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 BUILDING BY DESIGN
BUILDING BY DESIGN
ENGINEERING

Conley
From the ancient Colosseum to today’s cutting-edge
skyscrapers, people have built incredible structures for
thousands of years. Behind these objects are amazing feats
Core Library

THE GOLDEN
of science, math, and engineering. Building by Design examines
the planning and construction of some of history’s most impressive
structures. Explore how engineers brought these buildings and
GATE BRIDGE
monuments from blueprints to reality.

ENGINEERING THE GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE

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Engineering AT&T Stadium Engineering the Eiffel Tower
Engineering Mount Rushmore Engineering the Golden Gate Bridge
Engineering One World Trade Center Engineering the Great Wall of China
Engineering the Colosseum Engineering the NYC Subway System

BY KATE CONLEY

ABD_BUIL_GGB_COV.indd 1 3/3/17 2:56 PM

 BUILDING BY DESIGN
ENGINEERING
THE GOLDEN
GATE BRIDGE

BY KATE CONLEY
CONTENT CONSULTANT
Harvey Schwartz
Author, Building the Golden Gate Bridge:
A Workers’ Oral History
Core Library
Cover image: The iconic Golden Gate Bridge An Imprint of Abdo Publishing
stretches across San Francisco Bay in California. abdopublishing.com

ABD_BUIL_GGB_FPGS.indd 1 5/12/17 1:36 PM

 abdopublishing.com

Published by Abdo Publishing, a division of ABDO, PO Box 398166,

Minneapolis, Minnesota 55439. Copyright © 2018 by Abdo Consulting
Group, Inc. International copyrights reserved in all countries. No part of this
book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the
publisher. Core Library™ is a trademark and logo of Abdo Publishing.

Printed in the United States of America, North Mankato, Minnesota

052017
092017

Cover Photo: Shutterstock Images

Interior Photos: Shutterstock Images, 1, 14, 36–37, 45; iStockphoto, 4–5, 12–13, 18, 43; AP
Images, 7, 34; Red Line Editorial, 8; Bettmann/Getty Images, 10; Valerie Loiseleux/iStockphoto,
16; Underwood Archives/Archive Photos/Getty Images, 22–23, 29, 31; George Rinhart/Corbis
Historical/Getty Images, 24; Fox Photos/Hulton Archive/Getty Images, 27; David Boyer/National
Geographic/Getty Images, 38

Editor: Heidi Schoof

Imprint Designer: Maggie Villaume
Series Design Direction: Laura Polzin

Publisher’s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Conley, Kate, author.

Title: Engineering the Golden Gate Bridge / by Kate Conley.
Description: Minneapolis, MN : Abdo Publishing, 2018. | Series: Building by
design | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017930241 | ISBN 9781532111662 (lib. bdg.) |
ISBN 9781680789515 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Structural engineering--Miscellanea--Juvenile literature. | Golden
Gate Bridge (San Francisco, Calif.)--Design and construction--Juvenile
literature. | Civil engineering--Juvenile literature. | Buildings, structures, etc.--
Juvenile literature.
Classification: DDC 624--dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2017930241

ABD_BUIL_GGB_FPGS.indd 2 5/11/17 3:58 PM

 CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
Across the Golden Gate . . . . . . . . . . 4

CHAPTER TWO
Designing a Landmark . . . . . . . . . 12

CHAPTER THREE
Building the
Golden Gate Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . 22

CHAPTER FOUR
The Golden Gate Bridge Today . . . 36

Fast Facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Stop and Think. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Learn More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

About the Author. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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 CHAPTER
ONE

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 ACROSS
THE GOLDEN
GATE

O
n many summer days in
San Francisco, California, a
thick fog blankets the bay. Two
orange towers rise above the fog like ladders
leading to the sky. They are the only clues to
the marvel of engineering hidden in the fog
below. The towers anchor the city’s Golden
Gate Bridge.

Since the bridge opened in 1937, more

than 2 billion cars have driven across it. But
the bridge is more than just a way to get

Morning and evening fog from the Pacific Ocean rolls

into San Francisco Bay through the Golden Gate most
days from June to August.

