Stream Capacity:
• How much can a stream carry?
– Capacity is related to:
• Velocity:
– Discharge
» Which is related to the drainage area
– Slope
» Gradient
How do you measure Gradient?
Streamflow
Direct runoff
hydrograph
• Graph of stream
discharge as a
function of time at a Baseflow
given location on the
stream Perennial river
Ephemeral river Snow-fed River
STREAMFLOW
Streamflow is generally measured by observing stage or
elevation above a specified datum, in a channel and then relating
stage to discharge via a rating curve. Rating curves are plots of
water level vs. discharge.
Water Stage
• The stage of a river is the height of the water surface above an
established reference plane.
• The requirements for the accuracy of the measurement can
differ for each different purpose. For example, the highest
accuracy is when the slope of the water surface for a relatively
short reach of the river is required.
• A wide shallow cross section needs more accurate water level
measurements than a narrow deep section.
• Stages are used to determine stage-discharge relation curves or
to estimate a discharge at a particular moment with the help of a
rating curve.
Requirements for the Watercourse During Measurement:
• The watercourse has to be straight for at least 100 m upstream
and downstream from the point of measurement for a regular
velocity distribution in the water.
• No inundation or flooding when extreme high water occurs, i.e.
50-yr return period.
• No backwater effect.
• Close to the point of measurement, measurements of velocity
have to be possible so stage-discharge curves can be compiled.
Streamflow discharge is defined as the volume rate of flow of
water that includes any substances dissolved or suspended in
the water.
Discharge is usually expressed in units of cubic meters per
second (cms or m3/sec).
Measurement Methods:
1. Tracer Method (instantaneous injection)
- Tracers are often used in mountain streams with high
turbulence and without clearly defined channel.
- A good tracer needs to be non-reactive, besides it
should be as harmless as possible for the
environment.
- The concentration of the tracer is then monitored by
measuring the electric conductance in the river.
- the following conditions have to be fulfilled: (i) the
background concentration of the stream has to be
known, (ii) it should not change during the experiment,
(iii) the tracer is totally intermixed with the water in the
stream (no backwater effects), and (iv) there are no
water losses nor inputs between the injection and
measurement locations.
Measurement Methods:
1. Tracer Method (instantaneous injection)
where M is the injected mass of the tracer, c(t) the
concentration evolution over time and co the background
concentration of the stream
Measurement Methods:
2. Velocity Area Method with current meter
Midsection Method
In this method, the stream cross section is divided into rectangular subsections
as shown in the figure. At the center of each of these subsections (called
a vertical), a depth and velocity measurement is made, and the distance from a
datum point on the shore is determined.
Measurement Methods:
3. Bucket Method
- If one finds a spot where it is possible to capture all the
water from the streamflow (for example at a spillway), using a
stop watch and a bucket one can collect the volume of water
delivered by the stream during a precisely known period, and
then measure this volume to finally calculate the discharge.
4. Float Method
- This method can be used to get a rough estimate of
the runoff. With a floating object the surface velocity of the river
is measured. The mean river velocity can then be
approximated by:
Measurement Methods:
5. Manning’s Equation
- This method allows an approximate estimation of
runoff without performing any velocity or runoff measurements.
The empirical “Manning’s equation” assumes that there is a
relation between the flow velocity (v) and the river geometry.
Manning’s equation states:
Where:
n – Manning’s roughness coefficient
R – hydraulic radius (A/Pw)
A – area
Pw – Wetted Perimeter
S – slope of the water surface
Measurement Methods:
5. Manning’s Equation
- The advantage of this method is that it is very simple
and fast to use. The disadvantage lies in the empirical nature
of the equation, so that it should only be used to get an idea of
the magnitude of runoff.
Measurement Instruments and Equipment used with Current Meter Methods
Vertical Axis Current Meter
Horizontal Axis Current Meter
Optical Current
Meter
The meter is
essentially a
stroboscopic device
consisting of a low
powered telescope, a
single oscillating
mirror that is driven
by a cam, a variable
speed battery
operated motor, and
a tachometer.
Acoustic Doppler Current Meters
Acoustic Doppler current meters determine
stream velocity by measuring the change in
sound energy reflected from particles or
gas bubbles suspended in the water.
