Class 12 (Biology)

Chapter 6 - EVOLUTION

Introduction

The word "evolution" refers to the gradual process by which living organisms have changed and
developed over millions of years.

6.1 Origin of Life

To understand evolution, we must first understand how life began. Scientists believe that life started
on Earth nearly 4 billion years ago.

Early Earth Conditions: About 4.5 billion years ago, Earth was a hot, molten ball. There was no
oxygen in the atmosphere. Instead, gases like methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), water vapour (H2O),
and carbon dioxide (CO2) were present. The surface was constantly struck by lightning and UV
radiation. Slowly, the Earth cooled, and water vapour condensed to form oceans. Life is believed to
have originated in these early oceans.

Theories About the Origin of Life:

1. Spontaneous Generation Theory: This old theory suggested that life came from non-living
things like mud or straw. But Louis Pasteur disproved it with his experiments, showing that
life always comes from pre-existing life.

2. Panspermia Theory: This theory suggests that life came from outer space in the form of
spores or seeds, which reached Earth via meteorites.

3. Chemical Evolution (Accepted Theory): This theory was proposed by scientists Oparin
(Russia) and Haldane (England). They believed that life began from non-living organic
molecules like proteins, RNA, and sugars. These molecules formed under the conditions of
early Earth, with the help of lightning and UV rays.

Miller-Urey Experiment (1953): To test the chemical evolution theory, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey
created an experiment. They took gases found in early Earth (CH4, NH3, H2, H2O) and passed
electrical sparks through them. After a week, they found amino acids (building blocks of life) in the
solution. This experiment showed that life could begin from non-living chemicals.

Conclusion: Life likely began from simple organic molecules, which over time, formed complex
molecules and eventually, the first living cells.
6.2 Evolution of Life Forms - A Theory

In earlier times, people believed in the Theory of Special Creation which said:

• All living beings were created by God.

• They have remained the same since creation.

• Earth is only a few thousand years old.

However, this theory was challenged by Charles Darwin, who observed nature during his journey on
the ship HMS Beagle.

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection: Darwin noticed that:

• Organisms have slight differences (variations).

• Some variations help organisms survive better.

• Those better adapted reproduce more.

• Over time, helpful traits become common, and harmful traits disappear.

This process is called Natural Selection. It means nature selects the fittest organisms to survive and
reproduce.

Alfred Wallace, working independently, came to similar conclusions as Darwin.

Thus, Darwin concluded that new life forms evolve gradually from earlier forms through natural
selection.

6.3 Evidences for Evolution

Scientists have gathered many types of evidence that support evolution:

1. Fossils (Paleontological Evidence): Fossils are the remains of ancient organisms found in rocks. By
studying fossils in different layers of rock, scientists can trace how organisms have changed over
time. For example, dinosaurs existed millions of years ago but are now extinct.

2. Embryological Evidence

Early embryos of different vertebrates (like fish, reptiles, birds, and humans) look very similar.
According to this development of an embryo (ontogeny) repeats the evolutionary history (phylogeny)
of the species i.e. Ontogeny repeats phylogeny. This suggests that these organisms may have
evolved from a common ancestor. However, this idea was later rejected by Karl Ernst von Baer

3. Comparative Anatomy

This involves comparing the body structures of different organisms.

• Homologous organs have the same basic structure but different functions. For example, the
forelimbs of humans, whales, bats, and cats look different on the outside but have similar
bone arrangements inside. This suggests that they all share a common ancestor. This is
known as divergent evolution.
 • Analogous organs perform the same function but have different structures. For example, the
wings of a bat and an insect help in flying but are built differently. This is called convergent
evolution and does not indicate a common ancestor.

4. Molecular Evidence (Biochemistry): All living organisms have similar DNA and proteins, which
shows they may have evolved from a common ancestor.

5. Artificial Selection: Humans have bred dogs, cows, and plants with desirable traits. This shows
that traits can change over time through selection, similar to natural selection but controlled by
humans.

6. Industrial Melanism (Natural Selection in Action)

In England, before industrialization, light-coloured moths (Biston betularia typica) were common
because they were camouflaged against lichen-covered trees. After industrialization pollution killed
lichen and trees became dark coloured. Now dark-coloured moths (Biston betularia carbonaria) were
better camouflaged and had higher survival rates. Over time, the dark variety became more
common, while the light ones declined. This is a real-time example that clearly shows how natural
selection works.

