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FLUOROPOLYMER APPLICATIONS
IN THE CHEMICAL PROCESSING
INDUSTRIES
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Handbook of Thermoset Plastics, 2e, Hanna Dodiuk & Sidney Goodman (ISBN: 9781455731077)
High Performance Polymers, 2e, Johannes Karl Fink (ISBN: 9780323312226)
Introduction to Fluoropolymers, Sina Ebnesajjad (ISBN: 9781455774425)
Ionizing Radiation and Polymers, Jiri G Drobny (ISBN: 9781455778812)
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Plastics in Medical Devices, 2e, Vinny Sastri (ISBN: 9781455732012)
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FLUOROPOLYMER APPLICATIONS
IN THE CHEMICAL PROCESSING
INDUSTRIES
THE DEFINITIVE USER’S GUIDE AND
HANDBOOK

Second Edition

Sina Ebnesajjad
Pradip R. Khaladkar
William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier
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Dedicated to Ghazale and Shaila
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 Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................................................................. xiii

Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................................. xv

1 Introduction to Fluoropolymers ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................1
1.2 What Are Fluoropolymers? ......................................................................................................................1
1.3 Fundamental Properties of Fluoropolymers .............................................................................................3
1.4 Developmental History of Fluoropolymers..............................................................................................3
1.5 Applications of Fluoropolymers...............................................................................................................5
References .................................................................................................................................................6

2 Materials of Construction ............................................................................................................................. 7

2.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................7
2.2 Historical Background ..............................................................................................................................7
2.3 Definition of Polymer-Based Materials....................................................................................................8
2.4 Comparison Between Polymer-Based Materials and Metals...................................................................8
2.4.1 Position of Fluoropolymers in the Materials Spectrum................................................................8
2.5 Applications of Polymer-Based Materials for Corrosion Control .........................................................15
2.5.1 Applications of Fluoropolymers for Corrosion Control .............................................................15
References ...............................................................................................................................................15

3 Properties of Neat (Unfilled) and Filled Fluoropolymers........................................................................ 17

3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................17
3.2 Influence of Processing on Fluoroplastics..............................................................................................18
3.3 Chemical Compatibility of Fluoropolymers ..........................................................................................18
3.3.1 Chemical Compatibility of Perfluoropolymers ........................................................................... 18
3.3.2 Chemical Compatibility of Partially Fluorinated Fluoropolymers ............................................. 24
3.3.3 Chemical Compatibility of Polychlorotrifluoroethylene.............................................................24
3.4 Permeation Fundamentals.......................................................................................................................24
3.4.1 Permeation Measurement ............................................................................................................ 28
3.5 Environmental Stress Cracking ..............................................................................................................29
3.5.1 Environmental Stress Cracking of Fluoropolymers ....................................................................31
3.6 Polytetrafluoroethylene-Filled Compounds............................................................................................31
3.6.1 Granular-Based Compounds........................................................................................................ 32
3.6.2 Fine Powder-Based Compounds.................................................................................................. 34
3.6.3 Compounding With Engineering Polymers................................................................................. 35
3.6.4 Reinforced Gasketing Material.................................................................................................... 35
3.6.5 Co-coagulated Compounds.......................................................................................................... 37
3.6.6 Typical Properties of Filled Fluoropolymers .............................................................................. 37
3.6.7 Properties of Neat (Unfilled) Polytetrafluoroethylene ................................................................ 43

vii
viii C ONTENTS

3.6.8 Standard Measurement Methods for Polytetrafluoroethylene..................................................... 63

3.7 Properties and Characteristics of Melt-Processible Fluoroplastics........................................................63
3.7.1 Mechanical and Dynamic Properties........................................................................................... 63
3.7.2 Thermal Properties of Melt-Processible Fluoropolymers ...........................................................96
3.7.3 Weatherability of Melt-Processible Fluoroplastics ..................................................................... 98
3.7.4 Electrical Properties of Melt-Processible Fluoroplastics .......................................................... 110
3.7.5 Optical and Spectral Properties of Melt-Processible Fluoroplastics ........................................ 113
3.7.6 Radiation Effect on Melt-Processible Fluoroplastics................................................................ 116
3.7.7 Flammability of Melt-Processible Fluoroplastics ..................................................................... 122
3.7.8 Biofilm Formation of Melt-Processible Fluoroplastics............................................................. 122
References .............................................................................................................................................125
Further Reading ....................................................................................................................................128

4 Selecting Fluoropolymers for Corrosion Control................................................................................... 129

4.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................129
4.1.1 Corrosion of Metals ...................................................................................................................129
4.1.2 Corrosion of Polymer Materials ................................................................................................ 129
4.1.3 Approaches to Selection ............................................................................................................ 129
4.2 Economics of Selecting Fluoropolymers .............................................................................................130
4.3 Preparing to Determine Compatibility .................................................................................................130
4.4 Current Technology for Determining Compatibility ...........................................................................130
4.4.1 Experience.................................................................................................................................. 130
4.4.2 Manufacturers’ Literature .......................................................................................................... 130
4.4.3 Testing ........................................................................................................................................ 138
4.4.4 Fabrication Considerations in Materials Selection ................................................................... 177
4.4.5 Inspection and Maintenance Aspects of Materials Selection ................................................... 177
References .............................................................................................................................................183

5 Manufacturing of Parts From Tetrafluoroethylene Homopolymers.................................................... 185

5.1 Granular Resin Processing....................................................................................................................185
5.1.1 Resin Selection ..........................................................................................................................185
5.1.2 Compression Molding................................................................................................................ 185
5.1.3 Automatic Molding.................................................................................................................... 192
5.1.4 Isostatic Molding ....................................................................................................................... 193
5.1.5 Ram Extrusion ...........................................................................................................................198
5.2 Fine Powder Resin Processing .............................................................................................................200
5.2.1 Resin Handling and Storage ...................................................................................................... 200
5.2.2 Paste Extrusion Fundamentals................................................................................................... 201
5.2.3 Extrusion Aid or Lubricant........................................................................................................ 202
5.2.4 Wire Coating.............................................................................................................................. 203
5.2.5 Extrusion of Tubing ...................................................................................................................205
5.2.6 Pressure Hoses ...........................................................................................................................205
5.2.7 Unsintered Tape .........................................................................................................................211
5.3 Fluoropolymer Dispersion Processing..................................................................................................212
5.3.1 Dispersion Applications............................................................................................................. 212
5.3.2 Storage and Handling of Dispersions........................................................................................213
5.3.3 Dispersion Formulation and Characteristics .............................................................................213
5.3.4 Glass Cloth Coating by Dispersion ...........................................................................................215
C ONTENTS ix

