Algorithms R OBERT S EDGEWICK | K EVIN W AYNE

1.4 A NALYSIS OF A LGORITHMS

‣ introduction
‣ observations
‣ mathematical models
‣ order-of-growth classifications
‣ theory of algorithms
h t t p : / / a l g s 4. c s . p r i n c e t o n . e d u ‣ memory
Algorithms R OBERT S EDGEWICK | K EVIN W AYNE

S LIDES ADAPTED FROM

R OBERT S EDGEWICK | K EVIN W AYNE

h t t p : / / a l g s 4. c s . p r i n c e t o n . e d u
 1.4 A NALYSIS OF A LGORITHMS
‣ introduction
‣ observations
‣ mathematical models
‣ order-of-growth classifications
‣ theory of algorithms
h t t p : / / a l g s 4. c s . p r i n c e t o n . e d u ‣ memory
Running time

“ As soon as an Analytic Engine exists, it will necessarily guide the future

course of the science. Whenever any result is sought by its aid, the question
will arise—By what course of calculation can these results be arrived at by
the machine in the shortest time? ” — Charles Babbage (1864)

how many times do you

have to turn the crank?

Analytic Engine
4
Cast of characters

Programmer needs to develop

a working solution.

Student might play

any or all of these
Client wants to solve
roles someday.
problem efficiently.

Theoretician wants
to understand.

5
Reasons to analyze algorithms

Predict performance.

Compare algorithms. this course (CSI323)

Provide guarantees.

Understand theoretical basis.

Primary practical reason: avoid performance bugs.

client gets poor performance because programmer

did not understand performance characteristics

6
Some algorithmic successes

Discrete Fourier transform.

・Break down waveform of N samples into periodic components.
・Applications: DVD, JPEG, MRI, astrophysics, ….
・Brute force: N steps.
2
Friedrich Gauss
・FFT algorithm: N log N steps, enables new technology. 1805

7
Some algorithmic successes

N-body simulation.
・Simulate gravitational interactions among N bodies.
・Brute force: N steps.
2

・Barnes-Hut algorithm: N log N steps, enables new research. Andrew Appel

PU '81

8
The challenge

Q. Will my program be able to solve a large practical input?

Why is my program so slow ? Why does it run out of memory ?

Insight. [Knuth 1970s] Use scientific method to understand performance.

9
Scientific method applied to analysis of algorithms

A framework for predicting performance and comparing algorithms.

Scientific method.
・Observe some feature of the natural world.
・Hypothesize a model that is consistent with the observations.
・Predict events using the hypothesis.
・Verify the predictions by making further observations.
・Validate by repeating until the hypothesis and observations agree.

Principles.
・Experiments must be reproducible.
・Hypotheses must be falsifiable.

Feature of the natural world. Computer itself.

10
 1.4 A NALYSIS OF A LGORITHMS
‣ introduction
‣ observations
‣ mathematical models
‣ order-of-growth classifications
‣ theory of algorithms
h t t p : / / a l g s 4. c s . p r i n c e t o n . e d u ‣ memory
Example: 3-SUM

3-SUM. Given N distinct integers, how many triples sum to exactly zero?

% more 8ints.txt a[i] a[j] a[k] sum

8
30 -40 10 0
30 -40 -20 -10 40 0 10 5 1

2 30 -20 -10 0
% java ThreeSum 8ints.txt
4
3 -40 40 0 0

4 -10 0 10 0

Context. Deeply related to problems in computational geometry.

13
3-SUM: brute-force algorithm
public class ThreeSum {
public static int count(int[] a) {
int N = a.length;
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i+1; j < N; j++)
check each triple
for (int k = j+1; k < N; k++)
for simplicity, ignore
if (a[i] + a[j] + a[k] == 0)
integer overflow
count++;
return count;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

In in = new In(args[0]);
int[] a = in.readAllInts();
StdOut.println(count(a));
}
}

14
Measuring the running time

Q. How to time a program?

A. Manual.

15
Measuring the running time

Q. How to time a program?

A. Automatic.

public class Stopwatch (part of stdlib.jar )

Stopwatch() create a new stopwatch

double elapsedTime() time since creation (in seconds)

public static void main(String[] args) {

In in = new In(args[0]);
int[] a = in.readAllInts();
Stopwatch stopwatch = new Stopwatch();
StdOut.println(ThreeSum.count(a));
double time = stopwatch.elapsedTime();
client code

StdOut.println("elapsed time " + time);

}
16
Empirical analysis

Run the program for various input sizes and measure running time.

