DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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UNIT – II
Building Construction
Ingredients of Cement Concrete, Grades of Concrete, proportions for Nominal mix
concrete, Workability & Compressive Strength of Concrete, Curing of Concrete.
Necessity of foundations, Definitions of Safe bearing capacity, Ultimate bearing
capacity and factor of safety,
Difference between Load Bearing & Framed Construction.

Cement concrete
Introduction
The Most Consumed Material After Water is a fundamental material in civil engineering,
consists of a blend of cement, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (stones), and water.
Cement hydrates with water and when placed in suitable moulds and cured properly, it binds
aggregates and solidifies into a durable structure like to rock/stone.
the key steps in the concrete-making process:
1. Proportioning of Ingredients:
a. Raw materials (cement, aggregates, water, and additives) are carefully
measured and mixed in specific ratios.
b. Proper proportioning ensures the desired concrete properties.
2. Mixing of Ingredients:
a. In a concrete mixer or batching plant, the ingredients are thoroughly
combined.
b. Agitation ensures uniform distribution of cement, aggregates, and water.
c. The mixture becomes a plastic, workable material.
3. Hydration of Concrete:
a. After mixing, cement particles react with water in a chemical process called
hydration.
b. Hydration forms a solid matrix, binding aggregates together.
c. Heat is generated during this process.
4. Placement Process:
a. The fresh concrete is placed into formwork (molds) at the construction site.
b. It can be poured, pumped, or conveyed to the desired location.

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c. Proper placement ensures structural integrity.

d. Well compacted concrete is strong and durable.
5. Curing of Concrete:
a. Curing involves maintaining the right moisture and temperature conditions.
b. It allows hydration to continue, strengthening the concrete.
c. Methods include wet curing,
membrane curing, and curing
compounds.
6. Water cement ratio, Compaction
and Curing of concrete are the most
important factors that governs the
performance and service life of
hardened concrete. However, each
step is crucial for producing durable
and high-quality concrete for
construction purposes.

Let’s explore the reasons behind its popularity and its essential properties:
1. Versatility and Mouldability:
a. Cement concrete can be easily moulded into various shapes and sizes for durable
structures.
b. Its adaptability allows for creative designs and efficient construction.
2. Controlled Properties:
a. Special processing techniques enable precise control over concrete properties.
b. Engineers can tailor its strength, durability, and other characteristics to meet
specific project requirements.
3. Mechanization and Efficiency:
a. Mechanized preparation methods enhance productivity and consistency.
b. Concrete production can be streamlined, reducing manual labor.
4. Plasticity and Workability:
a. Concrete exhibits adequate plasticity, making it easy to work with during
construction.
5. Key Properties of Hardened Cement Concrete:
a. Compressive Strength:

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b. Concrete possesses high compressive strength, crucial for load-bearing

structures.
c. It can withstand significant vertical forces without collapsing.
6. Corrosion Resistance:
a. Unlike steel, concrete is not susceptible to corrosion.
b. This property ensures long-term durability, especially in harsh environments.
7. Age-Related Hardening:
a. Concrete continues to harden over time due to hydration.
b. Its strength improves as it matures.
8. Economic Advantage:
a. Sand and crushed rocks, constituting 80-90% of concrete, are cost-effective
materials. However, the extensive use of river sand and fresh water for making
concrete is debatable.
b. Reusable formwork (made of steel or timber) contributes to overall economy.
9. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC):
a. Concrete excels in compression but lacks tensile strength.
b. Steel reinforcement is strategically placed within concrete to handle tensile forces.
c. RCC combines the best of both materials, ensuring structural integrity.
10. Surface Durability:
a. Concrete forms a robust surface capable of resisting wear and abrasion.
11. Properties of Fresh Cement Concrete:
12. Shrinkage Control:
a. Initial shrinkage occurs due to water loss during curing.
b. Proper curing minimizes subsequent shrinkage as concrete hardens.
13. Voids and Porosity:
a. Voids formed during and after placement can lead to porosity.
b. Proper aggregate grading and consolidation reduce porosity.
c. As a field engineer it is essential to remove voids by proper compaction
14. Local Conditions and Workmanship:
a. Beyond material properties, concrete’s final strength and durability depend on local
factors and skilled handling.
15. In summary, cement concrete’s versatility, controlled properties, and economic benefits
make it a cornerstone of modern construction. Understanding its characteristics empowers
civil engineers to create resilient and enduring structures

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MATERIALS OR INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT CONCRETE

(a) Cement
(b) Aggregates (Fine and Coarse)
(c) Water
Modern engineered concrete essentially
consists of mineral (Fly ash, silica fumes
etc) and chemical admixtures.