5.3.5 Dispersion Impregnation of Flax and Polyaramide ..................................................................217

5.3.6 Coating Metal and Hard Surfaces With Dispersion..................................................................217
References .............................................................................................................................................217
Further Reading ....................................................................................................................................218

6 Manufacturing Parts From Melt-Processible Fluoropolymers ............................................................ 219

6.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................219
6.2 Materials of Construction ...................................................................................................................219
6.3 Rheology of Fluoropolymer Melts .....................................................................................................219
6.3.1 Characterization of Rheology of Fluoropolymers...................................................................220
6.4 Thermal Stability of Fluoropolymers .................................................................................................225
6.5 Melt Extrusion ....................................................................................................................................226
6.5.1 The Extruder ............................................................................................................................227
6.5.2 Film Extrusion .........................................................................................................................229
6.5.3 Sheet Extrusion ........................................................................................................................229
6.5.4 Pipe and Tube Extrusion..........................................................................................................230
6.5.5 Coextrusion .............................................................................................................................. 231
6.5.6 Drawdown Ratio ......................................................................................................................232
6.6 Fluoropolymer Tube Extrusion...........................................................................................................233
6.6.1 Sizing of Tubes ........................................................................................................................233
6.6.2 Heat Shrink Tubes ...................................................................................................................235
6.7 Fluoropolymer Film Extrusion ...........................................................................................................236
6.7.1 Polyvinylidene Fluoride Films ................................................................................................ 237
6.7.2 Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene and Ethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene Films ........................... 241
6.7.3 Perfluoropolymer Films ........................................................................................................... 242
6.8 Injection Molding ...............................................................................................................................246
6.8.1 Injection Molding of Fluoropolymers ..................................................................................... 246
6.9 Rotational Molding .............................................................................................................................253
6.9.1 Basic Process Technology ....................................................................................................... 254
6.9.2 Rotomolding and Rotolining Processing Conditions.............................................................. 256
6.9.3 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................259
6.10 Other Part Manufacturing Techniques................................................................................................260
6.10.1 Compression Molding of Fluoropolymers ............................................................................ 261
6.10.2 Transfer Molding of Fluoropolymers ....................................................................................263
6.10.3 Examples of Transfer Molded Parts......................................................................................269
6.10.4 Blow-Molding Fluoropolymers .............................................................................................270
6.11 Vacuum Bagging.................................................................................................................................274
References ...........................................................................................................................................275

7 Fabrication Techniques of Fluoropolymers ............................................................................................ 279

7.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................279
7.2 Machining .............................................................................................................................................279
7.2.1 Sawing and Shearing ................................................................................................................. 280
7.2.2 Drilling, Tapping, and Threading ..............................................................................................280
7.2.3 Turning and Milling...................................................................................................................280
7.2.4 Centerless Grinding ...................................................................................................................280
7.2.5 Skiving ....................................................................................................................................... 280
7.2.6 Machining Filled Polytetrafluoroethylene Parts........................................................................ 281
x C ONTENTS

7.3 Adhesive Bonding Methods..................................................................................................................281

7.3.1 Contact Adhesives .....................................................................................................................281
7.3.2 Bonding Adhesives .................................................................................................................... 282
7.4 Welding Techniques..............................................................................................................................282
7.4.1 Heated Tool (Hot Plate) Welding ............................................................................................ 282
7.4.2 Hot Gas Welding......................................................................................................................285
7.4.3 Induction Welding.................................................................................................................... 286
7.4.4 Spin Welding............................................................................................................................289
7.4.5 Ultrasonic Welding ..................................................................................................................290
7.4.6 Infrared Welding ......................................................................................................................294
7.4.7 High-Frequency (Radio Frequency) Welding ......................................................................... 295
7.4.8 Solvent Welding....................................................................................................................... 296
7.4.9 Vibration Welding.................................................................................................................... 297
7.4.10 Microwave Welding................................................................................................................. 300
7.4.11 Resistant Welding .................................................................................................................... 301
7.4.12 Extrusion Welding ...................................................................................................................302
7.4.13 Laser Welding ..........................................................................................................................303
7.4.14 Welding Polytetrafluoroethylene .............................................................................................304
7.4.15 Welding Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene................................................................................308
7.4.16 Welding Perfluoroalkoxy ......................................................................................................... 308
7.4.17 Welding Polyvinylidene Fluoride ............................................................................................ 310
7.4.18 Welding Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene ....................................................................................312
7.4.19 Welding Ethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene.............................................................................. 314
7.5 Thermoforming .....................................................................................................................................314
7.6 Other Processes.....................................................................................................................................315
References.............................................................................................................................................315
Further Reading ....................................................................................................................................318

8 Design and Construction of Linings and Vessels.................................................................................... 321

8.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................321
8.2 Lining of Vessels ................................................................................................................................321
8.2.1 Adhesively Bonded Linings for Vessels.................................................................................. 321
8.2.2 Rotolining................................................................................................................................. 324
8.2.3 Spray and Baked Coatings.......................................................................................................325
8.2.4 Loose Lining ............................................................................................................................332
8.2.5 Dual Laminate..........................................................................................................................337
8.3 Welding ...............................................................................................................................................339
8.4 Lining of Pipes and Fittings ...............................................................................................................342
8.5 Lined Valves .......................................................................................................................................343
8.5.1 Plug Valves............................................................................................................................... 344
8.5.2 Ball Valves ...............................................................................................................................344
8.5.3 Butterfly Valves........................................................................................................................344
8.5.4 Diaphragm Valves.................................................................................................................... 344
8.5.5 Clamp Valves ...........................................................................................................................345
8.6 Lined Hoses ........................................................................................................................................345
8.7 Lined Expansion Joints.......................................................................................................................345
8.8 Lining or Coating of Internals............................................................................................................346
C ONTENTS xi

8.9 Design and Fabrication of Vessels for Lining....................................................................................347

8.10 Shop Versus Field Fabrication............................................................................................................347
References...........................................................................................................................................347
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................................348

9 Operation, Inspections, Maintenance, and Repairs ............................................................................... 349

9.1 Operations .............................................................................................................................................349
9.2 Inspections and Maintenance................................................................................................................349
9.2.1 Visual Examination.................................................................................................................... 349
9.2.2 Nondestructive and Destructive Examination ........................................................................... 354
9.2.3 Nonintrusive Examination ......................................................................................................... 355
9.2.4 Risk-Based Inspection Strategy.................................................................................................356
9.3 Repairs ..................................................................................................................................................356