18
Empirical analysis

Run the program for various input sizes and measure running time.

N time (seconds) †

250 0

500 0

1,000 0.1

2,000 0.8

4,000 6.4

8,000 51.1

16,000 ?

19
Data analysis

Standard plot. Plot running time T (N) vs. input size N.

20
Data analysis

Log-log plot. Plot running time T (N) vs. input size N using log-log scale.

lg(T (N)) = b lg N + c
b = 2.999
c = -33.2103

T (N) = a N b, where a = 2 c

power law

Regression. Fit straight line through data points: a N b. slope

Hypothesis. The running time is about 1.006  10 –10  N 2.999 seconds.

21
Prediction and validation

Hypothesis. The running time is about 1.006  10 –10  N 2.999 seconds.

"order of growth" of running

time is about N3 [stay tuned]
Predictions.
・51.0 seconds for N = 8,000.
・408.1 seconds for N = 16,000.

Observations.
N time (seconds) †

8,000 51.1

8,000 51

8,000 51.1

16,000 410.8

validates hypothesis!

22
Doubling hypothesis

Doubling hypothesis. Quick way to estimate b in a power-law relationship.

Run program, doubling the size of the input.

N time (seconds) † ratio lg ratio

250 0 –

500 0 4.8 2.3

1,000 0.1 6.9 2.8

2,000 0.8 7.7 2.9

4,000 6.4 8 3 lg (6.4 / 0.8) = 3.0

8,000 51.1 8 3

seems to converge to a constant b ≈ 3

Hypothesis. Running time is about a N b with b = lg ratio.

Caveat. Cannot identify logarithmic factors with doubling hypothesis.
23
Doubling hypothesis

Doubling hypothesis. Quick way to estimate b in a power-law relationship.

Q. How to estimate a (assuming we know b) ?

A. Run the program (for a sufficient large value of N) and solve for a.

N time (seconds) †

8,000 51.1
51.1 = a  80003
8,000 51
⇒ a = 0.998  10 –10
8,000 51.1

Hypothesis. Running time is about 0.998  10 –10  N 3 seconds.

almost identical hypothesis

to one obtained via linear regression 24
Experimental algorithmics

System independent effects.

・Algorithm. determines exponent
・Input data. in power law

System dependent effects. determines constant

・Hardware: CPU, memory, cache, … in power law

・Software: compiler, interpreter, garbage collector, …

・System: operating system, network, other apps, …

Bad news. Difficult to get precise measurements.

Good news. Much easier and cheaper than other sciences.

e.g., can run huge number of experiments

25
Empirical analysis – What could be T(N)?

Run the program for various input sizes and measure running time.

N time (seconds) †
public static long play(int N) {
long sum = 0L;
4,000 0.016
for(int i = 1; i<= N; i++) {
for(int j = 1; j <= N; j++)
8,000 0.062
sum++;
}
16,000 0.185
return sum;
32,000 0.733 }

64,000 2.955

75,000 3.974

100,000 ?

26
 1.4 A NALYSIS OF A LGORITHMS
‣ introduction
‣ observations
‣ mathematical models
‣ order-of-growth classifications
‣ theory of algorithms
h t t p : / / a l g s 4. c s . p r i n c e t o n . e d u ‣ memory
Mathematical models for running time

Total running time: sum of cost  frequency for all operations.

・Need to analyze program to determine set of operations.
・Cost depends on machine, compiler.
・Frequency depends on algorithm, input data.

Donald Knuth
1974 Turing Award

In principle, accurate mathematical models are available.

29
Cost of basic operations

Challenge. How to estimate constants.

operation example nanoseconds †

integer add a + b 2.1

integer multiply a * b 2.4

integer divide a / b 5.4

floating-point add a + b 4.6

floating-point multiply a * b 4.2

floating-point divide a / b 13.5

sine Math.sin(theta) 91.3

arctangent Math.atan2(y, x) 129

... ... ...

