., anger management)
4. Cognitive/behavioural therapy:
a) Cognitive therapy involves inviting clients to examine their thinking processes and
replace irrational (unhelpful) thoughts with more realistic (helpful) thoughts.
b) Behavioural therapy involves inviting clients to change their behaviours, which results in
a shift in their mood / mental state. Behavioural interventions may include teaching
relaxation techniques, imagery, and breathing techniques. Anger management training
may involve both cognitive and behavioural skills.
c) Exposure based therapy (e.g., prolonged exposure; cognitive processing therapy)
involves helping the person to repeatedly ―re-tell‖ the traumatic experience in great
detail, such that the memory becomes less upsetting
d) Youth aggression and violence
• Solutions require action to stop youth violence before it starts and to responding
effectively when it does occur.
Definition of aggression:
 • This is harmful social interaction with the intention of inflicting damage or other
unpleasantness upon another individual.
• Aggression can take a variety of forms which may be expressed physically or
communicated verbally or non-verbally.
Types of human aggression:
- controlled-instrumental subtype (purposeful or goal-oriented);
- Reactive-impulsive subtype (uncontrollable actions that are inappropriate/undesirable).

Definition of violence:
• use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or
against a group or community, resulting to in injury, death, psychological harm
• anything that is excited in an injurious or damaging way
Violence can be;-
- self-directed (suicidal, self-abuse),
- interpersonal violence (family, intimate partner)
- Collective violence (structural, political, and economic).
• Violent acts can be physical, sexual, psychological or emotional
What is youth violence?
• people aged 10-24 years intentionally use physical force to threaten or harm others.
• Youth violence can take different forms, such as fighting, bullying, threats with weapons,
and gang-related violence.

Reflection
Reflect on whether we have violent schools. Violent schools: Myth or reality? In 1991, male
students in a mixed high school invaded the girls' dormitory and raped more than 70 girls. At
least 19 female students lost their lives at a tender age of 15. In yet another incident in 1999, a
group of male students locked up 4 prefects in their cubicles at night and doused them in petrol
killing them instantly. The worst calamity was in 2001 when 68 students were burnt to death and
scores injured after their dormitory was set on fire by two boys who petrol bombed the school. In
2006 a mass rape again occurred against schoolgirls, this time approximately 15 girls were
raped as other students staged a protest march in the middle of the night