Cement:
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and
Blended / Portland Pozzolana Cement
(PPC) are used in the construction industry
for the cement concrete work, which should
comply, with all the requirements studied in
chapter 2 unit I.

Aggregates:
These are the inert or chemically inactive material, which forms the bulk of cement concrete,
they bind with cement to form cement concrete. The Aggregates are classified into:
(a) Fine Aggregates (b) Coarse Aggregates
The material that passes through BIS sieve no. 480, are known as fine Aggregates. Or, the
aggregates whose sizes are less than 4.7625 mm are known as Fine Aggregates. Usually,
the natural river sand is used as the fine Aggregate.
The material that retains into BIS sieve no. 480 is known as coarse Aggregate. Or, the
aggregates whose sizes are greater than 4.7625mm are known as Coarse Aggregates The
nature of work usually decide the maximum size of Aggregates for thin slabs and walls, it is
limited to 1/3rd the thickness of the concrete section.
The Aggregates to be used for the cement concrete should be hard, durable clean and free
from organic and vegetable matters, fine dust etc. Presence of debris prevents adhesion of
Aggregate and reduces the strength of the concrete.

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But there are properties or characteristics of aggregate which influence the properties of
resulting concrete mix. These are as follow. (Not with in scope of subject)
1. Composition
2. Size & Shape
3. Surface Texture
4. Specific Gravity
5. Bulk Density
6. Voids
7. Porosity & Absorption
8. Bulking of Sand
9. Fineness Modulus of Aggregate
10. Surface Index of Aggregate
11. Deleterious Material
12. Crushing Value of Aggregate
13. Impact Value of Aggregate
14. Abrasion Value of Aggregate
Aggregates should be chemically inert, aggregates consisting of materials that can react with
alkalies in cement and cause excessive expansion, cracking and deterioration of concrete mix
should never be used.
Surface Texture
The development of hard bond strength between aggregate particles and cement paste
depends upon the surface texture, surface roughness and surface porosity of the aggregate
particles.
Smooth round shaped aggregates are desirable for better workability with fresh concrete with
same water cement ratio but due to smooth texture they donot bind well with the cement paste
on the other hand if the surface is rough but porous, maximum bond strength develops.
Fineness Modulus
Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the cumulative percentages of
aggregate retained on each of the standard sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 microns and
dividing this sum by 100.
Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the aggregate is.
More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of
fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.

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Deleterious Materials
Aggregates should not contain any harmful material in such a quantity so as to affect the
strength and durability of the concrete. Such harmful materials are called deleterious
materials. Deleterious materials may cause one of the following effects
 To interfere hydration of cement
 To prevent development of proper bond
 To reduce strength and durability
 To modify setting times
Deleterious materials generally found in aggregates, may be grouped as under
 Organic impurities
 Clay, silt & dust
 Salt contamination

Water:
Water plays a crucial role in the formation and curing of concrete. The primary purposes of
water in concrete are as follows:
1. Hydration of Cement: Water is essential for the chemical reaction known as
hydration, which occurs between water and cement in the concrete mixture. This
reaction forms a paste that binds the aggregates together. The hydration process is
what gives concrete its strength and durability.
2. Workability: Water lubricates the Aggregates and it facilitates the passage of cement
through voids of Aggregate. Water is added to concrete to achieve the desired
workability. The workability of concrete refers to its ability to be mixed, placed, and
compacted easily without segregation or bleeding. The amount of water in the mix
affects the concrete's consistency, making it easier to pour and work with.
The water which is used for making concrete should be clean and free from impurities such
as oil alkali, acids etc. In general water which is fit for drinking should be used for making
concrete.

