GEO3211

BIOGEOGRAPHY
Course outline
1-introduction

-definition of biogeography, its significant and relevance in addressing

contemporary global challenges.

2-geographic variation in physical environment and how it influence the global

distribution of plant and animals.

3-energy flow and the ecosystem.

-aquatic and terrestrial biomes.

4-theories of biogeography

-big bang theory

-theory of evolution

-ecological succession

-tectonic plate theory

-natural and anthropogenic impact on plants and animals

-study of plants and animals on the field

-conservation properties with special focus on Nigeria

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 INTRODUCTION
Biogeography is the study of origin, distribution, adaptation and association of plants and
animals which made up the complex components of the biosphere.

Traditionally biogeography studies plant (phytogeography) and as well as animals

(zoogeography).

“Biogeography is concern with the world plants than the world of animals” said professor
Edwards, as he suggested, the importance of both of these elements and a systematic approach
to their ecology constitutes a principal contribution of biogeography by its nature and subject
matter, biogeography appears to require a much stronger foundation in biological science than
has been found in the traditional training of geographers. It may be, therefore, that
geographers are biologist first and geographers second. What are their background and training
the work and contribution of geographers are increasing importance in understanding the
complexity of contemporary world.

THEORIES OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
1- Bigbang theory

2- Theory of evolution

3- plate tectonic theory

4- Succession and climate climax

Bigbang theory
The big bang theory explains how the universe began through the bigbang model. It was
proposed that the universe was once compact, dense and hot because of the extreme high
temperature, then some original event referred to as the cosmic explosion called the bigbang
occurs about 10-20 billion years ago and the universe since then began to cool and expand .

The bigbang theory model was based on two assumptions;

*the first is the Albert Einstein general theory of relativity which correctly describes the
gravitational interaction of all matter.

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*the second assumption state that an observers view of the universe depend neither on the
direction in which he looks nor his location.

These two assumptions make it possible to calculate the history of the cosmos after a certain
epoch called the plank time.

According to the bigbang theory the universe expanded so rapidly from a highly compressed
primordial state, which resulted in a significant decrease in density and temperature soon
afterward. The dominance of matter over anti matter as observed today may have been
particles may have been present. After few seconds universe cooled enough to allow the
formation of certain elements. The theory predicts that definite amounts of hydrogen, helium,
and lithium were produced. Their correspondence agrees with what is observed today.

Theory of evolution
the theory of evolution tries to explain how organisms come to being. Evolution is defined as a
complex process by which characteristics of organism change over many dimensions as traits
are passed on from one generation to another. According to the theory of evolution living
things came into existence by means co-incidental and developed further as consequence of
coincidental effect. The earth is believed to be 4-6 billion years old, the earth composed of
series of moving plate which affect the biological and physical history of the earth.

-evolution of the earth living organisms

-physical and biological changes took place over long period of time.

Science of evolution seeks to understand the biological forces that cause ancient organisms
to develop into a tremendous ever changing biology of life of the earth today.

In other words, according to Darwin, the theory of nature built simple in organism into highly
complex and flawless organisms.

The theory addresses how over time various plants animals branches off to become entirely
new different species and how different species of organism are related through complicated
family tree.

The theory also provide ancestral frame work for biogeographers in other to study and
understand the history of the special distribution of living things on the earth surface, all living
things from plants to bacteria has a common ancestors. Then how closely related species share
a common ancestors and how distant related species also share a common ancestors in the
past e.g. animals most closely to humans are gorilla, and their common ancestor are apes.

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 The theory of evolution was first brought to light in the first century. The discovery of the
structure of DNA reveals that the nucleuses of a living organism possess very special genetic
information and that this information cannot be acquired.

The theory of human evolution

Human evolution refers to how humans evolve. Therefore every human evolution is lengthily
and complex process by which man originated from ape-like ancestors. Scientific evidence
shows that physical and behavioral traits evolve over the last 5 billion years. One the earliest
defining traits /characteristics are bi-pedal evolves in the last 2 million years. Other important
human characteristics like the large brain, ability to make tools, used the tools and the ability to
language (communication skills) evolve much recently.