High-risk populations
Behavioural markers of violent activity, including the following:
– Bullying other children or being the target of bullies
– Exhibiting aggressive behaviour or being alternately aggressive and withdrawn
– Being truant from school
– Being arrested before age 14
– Belonging to delinquent or violent peer groups
– Abusing alcohol or other drugs
– Engaging in antisocial behaviour, such as setting fires and treating animals cruelly
Factors that influence youth violence
i. Individual level:
• Impulsiveness, substance abuse, antisocial or aggressive beliefs and attitudes, weak
school achievement, and a prior history of exposure to violence or abuse.
 • Unsupervised access to a firearm is also a contributing risk for lethal youth violence.
ii. Relationship level:
• The nature and quality of the relationships young people have with friends, peers,
parents, and other adults, such as teachers and community members,
• Young people who associate with peers who engage in violent or delinquent behavior or
gang activity are at substantially greater risk for experiencing and perpetrating violence.
iii. Community level:
• Community factors, such as residential instability, crowded housing, density of
alcohol-related businesses, poor economic growth or stability, concentrated poverty, lack
of positive relationships among residents, and views that violence is acceptable behavior
are all associated with an increased risk for youth violence.
iv. Societal level:
• how the community formally and informally responds to youth violence, the availability
and accessibility of prevention resources, the coordination of prevention activities, the
use of evidence-based prevention strategies, and opportunities for education and
employment.
Youth violence preventive programs
• This programs focus on providing opportunities for young people to build their skills,
knowledge, and motivation to choose nonviolent behaviours and conflict resolution
approaches.
The following are examples of violent preventive programs:-
1. Anger management counselling programs:
• Anger management counselling is a service where clients are offered strategies and
techniques to manage excessive anger and make better life choices.
2. Social problem solving programs:
• This is a program which teaches pro-social skills such as:-
• Communication skills
• Negotiating skills
• Giving and receiving positive and negative feedback
• Recognizing and following social norms
• Controlling angry, surly, or sulking behavior
• Using assertiveness to express own needs
• Using inappropriate conversational skills
• Social networking
• Avoiding alcohol and drug use
• Appropriate use of affection and sexual interactions
3. Bully prevention program:
• The program's goals are to reduce and prevent bullying problems among learners and to
improve peer relations in schools.
4. School based gang prevention program:
• Immunization against delinquency, youth violence, and gang membership for children
immediately before the ages for introduction into gangs and delinquent behavior.
5. Multi-systemic therapy programs:
• Enhance parenting skills and provide intensive family therapy to troubled teens and
delinquent teens that empower youth to cope with the family, peer, school, and
neighborhood problems they encounter.
6. Mentoring programs:
• Youth empowerment and violence prevention programs that provide education, technical
skills and on-the-job training to the youth.
• Provide skills and training to help youth people develop career potential and to improve
their connections to advanced education.
Suicidal behavior
• The teen years are an anxious and unsettling period as boys and girls face the difficulties
of transition into adulthood. It is a period in life that is often confusing, leaving teens
feeling isolated from family or peers.
• Unfortunately, some may at one point or another perceive suicide as a permanent answer
to problems that are more often than not just temporary.
Causes of youth suicide
• Apart from the normal pressures of teen life, specific circumstances can contribute to an
adolescent's consideration of suicide.
• It's especially difficult when adolescents are confronted with problems that are out of
their control, such as:
– Divorce
– A new family formation (e.g., step-parents and step-siblings)
– Moving to a different community
– Physical or sexual abuse
– Emotional neglect
– Exposure to domestic violence
– Alcoholism in the home
– Substance abuse
– Family member who committed suicide
– Romantic breakup
Warning signs and risk factors associated with suicide
– Having trouble concentrating or thinking clearly
– Giving away belongings
– Talking about going away or the need to "get my affairs in order"
– Suddenly changing behavior, especially calmness after a period of anxiety
– Losing interest in activities they used to enjoy
– Self-destructive behaviors, such as heavily drinking alcohol, using illegal drugs, or
cutting their body
• Withdraw from friends and peers
• Difficulty in concentrating on schoolwork
• Talking about death or suicide, or even saying that they want to hurt themselves