3. Curing

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BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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Water cement ratio:

The ratio of amount of water to the amount of cement is termed as water cement ratio, the
strength & quality of concrete primarily depends upon this ratio. The quantity of water is usually
expressed in liters per kg bag of cement for instance if water required for 1 bag of cement is
20 l, the water cement ratio will be 20/50 = 0.4.
The minimum quantity of water should be used to have reasonable degree of workability. An
excessive amount of water can weaken the concrete, leading to issues such as shrinkage,
cracking, and reduced durability. Therefore, it is crucial to follow proper mixing procedures
and use the correct water-to-cement ratio to ensure the quality and performance of the
concrete. Addition of one extra liter of water to concrete of one bag of cement will reduce its
strength by about 1.5 N/mm2. In other words, strength is inversely proportion to water cement
ratio. It is important to note that while water is essential for the hydration process and
workability of concrete, the water-to-cement ratio must be carefully controlled.
Sustainability issues in making concrete
It is important to know that many big cities like Chennai, Gurugram prohibits the use of
drinking water for making concrete due to shortage of water.

Grades of concrete:
Grade of concrete is defined as the characteristic strength the concrete must possess after 28
days in proper quality control. The concrete is designated in 7 grades M-10, M-15, M-20, M-
25, M-30, M-35, M-40. Where M stands for mix and the number gives the characteristics
strength of that mix after 28 days expressed in N/mm2. For example, for a grade of concrete
with 20 MPa strength, it will be denoted by M20, where M stands for Mix.

These grade of concrete is converted into various mix proportions. For example, for M20
concrete, mix proportion will be 1 :1.5 : 3 for cement : sand : coarse aggregates.

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There are two types of concrete mixes, nominal mix and design mix.
Nominal mix concrete are those which are generally used for small scale construction and
small residential buildings where concrete consumption is not high. Nominal mix takes care of
factor of safety against various quality control problems generally occurring during concrete
construction.
Design mix concrete are those for which mix proportions are obtained from various lab tests.
Use of design mix concrete requires good quality control during material selection, mixing,
transportation and placement of concrete. This concrete offers mix proportions based on
locally available material and offers economy in construction if large scale concrete
construction is carried out. Thus, large concrete construction projects uses design mix
concrete.
PROPORTIONS FOR NOMINAL MIX CONCRETE
(15cm x 15cm x 15cm Cube after 28 days of curing) (With 33-grade cement)
Grade Mix Min. Compressive Strength

M-10 1: 3: 6 10 N/mm2

M-15 1: 2: 4 15 N/mm2

M-20 1: 1.5: 3 20 N/mm2

M-25 1:1:2 25 N/mm2

(For higher-grade cements these proportions vary)

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WORKABILITY:
As the name suggests it’s the ability to work with fresh concrete, in fact workability is the
composite property of fresh concrete.

The term workability is used to describe

the ease or difficulty which concrete is Mix
handled, transported, placed between Ability
forms with minimum loss of homogeneity
without bleeding or Segregation.
Handling Transport
The workability as physical property of
Ability
concrete alone irrespective of a particular Workability

type of construction can be defined as the

amount of useful internal work necessary
to produce full compaction.
Compact Place
Unworkable mix requires extra effort and
Ability Ability
energy to be compacted in place, poorly
compacted concrete is permeable, have honeycombs &/or pockets may also be visible in
finished concrete which is the primary cause for durability and serviceability of concrete. Thus,
workability of fresh concrete is essential parameter for performance of hardened concrete.

The important facts in connection with workability are:

1. If more water is added to attain required degree of workability it results into concrete of
low strength.
2. If concrete mixture is too wet, the coarse aggregate settle at the bottom of concrete mass
resulting concrete becomes of non-uniform composition. On the other hand, if the
concrete mixture is too dry, it will be difficult to handle & place it in position.
3. Workability of concrete is mainly affected by:

(a) Water cement ratio

(b) Cement Aggregate ratio
(c) Mix proportions of concrete
(d) Shape and size of Aggregates mainly coarse.
(e) Grading of aggregates.
(f) Atmospheric temperature.
(g) Surface texture of aggregates.
(h) Use of admixtures in concrete
(i) Use of supplementary cementitious materials

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The following figure explains the relation between workability and compressive strength of
concrete:

Also explain water cement ratio in workability

Fig: Workability Vs. Strength of Concrete

Slump test (field test):