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 across the Golden Gate Strait. Its graceful lines, bright
orange color, and beautiful setting make it a work of
art. Its distinct profile

SUSPENSION has become a symbol

BRIDGES of the United States.
The Golden Gate Bridge is
a suspension bridge. This
It is also a feat of
type of bridge uses towers modern engineering.
at each end. The bridge deck
is suspended from cables
THE BRIDGE
attached to the towers.
The deck has no supports
THAT
underneath it, as many
COULDN’T
other types of bridges do. BE BUILT
Suspension bridges are most The quest to build the
useful over large spans.
bridge began in an
unlikely way. It started
when a powerful
earthquake shook San Francisco on April 18, 1906. The
earthquake lasted less than one minute. As the ground
shook, candles and gas lamps tipped over. They ignited
fires that burned across the city for three days. More
than 28,000 buildings were destroyed.

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 The San Francisco
earthquake of 1906
broke open gas
and water mains,
leaving no way
to stop fires from
destroying nearly
500 city blocks.

The city lay in ruins. Its residents needed new

homes, offices, and public buildings. The city also
needed new roads and bridges. Mayor James Rolph
appointed a city engineer to oversee this work. His
name was Michael O’Shaughnessy. As part of the
rebuilding effort, O’Shaughnessy dreamed of building a
bridge across the Golden Gate Strait.

For years, nothing happened. The project was too

difficult. A bridge across the strait would need to be
nearly two miles (3 km) long. No one had ever made a
suspension bridge that long before. The bridge would
also need to be incredibly strong. It would have to

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 THE GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE

Nevada

Utah
Sacramento

Oakland

Marin San Francisco

County
FranSan Oakland California
c
Bayisco

Arizona
Golden Gate
Bridge
San
Francisco
Los Angeles
N

W E

The Golden Gate Strait is the natural entrance to San Francisco

Bay. This map shows how the Golden Gate Bridge connects
San Francisco with Marin County over the strait. Is it different
from the way you imagined it after reading Chapter One? How
does seeing the map help you better understand the need for a
bridge across the Golden Gate Strait?

withstand earthquakes, high winds, and strong currents.

Many people criticized the project. They said a bridge
like that couldn’t be built.

JOSEPH B. STRAUSS
The bridge project did not move forward, but the city’s
other rebuilding went well. San Francisco grew quickly.

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 But the city’s growth DON’T BUILD
THE BRIDGE!
was limited by its
The Golden Gate Bridge did
border on the bay. The not please everyone. The
Southern Pacific ferry service
only way to get across
strongly opposed it. Every
San Francisco Bay was weekday, it ferried 50,000
workers across the bay. With
by ferry. Cars waiting
a bridge they could drive
in line for the ferry across the bay themselves.
created terrible traffic The US War Department
also opposed the bridge. It
jams in the city. The feared the bridge would be
interest in building a an easy target for an enemy
to destroy. Doing so would
bridge grew.
potentially block the harbor
and trap ships inside it.
O’Shaughnessy
wanted to find an
experienced engineer
for the project. In 1919 he contacted Joseph B. Strauss.
Strauss had designed nearly 400 bridges. He agreed to
design a bridge across the bay.

Strauss worked for more than a year on the design.

In 1921 he presented his plans. City officials and the

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 Joseph B. Strauss
built a team of
experts and was
the leading force
behind the design
and construction
of the Golden Gate
Bridge.

public disliked it from the start. It was clunky and ugly.

Critics compared it to an upside-down rat trap. San
Francisco and the cities north of the bay disagreed on
how to move forward. The long-awaited bridge project
was once again at a standstill.

A NEW DESIGN
In December 1928, the cities found a way to work
together. They created the Golden Gate Bridge and
Highway District. It appointed Strauss as the chief
engineer. By this time, Strauss agreed that his original
plan should be scrapped. Consulting engineers
suggested a more graceful bridge design. Two tall
towers held long, swooping cables that supported a

10

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 suspended bridge deck. Design engineer Charles Ellis
used math to consider the forces at work on such a
bridge. Ellis performed thousands of calculations to
complete the design.

The new bridge design was better looking. But

crews would have to climb to dizzying heights to install
the towers and cables. Divers would face dangers as
they worked deep underwater building the foundation.
The cost to build the bridge would be staggering. Even
if all the obstacles could be overcome, no one knew if
the bridge would be safe and sturdy. It would require
courage, determination, and a leap of faith.

FURTHER EVIDENCE
Chapter One mentions how the Golden Gate Bridge is considered
not just a bridge, but an amazing work of art. Read the article at
the website below. What other information can you find about
the idea that the bridge is a work of art?

