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Earth

FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS

 Pocket Genius

Earth

FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS

 DK DELHI
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TALL TREE LTD.
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First American Edition, 2012
This edition published in the United States in 2016 by
DK Publishing, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
Copyright © 2012, 2016 Dorling Kindersley Limited
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 contents
4 Formation of the Earth 84 ocean
6 Geological timeline
86 Ocean currents
8 Inside the Earth
88 Seas and oceans
10 The moving Earth
102 What is a coral reef?
12 Fault systems
104 Coral reefs
16 land 110 Coastal features

18 World biomes 118 atmosphere

20 Mountains
120 The Earth’s atmosphere
26 Volcanoes
122 Precipitation
32 Volcanic features
124 Cloud types
36 Rocks
132 Storms
40 Rivers
46 River features 138 climate
48 Lakes 140 Global warming
52 Wetlands 142 Climate regions
56 Glaciers
60 Glacial features 146 Did you know?
62 Deserts 148 Amazing Earth facts
68 Forests 150 Glossary
74 Grasslands 152 Index
76 Tundra 156 Acknowledgments
80 Agricultural areas
82 Urban areas

Scales and sizes Levels of clouds

This book contains Where the cloud appears
profiles of rocks that 6 in is based on the height
have scale drawings to (15 cm) at which the cloud
indicate size. base occurs.
Troposphere

Locators Locators
A red dot shows the Red shaded
location of a feature areas show
and a red rectangle the extent of
of larger features. larger features.
Area locations Area shading
4 | EARTH

Formation of the Earth

About 14 billion years ago, the universe was born in an incredibly
violent explosion known as the Big Bang. In a fraction of a second,
the speck-sized universe expanded into a huge fireball of gases.
It cooled over time, forming stars, galaxies (large groups of stars),
and planets, including the Earth.

The solar system formed from

a spinning cloud of gas and dust Particles in the disk clumped
together to form small bodies

The center of the cloud

heated up to form the
Sun, with a spinning disk
of gas and dust around it

The birth of the Earth

and the Moon
The young Earth was a red-hot ball of molten
rock, or magma. Around 4.6 billion years ago, it
was struck by a large body the size of the planet
Mars. Vast amounts of debris were thrown into
space, where they gathered together to form the
Moon. Over time, the Earth cooled to become a rocky
planet, with oceans, continents, and an atmosphere.
 FORMATION OF THE EARTH | 5

Neptune Saturn Mars

Uranus
Venus Mercury

Sun
Earth

Jupiter
The solar system
The solar system is made up of the Sun, eight planets,
more than 170 moons, and millions of small, rocky bodies,
such as asteroids and comets. The planets revolve around the
Sun in paths called orbits. The four planets closest to the Sun
are balls of rock and metal, while the other four are
made up mostly of gas and liquid.

The small bodies crashed Goldilocks PlaneT

into each other and joined
to create planets

The Earth is the only planet in our solar

system that supports life. It is called
a “Goldilocks planet,” after the story
of Goldilocks and the Three Bears. Just
as Goldilocks found the porridge that
was “just right” for her to eat, the Earth
is “just right” to support life—neither too
hot nor too cold, and with large amounts
Formation of the of liquid water, which allows life to flourish.
solar system
6 | EARTH

Geological timeline
People who study the Earth are called geologists. Using sources
such as fossils, rocks, and minerals, they have divided the Earth’s
history into different portions of time. The longest are called eons,
which are made up of eras, which consist of periods.

First life
About three billion years ago, the first traces
of life appeared in the form of bacteria living
in shallow seas. They built mounds out of
sand, called stromatolites. These mounds
are still forming in some areas today, and
provide a record of life on the Earth.
Stromatolites

period Cambrian Ordovician Silurian Devonian Carboniferous

era 542 million years ago (mya) paleozoic era

eon phanerozoic

Complex life
Life-forms grew much more complex
during the Cambrian period. From
Ordovician times onward, small
land plants began to develop. By
the Devonian period, bigger fernlike
and treelike plants formed the first
forests, along with giant fungi, such
as Prototaxites. These provided
habitats for the first land animals.
About 7 in (18 cm) Aglaophyton
are dwarfed by giant fungi
 GEOLOGICAL TIMELINE | 7

The origin of humans

Many modern mammals, including horses,
camels, and cows, first appeared in the Neogene
Coelophysis Period. Hominids—the ancestors of humans—
appeared in Africa and spread across
the world. Homo habilis was a
hominid that lived in East Africa
about two million years ago.

