UNIT - I

Syllabus:
Ordinary differential Equations of first order and first degree

Definition, Order and Degree of DE, Formation of DE, Solutions of Vari-

able Separable DE, Exact DE, Linear DE and reducible to these types.

1 Introduction to Differential Equation

A differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates a function
with its derivatives. Differential Equations come into play in a variety of
applications such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Economics, etc. Differential
equations allow us to predict the future behavior of systems by capturing the
rate of change of a quantity and how it depends on other variables.
In applications, the functions usually represent physical quantities, the
derivatives represent their rates of change, and the equation defines a rela-
tionship between the two. Let’s formally define what is a differential equa-
tion.

1.1 What is a Differential Equation?

Differential equation is an equation in which differential coefficients occur.
It expresses the relationship between the function and its rate of change.

A differential equation is an equation involving the derivatives of the de-

pendent variable concerning the independent variable.

For example let x denote time and y denote plant growth then plant growth
depends on time
i.e. y = f (x) is growth function.
dy
Rate of change of y with respect to x ⇒ dx (derivatives)
Example
dy
= 3x + 2
dx

1
 d2 y dy
+ 5 + 6y = 0
dx2 dx

1.2 Order of a Differential Equation

The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative (order of differ-
entiation) present in the equation.

Examples:
1.2.1 First-Order Differential Equation
dy
+y =x
dx
dy
The highest derivative is dx
, so the order is 1.

1.2.2 Second-Order Differential Equation

d2 y dy
2
+ 5 + 6y = 0
dx dx
d2 y
The highest derivative is dx2
, so the order is 2.

1.2.3 Third-Order Differential Equation

d3 y d2 y dy
3
+ 4 2
− 2 + y = ex
dx dx dx
d3 y
The highest derivative is dx3
, so the order is 3.

ˆ The order tells us the complexity of the differential equation.

ˆ Higher-order differential equations require more initial/boundary con-

ditions to solve.

1.3 Degree of a Differential Equation

The degree of a differential equation is the power (exponent) of the
highest-order derivative after making the equation free from fractions and
radicals.

2
1.3.1 Steps to Find the Degree:
1. Identify the highest order derivative in the equation.
2. Ensure the equation is polynomial in all derivatives (remove square roots
or fractional powers).
3. The exponent (power) of the highest-order derivative is the degree of the
differential equation.

Examples:
1.3.2 First-Order, First-Degree Differential Equation
dy
+y =x
dx
dy
The highest-order derivative is dx
, and its power is 1. Thus, the degree is 1.

1.3.3 Second-Order, Third-Degree Differential Equation

 2 3
dy dy
2
+ 5 + 6y = 0
dx dx
d2 y
The highest-order derivative is dx2
, and its exponent is 3. Thus, the degree
is 3.

1.3.4 Equation with a Radical (Non-Polynomial Form)

r
d2 y dy
+ =x
dx2 dx
The highest-order derivative is under a square root, which is not in poly-
nomial form. To determine the degree, we must eliminate the radical by
squaring both sides:  2   2
dy dy
2
+ = x2
dx dx
d2 y
Now, the highest power of dx2
is 1. Thus, the degree is 1.

ˆ Degree is only defined when the equation is a polynomial in derivatives.

ˆ If derivatives appear with fractional powers or inside functions like sin,

cos, exp, the degree is not defined.

3
2 Linear Differential Equation
A linear differential equation is a differential equation in which:

ˆ The dependent variable (y) and its derivatives appear only to the
first power.

ˆ There are no products or nonlinear functions (e.g., sin y, ey , y 2 ) of

y or its derivatives.

ˆ The equation follows a standard form.

2.1 General Form of a Linear Differential Equation

1. First-Order Linear Differential Equation
dy
+ P (x)y = Q(x)
dx
where P (x) and Q(x) are functions of x.
2. Higher-Order Linear Differential Equation

dn y dn−1 y dy
an (x) n
+ a n−1 (x) n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = R(x)
dx dx dx
where an (x), an−1 (x), . . . , a0 (x) are functions of x, and R(x) is the non-
homogeneous term.