MONUMENT, WORK OF ART, STAR

abdocorelibrary.com/engineering-the-golden-gate-bridge

11

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 CHAPTER
TWO

12

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 DESIGNING A
LANDMARK

T
he soaring orange towers and
graceful cables have made the
Golden Gate Bridge a landmark. But
it is also a complex structure that thousands
of people rely on every day. Each part of the
bridge was engineered to survive a variety of
situations safely. The bridge handles heavy
traffic, high winds, and even earthquakes
with ease.

Engineers call the parts of the bridge

above the water the superstructure. It gives the
bridge its shape and design. The parts hidden
below the water are called the substructure.
They anchor the bridge and give it support.

The north tower of the Golden Gate Bridge rises tall

above the scenic highlands of Marin County.

13

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 PARTS OF A
SUSPENSION BRIDGE
Tower

Anchorage

Main Cable

Suspender Cable
Deck

Pier

A suspension bridge requires several elements to work in

harmony. Each element has a different job. If one element
fails, the bridge will not be safe. Anchors secure cables, which
carry the load from the deck. Each tower provides tension on
the cables to keep the deck suspended. The tension creates a
downward force on the towers that is absorbed by the piers.
How does seeing all the parts together in the finished bridge
help you understand how these elements work in harmony?

All parts of a suspension bridge must work in harmony

to keep the bridge steady and safe.

TOWERS AND PIERS

The bridge towers are part of the superstructure. One
stands on each end of the bay. Their job is to hold the

14

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 bridge’s cables in place. The weight of the cables and
the deck rests on the two slender towers. It creates a
strong downward pressure called compression.

The towers resist this incredible force using piers.

Piers are massive concrete pillars with steel bars inside
for strength. The towers sit on top of the piers.

The downward force from the towers presses

down on the piers. The piers rest on bedrock under the
ocean floor. The bedrock absorbs all the force of the
compression from the towers. This keeps the towers
upright and the bridge safe.

CABLES AND TENSION

The cables are another part of the superstructure. The
Golden Gate Bridge has two main cables. They hang
between the towers and form the bridge’s gentle
U-shaped curves. The cables carry the weight of the
bridge deck to the two towers. They are made of
thousands of thin steel wires bound together.

15

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 A cross-section
displayed in Strauss
Plaza demonstrates
how each main
cable is made up of
27,572 individual
steel wires.

Steel suspender ropes hang down from the main

cables. The suspender ropes connect the main cables
and the bridge deck. The deck is heavy, and gravity
pulls it down. The downward pull causes the cables to
stretch. That stretching is a force called tension.

The tension on the cables must be offset, or the

bridge will collapse. Engineers used anchorages for this
job. Anchorages hold the main cables tight. The cables
end in an anchorage on both sides of the bridge. The
anchorages are connected to bedrock with steel plates,
rods, and eye bars.

16

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 Each anchorage
has 61 eye bars. DO THE MATH
The Golden Gate Bridge was
These are metal rods
designed entirely by hand.
with holes at the Engineers did not have
computers or calculators.
tips. The hole in each
Charles Ellis was an engineer
eye bar pokes out and an expert mathematician.

of the surface of the He was responsible for testing

the bridge’s design through
concrete. The wires mathematics to see if it would
of the main cables work. If he made mistakes, the
bridge could fail. Using only a
are fastened to the
slide rule, pencil, and paper,
holes in the eye bars. Ellis spent 20 months working
out all the mathematical
This system keeps the
calculations needed for the
cables from sagging bridge design.

under the weight of the

bridge deck.

LIVE AND DEAD LOADS

When designing the Golden Gate Bridge, engineers
paid close attention to load. This is the weight a bridge
must support. The cars, trucks, and people that cross a
bridge are called the live load. Engineers estimate how

17

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 The length of
each pair of steel
suspender ropes is
carefully calculated
to evenly distribute
the load of the
bridge deck.

much live load can safely cross the bridge. The live load
changes depending on the traffic levels.

As the load increases, so does the tension on

the cables. Increased tension lowers the deck. The
change in the deck’s position is called deflection. The
cables on the Golden Gate Bridge allow for deflection
by stretching. A heavy live load can pull the bridge
deck 10.8 feet (3.3 m) lower than normal without
safety problems.