• Talking about feeling hopeless or guilty
• Changing sleep or eating habits
• Arranging ways to take their own life (such as buying a gun or many pills)
• Neglect of personal appearance
• Obvious changes in personality
• Sadness and hopelessness
• General lethargy or lack of energy
• Loss of interest in pleasurable activities
• Symptoms of clinical depression
 • Violent actions, rebellion, or running away
Suicide prevention:
1. It's essential that you take suicidal behavior or previous attempts seriously and get
assistance quickly
• Suicidal teen needs to know there are people who care, and who are available to talk to.
Good support means listening to what's troubling somebody without passing judgment
• A person should be reassured that there are always solutions to problems or ways other
than suicide for coping with them.
• Giving an adolescent the chance to open up and talk about his or her feelings will help
relieve some of the distress of those intense emotions, and make that person feel less
alone.
2. Don't hesitate to bring up the subject of suicide, and to ask direct questions
• When teens insist their parents don't understand them, it might be a good idea to suggest
they talk to a more objective or emotionally neutral person.
3. Restricting access to firearms and ammunition is also an important preventive measure
• Weapons kept in the home increase the risk that suicide attempts will be successful, by
giving a suicidal adolescent the means to take their own life.
Diagnosis for suicide
The physician's assessment will be based on several different sources of information such as:
i. The patient's history, including a history of previous attempts, family history of suicide.
ii. A clinical interview in which the physician will ask whether the patient is presently
thinking of suicide; whether they have made actual plans to do so; whether they have
thought about the
iii. means; and what they think their suicide will accomplish. These questions help in
evaluating the seriousness of the patient's intentions.
iv. A suicide note, if any.
v. Information from friends, relatives, or first responders accompanying the patient.
vi. Self-administered psychiatric tests that screen people for depression, suicidal ideation.
vii. The most commonly used screeners are the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the
Depression Screening Questionnaire, and the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale.
viii. The doctor's own instinctive reaction to the patient's mood, appearance, vocal tone, and
similar factors.
Treatment for suicidal behavior
• A suicide attempt of any kind is treated as a psychiatric emergency by the police and
other rescue personnel.
• Treatment in a hospital emergency room includes a complete psychiatric evaluation; a
mental status examination; blood or urine tests if alcohol or drug abuse is suspected; and
a detailed
• Assessment of the patient's personal circumstances (occupation, living situation, family
or friends nearby, etc.).
• The patient will be kept under observation while decisions are made about the need for
hospitalization.
• Therapy is one of the most important parts of treatment.
Any mental health disorder that may have led to the suicide attempt should be
evaluated and treated. This includes:
– Bipolar disorder
 – Borderline personality disorder
– Drug or alcohol dependence Major depression
– Schizophrenia
Self care
• In order to provide learners with the best possible care, you must be at your best, and in
order to be at your best, you need to take care of yourself.
• Compassion fatigue is when caregivers have such deep empathy they develop symptoms
of trauma similar to the patient. The disorder can also resemble burn out.
• Compassion fatigue may affect a counsellor physically, psychologically, relationship with
Clients, and organizationally.
Strategies for prevention of compassion fatigue
1. Don't go it alone:
• Prevention of isolation requires that we have a sense of community - be it through a peer
group, supervision, attendance at conferences and so on.
• In addition, we need a sense of belonging through family, friends, hobbies and other
means to ensure that we have a sense of self that is not just based on our occupation.
Remember to let our clients teach us - they are the experts in their own lives.
2. Prioritize:
• Identify what materialistic needs are realistic and essential, as opposed to what we want.
3. Therapist, heal thyself:
• the most acute manifestations of compassion fatigue is loss of confidence in our work.
4. Stop for a refill:
• Utilize alternatives like exercise, healthy eating and sufficient sleep, plus hobbies that
give a genuine recharge.
• Find your own methods, such as affirmations, prayer, massage, yoga, journaling, suppor
groups, spiritual direction or meditation and use them regularly.
5. You are not it:
• Ultimately, the root cause of burnout is to lose touch with our own spiritual center.
• We all need to connect our individual lives to a pattern of purpose and meaning in the
universe, in whatever way we understand it.