Examples of Linear Differential Equations

1. First-Order Linear Differential Equation
dy
+ 2y = x2
dx
dy
This is linear because y and dx appear with power 1 and are not multiplied
together.
2. Second-Order Linear Differential Equation

d2 y dy
2
− 3 + 2y = ex
dx dx
This is linear because the highest-order derivative appears in a polynomial
form.

4
 Non-Linear Differential Equation (for contrast)
 2
dy
+y =x
dx
dy 2


This is non-linear because dx has an exponent greater than 1.

Types of Linear Differential Equations

2.1.1 Homogeneous: If R(x) = 0, the equation is called homoge-
neous.
2.1.2 Non-Homogeneous: If R(x) 6= 0, it is non-homogeneous.

2.2 Solution of Differential Equations

Any relation between the depedent and indepedent variables (no derivative
terms) which satisfies the Differential Equations is called solution or integral
of Differential Equations.

A
+ B is the solution of y 00 + 2
y0 = 0


Verify y = x x
Solution

A
Given y = x
+B

Differentaite

with respect to x
0 1
y = − x2

Again differentaite with respect to x

y 00 = 2A
x3
 
2
00
R · HS = y + y0
x
    
2A 2 −A
= −
x3 x x2
=0
A
⇒y= x
+ B is the solution of give nDifferential Equations.

2.3 Family Curve

A n-parameter family of curves is set of set of relations of the curve.
{(x, y) : f (x, y, c1 c2 c3 . . . cn )} = 0

5
Example.
1) Set of concentric circles: x2 + y 2 = c one parameter family if c takes non-
negative real values
2) Set of circles (x − c1 )2 + (y − c2 )2 = c3
Three parameter family it c1 , c2 takes all real values and c3 takes all non-
negative real values

2.4 Formation of Differential Equations

The formation of a differential equation involves eliminating arbitrary con-
stants from a given function to derive an equation involving derivatives.
Steps to Form a Differential Equation:

ˆ Given a function involving arbitrary constants, differentiate it succes-

sively as many times as there are constants.

ˆ Eliminate the arbitrary constants using these derivatives.

ˆ The resulting equation will be a differential equation.

2.4.1 Example: Formation of Differential Equations

xy = aex + bc−x + x2 where a and b are arbitrary constants.

Solution:

We are given the function:

xy = aex + be−x + x2

Step 1: Differentiate Both Sides w.r.t. x

Using the product rule on xy, we get:
dy
x + y = aex − be−x + 2x
dx

Step 2: Differentiate Again

d2 y dy
x 2
+2 = aex + be−x + 2
dx dx

6
Step 3: Eliminate the Constants a and b
From the given function:
aex + be−x = xy − x2
From the first derivative:
dy
aex − be−x = x + y − 2x
dx
From the second derivative:
d2 y dy
aex + be−x = x 2
+2 −2
dx dx
Since both expressions for aex + be−x must be equal:
d2 y dy
xy − x2 = x 2
+2 −2
dx dx
Thus, the required differential equation for given family of curve is:
d2 y dy
x 2
+ 2 = xy − x2 + 2
dx dx

2.5 General and particular solution

Let the nth order ordinary differential equation (ODE) be given as:
F x, y, y 0 , y 00 , . . . , y (n) = 0

where y (n) represents the nth derivative of y with respect to x.

2.5.1 General Solution

The general solution of a differential equation is the most general form of
the solution that contains n arbitrary constants. It represents a family of
curves that satisfy the given differential equation.

Example: Consider the second-order differential equation:

d2 y dy
2
− 3 + 2y = 0
dx dx
Its general solution is:
y = C1 e2x + C2 ex
where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants.

7
2.5.2 Particular Solution
A particular solution is obtained from the general solution by assigning
specific values to the arbitrary constants based on given initial or boundary
conditions.