The weight of the bridge itself is also part of

its load. This is called the dead load. To offset it,
engineers needed to find building materials that were

18

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 light but strong. Their
solution was metal GALLOPING
GERTIE
cables. The cables are
On July 1, 1940, the Tacoma
much lighter than the Narrows Bridge opened. The
suspension bridge spanned
metal beams used in
Puget Sound in the state of
other types of bridges. Washington. It did not take
long for people to worry
EFFECTS OF about the bridge’s safety.

THE WIND When winds blew, the bridge

deck rippled noticeably.
Wind causes additional People nicknamed the bridge
load on a bridge. “Galloping Gertie.”
On November 7, 1940, a
When wind blows strong wind made Galloping
from side to side Gertie’s deck ripple wildly.
Soon the deck began to twist
across the bridge, it
violently from side to side.
is called a static wind Highway officials closed the
bridge. Then a large section of
load. To prevent wind
the deck broke free, and the
from knocking down bridge collapsed. The bridge
had failed because its deck
the deck, engineers
was not stiff enough. It could
designed the Golden not absorb the load from the
Gate Bridge to have strong winds.

flexibility. As winds

19

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 blow, the cables allow the bridge to swing. It can move
27.7 feet (8.4 m) from side to side and remain safe.

When wind blows up and down on a bridge, it is

called a dynamic wind load. It can make the bridge’s
deck twist and buckle. Sometimes the movement can
be violent enough to shake apart the bridge. To prevent
this, engineers used trusses in the Golden Gate’s deck.
The trusses make the deck stiff. A stiff deck moves less
in a dynamic wind load.

Another way engineers solved the problem of wind

load was in the tower design. The towers have several
openings in them. They allow the wind to pass through
the towers without meeting resistance.

Every element of the bridge design was carefully

planned. Ellis and the other engineers worked tirelessly
to design a bridge that would be safe and stable.
But turning the plans into reality would be an even
greater challenge.

20

ABD_BUIL_GGB_FPGS.indd 20 5/11/17 3:59 PM

 STRAIGHT TO THE
SOURCE
Charles Ellis was confident in the ability of the
structure to stand up to the region’s earthquakes. He
compared it to waiting out the quake in the safety of
centuries-old redwood trees:

If I knew that there was to be an earthquake in San Francisco

tomorrow and I couldn’t get into an airplane and had to
remain in the city, I think I should get a piece of clothesline
about 1,000 or 2,000 feet long, and a hammock, and I would
string it from the tops of two of the tallest redwoods I could find,
get into the hammock and feel reasonably safe. If this bridge
were built at that time, I would [go quickly] to the center of it, and
while watching the sun sink into China across the Pacific, I would
feel content with the thought that in case of an earthquake, I had
chosen the safest spot in which to be.

Source: John Van der Zee. The Gate: The True Story of
the Design and Construction of the Golden Gate Bridge.
New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986. Print. 101.

What’s the Big Idea?

What is the connection between Ellis’s image of a
hammock strung from redwoods and the Golden Gate
Bridge? What do the two images have in common?
Why would either of these settings protect a
person during an earthquake?

21

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 CHAPTER
THREE

22

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 BUILDING
THE GOLDEN
GATE BRIDGE

O
n February 26, 1933, more than
100,000 people flocked to Crissy
Field. This military airfield was
located on San Francisco Bay, near the site of
the proposed bridge. The crowds had come to
celebrate the official groundbreaking for the
Golden Gate Bridge.

ANCHORING THE BRIDGE

Crews began the project by building the
bridge’s anchorages. Each one was made of
three interlocking concrete blocks. It was a

Fort Point, a brick fortress, was originally going to

be demolished for bridge construction. Instead,
engineers designed the bridge to go over the fort.

23

ABD_BUIL_GGB_FPGS.indd 23 5/11/17 3:59 PM

 The massive cable
anchorages at each
end of the Golden
Gate Bridge were
specially designed
to withstand the
Bay Area’s frequent
earthquakes.

special design made for the site. Since the area sits
close to the San Andreas fault line, earthquakes are
common. This interlocking block design would prevent
the anchorages from slipping during an earthquake.

Crews built a wooden mold for the base block and

filled it with concrete. The next layer was the anchor
block. Crews installed steel girders to strengthen the
block. They also added the eye bars. This entire layer
was then covered in more concrete. Finally, crews built
the weight block. Its massive quantities of concrete
would hold the lower two blocks in place. When the

24

ABD_BUIL_GGB_FPGS.indd 24 5/11/17 3:59 PM

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