Many advanced traits /characteristics including symbolic expression like art, elaborate culture
and diversity evolved in the last hundred thousand years. Human physical and genetic
combination shows that human species (homo-sapiens) have close relationship with other
primates. Humans and the large apes of Africa (chimpanzees/gorillas) are believed to have
shared a common ancestor that lived between 5 and 8 million years ago. Most of this theory of
human evolution shows that humans evolve from Africa and spatial distribution (spread) to
other parts of the world. Fossil of early humans were found between 2 and 5 million years ago
in Africa. It said to be discovered that 98% genes of humans and that of chimpanzees (closest
biological traits humans) are similar.

There are two basic theories which believed that man evolves from Africa.

1. Multi-regional /candelabra hypothesis; this theory shows how Homo sapiens emerge from
the three old continents of Africa Europe and Asia.

2. Out of Africa/Noah’s ark hypothesis; this hypothesis shows human evolving from Africa and
migrating to other part of the world replacing other species.

The most recent and accepted theory of evolution is the theory of evolution by natural
selection proposed by Charles Darwin. This states that within a given population in a given
environment certain individuals contain certain characteristics that make them more likely to
survive and reproduce and these individuals passed their characteristics to their off springs

The Darwin and Wallace natural selection can be summaries as follows.

1. All population contain genetic variation of traits/ characteristics

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2. Some variation is more favorable than others. E.g. some variant types have an edge in terms
of competition, avoidance of predators etc.

3. Not all young will survive to productive maturity.

4. those favorable variations are likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their favorable traits
to their off springs.

Most of the theories are not readily accepted but are considered to be anti-Christ my Christians
and Muslims.

Theory of ecological succession

Succession is a scientific term describing the long term progression of biological community in a
given area. Succession occurs when plant and animals replace another man system. Its broken
down into three phases or stages, primary, secondary and climax stages. But a succession study
mainly focuses on plants because there are the primary producers.

1. Primary succession; it occurs when organisms colonized an area devoid of life due to some
catastrophic event. Area like forest or quarrying site. E.g. Algae, fungi, small plants like
lichens and mosses. Along with small animals like insects, birds and small vertebrate.

2. Secondary succession; most ecological changes occurs as secondary succession infect most
biological communities in an area that in a continuous change of secondary succession. Thus
the term describe the process by which an established community is replace by a different sets
of plants and animals. Its gradual and always moving to climax community. Most recent
ecosystem, however experience disturbance. E.g. wildfire, flooding, landslide etc.

3. climax; they are relatively stable and can be found on mountains and valleys. They depend
on temperature, rainfall, soil and altitude. The rainforest and desert are mostly classified as
climax.

They are four types of types of ecological succession

1. pioneer stage; the pioneer are the new life form that entered the primary succession and
begin to take hold, this can be anything from seeds, bacteria, tiny insect or to an even mammals
wondering into a new area and bedding down to making it their home. The pioneer has no
connection to the environment, but it does find enough presence in the new ecosystem and
begin to establish its life.

2. Establishing stage; this stage can be hard to pinpoint because it crosses into the pioneer
stage and the sustaining stage.

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Establishing stage is the process in which life form start to identify element in the ecosystem
can sustain their basic needs such as food, water, and safe habitant.

3. Sustaining stage; the sustaining type means that life in ecosystem has beginning to enter a
new pattern that allows life cycle to continue. This means that the birth and death are
occurring. This is mostly common in the climax succession.

4. producing stage; this type occur during secondary succession, it is when life form breeding
are growing but migrating because what is produced is also not enough capable of being
successful in the ecosystem.

Pioneer species are the ones that thrive and survive in their new habitant at the beginning of
the ecosystem succession. Pioneer species are ’‘r selected’’ they are fast growing and well
dispersed/spread. Early succession is therefore dominated by the r selected species as it
continues, more species entered the community and start to alter the environment, there are
called ‘’k selected’’ species. They are more competitive (fight for resource) and space.