Unsupported fresh concrete, flows to the sides and a sinking in height takes place. This vertical
settlement is called slump. Slump increases as water content is increased. Slump is a
measure of workability or consistency of the concrete. It gives us an idea of water content
needed for concrete to be used for different works. A concrete is said to be workable if it can
be easily placed, compacted, mixed and finished. A workable concrete should not show any
segregation and bleeding.
The mould used for this test in the form of a frustum of cone with internal dimension as follows

 Bottom diameter - 20cm

 Top diameter - 10cm
 Height- 30cm

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The standard
slump

cone as shown in figure is placed on the tray; about 1/4th portion of the slump cone is filled
up with the fresh concrete and then rammed with a rod with bullet nose of 16mm dia and
length 60 cm. The strokes to be given for ramming vary from 20 to 30. The remaining portion
of cone is filled in with similar layers so that the cone completely full of concrete the cone is
then gradually raised vertically & removed the concrete and allowed to subside and then height
of concrete is measured the slump of concrete is obtained by deducting height of concrete
after subsidence from 30 cm.

Advantages of slump test:

(1) It grants the facility to easily detect the difference in water contents of successive batches
of concrete of the same identical mix.
(2) The apparatus is cheap, portable and convenient to be used at site.

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Disadvantage of slump test and limitations:

Following are the limitations of stump test –
(1) As such there is no direct relation between workability & value of stump.
(2) This is not suitable for concrete in which maximum size of aggregate exceeds 40mm.
(3) There are chances of many shapes of slump to occur and it is difficult to decide the
correct value.
(4) Slump occurs only in case of plastic mixture. It does not occur in case of dry mixes.
The workability requirements for a concrete construction depends on:
 Water cement ratio
 Type of construction work
 Method of mixing concrete
 Thickness of concrete section
 Extent of reinforcement
 Method of compaction
 Distance of transporting
 Method of placement
 Environmental condition

Recommended slumps of concrete:

Type of concrete Slump
(1) Concrete for road construction 20 to 40 mm.
(2) Concrete for parapets, piers, slabs, wall that are horizontal 40 to 50 mm.
(3) Concrete for canal lining 70 to 80 mm
(4) Concrete for arch & sidewalls for tunnels 70 to 80 mm.
(5) Concrete for normal RCC works 80 - 150 mm.
(6) Mass concrete 25 to 50 mm.

Classification of concrete mixes:

Slump Nature of concrete mix
(1) No slump Stiff or extra-stiff mixture.
(2) 10-30 mm. Poorly mobile mix.
(3) 40-150 mm mobile mix.
(4) More than 150 mm. Cast mix.

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BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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Other important terms related to properties of fresh concrete

 Segregation may be defined as separation of constituent material from the fresh

concrete mix i.e. separation of cement paste and concrete aggregates during
transportation, bad handling, placing concrete from height and over or improper
compaction. This type of concrete is weak due to lack of homogeneity. Segregation is
also occurred by over-vibration or compaction of concrete, in which cement paste comes
to the top and aggregates settle at the bottom. It can be prevented by proper gradation
of aggregates, correct water cement ratio and care of handling, placing, transporting and
compaction.

Harmful effects due to segregation of concrete:

1. Honey combing of concrete.

2. The high permeability of concrete reduces service life and durability of concrete
3. Lower compressive strength.
4. Poor finishing of surfaces.
Concrete bleeding, is a form of segregation in which some of the water in the concrete mix
tends to rise to the surface of the freshly placed concrete. Water is different from the rest of
the material being the lowest specific gravity content. The bleeding of fresh concrete occurs
as a result of the settlement process in which the heavier particles, such as cement and water,
become pushed upwards by the free water, which is present throughout the mix so that the

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free water rises to the surface. As water is bled from the cement paste, this process continues
until the paste has hardened to a degree that can complete the sedimentation process with
ease.

Water-to-cement ratio is one of the most significant factors that affect the quality of bleed
water. It is possible to experience extreme bleeding when there is an increase in the ratio.
Cement type and fine aggregates both play an important role in determining how much bleed
will occur when using a particular cement type. There will be more bleeding in your mix if you
have fewer fines in your mix.

Bleeding is generally due to excess of water in concrete, improper mixing or in badly

proportioned concrete. Bleeding makes cement porous, reduces bonding between various
constituents of the concrete hence making the concrete weak; it can be prevented by
controlling the water content, using finely ground cement and controlling compaction.