Example: Given the general solution:

y = C1 e2x + C2 ex

If we have the initial conditions y(0) = 4 and y 0 (0) = 1, solving for C1 and
C2 gives unique values, leading to a particular solution.

Key Differences Between General and Particular Solu-

tions

General Solution Particular Solution

Contains arbitrary constants Contains specific values for constants
Represents a family of solutions Represents a single solution
Derived from solving the ODE Derived using initial or boundary conditions

2.6 Explicit and Implicit Solution of a Differential Equa-

tion
A solution of a differential equation is a function that satisfies the equation
when substituted into it. Solutions can be classified as explicit or implicit
based on how the dependent variable (y) is expressed.

2.6.1 Explicit Solution

A solution is explicit if the dependent variable y is expressed explicitly in
terms of the independent variable x and constants.

General Form:
y = f (x, C)
where C is an arbitrary constant.

8
Example: Consider the differential equation:
dy
= 3x2
dx
Solving by integration:
Z
y= 3x2 dx = x3 + C

Here, y = x3 + C is the explicit solution because y is expressed directly in

terms of x.

2.6.2 Implicit Solution

A solution is implicit if it is given in a form where the dependent variable
y is not isolated explicitly. Instead, y and x appear together in an equation
that defines y implicitly.

General Form:
F (x, y, C) = 0
where C is an arbitrary constant.

Example: Consider the differential equation:

dy x
=
dx y
Solving by separation of variables:

ydy = xdx

Integrating both sides:

y2 x2
= +C
2 2
Rearranging:
x2 − y 2 = 2C
This is an implicit solution because y is not explicitly solved in terms of
x.

9
2.6.3 Key Differences Between Explicit and Implicit Solutions

Explicit Solution Implicit Solution

y is explicitly written as a function of x. x and y appear together in an equation.
Example: y = x3 + C Example: x2 − y 2 = 2C
Easier to interpret and differentiate. May need further algebraic manipulation for y.

2.7 Variable seperable Form(V.S form)

A variable separable differential equation is a type of differential equa-
tion that can be written in the form:
dy
= f (x)g(y)
dx
where the terms involving x and y can be separated into different sides
of the equation.
Rewriting,
dy
= f (x)dx
g(y)
Now, integrating both sides:
Z Z
dy
= f (x)dx
g(y)
This allows us to solve for y explicitly or implicitly, depending on the
functions involved.

Example: A variable separable differential equation is given by:

dy
= e(x−2y) + x2 e−2y
dx
Rewriting,
dy
= ex e−2y + x2 e−2y
dx
Factoring,
dy
= e−2y (ex + x2 )
dx
10
 Separating variables,
dy
−2y
= (ex + x2 )dx
e

e2y dy = (ex + x2 )dx

Integrating both sides,
Z Z
2y
e dy = (ex + x2 )dx

Solving,

e2y x3
= ex + +C
2 3
2
e2y = 2ex + x3 + C
3

2.7.1 Equation Reducible to seperation of variables

An equation is reducible to the separable form if it can be transformed into
a separable differential equation by a suitable substitution.