The species that best suited for the real environment begin to succeed other species, they are
also also succeeded by the new species. This goes on until the state of climax exceeded and its
state of equilibrium or climax community

ISLAND BIOGEOGRAHY
the theory island biogeography simply said that a larger island has greater number of species
comparable to smaller island. For this theory island is an ecosystem that is remarkably different
from any other ecosystem. This could refer to an actual island in the ocean nor an oasis
surrounding by desert.

THE INFLUENCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY ON AN ISLAND

Immigration; this is the process by which a new species comes into a new island, when there’s
a high rate of immigration they will be high number of species in the island /ecosystem,
however , immigration rate tend to be low when species diversity became higher in the island .

Emigration; This refer to moving out of number of species from the island. Emigration produce
result opposite of the immigration, as more species emigrate there will be fewer species left on
the island.

Extinction; this refers to living organisms that became extinct. Extinction is related to the size of
the island. The smaller the island the higher the rate of extinction. This is because larger island
contain more resources and habitant and are therefore able to support more life.

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Equilibrium; when the immigration rate and extinction are equal, the rate is said to be in
equilibrium. This means that the number of species in an island stay roughly the same.
However, while the number of species does not change, the competition of those species can
change on the island. The rate at which turn over in balanced.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORSAFFECTING ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY

- Time

- Climate

- Weather

- Natural disaster

- Human factor

- Isolation

For example; the longer it’s Isolated the less the species diversity, likewise the further the island
is from immigration, the less the diversity.

THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONIC

According to the theory of plate tectonic, the outer shape of the earth is made up of thin, rigid
plate that move relative to one another, the outer most plate is made up of silica and aluminum
(sial) and the sea is composed of (sima) as a result the earth is composed of core, mantle and
the crust.

The layering is composed of density, pressure and temperature. Their core is the inner most
and its denser composing of the outer core and its composed of the igneous rock, it is divided
into three which are the lower mantle which surrounded the core, the asthenosphere and the
outer mantle, the upper mantle and the crust form the lithosphere which is broken into pieces
called plates. It is also used to explain why we are where we are.

The idea that continent move during the past, people notice that the margin of east America
and west Africa looks like puzzle which fits in like jigsaw.

Geologist also notice that similar or identical fossils occurs on widely separated continents and
other parts. The same type of rock pf same period and feature indicating former glacier
conditions occurs in today tropical areas in 1912, a German mythologist ALFRED WEGNE.

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 PHYSICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE /DETERMING PLANTS AND ANIMALS DISTRIBUTION

1- water/precipitation /moisture; the availability of water to terrestrial organisms at a

particular point in time is determined by the balance among precipitation , evaporation, run off
and infiltration. This balance in turn affected by organisms mainly the plants cover. They
transpiration of plants return most of the water in the atmosphere and by obstructing overland
flow, plants produce run off and increasing soil porosity. Water is important because through
evolution organisms have become adapted to excessive or deficiency in water availability.

Ecologist and biogeographers classified plants according to their water requirement, using the
terminologies built on the simple principle of Greek ancient origin.

A-xero

B-meso

C-hygro/hydro

Plants that grows in a dry environment are called xerophytes, in wet environment are called
hydrophytes and those of the intermediate degree of wetness and relative uniform soil water
availability are called mesophytes.

-xerophytes are always in dry and can survive in habitant that dry quickly following lack of
precipitation e.g. sand dust.

-hydrophytes are tolerant of excessive water and can be found in shallow streams, mashes ,
bugs, swamps etc.

-the mesophytes are found I upland habitants in regions of ample rainfall. Here drainage of soil
water is gradual and mostly penetrate deeply where plants can taps it.

Water loss from plants tissue occurs through transpiration and the rate of transpiration varies
greatly according to the type plant and prevailing atmospheric condition.

2.high temperature/altitude and wind; high rate of transpiration in plants structure and
surface are the determinant of the rate of water losss, plants with large leaves surface have
higher rate of transpiration than those bearing small leaves e.g. Sycamore (large), needle leaves
(small).

Under conditions of low water supply and high rate of transpiration, only these plants that
minimize transpiration losses by their special leaves structure and their small size leaves can
survive the adaptation of plant structure to soil water budget with large leaves. A particular
interest to plant geographers.