10 Failure Analysis of Fluoropolymer Parts................................................................................................ 357

10.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................357
10.2 Part Failure..........................................................................................................................................357
10.3 Defect Analysis...................................................................................................................................358
10.4 Application of Failure Analysis Methodology...................................................................................362
10.4.1 Infrared Spectroscopy ............................................................................................................ 365
10.4.2 Electron Microscopy Techniques ..........................................................................................367
10.4.3 Mass Spectroscopy................................................................................................................. 369
10.4.4 Gas Chromatography ............................................................................................................. 369
10.4.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ................................................................................................ 370
10.4.6 Differential Scanning Calorimetry ........................................................................................370
10.4.7 Differential Thermal Analysis ............................................................................................... 372
10.4.8 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis..............................................................................................373
10.4.9 Thermogravimetric Analysis .................................................................................................378
10.5 Surface Analysis .................................................................................................................................379
10.5.1 Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis...................................................................... 379
10.5.2 Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy........................................................................................380
10.6 Examples of Failure Analysis.............................................................................................................381
10.6.1 Case 1: Failed Lined Pipe......................................................................................................381
10.6.2 Case 2: Failed Check Valves .................................................................................................382
10.6.3 Case 3: Black Spots on Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene Coating ....................................... 382
10.6.4 Case 4: Braided Hose Failure................................................................................................ 382
10.7 Physical Defects Due to Part Fabrication ..........................................................................................390
10.7.1 Polytetrafluoroethylene .......................................................................................................... 391
10.7.2 Melt-Processible Fluoropolymers..........................................................................................392
10.7.3 Measurement of Flaws........................................................................................................... 393
References ..........................................................................................................................................399

11 Cost Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 401

11.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................401
11.2 Cost Analysis ......................................................................................................................................401
References ..........................................................................................................................................404
xii C ONTENTS

12 Safety, Health, Environmental, Disposal, and Recycling....................................................................... 405

12.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................405
12.2 Toxicology of Fluoropolymers ...........................................................................................................405
12.2.1 Ammonium Perfluorooctanoate.............................................................................................405
12.3 Thermal Properties of Fluoropolymers ..............................................................................................406
12.4 Emission During Processing...............................................................................................................406
12.5 Safety Measures ..................................................................................................................................409
12.5.1 Ventilation of Degradation Products ..................................................................................... 411
12.5.2 Processing and Fabrication ....................................................................................................411
12.5.3 Spillage Cleanup .................................................................................................................... 412
12.5.4 Equipment Cleaning and Maintenance .................................................................................413
12.5.5 Protective Clothing ................................................................................................................ 413
12.5.6 Personal Hygiene ...................................................................................................................413
12.5.7 Fire Hazard ............................................................................................................................413
12.5.8 Material Incompatibility ........................................................................................................ 413
12.6 Food Contact.......................................................................................................................................413
12.7 Fluoropolymer Scrap and Recycling ..................................................................................................414
12.7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................414
12.7.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene .......................................................................................................... 415
12.7.3 Melt Processible Fluoropolymers (PFA and FEP) ................................................................ 415
12.8 Environmental Protection and Disposal Methods..............................................................................416
12.8.1 Packaging Disposal and Recycling .......................................................................................416
References ..........................................................................................................................................416

13 Future Trends ............................................................................................................................................. 419

13.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................419
13.2 Fluoropolymer Applications ...............................................................................................................419
13.3 Fluoropolymer Resin Manufacturing .................................................................................................419
13.4 Growth of Fluoropolymer Industries..................................................................................................419
13.5 Technological Needs of Chemical Processing Industry.....................................................................420
13.5.1 Nondestructive and Nonintrusive Condition Assessment Leading to Fitness
for Service Decisions............................................................................................................. 420
13.5.2 Accelerated Testing for Compatibility .................................................................................. 420
References ..........................................................................................................................................420

Index .................................................................................................................................................................. 421

 Preface

The aim of the present book is to address the use of and 6 describe processes used to convert fluoropoly-
fluoropolymers in the chemical processing industry mers into shapes and parts. Chapter 7 covers the
(CPI) and other allied industries including food, fabrication techniques used to finish or alter the fluo-
beverage, pharmaceutical, semiconductor, and pulp ropolymer shapes/parts. Chapter 8 reviews the design
and paper industries. This book is both a reference and construction of the basic equipment components
and a source for learning the basics for those involved of a chemical processing plant.
in the entire product value chain related to the chem- Chapter 9 discusses the operation and mainte-
ical industries, from fluoropolymer producers all the nance of vessels and tanks. Chapter 10 provides
way to the end users. The reader will be able to learn methodology and analytical techniques for the failure
about how the unique characteristics of fluoroplastics analysis of fluoropolymer parts. Chapters 11e13 are
are utilized in the design and construction of equip- devoted to the cost analysis, safety considerations,
ment exposed to harsh chemical environments. The and future trends of fluoropolymers. The Glossary
book offers information helpful to engineers, mainte- offers a short description of technical words and
nance personnel, students, material managers, and all terms of art.
others involved in the CPIs. We have tried to present the data in SI units
In this book practical matters have been empha- throughout the book as much as possible. A large
sized over the theoretical subjects. There are number of parts are, however, still specified in
numerous sources for in-depth study of topics, English units. In such cases, conversion factors
including polymerization and the polymer science have been listed in footnotes to allow the reader to
of fluoropolymers. Those references have been listed convert to metric units.
at the end of the chapters, as both bibliography and None of the views or information presented in this
additional reading sources. Review papers are partic- book reflects the opinions of any of the companies or
ularly helpful as a starting point for finding additional individuals that have contributed to the book. If there
sources for concentrated reading in selected areas. are errors, they are oversights on the part of the
The chapters of this book have been written authors. A note to the publisher indicating the
to allow sequential or singular reading of them. specific error, to correct the future editions, would
Chapters 1 and 2 introduce the reader to fluoropoly- be much appreciated.
mers, fluoroelastomers, and the other materials of
construction used to manufacture parts that come in Sina Ebnesajjad
contact with chemicals in factories. Chapters 3 and Pradip R. Khaladkar
4 concentrate on the properties and selection of fluo- April 2017
ropolymers for the construction of parts. Chapters 5