Consider :
dy
= f (ax + by + c)
dx
or (1)
dy
= f (xa + by)
dx

11
substitute ax + by + c = v or ax + by = v.
dy dv
⇒a+b =
dx dx
 
dy dx 1
= −a
dx dx b


dv 1
Equation1 ⇒ −a = f (v)
dx b

dv
= bf (v) + a
dx
⇒
Z Z
dv
= dx
b · f (v) + a

Example 1
dy
= sec(x + y) (2)
dx
dy dv
Let x + y = v ⇒ dx
= dx
−1

dv
then equation 2 becomes ⇒ dx − 1 = sec v
 
dv 1
= sec v + 1 ∵ sec v =
dx cos v
2 v


1 + cos v 2 cos 2 2


= = ∵ 2 cos θ − 1 = cos 2θ
2 cos2 v2 − 1


cos x

12
dv 2 cos2 v2
=
dx 2 cos2 v2 − 1

 
1
1− v dv = dx
2 cos2 2

 v 1
1 − sec2 dv = dx
2 2
Z   Z
1 2 v
1 − sec dv = dx
2 2

v 
v − tan =x+c
2

Substituting v = x + y,

 
x+y
y − tan = 0.
2

13
 Example 2
1 + x2 dy = 1 + y 2 dx

dy dx
=
1 + y2 1 + x2

Integrating wrt x
tan−1 y = tan−1 x + c

tan−1 y = tan−1 x + tan−1 c

tan−1 y − tan−1 x = tan−1 c

 
−1 y−x
tan = tan−1 c
1 + yx

y−x
=c
1 + yx

y − x = (1 + yx)c.

14
 Example 3
(ey + 1) cos xdx + ey sin xdy = 0

cos x ey
dx + y dy = 0
sin x e +1

ey
Z Z
cos x
· dx = − · dy
sin x ey + 1

log(sin x) + log (ey + 1) = log C

sin x (ey + 1) = c.

2.8 Homogenuous Equations

A Differential equation.of 1st order and 1st degree is said to be homogenous.
If it is of the form or can be put in the form:
dy y
=f (3)
dx x
Put xy = v ⇒ y = xv
dy dv
Equation 3 implies dx = v + x dx

dv
v+x = f (v) (seperable form)
Z dx Z
dv dx
=
f (v) − v x

15
2.8.1 Example
(x3 + 3xy 2 ) dx + (y 3 + 3x2 y) dy = 0 where x > 0

Solution

2
dy (x3 + 3xy 2 ) 1 + 3 xy
=− 3 = − y 3
dx (y + 3x2 y) y



x
+3 x
Substitute
y dy dv
=v⇒ = vx + x
x dx dx
dv 1 + 3v 2
v+x = 3
dx x + 3v
dv 1 + 3v 2
v+x =− 3
dx v + 3v

dv −1 − 3v 2 − v 4 − 3v 2
x =
dx v 3 + 3v

dv −1 − v 4 − 6v 2
x· =
dx v 3 + 3v

v 3 + 3v dx
− 4 2
dv =
1 + v + 6v x

4 (v 3 + 3v)
Z Z
dx
− dv = ·4
1 + v 4 + 6v 2 x

− log v 4 + 6v 2 + 1 = 4 log x + log c

= x4 + log c
= log cx4

log v 4 + 6v 2 + 1 + log cx4 = 0

16
 Taking exponential,

v 4 + 6x2 + 1 · Cx4 = 1

  
4y 4  y 2
cx +6 +1 =1
x x

c [y 4 + 6x2 y 2 + x4 ] = 1 is the solution of given DE.

2.9 Equation Reducible to Homogenous Form

Consider the non-homogenous equation
dy a1 x + b 1 y + c 1
= (4)
dx a2 x + b 2 y + c 2

a1 b1 a1 b 1
(CASE I) If a2
6= b2
ie. 6= 0 then
a2 b 2

x = x1 + h y = y1 + h (5)
Reduces the non-homogenious equation to homogenious equation 4 to be
dy1 a1 x 1 + b 1 y 1
= (6)
dx1 a2 x 2 + b 2 y 2
Here unknowns constant h, k in in equation 5 are determined by solving
the pairs of equation.
a1 h + b 1 k + c 1 = 0
a2 h + b 2 k + c 2 = 0
Now equation 6 is homogenous in the new variables x1 , y1 can be solved as
homogenous equation.

a1 a1 b 1
b1
(CASE II) If a2
= b2
ie = 0 then the transformation z = a1 x+b1 y
a2 b 2
equation 4 reduces to seperable equation in the variables x and z which can
be s as homogenous equation.