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Transpiration occurs from specialize pores called the stomata. The opening of the stomata are
gas cells that surround it and regulate its opening and closing and also regulate the water loss.
although most transpiration occurs through the stomata while some, water vapor pass through
the cuticles which is the outermost layer of the leaves. This type of water loss is reduced in
some plants by the deposition of wax or wax-like material near the leaves surface.

This way desert plants have thick cuticles or wax spotted leaves stem and branches. other
means of reducing transpiration are developing of strata deeply sunken into the leaves surface
to retend outward diffusion of water vapor into dry air or restriction of matter on shaded area
of the leaves. A plant also adapt to dry condition by greatly reducing the leaves area to
having no leaves at all. E.g. spine greatly reduce water loss through transpiration . in addition to
this development, plants in water ceded environment improves their means of retaining water
at increased depth and store it to their stem e.g. root become greatly extended at increasing
depth the reach soil moisture. In case where the root reach the ground table excess water
supply is assured for the plant (phreatophyte). They are found around dry channels and alluvial
valley flows in the desert, other plants produce the undespread but shallow root system e.g.
neem tree, enabling them to absorb the maximum quantity of water from sporadic desert
down pores or rain that saturate only the uppermost soil layer. Stem of desert plants are also
thicken greatly by a spongy tissue in which water is stored is called succulents, a quick different
adaptation of these plants is seen in species of plants and animals that compete a short life
cycle of germination, leafing, flowering, fruiting and sea dispersal immediately following a down
pour. In certain climate like the wet/dry temperate and moisture, continental climate have a
greatly cycle with one season in which water is not available to plant because of lack of
precipitation or the soil water is frozen. The season alternate with one season in which there is
available water, plant adapted to these region are called the tropophyte.

Tropophytes became dominant when there is no water supply. Characteristics are animal
that adapt to dry condition, many vertebrate.

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION IN PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND HOW IT INFLUENCE THE

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

There are diversities in species in plants and animals. Plant and animals are either terrestrial or
aquatic, diversities of plant and animals are found from the equator to the pole and from
foothills to the mountain top.

FACTORS INFLUENCE WORLD PLANTS AND ANIMALS DISTRIBUTION

This includes the following

-Abiotic factor; this includes rock, air, food, water, nutrient, soil, temperature and light.

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-Biotic factor; this includes competition, predation, diseases and human.

Humans, plants and animals are globally distributed they are termed cosmopolitans in their
distribution, some other animals have restricted distribution and they are Said to be endemic.

The cosmopolitans are same as other similar species widely distributed all over the world.
While endemic are same and similar species occurring in their geographical location and in no
other place. Some are animals restrict to a particular continent, for instance the giraffe is only
found in Africa and in no any other part of the world, the marmoset monkeys found In only
south America, however, there are also plants and animals that are restricted to a very small
areas of the world. For instance the California redwood, they lived for over 200years and they
are the longest trees in the world, They can’t be found anywhere else in the world. They are
many other plants such as the coconut (cocos nucifera) which have a very wide endemic range
such as the tropics, in some cases the pattern of distribution of plants and animals is disjoint or
discontinuous. When it is disjoint, the particular plant or animal may be found in two widely
separate areas. E.g. they may be found let say in Central America and Indonesia and not in any
other area in between them. An example of this type of distribution of animals is called tapiran
animal that is found in south America and Malaysia.

The global distribution of plants and animals depends on abiotic and biotic factors or the living
factor.

ABIOTIC FACTORS

1- Rock; the rock of the lithosphere have to be weathered and soil has to form before plants
grows, the immediate environmental factor affecting the plant is therefore the soil and its
characteristics mostly depend on the rock. Rock favors certain plants and in some instances,
differences in rock types adapt them to different species of plants (lichens and mosses).

2- Food; all living things needs food to survive, without food they will die, this is one of the
foundation for the differences in distribution of plants and animals in different location of the
world.

3- Air; all living things (plants and animals) need air to breath and survive, all living organisms
survive where there is air in abundance, when the air pressure is low, especially in higher
altitude some may find it difficult to breathe because of insufficient amount of oxygen present
at some height. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are very important for both plants and animals,
oxygen is essential for respiration and its utilized during various growth and development
processes. While carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis to take place.

