Unit – IV

Self and Self – Concept

The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept and correlates of self-esteem, attitude about self,
evaluating oneself, social comparisons, downward social comparisons, effects of high v/s low
self-esteem, paradoxical self-esteem, changes in self-esteem.
Self enhancement - Self efficacy – nature and correlates.
Self-verification - confidence in self.
Leadership: Qualities of leaders, types of leadership: Democratic, autocratic, laissez-faire and
nurturant task leader.
Correlates of self-esteem, attitude about self, evaluating oneself, social comparisons,
downward social comparisons, effects of high v/s low self-esteem, paradoxical self-
esteem, changes in self-esteem.

Correlates of Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is closely associated with various psychological, emotional, and social factors.
High self-esteem often correlates with positive emotions, better mental health, greater life
satisfaction, higher motivation, and resilience in the face of failure. Individuals with high self-
esteem are also more likely to engage in goal-directed behaviour, maintain healthier
relationships, and show assertiveness in social situations. Conversely, low self-esteem is linked
to anxiety, depression, social withdrawal, and susceptibility to peer pressure. People with low
self-esteem may struggle with self-doubt, fear of judgment, and feelings of worthlessness. Key
correlates of self-esteem include social approval, personal achievements, perceived
competence, body image, and the quality of interpersonal relationships. Cultural background
also plays a role; for example, collectivist cultures may tie self-worth more to social harmony,
while individualist cultures emphasize personal success. In addition, parental warmth, early
childhood experiences, and attachment style significantly influence self-esteem development.
For instance, a student consistently praised for academic achievements and supported
emotionally at home may develop strong, stable self-esteem. In contrast, a child who faces
frequent criticism or neglect may internalize negative beliefs about themselves, resulting in
lower self-esteem later in life. Biological factors such as temperament and even genetic
predispositions may also contribute to one's baseline self-regard.
Attitude About Self
Attitude about the self refers to the overall evaluation a person holds regarding themselves,
which can be positive, negative, or mixed. This self-attitude shapes our confidence, behaviours,
and how we present ourselves in social interactions. It is influenced by personal experiences,
feedback from others, and societal expectations. A person with a positive attitude about
themselves is likely to approach challenges with confidence, whereas someone with a negative
self-attitude might avoid opportunities due to fear of failure. For example, someone who
believes "I am capable and worthy" is more likely to take initiative and engage socially.
Evaluating Oneself
Self-evaluation is the process of assessing one’s traits, abilities, and behaviours. It plays a key
role in shaping self-concept and guiding future actions. Individuals engage in self-evaluation
by reflecting on their successes and failures, comparing themselves to others, and interpreting
feedback. This process can be conscious or unconscious and can lead to growth if approached
constructively. For example, after performing poorly in a presentation, a person might reflect
on their preparation and decide to practice more next time, showing adaptive self-evaluation.
Social Comparisons
Social comparison theory, proposed by Leon Festinger, suggests that individuals determine
their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others. People compare
themselves to others to evaluate their abilities, opinions, and self-worth. These comparisons
can be upward (with someone perceived as better off) or downward (with someone perceived
as worse off). For example, a student may compare their grades with classmates to assess their
academic standing, which may influence their self-esteem.
Downward Social Comparisons
Downward social comparisons involve comparing oneself to others who are worse off in order
to feel better about one’s own situation. This type of comparison can be a self-protective
strategy to boost or maintain self-esteem, especially after experiencing failure or rejection. It
provides a psychological buffer against negative emotions. For instance, after being rejected in
a job interview, a person might compare themselves to a friend who hasn’t secured any
interviews yet, thus feeling relatively more competent.
Effects of High vs. Low Self-Esteem
High self-esteem is generally associated with positive outcomes such as confidence, better
stress management, and greater life satisfaction. People with high self-esteem are more likely
to take initiative and persist through difficulties. However, excessively high or unstable self-
esteem may lead to arrogance or defensiveness. Low self-esteem, on the other hand, can result
in anxiety, indecision, and vulnerability to criticism. For example, a person with high self-
esteem may volunteer to lead a group project, whereas someone with low self-esteem may
avoid participation fearing they’ll make mistakes.
Paradoxical Self-Esteem
Paradoxical self-esteem refers to situations where individuals outwardly appear confident or
even boastful, but internally struggle with self-doubt and insecurity. This may be a form of
defensive self-esteem used to mask inner vulnerabilities. Such individuals may react strongly
to criticism or failure, revealing an unstable self-view. For example, someone who constantly
brags about their achievements on social media might actually be seeking validation due to low
internal self-worth.
Changes in Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is not fixed and can change over time based on life experiences, relationships, and
personal growth. Adolescence and early adulthood are particularly sensitive periods for self-
esteem development, while later life experiences, such as career success or failure, also play a
role. Therapeutic interventions, supportive social environments, and achieving personal goals
can lead to improved self-esteem. For instance, someone who once felt inferior due to academic
struggles may develop higher self-esteem after finding success in a different career path or
creative field.

Self enhancement - Self efficacy – nature and correlates.