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
 Acknowledgments

We owe the majority of our learning and experi- references section at the end of each chapter. We
ence in the field of fluoropolymers to our employ- sincerely thank the contributions that the data
ment at the DuPont Fluoroproducts (now Chemours supplied by each company have made to this book.
Corp) and FluoroConsultants Group (Sina) and Special thanks go to our friend Dr. Lawrence
DuPont Engineering Technology (Pradip). Special McKeen for contributing the powder coating tech-
thanks go to DuPont Fluoroproducts (now Chemours nology section included in Chapter 8.
Corp) for the contribution of information, figures, Our sincere thanks go to Nicky Carter for
photographs, illustrations, and tables. Attribution has managing the production of our book with care
been made to the companies wherever the contrib- and patience. Support by David Jackson facilitated
uted material appears. the completion of the second edition of our book.
We thank all the companies that have supplied We sincerely appreciate the support offered for this
the authors with information, figures, photographs, book and others by Matthew Deans.
and tables. They have been acknowledged in the

xv
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 1 Introduction to Fluoropolymers

1.1 Introduction and opening the cylinder yielded a few grams of a

waxy white powderdthe first polymer of TFE [2].
Carbon and fluorine are the major elements that Plunkett analyzed the white powder, which was
form polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) homopolymers. conclusively proven to be PTFE. He could not
The CeF bond is the main reason these plastics have dissolve the slippery PTFE in any solvent, acid, or
many special properties surpassing those of most base. After melting, it formed a stiff clear gel with no
other polymers. These properties span mechanical, tendency to flow [3,4]. Later, researchers were able to
electrical, and thermal characteristics of the fluo- fabricate parts from PTFE by processing techniques
ropolymers in addition to their chemical resistance. similar to those used to make parts from metal
This book describes fluoropolymers in chemical powders. At the time, the Manhattan Project was
processing industries. These industries often seeking new corrosion-resistant materials for gaskets,
handle chemicals, usually corrosive, during the packings, and liners for uranium hexafluoride (UF6)
manufacturing of diverse products. Examples of handling. PTFE provided the answer because of its
important industries include chemical manufacturing, extreme resistance to chemicals. The US Govern-
plastics manufacturing and processing, semiconductor ment maintained a veil of secrecy over the PTFE
manufacturing, pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical project until the end of World War II.
industries, and food processing. Large-scale monomer synthesis and controlled
Fluoropolymers replace stainless steel and exotic polymerization were technical impediments to be
alloys such as Hastelloy in processes involving overcome. Intense research resolved these problems,
highly reactive chemicals. This plastic family has and small-scale production of Teflon (trademark,
successfully met the requirement of purity, which is 1944) began in 1947. In 1950, DuPont scaled up the
essential in semiconductor, food, and biopharma- commercial production of Teflon in the United States
ceutical production. The nonstick surface and with the construction of a new plant in Parkersburg,
extreme temperature characteristics of fluoropol- West Virginia. Since then, many more plants have
ymers have reserved a special place for them in been built around the globe. Since the 1940s many
the world of equipment construction materials. This forms of PTFE and copolymers of TFE and other
chapter offers a brief history of the discovery and the monomers have been developed and commercialized.
evolution of fluoropolymers, their applications, and Roy Plunkett recounted the story of Teflon in a
the introduction of various types of this plastic speech to the American Chemical Society at its April
family. 1986 meeting in New York. “The discovery of pol-
Inception of fluoropolymers began with a small ytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) has been variously
incident that did not go undetected by the careful and described as (i) an example of serendipity, (ii) a lucky
observant Dr. Roy Plunkett of DuPont Company [1]. accident, and (iii) a flash of genius. Perhaps all three
In 1938, he had been at DuPont for 2 years, were involved. There is complete agreement, how-
concentrating mostly on the development of fluori- ever, on the results of that discovery. It revolutionized
nated refrigerants. He was experimenting with tet- the plastics industry and led to vigorous applications
rafluoroethylene (TFE) for synthesis of a useful not otherwise possible.” [2].
refrigerant tetrafluorohydrochloro ethane
(CClF2eCHF2) [2]. The objective was to create safe,
nonflammable, nontoxic, colorless, and odorless re-
frigerants. On the morning of April 6, 1938, when
1.2 What Are Fluoropolymers?
Plunkett checked the pressure gauge on a full cylin- Traditionally, a fluoropolymer or fluoroplastic is
der of TFE, he found no pressure. The cylinder, defined as a polymer consisting of carbon (C) and
however, had not lost weight. Removal of the valve fluorine (F). Sometimes they are referred to as

Fluoropolymer Applications in the Chemical Processing Industries. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-44716-4.00001-4

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 F LUOROPOLYMER A PPLICATIONS IN THE C HEMICAL P ROCESSING I NDUSTRIES

perfluoropolymers to distinguish them from partially Rf is usually a perfluorinated group consisting of

fluorinated polymers, fluoroelastomers, and other carbon and fluorine. Introduction of nonlinearity,
polymers that contain fluorine in their chemical oxygen and side chains, or chlorine invokes a variety
structure. For example, fluorosilicones, fluorinated of polymer properties such as lower crystallinity,
polyimides, and fluoroacrylates are not referred to as clarity, and resistance to water vapor.
fluoropolymers in the commercial world. An There is a second class of fluoropolymers called
example of a linear fluoropolymer is tetrafluoro- “partially fluorinated” in contrast to “perfluorinated”
ethylene polymer: polymers. These molecules include hydrogen (H) in
addition to fluorine and carbon. Examples include
polyvinylfluoride (PVF), polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF), ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE)
copolymer, and ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene
(ECTFE) copolymer.

There are branched fluoropolymers such as fluo-

rinated ethylene propylene (FEP) polymer:

PVF

A simple analog would be a polyethylene

[(eCH2eCH2e)n] where all the hydrogen atoms PVDF
have been replaced by fluorine atoms. In reality,
entirely different processes prepare PTFE and
polyethylene.
Oxygen (O) and chlorine (Cl) are present in the
chemical structure of some commercial fluoropol-
ymers. Examples include perfluoroalkoxy polymer
(PFA) and polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE):
ETFE

PFA Cl Cl
ECTFE

Partially fluorinated fluoropolymers have different

properties and processing characteristics than the
perfluoropolymers. For example, perfluoropolymers
PCTFE are more thermally stable but physically softer than
partially fluorinated polymers.
1: I NTRODUCTION TO F LUOROPOLYMERS 3