Age of dinosaurs
Dinosaurs first evolved in the
Triassic Period as small, two-legged
animals, such as Coelophysis. They
Homo
continued to evolve in the Jurassic habilis
Period, and became the dominant
life-forms on land.

Permian Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Paleogene Neogene

252 mya mesozoic era 65 mya cenozoic era

Mass extinction
Fossil records show that at
the end of the Cretaceous
Period, about 65 million
years ago, an asteroid or
comet collided with the
Earth. It is thought to
have killed huge numbers
of species, including the
dinosaurs. This marked
the end of the Mesozoic Era.
8 | EARTH

Inside the Earth

The inside of the Earth has three main layers: a thin, cool outer
crust; a thick, hot mantle; and an even hotter metallic core.
The movement of heat from the core through the mantle
has caused the rocks of the Earth’s crust
to change over time.

The Earth bulges at the equator

Inner core is 1,700 miles

(2,740 km) thick

Direction of the
Earth’s rotation

Shape and form

The force of gravity pulls the Earth into an
almost perfect sphere. However, the Earth
rotates on its axis, which causes it to
bulge slightly at the equator.

The Earth’s layers

The Earth’s outermost layer is the crust, which is
made of soil and rock. Under this is the mantle, where
liquid rock, or magma, flows in huge swirls. However,
the inside, or core, of the Earth has two sections—an
outer core of thick liquid rock, and a solid inner core.

Layers of the Earth

 INSIDE THE EARTH | 9

Outer core is 1,240 miles

(2,000 km) thick typEs of Rock
Mantle is 1,800 miles
(2,900 km) thick

Igneous rocks form from molten rock that

has cooled and turned solid. They originate
from deep inside the Earth, and may form at
or below the Earth’s surface.

Sedimentary rocks form at the Earth’s surface

and are made up of clearly visible layers of
minerals, rock pieces, or organic matter (such
as the remains of animals and plants).

Metamorphic rocks, such as this quartzite

rock, form when existing rocks are
Crust is 4–40 miles
squeezed by pressure and heated
(6–64 km) thick
deep under the Earth’s crust.
10 | EARTH

The moving Earth

The Earth’s crust is broken up into huge, irregularly shaped pieces
called tectonic plates. These plates are pushed around by the
movement of magma in the mantle below. This movement causes the
Earth to change gradually, over millions of years—continents have been
created, oceans have opened and closed, and mountains have risen.

Plate tectonics
More than 200 million years ago, the Earth consisted of one large landmass—a “supercontinent”
called Pangaea. The movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates over millions of years broke up
this landmass, creating the modern continents. This movement of plates is known as plate
tectonics, and continues to take place today.

270 million 200 million Today

years ago years ago

The Earth’s plates

There are 30 tectonic plates, of
which seven cover 94 percent of the Earth.
The rest is made up of 23 smaller plates. The
boundaries, or edges, of tectonic plates are
usually marked by mountains, earthquake
and volcanic zones, and oceanic trenches.

The Earth’s tectonic plates

 THE MOVING EARTH | 11

Plate boundary
Where two tectonic plates meet,
different types of plate boundary are
formed, based on how the plates move.
Plate movement can cause earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions.

Where plates crash A divergent boundary Where two plates

into each other, a is created where plates scrape past each
convergent boundary move away from each other, a transform
occurs. Here, one plate other. Molten lava may boundary occurs.
may be pushed beneath rise up from the mantle
the other in a process to fill the gap at this
called subduction. type of boundary.

Key Volcanic zone

Hotspot
Earthquake zone
Pacific Ring of Fire

Plate
boundary

Most earthquakes
occur in the Ring
of Fire, which
covers many plate
edges around the
Hotspots are areas Pacific Ocean
of high volcanic activity
12 | EARTH

Fault systems
The constant movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates causes its
crust to split apart. This can lead to massive blocks of rock slipping
past one another, resulting in huge cracks in the Earth’s surface
called faults. Plates sometimes get stuck as they push past each
other, causing energy to build up. When they eventually
slip free, the sudden jolt can cause an earthquake.