UNIT 6: PEER COUNSELLING

What is peer counseling?
• a process in which trained and supervised students assist in the systematic facilitation of
affective growth and the development of effective coping skills among other students.
Types of peer counseling programs
• befriending;
• mediation/conflict resolution;
• mentoring;
• Counselling-based approaches.
Peer counseling programs that you could implement in your educational institution:-
(a). Peer counseling:
• Students help others through one-on-one contacts.
• Peer counseling can be informal with students using skills with friends or formal with
specific drop-in hours or through referrals by staff.
• Students will keep records on peer counseling contacts.
(b). Peer education:
• Students may develop and lead class presentations or school activities on subjects such as
school bullying, character development, goal setting, pursuit of academic excellence,
team building, racism, substance abuse, smoking, child abuse, violence prevention,
mediation skills, decision-making, peer pressure, refusal skills, depression and suicide,
(c). Peer mediation:
• Students are trained in the conflict resolution/peer mediation process and mediate
disputes involving other students or between students and staff.
(d). Peer small groups:
• Students may lead or co-lead support groups on special or general topics, as drop-in or
informal groups.
(e). Peer support:
• Peer Counselors support students, staff, events and activities at school. Students give help
and assistance to others with commitment.
(f). Peer transition assistance:
• Peer Counselors help transfer students or new students adjust to school through school
tours, special friend assignment and class presentations.
(g). Peer mentoring:
• This is a form of mentoring that takes place usually between an older more experienced
student and a new student(s).
• Peer mentoring is a good way of practicing social skills for the mentor and help on
adapting and settling in for the mentee.
Importance of peer counselling
1. Cost effective:
• The peer is there to help, out of caring for others; they are not being paid to listen to
others. It has been reported that teacher counsellors have heavy teaching loads and that
there are no full-time teacher counsellors in schools.
2. Self-esteem:
• The students counselors gain a sense of selfesteem arising from the prestige of being a
peer counsellor and personal satisfaction gained from helping others.
3. Accessibility:
• The presence of peer counsellors results in the school counsellors having more time for
students with severe problems.
• In addition the use of peer helpers reaches a wider audience.
4. Effective:
• Students are more likely to respond positively to messages heard from their peers and
more likely to approach their peers with a question or a problem than approach an
adult/teacher.
5. Special insights:
• The peer counselor unlike the profession therapist may have had some or the same
experiences with the client and may be able to provide special insights to the client.
• For example, if the peer counselor is a cancer survivor or rape victim.
6. Non-threatening:
• A peer is also not likely to be as threatening to talk to as a professional might be, just by
the nature of the professional being a therapist can make him threatening.
• These shared experiences are an important aspect of being a peer counselor.
 • Trust and understanding are more readily built between the peer counselor and the client
because of shared experiences.
• Students are most likely to approach fellow students when they are experiencing
problems and concerns before they approach teachercounselors especially on issues they
consider sensitive such as rape, STIs etc.
7. Informal environment:
• Peer counsellors are able to informally interact with their colleagues in class, during
sporting games, in the hostels and at any time whenever there is an opportunity.
8. Empathy:
• The peer also may be able to empathize better with someone if they have shared some of
the same problems.
• The peer can more easily empathize and understand some of the problems faced by the
shared experiences.
9. Quicker outreach:
• Because of their closeness to their colleagues, peer counsellors can easily notice stress
symptoms and refer such cases to the teacher - counsellors before it is too late.
Peer counselors
• Once you have established the peer counseling program, you need to recruit and select
good peer counselors.
Role of peer counselors
i. Promote personal development in others.
ii. Create a positive influence on the emotional climate in the school environment.
iii. Provide a bridge between troubled peers and friends: by listening rather than necessarily
giving advice.
iv. Offer basic skills in supporting the other peers who might need them.
v. Psychosocial support e.g. the bereaved, alienated, drug users etc.
vi. Enable the individual to meet personal needs in order to be more fully functional and take
control of his/her life, in different settings.
vii. Reduce the amount of bullying in school by supporting those involved;
viii. act as additional service provided by staff - complementing rather than competing with it
Qualities of peer counsellors
i. People person: person who genuinely enjoys associating people. Someone who is
curious about people, someone who tries to understand what a person is going through.
ii. Strong sense of self: the peer must be able to set aside who he is from his needs, and be
there for the client.
iii. Believe in respect, non-judgment, accepting of differing views: The peer must be able
to accept others who are different and who have different values and work with them in
a positive way.
iv. Personally secure - tolerance of ambiguity: When a person is personally secure, they
are freer to make mistakes, and take risks. Peer counseling requires flexibility as well as
risk- taking.
v. They share important qualities of client population: The peer must be part of the
group they are working with. It is important that the peer share the same characteristics
that are identified for the peer.
vi. Persons who do not try to control or direct others; the peers should not be looking to
increase their own sense of importance by telling others how to live their lives.
vii. Comfortable to be around - likeable: someone who is likeable, and someone that is
comfortable to be with. They need to be non-threatening, easy to talk to. They need to
show a bit of confidence without arrogance.
Peer counseling models and methods
Peer counseling models
(a). The generalist approach:
• The first involves identifying one person amongst the peer counselors who can work as
the contact person in the program.
• The generalist approach works for a very short time. The counselor then refers the client
to someone who is more specialized.
(b). Instructional counselor approach:
• This approach basically involves the teaching of skills.
• The counselor is called peer educator or peer tutor.
• The main objective of this type of counseling is to help individuals make that transition
from being totally dependent to being as independent as possible by giving training in the
areas that the individual seems to be lacking e.g. social skills, functional needs and
academic skills etc.
(c). Outreach approach:
• This type of work involves going out to make known to them what the peer counseling is.
• This type of counselor meets with people who often do not have the ability to reach out.
(d). Advocacy approach:
• The main function of this type of counselor is to help people work their way through
systems so that they can get what is rightfully theirs.
• This can be looked upon as more a teaching role.
• There may be a need to teach letter writing, communication skills, telephone skills, etc.
Peer counselling techniques
1. Listening:
• Simply listening may allow the counseled individual an opportunity to honestly express
his/her feelings.
• When the counselor listens with a non-judgmental attitude and allows the counselee to
express feelings openly and honestly, trust can build and grow.
• The counselee may be open to receiving help once the trust is secure.
2. Review and restate:
• Through review and restate, the counselor restates what the counselee said in his own
words. This affirms to the counselee that the counselor listened and allows her to correct
any errors in what the counselor understands.
• The other purpose of this technique is to let the counselee hear what he is really saying.
3. Teaching:
• Peer counseling is helpful in teaching techniques and information on a less formal basis
outside the realm of classroom education.
4. Offer assistance appropriately:
• This technique requires patience on the part of the counselor, because the counselee may
not be ready to accept assistance when he first meets with the counselor.
• If you offer assistance too early, the counselee may refuse it because she does not yet
perceive the need for assistance.
5. Ask the right questions:
 • The counselor can ask deep, open-ended questions to help the counselee move through
the counseling process.
• Questions that begin with why, how, what or when will elicit detailed answers.