Curing of Concrete:
Concrete sets and hardens as a result of a chemical reaction between cementitious materials
and water. This process is called hydration. The desirable properties of hardened concrete
depend upon the extent of hydration of cement. Curing is the process of maintaining
satisfactory temperature and moisture conditions in concrete by controlling moisture
movement, from and into the concrete to support the hydration process.
Curing of cement concrete is required for the following reasons:
 Due to evaporation (sun, wind and ambient conditions) the relative humidity in the
hydrating concrete is reduced, but it should not be less than 80%. Loss of water may
produce drying shrinkage cracks. Hence it is absolutely necessary to make up this
loss of water. Point to understand here is that only cement paste under goes shrinkage,
aggregates do not shrink.
 During hydration, heat is evolved and temperatures in mass concrete may reach 60
°C. Proper curing helps to maintain the temperature during hydration.
 Curing helps the concrete to harden and bond with internal materials and
reinforcement which results in impermeable, crack-free, and durable concrete.
The curing duration of concrete depends on
1. The reason for curing, i.e. to prevent plastic shrinkage, temperature control, strength,
and durability of concrete.
2. The size of a concrete structural member
3. The type of concrete grade and rate of hardening of concrete
4. The temperature and moisture conditions of surroundings
5. The exposure conditions of the concrete surface during and after curing

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6. The requirement of curing duration as per the specification of concrete

The strength and durability of concrete can be assured only if it is satisfactorily cured for
sufficient period before it can be put to service. The hydration process is a very long process
and may continue for a few years. Obviously, it not practically possible to continue the curing
process for such long periods. The curing period depends upon the type of cement used.
The Indian Standard IS 456 – 2000 recommends that curing duration of concrete must be at
least seven days in case of ordinary Portland Cement, at least ten days for concrete with
mineral admixtures or blended cements are used. It also recommends that the curing duration
should not be less than ten days for concrete exposed to dry and hot weather conditions and
14 days for concrete with mineral admixtures or blended cement in hot and dry weather.
The cementing property of cement depends upon the satisfactory hydration reaction between
cement and water. This reaction takes place well in the continued presence of water.
In short for OPC curing is vital for 3 days, essential for 7 days and desirable for 14 days.

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Method of Curing: The following methods of curing are in practice –

(i) Curing by ponding: For this method small ponds of clay, mortar, sand etc are
built round the edges of slabs and the area is filled with water. The fresh concrete
is kept continuously wet by ponding. This method is regarded as the best method
of curing.
(ii) Curing by intermittent sprinkling of water: By covering the surface with moist
sand, earth, hay, gunny bag etc. and sprinkling water at intervals to keep the
covering wet.
(iii) Curing for vertical members: Columns, walls or other such vertical surfaces
are usually cured by wrapping gunny bags or canvas over the surface and
keeping the wrapped material continuously wet by spraying water three to four
times a day.
(iv) Curing by waterproof cover: A water proof sheet is put over the concrete to
prevent evaporation of water from the surface. Sometimes a sealing
compound is sprayed on the surface of concrete, which form a very thin
waterproof coat. This method is called membrane curing.

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FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

Compressive strength of Concrete is a function of various dependent and independent factors:

i. Quality of raw materials

ii. Water/Cement ratio
iii. Coarse/Fine aggregate ratio
iv. Age of concrete
v. Compaction of concrete
vi. Temperature & relative humidity
vii. Curing of concrete.

QUALITY OF RAW MATERIALS

Cement: Provided the cement conforms with the appropriate standard and it has been stored
correctly (i.e. in dry conditions), it should be suitable for use in concrete.

Aggregates: Quality of aggregates, its size, shape, texture, strength etc determines the
strength of concrete. The presence of salts (chlorides and sulphates), silt and clay also
reduces the strength of concrete.

Water: frequently the quality of the water is covered by a clause stating “the water should be
fit for drinking”. This criterion though is not absolute and reference should be made to
respective codes for testing of water construction purpose.

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WATER / CEMENT RATIO

The relation between water cement ratio and strength of
concrete is shown in the plot. The higher the
water/cement ratio, the greater the initial spacing
between the cement grains and the greater the volume
of residual voids not filled by hydration products. There
is one thing missing on the graph. For a given cement
content, the workability of the concrete is reduced if the
water/cement ratio is reduced. A lower water cement
ratio means less water, or more cement and lower
workability. However if the workability becomes too low
the concrete becomes difficult to compact and the
strength reduces. For a given set of materials and environment conditions, the strength at any
age depends only on the water-cement ratio, providing full compaction can be achieved.