1.3 Fundamental Properties of Table 1.2 Useful Attributes of Perfluoropolymers

Fluoropolymers  Stability
 High continuous use temperature
The basic properties of fluoropolymers arise
from the atomic structure of fluorine, carbon, and  Excellent weatherability
covalent CeF bond in specific chemical structures.  Excellent chemical resistance
Those properties are weakened as the fluorine  Excellent fire properties
content of the chemical structure decreases as
 Low surface energy
in PVDF. Because PTFE has a linear structure, it
is a good subject for discussion of extreme  Good release properties
properties. The backbone is formed of carbone  Biological inertness
carbon bonds attached to carbonefluorine bonds.  Low friction
Both are extremely strong bonds, especially
 Cryogenic properties
carbonefluorine bond (CeC ¼ 348e368 kJ/mol
and CeF ¼ 488e544 kJ/mol) [5,6]. The basic  Retains flexibility
properties of PTFE stem from those two very strong  Electrical properties
chemical bonds. The PTFE molecule resembles a  Low dielectric constant
carbon rod completely blanketed with a sheath of  Low dissipation factor
fluorine atoms [7].
The size of the fluorine atom allows the formation
of a uniform and continuous sheath around the
carbonecarbon bonds and protects them from
attack, thus imparting chemical resistance and summarizes the fundamental properties of PTFE,
stability to the molecule. The fluorine sheath is also which represents the ultimate polymer among all
responsible for the low surface energy (18 dyn/cm) fluoroplastics.
[8] and low coefficient of friction (0.05e0.08, static) The basic properties of perfluoropolymers provide
[7] of PTFE [9]. Another attribute of the uniform beneficial attributes with high commercial value
fluorine sheath is the electrical inertness (or non- (Table 1.2).
polarity) of the PTFE molecule. Electrical fields
impart only slight polarization to this molecule, so
volume and surface resistivity are high. Table 1.1 1.4 Developmental History of
Fluoropolymers
The development of fluoropolymers began with
Table 1.1 Fundamental Properties of
the invention of PTFE in 1938, continued to 1992
Polytetrafluoroethylene
when a soluble perfluoropolymer (Teflon AF) was
 High melting point (342 C) introduced, and to 2002 when fluoroplastics poly-
 High thermal stability merized in supercritical carbon dioxide were intro-
 Useful mechanical properties at extremely low
duced. Table 1.3 summarizes the timeline for the
and high temperatures development of fluoropolymers that have brought
about major changes in properties and/or fabrication
 Insolubility
processes.
 Chemical inertness The discovery of PTFE was a major leap forward
 Low coefficient of friction in material science. Yet the new polymer could not be
 Low dielectric constant/dissipation factor fabricated by melt-processing. The next two forms of
PTFE, fine powder and dispersion, were also not
 Low water absorptivity/adsorptivity
melt-processible. The pursuit of a more easily pro-
 Excellent weatherability cessible polymer led to FEP, which could be melted
 Flame resistance in an extruder. Compared with PTFE, the major
 Purity disadvantage of FEP is its reduced thermal stability
and lower maximum continuous use temperature
4 F LUOROPOLYMER A PPLICATIONS IN THE C HEMICAL P ROCESSING I NDUSTRIES

Table 1.3 Commercialization Timeline of Major Fluoropolymers Versus Key Processing/Application Trade-Offs [10]

Year
Fluoropolymer Commercialized Monomers Trade-off D Trade-off L
PTFE 1947 TFE Continuous use Nonemelt-
temperature 260 C processible
PCTFE 1953 CTFE Melt-processible/nonemelt- Maximum
processible continuous use
temperature 180 C
FEP 1960 TFE, HFPc Melt-processible Maximum
continuous use
temperature 200 C
PVF 1961 VFa Thin film/weatherable Maximum
continuous use
temperature 107 C
PVDF 1961 VDFb Melt-processible Maximum
continuous use
temperature 150 C
ECTFE 1970 CTFE, Ed Hardness/toughness Maximum
continuous use
temperature 150 C
PFA 1972 TFE, PAVEe Melt-processible, Low molecular
continuous use temperature weight
260 C
ETFE 1973 TFE, E Hardness/toughness Maximum
continuous use
temperature 150 C
Teflon AF 1985 TFE, PDDf Soluble in special High cost
halogenated solvents
CTFE, chlorotrifluoroethylene; E, ethylene; ECTFE, ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene; ETFE, ethylene tetrafluoroethylene; FEP, fluorinated
ethylene propylene; HFP, hexafluoropropylene; PAVE, perfluoroalkylvinylether; PCTFE, polychlorotrifluoroethylene; PDD, 2,2-
bistrifluoromethyl-4,5 difluoro-1,3-dioxole; PFA, perfluoroalkoxy; PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene; PVDF, polyvinylidene fluoride; PVF, poly-
vinylfluoride; TFE, tetrafluoroethylene; VDF, vinylidene fluoride; VF, vinyl fluoride.
a
Vinyl fluoride (CH2 ] CHF).
b
Vinylidene fluoride (CH2 ] CF2).
c
Hexafluoropropylene (CF2 ] CF e CF3).
d
Ethylene (CH2 ] CH2).
e
Perfluoroalkylvinylether (CF2 ] CF e O e Rf).
f
Perfluoro-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxole.

(200 C) (Table 1.3). PFA, which was introduced in ETFE has a lower continuous use temperature
1973, offers both melt-processing and the same upper (150 C) than PTFE (260 C), less chemical resistance,
continuous use temperature as PTFE (260 C). and a higher coefficient of friction. Mechanical
ETFE addresses the need for a mechanically properties including tensile strength, elongation at
stronger polymer, albeit at some loss of properties break, and tensile modulus are enhanced. Examples of
compared to perfluoropolymers because of the pres- beneficial performance include increased cut-through
ence of hydrogen in its molecule: resistance as wire insulation when compared to PTFE.
Teflon AF is an amorphous fluoropolymer that is
soluble in select halogenated solvents. It is applied by
solution coating processes followed by removal of
the solvent. The amorphous fluoropolymer coating is
as resistant to nearly as many chemicals as PTFE.
1: I NTRODUCTION TO F LUOROPOLYMERS 5

The coating can be very thin ranging from less than a the properties of these plastics. Fluoropolymers use
micrometer and upwards. Other amorphous fluo- spans across all facets of human life from household
ropolymer brands include Lumiflon and Cytop by appliances and cookware to aerospace and electronic
Asahi Glass Corp. industries. Useful properties (Table 1.2) of fluo-
There are a number of other polymers in this family ropolymers in various applications include chemical
including PCTFE, PVF, PVDF, ECTFE, TFE/hexa- resistance, thermal stability, cryogenic properties,
fluoropropylene/vinylidene fluoride terpolymers, and low coefficient of friction, low surface energy, low
chlorotrifluoroethylene/vinyl ether copolymers. dielectric constant, high volume and surface re-
sistivity, and flame resistance. Applications of fluo-
ropolymers, typically, exploit one or a combination
1.5 Applications of of fluoropolymer properties (Table 1.4) that differ-
Fluoropolymers entiate them from other plastics.
In the chemical processing industry fluoropol-
Consumption of fluoropolymers has increased ymers are selected mainly for their resistance to
over time, as technological advances have required chemical attack usually at above or below room
Table 1.4 Major Applications and Some Uses of Fluoropolymers [10]