Self-efficacy, a concept introduced by Albert Bandura (1977), refers to an individual’s belief
in their ability to successfully perform tasks or handle prospective situations. It is not about
whether one is skilled or talented, but rather about whether they believe they can use their
abilities to influence outcomes. Self-efficacy reflects the sense of control we perceive over our
environment and life events. Those with high self-efficacy trust their capacity to take action
and achieve goals, making them more likely to persist in the face of challenges, take initiative,
and recover from setbacks. For example, a student who believes that hard work will help them
pass an exam is demonstrating high self-efficacy. In contrast, someone who relies on fate or
luck—believing that outcomes are beyond their control—shows low self-efficacy. This belief
system influences the amount of effort and motivation a person invests in achieving success.
Bandura emphasized that self-efficacy is dynamic and shaped by interactions between personal
experiences, observational learning, and social feedback.
Correlates of Self-Efficacy
Several psychological and social factors correlate with self-efficacy. Key among them are
mastery experiences (successfully accomplishing tasks), social modelling (observing others
succeed), verbal persuasion (encouragement from credible people), and emotional regulation
(managing stress and arousal). People with high self-efficacy are more confident, less fearful
of failure, and more likely to choose challenging goals. They also tend to enjoy better coping
skills and even improved physical health. Self-efficacy is distinct from self-esteem—while
self-esteem relates to one’s sense of self-worth, self-efficacy concerns belief in one’s ability to
perform. Like self-esteem, self-efficacy can be global or domain-specific (e.g., academic,
social, or athletic self-efficacy). Additionally, collective self-efficacy refers to a group’s shared
belief in its joint capabilities, such as a sports team working together to win a championship.
Since self-efficacy is learned, it can be strengthened through intentional strategies like setting
achievable goals, using positive role models, practicing visualization, and managing emotional
states. These practices, especially when reinforced during childhood, can foster lifelong
confidence and resilience.
Self-Verification – Confidence in Self
Self-verification is a social psychological theory introduced by William Swann (1981), which
suggests that people are motivated to be seen and understood by others in ways that are
consistent with their self-views—including their self-concept and self-esteem. It is driven by
the desire to maintain a coherent and stable identity, which helps individuals make sense of the
world and guide their actions confidently. When people feel that others see them as they see
themselves, it reinforces their confidence and sense of authenticity. For instance, a person who
believes they are intelligent will feel validated and more self-assured when others treat them as
such. Conversely, someone with a negative self-view (e.g., believing they are incompetent)
may ironically seek or prefer interactions that confirm that view—even if it harms their self-
worth—because it feels familiar and predictable. Self-verification, therefore, sometimes
conflicts with the desire for self-enhancement (wanting to be seen positively). People with high
self-esteem usually experience alignment between these motives, but those with low self-
esteem or depressive self-views may actively seek negative feedback or stay in relationships
that confirm their low self-worth, thus reinforcing their internal beliefs. This tendency can
shape behaviour, relationships, and even environments—for example, a person with low self-
worth might slouch, avoid eye contact, or engage in self-defeating behaviour to elicit reactions
that match their negative self-concept. Identity cues like appearance, lifestyle choices, and
verbal expressions serve to subtly communicate who we are, often unconsciously guiding
others' perceptions. Ultimately, self-verification gives individuals a sense of psychological
stability and control, and when others confirm their self-views—whether positive or negative—
it strengthens their confidence in that perception. However, this also highlights the importance
of fostering positive self-views in those with low self-esteem, as repeated confirmation of
negative self-views can trap individuals in cycles of self-doubt and underachievement.
Leadership: Qualities of leaders, types of leadership: Democratic, autocratic, laissez-
faire and nurturant task leader.
Leadership: Qualities of Leaders
Effective leadership is characterized by a combination of personal attributes and interpersonal
skills that inspire and guide others toward achieving common goals. Key qualities include:
• Integrity: Upholding strong moral principles and honesty, fostering trust and
credibility.
• Self-Awareness: Understanding one's strengths, weaknesses, and emotional triggers to
lead authentically.
• Empathy: Recognizing and addressing the emotions and needs of team members,
promoting a supportive environment.
• Communication Skills: Clearly articulating ideas, actively listening, and encouraging
open dialogue.
• Adaptability: Being flexible and open to change, especially in dynamic or challenging
situations.
• Decisiveness: Making informed decisions promptly, instilling confidence in the team.
• Vision: Providing a clear direction and inspiring others to work towards shared
objectives.
• Emotional Intelligence: Managing one's emotions and understanding others' emotions
to enhance interpersonal relationships.
These qualities are essential for building effective teams and achieving organizational success.
Leaders who embody these traits are more likely to foster trust, collaboration, and high
performance within their teams.
Types of leadership
1. Democratic Leadership
Democratic leaders emphasize collaboration and shared decision-making. They actively
involve team members in discussions, value their input, and encourage participation. This
inclusive approach fosters a sense of ownership and commitment among team members,
leading to higher satisfaction and motivation. However, it may be time-consuming and less
effective in situations requiring quick decisions.
2. Autocratic Leadership
Autocratic leaders maintain strict control over decision-making processes, making decisions
unilaterally without seeking input from team members. This style can be effective in situations
requiring quick, decisive action or when team members lack experience. However, it may lead
to decreased morale and creativity if overused, as team members may feel undervalued or
disempowered.
3. Laissez-Faire Leadership
Laissez-faire leaders adopt a hands-off approach, allowing team members considerable
autonomy in decision-making and problem-solving. This style can be effective when team
members are highly skilled, motivated, and capable of working independently. However, it may
lead to confusion or lack of direction if team members require more guidance or structure.
4. Nurturant Task Leader
Nurturant task leaders focus on both the well-being of team members and the achievement of
tasks. They provide support, encouragement, and resources to help team members succeed
while maintaining a focus on task completion. This balanced approach can lead to high levels
of team satisfaction and productivity, as it addresses both emotional and practical needs.