COARSE / FINE AGGREGATE RATIO

Following points should be noted for coarse/fine aggregate ratio:

 If the proportion of fines is increased in relation to the coarse aggregate, the overall
aggregate surface area will increase.

 If the surface area of the aggregate has increased, the water demand will also
increase.

 Assuming the water demand has increased, the water cement ratio will increase.

 Since the water cement ratio has increased, the compressive strength will decrease.

AGGREGATE / CEMENT RATIO

Following points must be noted for aggregate cement ratio:

 If the volume remains the same and the proportion of cement in relation to that of sand
is increased the surface area of the solid will increase.

 If the surface area of the solids has increased, the water demand will stay the same
for the constant workability.

 Assuming an increase in cement content for no increase in water demand, the water
cement ratio will decrease.

 If the water cement ratio reduces, the strength of the concrete will increase.

The influence of cement content on workability and strength is an important one to remember
and can be summarized as follows:

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1. For a given workability an increase in the proportion of cement in a mix has little effect
on the water demand and results in a reduction in the water/cement ratio.

2. The reduction in water/cement ratio leads to an increase in strength of concrete.

3. Therefore, for a given workability an increase in the cement content results in an

increase in strength of concrete.

AGE OF CONCRETE
The degree of hydration is synonymous
with the age of concrete provided the
concrete has not been allowed to dry out or
the temperature is too low. In theory,
provided the concrete is not allowed to dry
out, then it wil always be increasing albeit
at an ever reducing rate. For convenience
and for most practical applications, it is
generally accepted that the majority of the
strength has been achieved by 28 days.

COMPACTION OF CONCRETE
Any entrapped air resulting from inadequate compaction of the plastic concrete will lead to a
reduction in strength. If there was 10% trapped air in the concrete, the strength will fall down
in the range of 30 to 40%.

TEMPERATURE
The rate of hydration reaction is temperature
dependent. If the temperature increases the
reaction also increases. This means that the
concrete kept at higher temperature will gain
strength more quickly than a similar concrete
kept at a lower temperature. However, the

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final strength of the concrete kept at the higher temperature will be lower. This is because the
physical form of the hardened cement paste is less well structured and more porous when
hydration proceeds at faster rate. This is an important point to remember because temperature
has a similar but more pronounced detrimental effect on permeability of the concrete.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
If the concrete is allowed to dry out, the hydration reaction will stop. The hydration reaction
cannot proceed without moisture. The three curves shows the strength development of similar
concretes exposed to different conditions.

CURING
It should be clear from what has been said above that the detrimental effects of storage of
concrete in a dry environment can be reduced if the concrete is adequately cured to prevent
excessive moisture loss.

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BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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Object: To determine compressive strength of concrete

Apparatus:
Cube mould of 15cm side, vibrating machine, water measuring jar, compression testing
machine etc.

Materials:
Standard sand, cement, coarse aggregate etc.

Theory:
The test is carried out to study the quality of cement from compression strength point of view
the test consist of determining compression strength of 7and 28 days. Compression strength
of cement is the property that most decides the qualities of strength of concrete

Procedure:

1. Take about 1kg of cement and mix with 2kg of sand with 4kg of as coarse sand aggregate

2. The cement and sand was mixed to uniform color by towel

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BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NBA Accredited | ‘A’ Grade NAAC Accredited

___________________________________________________________________________

3. Water is mix up (p/4+3.5) % by weight of dry material (i.e. sand +sand) and mix it to obtain
uniform grey color

4. The mould surface should coated from inside and joint is sealed with grease so that no
water shall escape during compaction

5. Keep the mould at room temp about 24 hrs

6. Keep the mould in water for 3day, 7day and 28 day

7. Test the cube specimen on compressing testing machine for different curing.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
The following information is normally included in the report of each compressive test
specimen:

(a) Identification mark

(b) Date of testing
(c) Age of specimen
(d) Curing condition
(e) Wt. of specimen
(f) Dimension of specimen
(g) Cross sectional area
(h) Maximum load
(i) Compressive strength
(j) Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and type of fracture if there are unusual.