Industry/Application Area Key Properties Typical Uses

Chemical processing Chemical resistance, good Gaskets, vessel liners; valve, pipe,
mechanical properties, thermal and fitting liners; T’s, bellows,
stability, cryogenic properties spacer, high-pressure hoses
tubing; coatings and fluid handling
systems
Electrical and communications Low dielectric constant, high Connectors, insulation of signal and
volume/surface resistivity, high electric wire and cable, coaxial
dielectric breakdown voltage, flame cable, automotive wiring harness
resistance, thermal stability and electronic wiring harness,
thermocouple wire, multicore
instrumentation cable, jacketing,
high-temperature automotive and
aerospace wire
Automotive and office equipment Low coefficient of friction, good Seals and rings in automotive
mechanical properties, cryogenic power steering, transmission, and
properties, chemical resistance air-conditioning; copier roller and
food processing equipment
covering
Housewares Thermal stability, low surface Domestic and commercial
energy, chemical resistance, purity cookware and bakeware coatings
Medical Low surface energy, purity, Cardiovascular grafts, heart
excellent mechanical properties, patches, mesh grafts for hernia
chemical resistance repair, ligament replacement, vent
and intravenous infusion
membranes, microporous
polytetrafluoroethylene tubing for
drug dispersion
Architectural fabric Excellent weatherability, flame Coated fiberglass fabric for tension
resistance, low surface energy and air structures, tents, stadium
and airport roofs, exhibition halls,
super shopping malls,
entertainment complexes
6 F LUOROPOLYMER A PPLICATIONS IN THE C HEMICAL P ROCESSING I NDUSTRIES

temperature. These plastics are used to fabricate For airports, stadiums, and other structures,
linings for carbon steel vessels and for piping and fiberglass fabrics coated with fluoropolymers are
other fluid handling components. They provide du- fabricated into roofing and enclosures. Cables or air
rable, low maintenance, and economical alternatives pressure are applied to from a range of innovative
to exotic metal alloys. In these applications, fluo- structures from these architectural fabrics. Fluo-
ropolymers also offer thermal stability for use at high ropolymers provide excellent resistance to weath-
temperatures. As they do not react with process ering, including exposure to the ultraviolet rays in
streams, fluoropolymers help prevent contamination sunlight, flame resistance for safety, and low surface
of products of chemical processes. energy for soil resistance and easy cleaning.
Electrical properties of fluoropolymers are highly
valuable in electronic and electrical applications. In
data communications, for example, FEP is used to References
insulate cables installed in air-handling spaces (ple- [1] R.J. Plunkett, US Patent 2,230,654, assigned to
nums) in office buildings. FEP supplies the excellent DuPont Co. (Feb. 4, 1941).
dielectric properties these cables required to perform [2] R.J. Plunkett, The history of polytetrafluoro-
well at high data transmission rates as well as long- ethylene: discovery and development, in:
term stability. The performance of FEP insulated R.B. Seymour, G.S. Kirshenbaum (Eds.), High
cables remains unchanged over the life of the cabling Performance Polymers: Their Origin and
system. Most importantly, FEP aids these cables meet Development, Proc. Symp. Hist. High Perf.
the strict building code requirements for low flame Polymers: At the ACS Meeting in New York,
spread and low smoke generation. April 1986, Elsevier, New York, 1987.
Fluoropolymers are used to insulate wire in critical [3] S.V. Gangal, Polytetrafluoroethylene, homopol-
aerospace and industrial applications where chemical ymers of tetrafluoroethylene, in: second ed.En-
and thermal resistance in addition to cut-through cyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering,
resistance and flex fatigue durability are essential. 16, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1989, pp.
Fluoropolymers are also materials of construction for 577e600.
high-frequency cable connectors and for thermo- [4] V. Gangal, P.D. Brothers, Perfluorinated poly-
couple wiring required to resist high temperatures. mers, polytetrafluoroethylene, Pub. Online Ency.
In the automotive, office equipment, and other Polym. Sci. Eng. (June 2010).
industries, the mechanical properties of fluoropol- [5] Big Chemical Encyclopedia, http://chempedia.
ymers are beneficial in low-friction bearings and info/info/99237/, April 18, 2016.
seals that resist attack by hydrocarbons and other [6] University of Waterloo, Canada, www.science.
fluids. In food processing, the Food and Drug uwaterloo.ca, April 18, 2016.
Administration (FDA) has approved fluoropolymer [7] S.V. Gangal, Polytetrafluoroethylene, in: fourth
grades as fabrication material for equipment due to ed.Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
their resistance to oil and cleaning materials, and Technology, 11, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
their antistick and low friction properties. 2000, pp. 621e644.
Fluoropolymers are applied as nonstick coatings [8] W.A. Zisman, Surface properties of plastics,
for cookware and appliance surfaces. These appli- Record of Chemical Progress 26 (1965) 1.
cations depend on thermal and chemical resistance as [9] Properties Handbook No. H-37051-3, Teflon
well as antistick performance. PTFE and ETFE are PTFE Fluoropolymers Resin, DuPont, July 1996.
selected to insulate appliance wiring because both [10] S. Ebnesajjad, Fluoroplastics, in: Non-Melt
materials withstand high temperatures. Processible Fluoroplastics, second ed., vol. 1,
Medical articles such as surgical patches and Plastics Design Library, Elsevier, Oxford, UK,
cardiovascular grafts rely on the long-term stability 2014.
of fluoropolymers as well as their biocompatibility,
purity, inert surface, and flex fatigue resistance.
 2 Materials of Construction