San Andreas Fault

The San Andreas Fault slices across California’s Location From Cape Mendocino,
coastal region. To its west is the Pacific plate, northern California, to the Gulf of California
which stretches from the edge of California almost PLate boundary tyPe Transform
to Asia. To the east is the North American plate,
Length 808 miles (1,300 km)
which makes up most of the continent. The
inhabited areas on this fault, particularly in
southern California, are prone to earthquakes.

Over the last century,

the San Andreas Fault
has been moving
at an average rate of
2 in (5 cm) every year.
 FAULT SYSTEMS | 13

Great Rift Valley Sunda Megathrust

Africa’s Great Rift Valley runs through This fault lay inactive for a thousand
the middle of Kenya. It is part of a huge set of years. But in 2004, a part of it slipped, causing
cracks in the Earth’s crust called the East African a huge earthquake and tsunami in the Indian
Rift System. In northeastern Africa, this system Ocean. Giant waves swept far inland, destroying
divides the African plate from the Arabian plate, coastlines and killing about 280,000 people.
cutting past the Sinai Peninsula.

Location From Bangladesh, through Sumatra,

Location From the southern Red Sea, Bali, and Indonesia, to northwestern Australia
through East Africa, to Beira in Mozambique PLate boundary tyPe Convergent
PLate boundary tyPe Divergent Length 3,400 miles (5,500 km)
Length 4,000 miles (6,400 km)

Great Alpine Fault

Sinai Peninsula

About 26 million years ago, the movement

of the Pacific and Australian plates formed the
Great Alpine Fault. Plate movement pushed
the land up, creating the Southern Alps.

Location New Zealand’s South Island west

coast from Fiordland to Blenheim
PLate boundary tyPe Transform
Length 310 miles (500 km)
14 | EARTH
 EARTH | 15

Half a million years ago, these

crystals were as small as a grain
of salt, but now they weigh

55 tons

Cave of Crystals
Giant crystals of selenite, a form of the mineral gypsum,
are found 1,000 ft (300 m) below the Naica mine in
Mexico. They formed when a magma chamber boiled
the water below the Earth’s surface at a consistent
temperature for 500,000 years. The heat solidified the
crystals in the water and helped them grow. They are
now some of the largest natural crystals in the world.
16 | EARTH
 LAND | 17

Land
About 30 percent of the Earth’s surface is
covered by land. A wide range of landscapes
are found on the Earth, including mountains,
deserts, forests, and grasslands. Many of these
landscapes are shaped by the wind and rain,
while others, such as deltas and valleys, are
formed by rivers and glaciers. Human activity
can also shape the landscape. People use the
countryside as farmland to grow crops or herd
animals, while urban areas feature tall buildings
and well-developed roads and highways.

voLcanic effect
Volcanic eruptions can change
the landscape in many ways.
When lava comes into contact
with water, it can cool to form
islands. Also, volcanic ash acts
as fertilizer, helping plants grow.
18 | LAND

World biomes
Regions that share the same climate, soils, vegetation,
and animals are known as biomes. Scientists divide the
world into a number of biomes, or habitats, ranging
from dry deserts with very little life to wet rainforests
teeming with plants and animals.

Tundra regions are

too cold for most
trees to grow. The NORTH
plant life mainly AMERICA
consists of tough
grasses, mosses,
and small shrubs.

There are two kinds of

KEY grassland: temperate, SOUTH
Polar regions found in cool areas; and AMERICA
tropical, found in hot
Mountains areas near the equator.
Rainforests
Coniferous forests
Temperate forests

Wetlands
Mountains are high, rocky
Grasslands areas that are colder than
Tundra most lower areas. Many
mountains are permanently
Deserts covered in ice and snow.
Oceans
 WORLD BIOMES | 19

Wetlands are waterlogged or

flooded areas of land. They
may have salty or fresh water,
and include mangroves, bogs,
marshes, and fens.

Antarctica and the Arctic form the polar

regions, which are the Earth’s coldest
zones. Polar regions cover about
20 percent of the Earth’s surface.