Specimen No Date of Casting Date of Testing Compressive Strength

1
2
3
Average strength of concrete:

Precautions:
(1) The cube mould were made water tight by coating the edge by grease
Result: The compressive strength of concrete after 28 days of curing is ……...…...

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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NBA Accredited | ‘A’ Grade NAAC Accredited

___________________________________________________________________________

Worksheet of the student

Date of Performance : Roll Number:

Aim: To determine the compressive strength of concrete

Observations:

DATE OF DATE OF DATE OF TESTING

CUBE SIZE CURING
CASTING TESTING 7DAYS 28 DAYS

AREA OF
SPECIMEN =

Compressive Strength

Specimen No 3 Days 7 Days 28 Days

Average strength of
concrete:

Calculations:

Result and Discussion:

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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NBA Accredited | ‘A’ Grade NAAC Accredited

___________________________________________________________________________

Learning Outcomes:

Discover/ Verify/ Validate / Experiment to understand more about the compressive strength of
concrete:
1. Trace how proper curing increases compressive strength of concrete.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Write a note how workmanship in concreting as an important factor in performance of
concrete.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Arrange the factors affecting strength of concrete according to their effect with remarks.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

To be filled in by Faculty

S.No. Parameter Marks obtained Max. Marks

Understanding of the student about the
1 20
procedure/ apparatus.
Observations and analysis including learning
2 20
outcomes
Completion of experiment, Discipline and
3 10
Cleanliness

Signature of Faculty

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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NBA Accredited | ‘A’ Grade NAAC Accredited

___________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 2
Foundation
Introduction:
The foundation is that part of the structure which transfers the entire load of the structure to
the soil on which it rests. It provides the necessary support to keep the structure stable and
upright. Soil conditions, building weight, and environmental factors are all critical
considerations when designing and constructing foundations.
The ground surface in contact with the lower surface of the foundation is called the base of
the foundation or footing. The ground on which the foundation rests is called the sub grade
or foundation soil.
Every soil has its own bearing capacity (power to sustain load) a foundation should be
designed to safely transmit the load of the structure on to a sufficient area of the soil so that
the stresses (stress= force/area) induced in the soil are within the safe limit. If a soil is
overstressed it may lead to a shear failure resulting in the sliding of the soil along a plane of
rupture and thus result in the collapse of the structure.
Yet another point of importance is the need to bring about uniform settlement, which should
be within the tolerance limits of the super structure. Proper foundation maintenance is also
crucial to ensure its longevity and prevent structural problems.

FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION
1. Supports Structure: The basic function of a foundation is that it supports the structure
and provides structural stability.
2. Reduction of Load Intensity: A foundation distributes the load of the structure on to a
sufficiently large area so as to prevent overloading on the soil with in its bearing capacity.
3. Even distribution of load: Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super
structure evenly to the sub soil. For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can
have a combined footing which may transmit the load to sub soil evenly with uniform soil
pressure. Due to this, unequal or differential settlements are minimized.
4. Protection against Soil Movement: foundation prevents or minimizes cracks in the super
structure, due to expansion or contraction of the sub soil due to moisture movement in
some soil.
5. Stability: A foundation anchors the substructure and prevents the structure from
overturning, sliding or sinking. It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus
imparting lateral stability to the super structure. The stability of the building, against
sliding and overturning, due to horizontal forces (such as wind, earthquake etc.) is
increased due to foundations.

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BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NBA Accredited | ‘A’ Grade NAAC Accredited

___________________________________________________________________________

6. Provides a Level Surface: A foundation offers a plane levelled and hard surface over
which the super structure can be built.
7. Safety against under Mining: It provides structural safety against under mining or
scouring due to burrowing animal or flooding water.
BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS:
Ultimate Bearing capacity: UBC is defined as the minimum gross pressure intensity at the
base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear.
The ultimate bearing capacity of soil is the maximum vertical pressure that can be applied to
the ground surface, at which point a shear failure mechanism develops in the supporting soil.
The safe bearing capacity may be defined as the maximum pressure, which the soil can
carry without risk of shear failure. In any construction, the load acting on unit area of the soil
shall not exceed its safe bearing capacity. It is therefore necessary to provide a foundation of
sufficiently large area so that the intensity of the load transmitted to the soil is less than the
bearing capacity of the soil.
For the safety of structure load allowed on the soil is much less than its ultimate bearing
capacity. By considering different failure conditions, the ultimate bearing capacity is divided
by certain factor of safety and the resultant is called safe bearing capacity of the soil. The safe
bearing capacity can found out by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil by a factor
of safety. The value of factor of safety varies from 2 to 3 depending upon the nature of the
soil.
Safe bearing capacity = (Ultimate bearing capacity) / (factor of safety)
Table 1 Typical factors of safety for bearing capacity calculation in different Situations