2.1 Introduction of ethylene propylene diene monomer). These were

followed later by fluoroelastomers such as Viton
An engineer has a wide choice of materials of and Kalrez. The 1960s and 1970s saw further
construction for corrosion control. There are three refinement of these fluorine-containing elastomers
broad categories of materials, used either individually with several new grades developed for specific needs
or in combination with each other: metals, polymers, in the CPI.
and ceramics. This chapter describes the differences Rigid thermosetting materials have always
between them and explains the phenomenology of attracted the interest of engineers in the CPI since
applications of polymer-based materials. It also places Bakelite (phenol formaldehyde) was put to use for
fluoropolymer materials in their appropriate contexts. commercial applications. Various fibers and particu-
Polymer-based materials are also known as poly- late additives were developed to make useful struc-
merics, polymeric materials, or simply plastics, which tures out of these materials. The 1940s saw major
is often not accurate and can lead to confusion. initiatives in the development of polyester resins.
Bisphenol A fumarate resins with unsaturation sites
for cross-linking were developed for processing
2.2 Historical Background vessels and piping. These resins, in their reinforced
forms, were the early artificial composites for the
Lead, wood, and rubber are probably the earliest CPI. Development of vinyl esters, chlorendic anhy-
known materials of construction for the chemical dride, and furans added greatly to the versatility of
processing industry (CPI). Interestingly, it took a fiberglass-reinforced polyester (FRP). These became
little more than a century for rubber to be established the workhorses in the chloralkali industry for
as a lining material after Charles Goodyear acci- handling chlorine and chlorine-containing chemicals.
dentally discovered vulcanized rubber in 1839. Wood While the United States was pursuing the FRP
is the first composite material to be used in the CPI. route, Europeans were busy taking the lead in
Until the onset of World War II, these naturally developing technologies using thermoplastic mate-
occurring materials continued to play a major role in rials such as polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chlorides,
chemical-handling applications. and polypropylenes (PPs). The result was an increased
Although stainless steel was discovered at the turn use of these materials as self-supporting structures as
of the century and copper silicon alloys started to well as linings. They achieved this through an effec-
emerge at about the same time, the real explosion of tive partnership of governments, industries, and
materials research and development began at around academia, which ultimately produced several auton-
the beginning of World War II. Polymer science and omous testing and training centers. A major outcome
technology were no exception. Nylon was already was the use of low-end thermoplastics [PE, polyvinyl
developed at the DuPont Company. Alloy 20 was chloride (PVC), and PP] for “dual laminate” structures
developed by DuPont in the late 1930s. At about the where the structural component is FRP and the lining
same time, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (Teflon) is a thermoplastic material. This technology was
was discovered, which led to further development subsequently exported to Canada and then to the
of fluoropolymers and ushered in an era of high- United States.
performance polymer materials for corrosion control. Manufacturing technologies (injection molding,
The 1950s were known for the explosive develop- transfer molding, contact molding, compression
ment and growth in elastomers. DuPont Company molding, isostatic molding, ram extrusion) and design
developed a whole range of synthetic elastomers procedures were concurrently developed to promote
such as neoprene (polychloroprene), Hypalon (chlor- the use of these materials. The resin converters played
osulfonated polyethylene), and Nordel (terpolymer a bigger role in these activities than the resin

Fluoropolymer Applications in the Chemical Processing Industries. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-44716-4.00002-6

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 7
8 F LUOROPOLYMER A PPLICATIONS IN THE C HEMICAL P ROCESSING I NDUSTRIES

manufacturers. The creation of a multitude of mate- 1. A fiberglass tank is made of vinyl ester resin,
rials in a relatively short time led to high expectations which is a thermoset and is semirigid in its
and less-than-careful application of some of these composite form.
materials. Failures, some catastrophic, inevitably 2. A rubber (elastomeric) gasket can be made of
occurred. Notable among these were ruptures of FRP polychloroprene, which is a thermoset and is
storage tanks and vessels resulting in total discharge nonrigid.
of corrosive and hazardous contents. Less notable but
equally damaging failures also occurred in linings of 3. A fluoropolymer lining for a vessel is thermo-
various types. The underlying causes were improper plastic and nonrigid.
material selection, design, quality of fabrication,
exceeding operating parameters, inability to inspect
adequately, or some combination of these. 2.4 Comparison Between Polymer-
Based Materials and Metals
2.3 Definition of Polymer-Based There are some obvious and subtle differences
between polymer-based materials and metals. The
Materials
obvious differences are in strength (high for metals),
Polymers are long chain molecules made from elongation (high for polymers), and maximum-use
organic chemicals. These materials are defined by temperature (much higher for metals). Not so
three distinct characteristics. obvious are anisotropy (polymers), homogeneity
(metals), changing properties in service (plastics),

Organic chemistry basis responsiveness to nondestructive testing (high for
metals), ability to predict remaining life (low for

Mechanical strength basis
polymers), ability to carry out accelerated testing

Thermal processing basis for corrosion rates (high for metals), and sensitivity
to workmanship (high for polymers). All these fac-
Polymers can be distinguished from each other by tors make using plastics as effective as metals and
their generic organic chemistry description such as with the same degree of confidence and a challenge
polyolefins, fluorocarbons, styrenics, epoxies, etc. for the end user.
They can also be classified by their mechanical Phenomenology of corrosion for metals and
strength: rigid (elastic modulus >690 MPa), semi- polymer materials is not the same. For example, the
rigid (modulus between 69 and 690 MPa), and terms such as corrosion rate, pitting, end grain
nonrigid (modulus <69 MPa). Additionally, poly- attack, and intergranular attack used to describe
meric materials are classified by the way they are metals’ behaviors are not applicable to plastics. Not
thermally processed: thermoplastics and thermosets. only are the terms for plastics different (blistering,
Thermoplastics are those which can be remelted and discoloration, cracking, etc.) but they are based on a
reprocessed repeatedly. Thermosets cannot be naked-eye observation and not at a microscopic level
remelted for reprocessing since they are cross-linked as for metals.
(also known as vulcanized in the world of elasto-
mers). Any attempt to remelt thermosets will result in
degradation and, ultimately, charring. 2.4.1 Position of Fluoropolymers
Fluoropolymers are thermoplastic and nonrigid in the Materials Spectrum
materials while fluoroelastomers have elastomeric
properties. See Tables 2.1 and 2.2 for a comparison of Fluoropolymers are fluorine-containing polymers.
physical and mechanical properties of select plastics They are thermoplastic in nature and are semirigid
and elastomers including fluorinated materials. and are classified in two ways:
Elastomers are a special class of nonrigid materials
distinguished by high elongation and high recovery.
Homopolymers or copolymers (preferred by
A complete description of a polymer system must chemists)
necessarily include references to all three categories.
Fully fluorinated or partially fluorinated
Some following examples illustrate the point. (preferred by engineers)
 2: M ATERIALS
Table 2.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Plastics [1,2]