† Running OS X on Macbook Pro 2.2GHz with 2GB RAM

30
Cost of basic operations

Observation. Most primitive operations take constant time.

operation example nanoseconds †

variable declaration int a c1

assignment statement a = b c2

integer compare a < b c3

array element access a[i] c4

array length a.length c5

1D array allocation new int[N] c6 N

2D array allocation new int[N][N] c7 N 2

Caveat. Non-primitive operations often take more than constant time.

novice mistake: abusive string concatenation

31
Example: 1-SUM

Q. How many instructions as a function of input size N ?

int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
if (a[i] == 0)
count++;

N array accesses

operation frequency

variable declaration 2

assignment statement 2

less than compare N+1

equal to compare N

array access N

increment N to 2 N

32
Example: 2-SUM

Q. How many instructions as a function of input size N ?

int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i+1; j < N; j++)
if (a[i] + a[j] == 0)
count++;

Pf. [ n even]

half of half of
square diagonal 33
String theory infinite sum

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/04/science/in-the-end-it-all-adds-up-to.html
34
Example: 2-SUM

Q. How many instructions as a function of input size N ?

int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i+1; j < N; j++)
if (a[i] + a[j] == 0)
count++;

operation frequency

variable declaration N+2

assignment statement N+2

less than compare ½ (N + 1) (N + 2)

equal to compare ½ N (N − 1)
tedious to count exactly
array access N (N − 1)

increment ½ N (N − 1) to N (N − 1)

35
Simplifying the calculations

“ It is convenient to have a measure of the amount of work involved

in a computing process, even though it be a very crude one. We may
count up the number of times that various elementary operations are
applied in the whole process and then given them various weights.
We might, for instance, count the number of additions, subtractions,
multiplications, divisions, recording of numbers, and extractions
of figures from tables. In the case of computing with matrices most
of the work consists of multiplications and writing down numbers,
and we shall therefore only attempt to count the number of
multiplications and recordings. ” — Alan Turing

36
Simplification 1: cost model

Cost model. Use some basic operation as a proxy for running time.

int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i+1; j < N; j++)
if (a[i] + a[j] == 0)
count++;

operation frequency

variable declaration N+2

assignment statement N+2

less than compare ½ (N + 1) (N + 2)

equal to compare ½ N (N − 1)

array access N (N − 1) cost model = array accesses

increment ½ N (N − 1) to N (N − 1) (we assume compiler/JVM do not

optimize any array accesses away!)
37
Simplification 2: tilde notation

・Estimate running time (or memory) as a function of input size N.

・Ignore lower order terms.
– when N is large, terms are negligible
– when N is small, we don't care

Ex 1. ⅙ N 3 + 20 N + 16 ~ ⅙N3
Ex 2. ⅙ N 3 + 100 N 4/3 + 56 ~ ⅙N3
Ex 3. ⅙N3 - ½N 2 + ⅓ N ~ ⅙N3

discard lower-order terms

(e.g., N = 1000: 166.67 million vs. 166.17 million)

Technical definition. f(N) ~ g(N) means

38
Simplification 2: tilde notation

・Estimate running time (or memory) as a function of input size N.

・Ignore lower order terms.
– when N is large, terms are negligible
– when N is small, we don't care

operation frequency tilde notation

variable declaration N+2 ~N

assignment statement N+2 ~N

less than compare ½ (N + 1) (N + 2) ~½N2

equal to compare ½ N (N − 1) ~½N2

array access N (N − 1) ~N2

increment ½ N (N − 1) to N (N − 1) ~ ½ N 2 to ~ N 2

39
Example: 2-SUM

Q. Approximately how many array accesses as a function of input size N ?

int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i+1; j < N; j++) "inner loop"
if (a[i] + a[j] == 0)
count++;

A. ~ N 2 array accesses.

Bottom line. Use cost model and tilde notation to simplify counts.
40
Example: 3-SUM

Q. Approximately how many array accesses as a function of input size N ?

int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i+1; j < N; j++)
for (int k = j+1; k < N; k++) "inner loop"
if (a[i] + a[j] + a[k] == 0)
count++;

A. ~ ½ N 3 array accesses.

Bottom line. Use cost model and tilde notation to simplify counts.
41
Diversion: estimating a discrete sum

Q. How to estimate a discrete sum?

A1. Take a discrete mathematics course.
A2. Replace the sum with an integral, and use calculus!

Ex 1. 1 + 2 + … + N.

Ex 2. 1k + 2k + … + N k.

Ex 3. 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + … + 1/N.

Ex 4. 3-sum triple loop.

42
Estimating a discrete sum

Q. How to estimate a discrete sum?

A1. Take a discrete mathematics course.
A2. Replace the sum with an integral, and use calculus!

Ex 4. 1 + ½ + ¼ + ⅛ + …

Caveat. Integral trick doesn't always work!