Activity
The biggest misconception peer counselors can have is to believe they must have all the answers.
• Discuss this statement in the context of peer counseling techniques.

Establishing a peer counseling program

i. Systematic needs assessment: Determine whether peer counseling is the appropriate or
priority intervention.
ii. Established support: Establish support from all those affected by the program.
iii. Specify goals: the program goals with written descriptions clearly defining roles,
functions, and levels of responsibility.
iv. Operationalize the program: Operating components include the selection of the peer
counselors, training and supervision of the peer counselors, and evaluate them.
Challenges of peer counseling
• Peers may not be the best at addressing severe mental illness (unless it is as a peer who
has had similar experiences), or very complex issues like sexual abuse, suicide (unless it
is peer support for this purpose).
• Peers also should not be put in position where they have to address violent and dangerous
situations.
• It is also important that peers always have supervision to go for help and assistance in
dealing with any situation that they may not feel comfortable with or equipped to handle.
• By providing supervision for peers, any difficulties that arise are addressed.
• It is important for the client and the peer counselor to meet soon after each peer
counseling session, this allows for prompt response
Challenges encountered while implementing a peer counseling program
i. Core objectives of the peer counselors - to what extent should the Peer Counselors be
involved in handling other people's problems
ii. Relationship boundaries - This pertains to the nature of peer counselor's role considering
that the two (counselor and client) are both students.
iii. Role of peer counselor in relation to the nature of problems explored - is the role limited to
providing a safe opportunity for sharing concerns only? What is the scope of the issues?
iv. Confidentiality and other professional concerns - can there be a guarantee of total
confidentiality considering that peer counsellors are not professional practitioners?
v. Supervision - How should supervision be handled considering that there are few trained
and qualified Supervisors?

UNIT 7: CAREER GUIDANCE

What is career guidance?
• Making information about the labor market and about educational and employment
opportunities more accessible by organizing it, systematizing it and having it available when
and where people need it.

What are the goals of career guidance?

i. Lifelong learning goals:
- Combating early school leaving
- ensuring an adequate knowledge and skills base to meet the challenges
- Promoting adequate linkages between education training and the world of work.
ii. Labor market outcomes:
- Reducing mismatches between supply and demand for labor, dealing with unemployment
- Improving labor mobility.
iii. Social equity and social inclusion goals:
- Promoting reintegration of marginalized and at risk groups into education,
- Training and employment of excluded groups into training programs and labor market
Characteristics of career guidance programs
a) Assure and facilitate throughout an individual's life, participation and access to,
vocational and career information and guidance, job placement services and job search
techniques and training support services.
a) Promote and facilitate the use of information and communication technology as well as
traditional best practices in career information and guidance and training support
services.
b) Identify in consultation with the social partners, roles and responsibilities of employment
services, training providers and other relevant service providers with respect to vocational
and career information and guidance.
c) Provide information and guidance on entrepreneurship, promote entrepreneurial skills,
and raise awareness among educators and trainers of the important role of enterprises
among others in creating growth and decent jobs.