Tracer Dilution Method for Discharge Measurement
An alternative to discharge measurement using current meters is the tracer dilution
method. Stream discharge is determined on the basis of how much of the tracer is
diluted by the flowing water. Suitable tracers have the following characteristics:
1.they readily dissolve in water at ordinary temperatures
2.they are absent in the stream or present at very low concentrations
3.they are not decomposed in the stream and is not retained or absorbed in
significant quantity by plants, sediments, or other organisms
4.they can be detected in extremely low concentrations
5.they are harmless to the environment
Salts and dyes have been used in tracer studies. Fluorescent dyes, such as
rhodamine, are commonly used tracers for hydrologic studies. Fluorometers are
used to measure the concentrations of fluorescent dyes. The fluorometer measures
the strength of the light emitted by the fluorescent substance
Rating Curves
Determination of the discharge of a river every time is laborious
and time consuming that’s why it is a common practice to establish a
relationship between the stage and discharge (rating curve) at a
particular station.
Rating curves are developed over time. Each
time a site is visted, stage and discharge are
recorded. After sufficient a sufficient number
of stage-discharge pairs are collected and
plotted, data are collected, a line (curve) is
drawn through the points to describe the
relation.
As additional data are collected, the rating
curve can be refined to more accurately
reflect the relation. As is noticeable in the
graph to the right, the addition of stage and
discharge measurements at high and lower
flows change the slope of the line (the rating
curve) and create a more accurate relation at
a larger range of stages. This more accurate
relation is important, because as can be seen
on the graph, the selected stage would have a
much different associated discharge with the
original rating curve (the orange vertical line)
compared to the revised rating curve with
additional data showing the discharge is
lower (green vertical line).
Rating Curves
Determination of the discharge of a river every time is laborious
and time consuming that’s why it is a common practice to establish a
relationship between the stage and discharge (rating curve) at a
particular station.
The rating curve can be approximated by the formula:
Q = a * (h − ho )
b
where, Q = discharge in m3/s
h = stage reading in m
ho = stage reading at zero flow
a, b = coefficients
Plotting Q against (h-ho) on a double logarithmic paper, produces
a straight line and thus;
Log (Q) = Log (a ) + b * Log (h − ho )
Rating Curves
The rating curve can be approximated by the formula:
Q = a * (h − ho )
b
where, Q = discharge in m3/s
h = stage reading in m
ho = stage reading at zero flow
a, b = coefficients
Plotting Q against (h-ho) on a double logarithmic paper, produces
a straight line and thus;
Log (Q) = Log (a ) + b * Log (h − ho )
Example: Original Data Arranged Data Transformed Data
H Q HARR QARR log(h-ho) log(Q)
1.47 7.65 1.08 3.93 -0.24 0.59
4.67 88.34 1.10 5.48 -0.22 0.74
3.35 35.60 1.20 4.85 -0.15 0.69
2.77 27.45 1.22 5.34 -0.14 0.73
2.43 23.54 1.28 6.62 -0.11 0.82
2.28 26.92 1.33 7.23 -0.08 0.86
3.16 37.28 1.37 8.18 -0.06 0.91
2.49 26.30 1.40 6.54 -0.05 0.82
1.69 10.87 1.43 8.38 -0.03 0.92
1.64 12.51 1.44 8.70 -0.03 0.94
1.44 8.70 1.47 7.65 -0.01 0.88
1.43 8.38 1.64 12.51 0.06 1.10
1.67 12.34 1.67 12.34 0.07 1.09
1.37 8.18 1.69 10.87 0.08 1.04
1.77 14.86 1.77 14.86 0.10 1.17
1.79 15.88 1.79 15.88 0.11 1.20
1.40 6.54 2.28 26.92 0.25 1.43
1.28 6.62 2.43 23.54 0.29 1.37
1.33 7.23 2.49 26.30 0.30 1.42
1.22 5.34 2.77 27.45 0.36 1.44
1.20 4.85 3.16 37.28 0.42 1.57
1.08 3.93 3.35 35.60 0.45 1.55
1.10 5.48 4.67 88.34 0.62 1.95
Note: ho = 0.5
Linear Regression:
Discharge Measurements
2.5
y = 1.4742x + 0.9698
2.0
1.5
Log (Q)
1.0 Q Data Points
Linear Reg Line
0.5
0.0
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Log (h-ho)