17
2.9.1 Example
Reducible to homogeneous form
dy x + 2y − 3
=
dx 2x + y − 3
solution :- let x = x + h, and y = y + k

dy dy dy (x + h) + 2(y + k) − 3
dx = dx and dy = dy ⇒ = . =
dx dx dx 2x + 2h + y − k − 3

dy x + 2y(h + 2k − 3)
⇒ = (7)
dx 2x + y(2h − k − 3)

Solving (h + 2k − 3) and (2h-k-3)

⇒ 3k − 3 = 0
⇒k=1
⇒h=1
dy x + 2y
Equation 7 ⇒ =
dx 2x + y

dy dv
let y = vx ⇒ =v+x·
dx dx

18
 dv x + 2vx
v+x =
dx 2x + vx

dv 1 + 2v dv 1 + 2v
v+x = ⇒x = −v
dx 2+v dx 2+v

dv 1 + 2v − 2v − v 2 dv 1 − v2
x = ⇒x =
dx 2+v dx 2+v
Z Z
2+v dx
dv =
1 − v2 x

Z Z Z Z Z
1+1+v dx 1 1+v dx
dv = ⇒ dv + dv =
1 − v2 x 1 − v2 1 − v2 x

  Z Z
1 1+v 1 dx
log + dv =
2(1) 1−v 1−v x

 
1 1+v log(1 − v)
log + = log x + log C
2 1−v −1

 
1+v
log − 2 log(1 − v) = 2(log x + log c)
1−v

 y 
1+ x
 y
log y − 2 log 1 − = 2(log x + log c)
1− x
x

   
x+y x−y
log − 2 log = 2 log +2 log c
x−y x

 
x+y
log − 2 log(x − y) − 2 log x = 2 log x + 2 log c.
x−4

 
x+4
log = log c2
(x − y)2

x+4
= c2 19
(x − y)3
 x=X +h⇒x=X +1
⇒X =x−1
y =Y +k
⇒y =Y +1
⇒Y =y−1
x−1+y−1
=k
(x − 1 − y + 1)3
x+y−2
=k
(x − y)3
x + y − 2 = k(x − y)3 is the required solution.

2.10 Linear Differential Equations

Format I
dy
+ Py = Q
dx
( P & Q are constants) or function of x

Steps
dy
(1) Make coefficient of dx =1R
(2) Integrating Factor(IF) = e p·dx
(3) solution
R of given differential equation is
y · IF = (Q · IF )dx

Example (1)
dy
(1 + x2 ) dx + 2xy − 4x2 = 0

Solution

dy
1 + x2 + 2xy = 4x2
dx
dy 2x 4x2
+ y =
dx 1 + x2 1 + x2

20
Above equation is in the form of L.D.E
R
P ·dx
Calculating, IF = e
2x
R
·dx
=e 1+x2

= elog(1+x )
2

= 1 + x2
solution of given L.D.E.

4x2
Z  
y · IF = · IF · dx
1 + x2
4x2
Z
2 2



y 1+x = · 1 + x · dx
1 + x2
Z
y 1 + x2 = 4x2 · dx

x3
y 1 + x2 = 4 + c


3
Format II
dx
+ Px = Q
dy
( P & Q are constants) or function of y

Steps
(1) Make coefficient of dx
dy
=1
R
(2) Integrating Factor(IF) = e p·dy
(3) solution
R of given differential equation is
x · IF = (Q · IF )dy

 
2 − tan−1 y dy
Example (1 + y ) + x − e dx
=0

Solution

21
  −1
 dy
1 + y 2 = − x − e− tan y


dx
dx  −1

1 + y2 + x − e− tan y = 0


dy
−1
dx x e− tan y
+ =
dy 1 + y 2 1 + y2
−1
1 e− tan y
P = Q=
1 + y2 1 + y2
Calculating IF
Z Z
1 −1
pdy dy
IF = e = e 1+y2 = etan y

The solution required L.D.E. is below

Z
x · IF = IF · Q dy + C
Z − tan−1 y
tan−1 y −1 e
xe = etan y dy
1 + y2
Z
1
= dy
1 + y2

−1
xetan y
= tan−1 y + C

2.11 Reducible Into Linear Form

dy
An Equation of the form f 0 (y) dx + pf (y) = Q
where P and Q are function of x alone or constant.