Activity
Children who feel they have to live up to their parent's dreams will often try very hard initially
because they want to please their parents but for many of them, resentment frustration and even
anger can set in either as a child or reflecting back on choices made when a young adult.
• Discuss this statement in the light of career guidance.

Functions of the career counselor

• Assist individuals with career development problems.
• render career counselling services to parents, students and teachers of all students,
• Career counsellors focus on the academic, career, and personal/social developmental needs
of all students, including those with special needs.
• Help the learner define a lifelong career plan that is tailored to the individual's realities.
The major functions of the career counsellor include:-
– Advising
– Placement
– Planning
– Assessment
– Counseling
– Coordinating
– Instructing
– Referring
– Programming
• It is important to remember that as an education manager you may find yourself playing the
role of a career counselor to your learners.
• So you see why it is important to know the functions of a career counselor

Career information and dissemination

(a). Sources of career information:
• It includes all the information that assists people to make informed education, training and
occupational choices throughout their working lives. This information includes:
– Economic sector and occupational trends.
– Occupational content and competency demands.
– Learning opportunities.
– Formal economy jobs.
– Self-employment opportunities.
– Information for migrating workers.
(b). Career information booklets:
• The development of career information that is both informative and appealing to individuals
making career decisions throughout their lives is a real challenge.
• Career information publications should meet certain criteria. Information provided should:
• Be up to date.
• Be easily accessible, using community resources to distribute it when feasible.
• Be available on a self-service basis wherever possible.
• Be able to be reproduced inexpensively and in large quantities (written material).
• Take the literacy level into account
• Be accompanied by training for the career guidance practitioners who will be distributing it.
(c). Career dissemination methods include:-
• Advising at the counseling or career center.
• Insertion of career related materials into regular classes. -
• Career classes.
• Workshops or seminars.
• Self-directed activities.
• A section of the school newsletter devoted to career information.
• Career counseling and career resource centers. - Job fairs.
• Peer Counseling.
Note
• Helping youth explore possible careers:
In order to make an informed choice, youth need to have
 - a realistic picture of occupations they are considering:
- the working conditions,
- the tasks that are involved,
- the qualifications and education required,
- The salary and the job opportunities.
You can help youth gather this information by:
- Doing industrial visits where they will get the information directly from the employers.
- Inviting different professionals to come and talk to them.
- Helping them find volunteer or part-time work in different industries.
- Encouraging them to volunteer their services in different organizations or work centers.
- Encouraging them to share career/vocation information with one another.
Gender issues related to career development
• Gender refers to the social differences between women and men that are learned, that have
wide variations within and between cultures, and that are changeable over time.
Does it matter if boys do different jobs from girls and what are the implications?
• It is important that both boys and girls have the opportunity to use their potential, based on
their talents and interests rather than their gender.
• Girls should be offered the same opportunities as boys and be able to pursue whatever career
most interests them whether it is science or engineering and IT.
• as a counselor educate both boys and girls that one can do any job as long as you have the
potential and requirements.
All careers are universal for either gender
How can we work to eliminate gender stereotypes and biases?
i. Sensitizing the community to gender biases and stereotypes, with the goal of
encouraging children and youth to appreciate their own unique capabilities.
ii. Invite non-traditional role models to talk to the community and the children and youth
about gender biases and stereotypes.
iii. As a caregiver, model gender equality and talk to children about gender bias and
stereotypes at home and in the community.
iv. Collect magazines and newspapers that show gender bias and stereotypes. Watch for
examples in radio and TV programs.