6.4 Adaptive Radiation

Examples:

• Darwin’s Finches: One of the best-known examples of adaptive radiation comes from
Charles Darwin’s observations of finches on the Galápagos Islands. When Darwin visited
these islands, he noticed that each island had finches with differently shaped beaks. Some
had long, slender beaks for catching insects, others had short, strong beaks for cracking
seeds. Despite these differences, all the finches were closely related and believed to have
descended from a common ancestor that originally arrived from mainland South America.
Over time, as the birds adapted to different food sources and island conditions, new species
evolved.

• Australian Marsupials: From one ancestor, many marsupials (like kangaroos, koalas) evolved
to fill different habitats.

• Placental mammals also show similar radiation in other parts of the world. This is an example
of convergent evolution.

6.5 Biological Evolution

• Biological evolution refers to the gradual changes in living organisms over generations,
leading to the development of new species.

The most accepted explanation for biological evolution is Darwin’s theory of natural
selection.

• Variation exists in all populations. These differences may be in colour, speed, size, resistance
to disease, etc.

• Some variations are beneficial to organisms in survival and reproduction.

• Organisms with such traits survive better, reproduce more, and pass on those traits to their
offspring.

• Over many generations, these useful variations become more common in the population.

• This process is known as natural selection or survival of the fittest.

• The term “fittest” means those best suited to the environment, not necessarily the
strongest.

• If natural selection continues for a long time, it may lead to the formation of a new species.

Evolution is usually slow and gradual, but in some organisms like bacteria, it can happen quickly due
to fast reproduction. For example: Bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics is a modern example of
fast evolution.

6.6 Mechanism of Evolution

There are different ways by which evolution happens:

1. Mutation: Sudden changes in DNA. Can create new traits.

3. Genetic Drift: Random changes in gene frequencies. Happens more in small populations.

4. Gene Flow (Migration): Movement of genes from one population to another.

5. Natural Selection: Survival of the fittest.

Hugo de Vries said that evolution occurs due to sudden mutations (called saltation), not slow
changes.

6.7 Hardy-Weinberg Principle

The Hardy-Weinberg Principle states that allele frequencies in a large population remain constant
from generation to generation, if no external forces act on the population.

This principle shows the ideal situation in which no evolution is happening.

In a stable and non-evolving population, the frequency of alleles (gene variants) remains
unchanged over time.This is called genetic equilibrium.

The principle is expressed using this formula:

p² + 2pq + q² = 1

Where:

• p = frequency of the dominant allele (A)

• q = frequency of the recessive allele (a)

• So,

o p² = frequency of AA (homozygous dominant)

o 2pq = frequency of Aa (heterozygous)

o q² = frequency of aa (homozygous recessive)

Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

For the principle to apply, the following conditions must be met:

• No mutation

• No migration (no gene flow)

• No genetic drift (large population)

• No natural selection

• Random mating (no selection of mates)

If all these conditions are met, the population is not evolving.

What if Conditions are Not Met?

6.8 A Brief Account of Evolution

Over billions of years, life on Earth has changed from simple forms to the complex diversity.
Scientists have created a timeline of major evolutionary events based on fossil records and geological
studies.

Timeline of Major Events in Evolution

• 4.5 billion years ago (bya) – Earth was formed.

• 4 billion years ago: First life forms (non-cellular)

• 3.5 bya: First cellular life (prokaryotes like bacteria) appeared.

• 500 million years ago (mya) – Invertebrates (animals without backbone) appeared.

• 350 mya – Jawless fish and later jawed fish evolved.

• 320 mya – Land plants began to spread on Earth.

• 350–300 mya – Amphibians evolved from fish (they could live both on land and in water).

• 250–65 mya – Age of reptiles, especially dinosaurs.

• 65 mya – Dinosaurs became extinct, possibly due to a large asteroid impact.

• After dinosaur extinction – Mammals and birds evolved and spread rapidly.

This timeline helps us understand how life began with simple molecules and slowly evolved into the
complex organisms we see today.

6.9 Origin and Evolution of Man

Humans evolved from primates. Important stages:

• Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus: 15 million years ago. (Dryopithecus was more ape-like and

Ramapithecus was more man-like)

• Australopithecus: 2-4 million years ago in East Africa. Walked upright and ate fruits/seeds.

• Homo habilis: 2 million years ago. brain size 650–800 cc; used tools.

• Homo erectus: 1.5 million years ago. brain 900 cc; stood erect; likely used fire.

• Neanderthals: 1,00,000 to 40,000 years ago. brain 1400 cc; used hides to protect body,
buried dead.

• Homo sapiens: Appeared 75,000 years ago. appeared in Africa, migrated globally, Developed
language, culture, agriculture.
Cave paintings (like those at Bhimbetka in MP) show early human life (18000 years ago). Agriculture
started 10,000 years ago.