Typical Characteristics of Design factor

Category
structures the category of safety

Thorough and
Limited soil
- - - complete soil
exploration
exploration

Railway bridges, Maximum design load

warehouses, blast likely to occur often,
A furnaces, hydraulic, consequences of failure -
3.0 4.0
retaining walls, silos disastrous

Maximum design loads

Highway bridges,
may occur occasionally,
B light industrial and
consequence of failure –
2.5 3.5
public buildings
serious

Apartment and Maximum design load

C office buildings unlikely to occur
2.0 3.0

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BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NBA Accredited | ‘A’ Grade NAAC Accredited

___________________________________________________________________________

SAFE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS

Following table gives you the values of safe bearing capacity of different types of soils.

Safe Bearing
S.No Type of Soil
Capacity ( kN/m2)

Cohesive Soils

1. Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in a deep bed, dry state 440

2. Medium clay readily indented with a thumbnail 245

Moist clay and Sand clay mixture which can be indented

3. 150
by thumb pressure

Black cotton soil/expansive clay ( 50% saturated) in dry

4. 130 to 160
state

5. Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure 100

Very soft clay which can be penetrated with the thump up

6. 50
to few centimetres/ Black cotton soil

Cohesion less Soil

Compact gravel/sand and gravel mixture with good

7. 440
resistance against penetration of tools

8. Compact and dry coarse sand 440

9. Compact and dry medium sand 245

10. Loose gravel or sandy gravel mixture, dry state 245

11. Fine sand and silt ( consists of dry lumps) 150

12. Loose and dry fine sand 100

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 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NBA Accredited | ‘A’ Grade NAAC Accredited

___________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 3
Load Bearing & Framed Construction
Difference between Load Bearing & Framed Construction

S.N RCC Framed Structure Load Bearing Structure

It is Mostly used form in modern It is Rarely used form of

Uses
construction. construction.

Load is transferred to the beam,

The load is transferred to the soil
Load transfer then column and at last to the
by wall bearing structure
soil through footing.

Walls are constructed after the There are no Columns and

Wall construction
frame is ready beams, slab rests over walls only

Since wall has to bear the load of

Thickness of wall remains same
Thickness of wall the structure, thickness of wall
with increase in height
increase with increase in height.

There is no limitation on length There is limitation to construct

Length of wall
of wall long walls at a stretch

Position of walls can be

Flexibility in Not possible to alter the position
changed whenever necessary
planning & of walls after the construction. No
Greater flexibility in planning &
design flexibility in panning & design
design

It can be constructed on any It can be constructed on hard

Soil condition
type of soil strata

Earthquake It has Good earthquake It has poor earthquake resisting

resistance resisting power. power.

Walls are thinner hence more Walls are thicker hence less floor
Floor area
floor area is available for use area available for use

Excavation It has Less excavation It has more excavation

Material
Less materials are required More materials are required
requirement

Cement & steel

Consumes more cement & steel Consumes less cement & steel
quantity

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BHILAI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NBA Accredited | ‘A’ Grade NAAC Accredited

___________________________________________________________________________

S.N RCC Framed Structure Load Bearing Structure

More no. of labours as well as

Labour Less no. of labours as well as
Skilled & unskilled labours are
requirement skilled labours are required
required

Span area Large span area are possible Large span area are not possible

Height is limited & suitable for 2

Height There is no restriction on height
to 3 stories only

Speed of It can be constructed more

It is Slow & time consuming
construction rapidly.

Flexibility in changing room No possible to change room

Room dimension
dimension dimension

Cantilever Cantilever can be easily It is Difficult to provide cantilever

element provided & permitted up to short span only

Additional Does not provide additional

Provides additional enclosure
Enclosure enclosure

It is economically for multi- It is economical up to 2storey

Cost
storey building only

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