Steps:
dy
Step 1) putting f (y) = v so that f 0 (y) dx dv
= dx
dv
Step 2) D.E become dx + P v = Q which is linear diff.eqn.

22
Example
dy
+ x sin 2y = x3 cos2 y
dx

1 dy sin 2y
+ x = x3
cos2 y dx cos2 y

1 dy 2x sin y cos y
2
+ 2
= x3
cos y dx cos y

dy
sec2 y + 2x tan y = x3
dx

dy dv
Let v = tan y ⇒ sec2 y =
dx dx

dv
+ 2vx = x3
dx

P = 2x Q = x3 ,

2
R
2x·dx
IF = e = ex ·

Z
v · IF = IF · Qdx + C

Z
x2 2
tan y · e = ex x2 · xdx + C

Substitute
x2 = p ⇒ 2x.dx = dp

Z
x2 dp
tan y · e = ep p · +C
2

2 1 p
tan y · ex = [pe − ep ] + C
2

23
 2 2 2
2 tan y · ex = x2 ex − ex + c is the required solution.

2.12 Exact Differential Equation

∂M ∂M
The differential equation M dx + N dy = 0 to be exact iff ∂y
= ∂x
.

The solution of exact differential equation M · dx + M dy = 0 is

R R
M dx + (terms of N not containing x) dy = C

Example
dy 4 cos x + sin y + y
+ =0
dx sin x + x cos y + x

(y cos x + sin y + y)dx + (sin x + x cos y + x) · dy = 0

M = y cos x + sin y + y N = sin x + x cos y + x

∂M ∂N
= cos x + cos y + 1 = 8 cos x + cos y + 1
∂y ∂x

∂M ∂N
⇒ =
∂y ∂x
The given differential equation is exact. The solution is given by,
Z Z
(y cos x + sin y + y)dx + 0dy = c

y sin x + x sin y · xy = c

24
Example
 
x/y

x/y x
1+e dx + e 1− dy = 0
y
   
x/y x x/4
x/y x/y x
M =1+e , and N =e 1+ =e −e ·
y y
   
∂M −x ∂N −x
= ex/y , = e x/y
∂y y2 ∂x y2
⇒ ∂M
∂y
= ∂N
∂x
⇒ The given equation n (1) is exact Differential equation.
The solution is given by,
Z Z
x/y


1+e dx + 0 · dy = c

ex/4
x+ = c ⇒ x + yex/y = c
1/y

2.13 Reducible To Exact Differential equation

Integrating Factor(IF): - A Differential equation which is not exat can be
made by multiplication of a facter called IF.

2.13.1 IF of a Homogenious Equation

1
IF of homogenious equation is M x+N y
when M x + N y 6= 0
Then, I.F (M dx + N dy) = 0 will be exact D.E.
Example

Find the IF of (x2 y − 2xy 2 ) dx − (x3 − 3x2 y) dy = 0, solve it.

Solution

M = x2 y − 2xy 2 N = − x3 − 3x2 y

∂M ∂N
= x2 − 4xy = − 3x2 − 6xy


and
∂y ∂x

1 1
IF = = 3
Mx + Ny yx − 2x2 y 2 − x3 y + 3x2 y 2
1 1
= 2 2 2
= 2 2
3x y − 2x y xy

25
 1  2 2

3 2


x y − 2xy dx − x − 3x y dy = 0
x2 y 2
   
1 2 x 3
− dx − 2
− · dy = 0 equation1.
y x y y
   
0 1 2 0 x 3
M = − ,N = − −
y x y2 y
∂M 0 1 ∂N 0 1
=− 2 , =− 2
∂y y ∂x y
equation 1 is exact Differential Differential equation.
The solution of equation 1 is given by
Z  
−3
Z
1 2
− dx − dy = c
y x y
x
− 2 log x − 3 log y = c
y