Activity
a) Give examples of gender bias and stereotypes that are common in your community and
your place of work.
b) Discuss how they affect the career choices of young people.

Talent recognition of learners

• We all have talents which may include where we show special abilities or aptitudes.
• people are inspired to develop their talents through the example of a mentor.
• They may see a particular skill in someone they adore, practice it constantly, and develop
expertise in it.
Strategies for recognizing and developing talent
• All students at all ages have relative talent strengths, and schools should help them
identify and understand their own special abilities.
 • Those whose talents are at levels exceptionally higher than their peers should have access
to instructional resources and activities that are commensurate with their talents.
You can employ the following strategies to recognize talent:-.
i. Be alert to signs of talent in the four talent areas. Point out strengths to the student
and parents, and test to verify possible emerging talent.
ii. Structure learning activities that will give students the opportunity to demonstrate
their talent potential.
iii. Use praise to recognize and reinforce signs of talent.
iv. Help students who have talent in particular areas set learning goals in that area.
v. Locate resources in the school and community that can help foster the student's
talents.
vi. Enlist parents in identifying and nurturing their children's talents by providing
resources and experiences, and encouraging goalsetting behavior.
Employability
• Employability refers to a person's capability for gaining and maintaining employment.
• This may depend on individual's knowledge, skills and abilities they possess, in addition
how they present themselves to their employers.
Employability depends on various labor market characteristics such as:-
a) Prevalence of unemployment, underemployment and poverty:
b) Sectoral structure: large agricultural sector, labor-intensive industries and concentration
and value for formal jobs.
c) Dominance of informal economy activity: A large proportion of population finds work
in the informal economy, often in self-employment. Self-employment has increased over
the years.
d) Demographic factors: Increasing number of job seekers is occurring. Female and youth
labor force will increase.
e) Migration: Labor movement is increasing across borders including rural urban migration.
f) Urbanization: Most people will be living in urban areas and the growth of mega-cities
will be a frequent occurrence.
g) Impact of globalization: Advances in technology are dramatically lowering the cost of
moving information, people, goods and capital across the globe.
How can career guidance improve employability?
i. The crucial importance of comprehensive educational and occupational information,
which needs to be addressed as a matter of urgency;
ii. The need to exploit the potential of information and communication technologies,
including help lines as well as the internet, to increase access to services;
iii. The need to invest in self-help approaches rather than in those which are heavily labor
intensive and encourage dependency;
iv. The need to encourage more specific staff-training courses in career guidance,
preferably on a cross-sectoral basis, designed to produce professionals who can manage
guide guidance resources well as be engaged in direct service delivery.
v. The need to invest in facilitating measures, including appropriate incentives, designed to
encourage the development of career guidance services within the private sectors.
Career development plans
• Summarizes the career development information you have clarified by engaging in the
exercises in each of the phases of the career development model.
 • Supplies a framework for career development conversations with your supervisor.
• Provides a roadmap for you and your supervisor to use to create development activities
that will help you enhance your knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Career development guidelines:-

1. Summarize your self-assessment information and career development needs:
• This will help you communicate your strengths, interests, preferences, and values to your
supervisor, as well as your skill development needs.
2. Talk with your supervisor:
• Your supervisor should be able to enhance your understanding and awareness of the
organization's needs, technology changes, expected turnover, program plans, etc.
3. Set career goals:
• With your supervisor, decide on the short-term (1 year) and medium-term (2-5 years)
goals that best fit you, your osition, and the organization.
• You can also discuss your long-range (5+ years) career goals and how you can work
towards those goals within your current job.

4. Create roadmap for development activities:

• Together with your supervisor, map out the on-the-job learning and leadership activities
and/or trainings you will engage in to develop those skills and competencies.
• Brainstorm the resources (money, time, support relationships, etc.) that will be needed for
success. Write out the action steps that will be needed to complete the activity.
5. Create milestones and timelines to measure your success:
• Decide together what will be the milestones of progress toward successful acquisition of
skills and the target completion dates for each milestone.
• Set your schedule of check- in meetings to be able to give status reports and receive
feedback and advice from your supervisor throughout your development activities