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4- Water; water enter the ecosystem through snow, rain, sheet and hail which are generally
term as precipitation. Precipitation determines along with mean temperature, the world wide
distribution of biomes. Some animals are aquatic they need water to live in, while on the other
hand some are terrestrial including desert rat which are able to live and survive in a very dry
areas where they are unlikely to drink water. Water is very important for vital function,
however, only animals that can conserve water are found in the desert.

5- Nutrient; Nitrogen is needed to make proteins, enzymes, nucleotides and vitamins.

Phosphorus in the formation of phosphide and other structure,

6- Soil; for plants, soil type is a major factor in describing the type of species growing in a
particular area as the minerals, water content, micro-organisms. Soil combination of various
organic and inorganic materials. with varying content, water retention capacity of the soil, the
fertility and the presence of mineral changes.

7- Temperature; the ability to survive at extreme temperatures varies widely among plants and
animals. Animals respond to variation in temperature both physically and behaviorally. For
instance, buds and mammals are hot blooded animals (endotherm) they maintain relatively
high body temperature using the heat by their own metabolism. Other animals (such as insect,
reptiles, amphibians) are termed cold blooded animals (ectoderm), they regulate their body
temperature or by using the ambient temperature.

8- Light; light is important climatic factor that is used in the production of chlorophyll and
photosynthesis, light has a big influence on daily and seasonal activities of plants and animals.
Light is needed for photosynthesis to take place and to maintain source of energy in almost all
ecosystem. The ultimate source of light is the sun.

BIOTIC FACTORS

1- Competition; competition has been known to be one of the major factor that determined
and regulate plants and animals from their habitants, plants and animals compete for space
which is needed for reproduction, exercise and feeding. There is also competition for several
resources such as food water and mate, all these can affect how species are distributed. Due to
limited resource, populations may be evenly distributed to minimize competition as is found in
forest habitant, where competition for sunlight produces an even distribution of trees.

2- Predation; predation affects the global distribution of both plants and animals species, the
strength and direction of energy flow within an ecosystem and the chemistry of competition of
communities. Predation also plays an essential roles in evolution.

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3- Disease; plants disease can be fungal, bacteria, viral or through an animal in origin, there
include insect/pest, plant disease and invasive weeds. These disease affect food crops, causing
threating food security however the plant population will obviously reduce in such an
environment and will thrive well in areas where such disease are not found. Animals are not
left out in such situation, they are also affected by various disease outbreak which brought
about global warming, this severely affect the balance of an ecosystem. This is seen through
changes in animals and plants global distribution as well as their behavior.

4-Humans; humans can influence plants and animals population in various ways hence causing
them migrate from their natural habitants to a new environment. When humans developed
land for houses and buildings, they cut down tree and change plants and animals habitant.
Population change can also hurt animals and pants populations, sometimes hunting affect
animals population. For instance, where population has lowered because of over hunting, man
contributes to the global distribution of plants and animals through urbanization activities.

ENERGY FLOW AND THE ECOSYSTEM

This refers to influence of energy flow on the formation of biomes. The world major land
biomes includes; tropical rainforest, tropical dry forest, tropical savanna, desert, temperate
grassland, temperate woodland, shrubs land, temperate forest, north-west coniferous forest,
boreal forest and the tundra.

Each of this biomes is define by a unique set of abiotic factor, particular climate and has a
characteristics or peculiar ecological community. The boundary between the biomes may
appear sharp on the map. However, on the ground there are often transitional areas between
the biomes.

1-TROPICAL RAINFOREST; tropical rainforest are home to many species than all other biomes
combine together. The leafy top of tall trees exceeding up to 70meters above the forest floor
form a dense covering called canopy.

*Biotic factors; hot and wet year round, thin poor soils.

*Dominant plants; broad leaf evergreen trees, large woody vines and climbing trees.

* Geographic distribution; parts of south and Central America, south east Asia, part of Africa,
southern Indian, and northern Australia.