EUROPE
Coniferous forests
form the world’s largest
ASIA
continuous land biome. They
consist of coniferous trees
AFRICA that cover about 17 percent
of the Earth’s land area.

EQUATOR

The largest biome on the

Earth, oceans support
a huge range of living
species, from tiny plankton
to the biggest animal in the AUSTRALIA
world—the blue whale.

Rainforests are Temperate forests

Deserts cover about found in regions with lie roughly midway
one-fifth of the Earth’s very wet climates. between the poles
land surface. They receive Tropical rainforests and the equator.
little or no rain and very contain more plant They have distinct
few animals and plants and animal life than warm and cold
live in them. any other biome seasons called
on the Earth. summer and winter.
ANTARCTICA
20 | LAnD

Mountains
focus on... Masses of rock that rise high above their
life surroundings are called mountains. They
Many plants are pushed up by plate movements over
and animals have
adapted to the cold many millions of years to create soaring
temperatures of peaks. At present, mountains cover
the mountains.
20 percent of the Earth’s land surface.

Rocky Mountains
▲ Lady Amherst’s
pheasant lives in the
The Rocky Mountains are made up of at least 100
mountain forests of
separate ranges. They are part of one of the largest
Asia. It moves up and
mountain belts on Earth—the Western cordillera. The
down the mountains
landscape of the mountain chain is complex and varied,
with the seasons.
with towering peaks and active volcanoes.

Location Western north America, from Alaska

to new Mexico
highest peak Mount Elbert, colorado (14,431 ft/4,399 m)
▲ The dark color of the Length 3,000 miles (4,800 km)
Bhutan glory helps it to
absorb sunlight and warm
up quickly in the cold.

▲ The small, tough

leaves of alpine plants
reduce water loss and
protect them from very
cold temperatures.
 MOUNTAINS | 21

Andes

The Andes is the longest mountain chain in the Mount Fitzroy

world. Its peaks rise suddenly from sea level on in Patagonia,
southern Andes
the Pacific coast of South America to altitudes
of over 21,500 ft (6,500 m). It is one of the
Earth’s most active mountain belts. There
are frequent earthquakes as well as
eruptions from 183 active volcanoes.

Location Down western

South America, from the
Caribbean Sea to Cape Horn
highest peak
Aconcagua, Argentina
(22,835 ft/6,960 m)
Length
4,500 miles (7,200 km)

Urals

Also known as “the stone belt,” the Ural Location From the Arctic Ocean
mountain range separates Europe from Asia. to the border between Russia and Kazakhstan
The central and southern parts of this range highest peak Narodnaya, Russia
are covered with thick forests, while farther (6,215 ft/1,895 m)
north, there are alpine meadows and tundra.
Length 1,500 miles (2,400 km)
22 | LAND

Pyrenees Alps

The Alps were created when the African and

Eurasian plates collided around 90 million years
ago. These mountains form a curved belt, with
many peaks rising to above 13,000 ft (4,000 m).
They form the largest mountain range in Europe.

Atlas Mountains

These mountains do not form a continuous

chain, but a series of different ranges. The
northern ranges get plenty of rainfall and
During the Cretaceous Period, Iberia split from feature cedar, pine, and oak forests. The
the supercontinent of Pangaea. As the Atlantic southern ranges are drier and have salt
Ocean opened, the Iberian plate was squeezed flats in areas close to the Sahara.
between Europe and North Africa, forming the
Pyrenees. This range has some of Europe’s most
spectacular waterfalls and many limestone caves
with paintings by early modern humans.

Location Between France and Spain, from

the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea
highest peak Aneto, Spain (11,170 ft/3,405 m)
Length 270 miles (435 km)
 MOUNTAINS | 23

Drakensberg Plateau

location Across southern Europe, Although the Drakensberg Plateau is

from Mediterranean France to Austria made up of sedimentary rocks, it is covered with
highest peak Mont Blanc, France a layer of basalt, an igneous rock. This layer was
(15,770 ft/4,805 m) originally 4,900 ft (1,500 m) thick and covered an
area of about 800,000 sq miles (2 million sq km),
length 650 miles (1,050 km)
but over time, much has been worn away. The
plateau has steep sandstone cliffs, individual
pinnacles, waterfalls, and huge caves.