2.13.2 IF for an eqution is of type f1 (xy)ydx + f2 (xy)xdy = 0

1
IF = M x−N y
when M x − M y 6= 0 then IF (M dx + M dy) = 0 will be exact
DE.

Example
(1 + xy)ydx + (1 − xy)xdy = 0

Solution

M = y + xy 2 N = x − x2 y

∂M ∂N
∂y
= 1 + 2y ∂x
= 1 − 2xy

26
 M x − N y = xy + x2 y 2 − xy + x2 y 2 = 2x2 y 2
1 1
IF = = 2 2
Mx − Ny 2x y

1  2


1 + x ydx + (1 − xy)xdy = 0
2x2 y 2
1 
y + xy 2 dx + x − x2 y dy = 0



2
2x y 2
   
1 1 1 1
+ dx + − dy = 0
x2 y x xy 2 y

1 1 1 1
M0 = + , N0 = −
x2 y x xy 2 y

∂M 0 −1 ∂N 0 −1 ∂M 0 ∂N 0
= 2 2, = 2 2 ⇒ =
∂y xy ∂x xy ∂y ∂x

Z   Z  
1 1 −1
− dx + dy = C
x2 y x y

−1
− log x − log y = C
xy

2.13.3 In the equation M · dx + N · dy = 0

  R
If N1 ∂M
∂y
− ∂N
∂x
be a function of x only say f (x) . Then e f (y)·dy
is an inte-
grating
 factor of M dx + N dy = 0.
If M1 ∂N
∂x
− ∂M
∂y
≡ function of f (y) Then
R
f (y)·dy
IF = e

#NOTE Lesser the term ⇒ taxing that term in denominator.

Example
(x2 + y 2 + x) dx + xydy = 0

27
Solution

M = x2 + y 2 + x, N = xy
∂M ∂N
= 2y, =y
∂y ∂x
 
1 ∂M ∂N 1 1
− = (2y − y) =
N ∂y ∂x xy x
1
R
IF = e x dx = elog x = x
x x2 + y 2 + x dx + xydy = 0



x3 + xy 2 + x2 dx + x2 ydy = 0

∂M 0 ∂N 0
= 2xy = 2xy
∂y ∂x
Z Z
3 2 2


x + xy + x dx + 0 · dy = C
x4 x2 y 2 x3
+ + =C
4 2 3

2.13.4 Integrating factor for the equation of the type xa y b (mydx +

0 0
nxdy) + xa by b (m0 ydxa0 + n0 xdy) = 0

Then IF = xh y k
0 b0 +k+1
where a+h+1
m
= b+k+1
n
, a +h+1
m0
= n0

Example
(2ydx + 3xdy) + 2xy(3ydx + 4xdy) = 0

Solution

x0 y 0 (2ydx + 3xdy) + xy(6ydx + 8xdy) = 0

a = 0, b = 0 a0 = 1, b0 = 1
m = 2, n = 3 m 0 = 6 n0 = 8
IF = xh y k for this

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 h+a+1 k+b+1 h+a0 +1 k+b0 +1
m
= n m0
= n0

h+0+1 k+0+1 h+1+1 k+1+1

2
= 3 6
= 8

h+2 k+2
3 (h + 1) = (k + 1)2. 6
= 8

3h + 3 = 2k + 2 4h + 8 = 3k + 6
3h − 2k = −1 4h − 3k = −2
Solving both equations

9h − 6k = −3
−8h − 6k = −4
h=1

h = 1 given k = 2

IF = xy 2
xy 2 2y + 6xy 2 dx + 3x + 8x2 y dy = 0




2xy 3 + 6x2 y 4 dx + 3x2 y 2 + 8x3 y 3 dy = 0

Z Z
3 2 4


2xy + 6x y dx + 0 · dy = C

x2 y 3 + 2x3 y 4 = C

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