2-TROPICAL DRY FOREST; grows in places where rainfall is highly seasonal rather than year
round. During the dry season nearly all the trees deposits their leave to conserve water. Most
trees are deciduous in nature.

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*Abiotic factors; generally warm all year round with alternating wet and dry seasons, rich soils
due to erosion.

*dominant plants; tall deciduous tree that form a dense canopy during wet season, drought
tolerant plants aloes and other succulents.

*wildlife; monkey, tiger, elephant, snake, lizard, lions etc.

* Geographic distribution; parts of Africa, South Central America, Mexico, Indian, Australia and
tropical island.

3- TROPICAL SAVANNA; Tropical savanna is a biome receiving more seasonal rainfall than
desert but less than tropical dry forest. Tropical savanna or grassland are characterize by the
cover of grasses (graminae). Savanna is spotted with isolated trees and small groves of trees
and shrubs. Compact soils, fairly frequent fire and the action of large animals such as rhinoceros
prevent some savanna areas from turning into a dry forest.

*Abiotic factors; warm temperature, seasonal rainfall, compact soil and frequent fire.

*Dominant plants; tall perennial grasses, sometimes drought tolerant and fire resistant trees or
shrubs.

*Dominant wildlife; predators such as lions, leopard, cheetahs, hyenas and jackal. Herbivores
such as elephants, giraffe, antelopes, and zebras. Birds such as eagle, ostriches. Insects such as
termites.

*Geographic distribution; parts of eastern Africa, southern Brazil, northern Australia.

4-DESERT; all desert are dry, in fact a desert biome is define having annual precipitation of less
than 25cm or 250mm beyond that, desert are very greatly dependent on elevation and latitude.
The organisms in this environment can tolerate extreme conditions for alternating hot and cold
temperatures.

*abiotic factors; low precipitation, variable temperature, soils rich in minerals but poor in
organic matter.

*Dominant plants; cacti and other succulents as well as other plants with short growing circle.

*Dominant wildlife; predators, mountain lions, grey foxes. herbivores such as mule deer,
desert bighorn sheep, kangaroo rat. Birds such as road runner, owl, hawk. Reptiles such as
tortoise, rattle snake, lizards.

* Geographic distribution; Africa, Asia, middle east, United state, south America and Australia.

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5-TEMPERATE WODLLAND/SHRUBLAND; this biome is characterize by semi arid climate and
mix of shrubs or grass and open woodland, large areas of grass and wild flowers are intersperse
with oak trees. The growth of dense low plants that contain flammable oils make fire a constant
threat .

*Abiotic factors; hoot dry summers, cold moist winter, nutrient poor soils and periodic fire.

*Dominant plants; woody evergreen shrubs with small leathering leaves t prevent
transpiration.

*Geographic distribution; west coast of northern and southern America, areas around the
Mediterranean sea, south Africa and Australia.

6-TEMPERATE FOREST; temperate forest contain mix deciduous coniferous trees or seed
bearing cones and most have leaves like needles this forest have cold winters that stops plants
growth for several months.

*Abiotic factors; cold and moderate winters, warm summers, year round precipitation and
fertile soil.

*Dominant plants; broad leafs, deciduous trees, some conifers, flowering shrubs, herbs, ground
layer of mosses and ferns.

*Dominant wildlife; deer, black bear, squirrels, numerous song birds and turkey.

*Geographic distribution; eastern United state, southern Canada, most of Europe and parts of
Japan and Australia.

7-NORTHERN CONIFEROUS FOREST; mild moist from the Pacific Ocean provide abundant
rainfall to this biome, the forest is made up of variety of conifers ranging from giant redwood
along the coast of northern California to the spruce and hemlock farther north because of its
lush vegetation, the northwestern coniferous is sometimes called a temperate rainforest.

*Abiotic factors; mild temperature, abundant precipitation, relatively cool dry summers, acidic
soil.

*Dominant wildlife; bear, large herbivores such as deer, members of the weasel family.

*Geographic distribution; pacific coast of northern United State and Canada from northern
California to Alaska.

8- MONAL FOREST;

9- TUNDRA;

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