location From northeastern to southern

South Africa, through Swaziland and Lesotho
highest peak Ntlenyana, Lesotho
(11,417 ft/3,480 m)
length 800 miles (1,290 km)

location From the Atlantic coast

of Morocco to the Mediterranean east
coast of Tunisia
highest peak Toubkal, Morocco
(13,665 ft/4,165 m)
length 1,500 miles (2,400 km)
24 | LAND

Himalayas

Formed within the last 50 million years, the location From northern Pakistan
Himalayas are one of the world’s youngest and India, across Nepal and Bhutan to China
mountain belts. They are the highest mountains highest peak Mount Everest, Nepal
on the Earth, and are getting higher at a rate of (29,035 ft/8,850 m)
1
/6 in (4 mm) every year, because the Indian plate
length 1,500 miles (2,400 km)
is still pushing into the Eurasian plate.

Great Dividing Range

This range is one of Australia’s most

important geographical features, since it
is the source of many of the country’s
major rivers, including the Murray and
the Darling. It runs along the length
of Australia’s eastern coast, with
the highest peaks in the south.

location From the Cape York

Peninsula, Queensland, along
Australia’s eastern coast to Tasmania
highest peak
Mount Kosciuszko, Australia
(7,310 ft/2,230 m)
length 2,237 miles (3,600 km)
 MOUNTAINS | 25

Southern Alps

New Zealand’s Alps were formed by the location New Zealand’s South
collision of the Pacific plate and the Australian Island, from northeast to southwest
plate. The range is at its highest near the center. highest peak Mount Cook, New Zealand
Its western slopes are covered in forests because (12,285 ft/3,745 m)
of the year-round rains brought by the winds
length 300 miles (500 km)
blowing from that direction.

Transantarctic Mountains

The curved belt of the Transantarctic

Mountains separates the higher region of
Greater Antarctica in the east from the lower
Lesser Antarctica in the west. This belt includes
many volcanoes, some of which are still active,
such as Deception Island.

location Across Antarctica, from

Oates Land to the Antarctic Peninsula
highest peak Mount Kirkpatrick, Antarctica
(14,856 ft/4,528 m)
length 2,200 miles (3,500 km)
26 | LAnD

Volcanoes
A volcano is both an opening in the Earth’s focus on...
crust through which magma, ash, and hot types
There are many
gases erupt from below its surface, and the different types of
structure created by this eruption. Volcanic volcano, depending
on their shape or the
eruptions can cause widespread destruction. way they were formed.

Crater Lake Kilauea

About 7,000 years ago, a massive Kilauea is the most active of the overlapping
eruption destroyed Mount Mazama and formed volcanoes that have built up the island of Hawaii,
a crater, or caldera. over time, heavy rain and which rises more than 13,000 ft (4,000 m) from the
snowfall caused water levels in the crater to ocean floor. since 1983, flows from Kilauea have
rise, creating crater Lake. As the lake is not fed covered more than 40 sq miles (100 sq km).
by streams or rivers, which carry sediments—
particles of rock, mineral, or plant and animal
remains—its water is extremely clear. LOCATION southeast Hawaii
TYPE shield volcano
hEIGhT 4,000 ft (1,220 m)
LOCATION southern cascade Range, oregon
TYPE collapsed stratovolcano
hEIGhT 8,170 ft (2,490 m)
 VoLcAnoEs | 27

▲ A stratovolcano is cone- ▲ A shield volcano is formed ▲ A submarine volcano

shaped, with steep slopes. when runny basalt lava flows forms deep under water
It is built of many layers across the ground. It is usually and its eruption may or
of lava and ash. broad, with shallow slopes. may not reach sea level.

surtsey

In november 1963, a series of volcanic

explosions occurred off the coast of southern
Iceland. When the smoke cleared, a new island
had appeared above the waves. The Icelandic
government named it surtsey, after surtur, a
mythical norse fire giant. The island continued
to emit clouds of ash and fountains of lava until
1967, when it finally fell quiet.

LOCATION off the coast of Iceland

TYPE submarine
hEIGhT 500 ft (150 m) above sea level
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