43
Estimating a discrete sum

Q. How to estimate a discrete sum?

A3. Use Maple or Wolfram Alpha.

wolframalpha.com

[wayne:nobel.princeton.edu] > maple15

|\^/| Maple 15 (X86 64 LINUX)
._|\| |/|_. Copyright (c) Maplesoft, a division of Waterloo Maple Inc. 2011
\ MAPLE / All rights reserved. Maple is a trademark of
<____ ____> Waterloo Maple Inc.
| Type ? for help.
> factor(sum(sum(sum(1, k=j+1..N), j = i+1..N), i = 1..N));

N (N - 1) (N - 2)
-----------------
6
44
Mathematical models for running time

In principle, accurate mathematical models are available.

In practice,
・Formulas can be complicated.
・Advanced mathematics might be required.
・Exact models best left for experts.
costs (depend on machine, compiler)

TN = c1 A + c2 B + c3 C + c4 D + c5 E
A= array access
B= integer add
C= integer compare frequencies
D= increment (depend on algorithm, input)
E= variable assignment

Bottom line. We use approximate models in this course: T(N) ~ c N 3.

45
 1.4 A NALYSIS OF A LGORITHMS
‣ introduction
‣ observations
‣ mathematical models
‣ order-of-growth classifications
‣ theory of algorithms
h t t p : / / a l g s 4. c s . p r i n c e t o n . e d u ‣ memory
Common order-of-growth classifications

Definition. If f (N) ~ c g(N) for some constant c > 0, then the order of growth
of f (N) is g(N).
・Ignores leading coefficient.
・Ignores lower-order terms.
Ex. The order of growth of the running time of this code is N 3.

int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = i+1; j < N; j++)
for (int k = j+1; k < N; k++)
if (a[i] + a[j] + a[k] == 0)
count++;

Typical usage. With running times.

where leading coefficient

depends on machine, compiler, JVM, ... 48
Common order-of-growth classifications

Good news. The set of functions

1, log N, N, N log N, N 2, N 3, and 2N
suffices to describe the order of growth of most common algorithms.

49
 Common order-of-growth classifications

order of
name typical code framework description example T(2N) / T(N)
growth

add two
1 constant a = b + c; statement 1
numbers

while (N > 1)
log N logarithmic divide in half binary search ~1
{ N = N / 2; ... }

for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) find the

N linear loop 2
{ ... } maximum

divide
N log N linearithmic [see mergesort lecture] mergesort ~2
and conquer

for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)

check all
N 2 quadratic for (int j = 0; j < N; j++) double loop 4
pairs
{ ... }

for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)

for (int j = 0; j < N; j++) check all
N3 cubic triple loop 8
for (int k = 0; k < N; k++) triples
{ ... }

exhaustive check all

2N exponential [see combinatorial search lecture] T(N)
search subsets

50
 Binary search demo

Goal. Given a sorted array and a key, find index of the key in the array?

Binary search. Compare key against middle entry.

・Too small, go left.
・Too big, go right.
・Equal, found.

successful search for 33

6 13 14 25 33 43 51 53 64 72 84 93 95 96 97
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

p r

54
Binary search: Java implementation

Trivial to implement?
・First binary search published in 1946.
・First bug-free one in 1962.
・Bug in Java's Arrays.binarySearch() discovered in 2006.
public static int binarySearch(int[] a, int key)
{
int p = 0, r = a.length-1;
while (p <= r)
{
int mid = p + (r - p) / 2;
if (key < a[mid]) r = mid - 1;
else if (key > a[mid]) p = mid + 1; one "3-way compare"

else return mid;

}
return -1;
}
Invariant. If key appears in the array a[], then a[p] ≤ key ≤ a[r].
55
Binary search: mathematical analysis

Proposition. Binary search uses at most 1 + lg N key compares to search in

a sorted array of size N.

Def. T (N) = # key compares to binary search a sorted subarray of size ≤

N.

𝑁
Binary search recurrence. 𝑇 𝑁 ≤ 𝑇 + 1 for N > 1, with T (1) = 1.
2

left or right half possible to implement with one

(floored division) 2-way compare (instead of 3-way)

Pf sketch. [assume N is a power of 2]

T (N) ≤ T (N / 2) + 1 [ given ]

≤ T (N / 4) + 1 + 1 [ apply recurrence to first term ]

≤ T (N / 8) + 1 + 1 + 1 [ apply recurrence to first term ]

≤ T (N / N) + 1 + 1 + … + 1 [ stop applying, T(1) = 1 ]

= 1 + lg N
56
An N2 log N algorithm for 3-SUM

Algorithm.
input
・Step 1: Sort the N (distinct) numbers. 30 -40 -20 -10 40 0 10 5
・Step 2: For each pair of numbers a[i]
sort
and a[j], binary search for -(a[i] + a[j]). -40 -20 -10 0 5 10 30 40
binary search

(-40, -20) 60

(-40, -10) 50
Analysis. Order of growth is N 2 log N.
・Step 1: N 2 with insertion sort.
(-40, 0) 40

・Step 2: N 2 log N with binary search.