OF
Mold Tensile Break Tensile Flexural Flexural Impact

C ONSTRUCTION
Specific Shrinkage, Strength, Elongation, Modulus, Strength, Modulus, Notched Izod Compressive
Gravity % MPa % MPa MPa MPa 238C J/m (238C) Strength, MPa
Test method D792 D955 D638 D638 D638 D790 D790 D256 D695
ASTM
Polystyrene 1.06 0.5 46 2.2 3172 96 3103 10.8 96.6
ABS 1.05 0.6 48 8.0 2069 72 2621 242 69
SAN 1.08 0.4 72 3.0 3862 103 3793 27 103
Polypropylene 0.90 1.5 32 15.0 1310 41 2069 27 34.5
Polyethylene 0.96 2.0 30 9.0 1034 38 1517 70 27.6
Polyacetal 1.41 1.8 61 60.0 2827 90 2552 70 36
Polyester 1.30 2.0 55 200.0 2758 88 2345 10.8 90
Polyamide, 1.13 1.3 81 200.0 2758 103 2759 53.8 90
nylon 6
Polyamide, 1.14 1.8 79 300.0 1310 103 1310 53.8 34
nylon 6,6
Polycarbonate 1.20 0.6 62 110.0 2379 93 2345 161 86
Polysulfone 1.24 0.7 70 75.0 2482 106 2690 32 96.6
Test method D792 Measured on D4894-5 D4894-5 D638 D790 D790 D256
ASTM parts D1708 D638 D1708 D638
PTFE 2.14e2.22 2e0 20e35 300e550 550 No break 340e620 188 34.5
PFA 2.15 3.5e6.0 20e26 300 276 551 No break
FEP 2.15 3.5e6.0 20e28 300 345 No break 655 No break 15.2
ETFE 1.71 1e7 45 150e300 827 38 1034e1171 No break 17.2
PVDF 1.78 0.2e3 31e52 50e250 1040e2070 45e74 1140e2240 107e427 55e110

ETFE, ethylene tetrafluoroethylene; FEP, fluorinated ethylene propylene; PFA, perfluoroalkoxy; PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene; PVDF, polyvinylidene fluoride.

9
 10
Table 2.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Elastomers [3]

Trade Name

F LUOROPOLYMER A PPLICATIONS
Viton Aflas Fluorosilicone Kalrez Adiprene Neoprene Hypalon Nordel

Chemical Name

Tetrafluoroethylene/ Chloros Ethylene/

Fluorinated Propylene Perfluoro- Polychl ulfonated Propylene
Property Hydrocarbon Copolymer Fluorosilicone elastomer Polyurethane oroprene Polyethylene Copolymer

Continuous-use Min 29 to 7 29 80 to 68 38 54 62 54 59
temperature,  C Max 227 204 to 230 232 290 to 315 121 149 135 163

Tensile strength, MPa a 3.4e20.7 13.8e22.1 3.4e9.6 3.4e10.3 2.1e24.1 3.4e27.6 e 2.1e24.1

Tensile modulus at 1.4e14 6.2e17.2 6.2 6.2e13.1 0.7e20.7 0.7e20.7 3.1e3.4 0.7e20.7
100% elongation, MPaa

IN THE
Hardness (durometer) 50e95 A 60e100 A 35e80 A 65e95 A 30e90 A 15e95 A 40e100 A 30e90 A

Compression set 9e16, 70 h at 25, 70 h at 93 17e25, 22 h at 149 20e40, 20e60, 70 h at 20e60 h at 100 38e80, 22 h at 100 20e60, 70 h at
at temperature,  C 24 70 h at 21 100 100

C HEMICAL P ROCESSING I NDUSTRIES

Elongation, % 100e500 50e400 100e480 60e170 100e700 100e800 100e700 100e700
a
To convert from MPa to psi, multiply by 145.
 2: M ATERIALS
OF
C ONSTRUCTION
Table 2.3 Water Absorption and the Effecta of Inorganic Chemicals on Polymers [1,2]

24-h Water
Weak Bases and Salts Strong Bases Strong Acids Strong Oxidants Absorption

Weight
Material 258C 938C 258C 938C 258C 938C 258C 938C Change, %
Polyacetal 1e3 2e5 1e5 2e5 5 5 5 5 0.23
ABS 1 2e4 1 2e4 1e4 5 1e5 5 0.1e0.4
Nylons 1 2 2 3 5 5 5 5 0.2e1.9
Polyester 1 3e4 2 5 3 4e5 2 3e5 0.06e0.09
Polyethylene 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <0.01
Polystyrene 1 5 1 5 4 5 4 5 0.03e0.60
Polysulfone 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.2e0.3
Polyvinyl chloride 1 5 1 5 1 5 2 5 0.04e1.0
PTFE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
PFA 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <0.03
FEP 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <0.01
ETFE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <0.03
PVDF 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 0.04
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.01e0.10

ETFE, ethylene tetrafluoroethylene; FEP, fluorinated ethylene propylene; PFA, perfluoroalkoxy polymer; PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene; PVDF, polyvinylidene fluoride.
a
Effect is defined by ASTM D543 and D2299: 1, no effect or inert; 2, slight effect; 3, mild effect; 4, softening or swelling; 5, severe degradation.

11
 12
Table 2.4 Effecta of Organic Chemicals on Polymers [1,2]

Aromatic Solvents Aliphatic Solvents Chlorinated Solvents Esters and Ketones

Material 258C 938C 258C 938C 258C 938C 258C 938C

Polyacetal 1e4 2e4 1 2 1e2 4 1 2e3

F LUOROPOLYMER A PPLICATIONS
ABS 4 5 2 3e5 3e5 5 3e5 5
Nylons 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
Polyester 2 5 1 3e5 3 5 2 3e4
Polyethylene 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4
Polystyrene 4 5 4 5 5 5 4 5
Polysulfone 4 4 1 1 5 5 3 4
PVC 4 5 1 5 5 5 4 5
PTFE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PFA 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

IN THE
FEP 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ETFE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

C HEMICAL P ROCESSING I NDUSTRIES

PVDF 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 5
PCTFE 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 1
ETFE, ethylene tetrafluoroethylene; FEP, fluorinated ethylene propylene; PCTFE, polychlorotrifluoroethylene; PFA, perfluoroalkoxy polymer; PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene; PVC, Polyvinyl
chloride; PVDF, polyvinylidene fluoride.
a
Effect is defined by ASTM D543 and D2299: 1, no effect or inert; 2, slight effect; 3, mild effect; 4, softening or swelling; 5 ¼ severe degradation.
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