(-40, 5) 35

(-40, 10) 30

⋮ ⋮

(-20, -10) 30
Remark. Can achieve N2 by modifying
⋮ ⋮
binary search step.
(-10, 0) 10

⋮ ⋮
only count if
( 10, 30) -40 a[i] < a[j] < a[k]
to avoid
( 10, 40) -50
double counting
( 30, 40) -70 58
Comparing programs

Hypothesis. The sorting-based N 2 log N algorithm for 3-SUM is significantly

faster in practice than the brute-force N 3 algorithm.

N time (seconds) N time (seconds)

1,000 0.1 1,000 0.14

2,000 0.8 2,000 0.18

4,000 6.4 4,000 0.34

8,000 51.1 8,000 0.96

ThreeSum.java 16,000 3.67

32,000 14.88

64,000 59.16

ThreeSumDeluxe.java

Guiding principle. Typically, better order of growth ⇒ faster in practice.

59
 1.4 A NALYSIS OF A LGORITHMS
‣ introduction
‣ observations
‣ mathematical models
‣ order-of-growth classifications
‣ theory of algorithms
h t t p : / / a l g s 4. c s . p r i n c e t o n . e d u ‣ memory
Types of analyses

Best case. Lower bound on cost.

・Determined by “easiest” input.
・Provides a goal for all inputs.
Worst case. Upper bound on cost.
・Determined by “most difficult” input.
・Provides a guarantee for all inputs. this course

Average case. Expected cost for random input.

・Need a model for “random” input.
・Provides a way to predict performance.

Ex 1. Array accesses for brute-force 3-SUM. Ex 2. Compares for binary search.

Best: ~ ½ N3 Best: ~ 1
Average: ~ ½ N3 Average: ~ lg N
Worst: ~ ½ N3 Worst: ~ lg N
62
Theory of algorithms

Goals.
・Establish “difficulty” of a problem.
・Develop “optimal” algorithms.
Approach.
・Suppress details in analysis: analyze “to within a constant factor.”
・Eliminate variability in input model: focus on the worst case.
Upper bound. Performance guarantee of algorithm for any input.
Lower bound. Proof that no algorithm can do better.
Optimal algorithm. Lower bound = upper bound (to within a constant
factor).

64
Commonly-used notations in the theory of algorithms

notation provides example shorthand for used to

½ N2
Asymptotic order 10 N 2 classify
Big Theta Θ(N2)
of growth 5 N 2 + 22 N log N + 3N algorithms
⋮

10 N 2
100 N develop
Big Oh Θ(N2) and smaller O(N2)
22 N log N + 3 N upper bounds
⋮

½N2
N5 develop
Big Omega Θ(N2) and larger Ω(N2)
N 3 + 22 N log N + 3 N lower bounds
⋮
Theory of algorithms: example 1

Goals.
・Establish “difficulty” of a problem and develop “optimal” algorithms.
・Ex. 1-SUM = “Is there a 0 in the array? ”
Upper bound. A specific algorithm.
・Ex. Brute-force algorithm for 1-SUM: Look at every array entry.
・Running time of the optimal algorithm for 1-SUM is O(N).
Lower bound. Proof that no algorithm can do better.
・Ex. Have to examine all N entries (any unexamined one might be 0).
・Running time of the optimal algorithm for 1-SUM is Ω(N).
Optimal algorithm.
・Lower bound equals upper bound (to within a constant factor).
・Ex. Brute-force algorithm for 1-SUM is optimal: its running time is
Θ(N).
66
Theory of algorithms: example 2

Goals.
・Establish “difficulty” of a problem and develop “optimal” algorithms.
・Ex. 3-SUM.
Upper bound. A specific algorithm.
・Ex. Brute-force algorithm for 3-SUM.
・Running time of the optimal algorithm for 3-SUM is O(N 3).

67
Theory of algorithms: example 2

Goals.
・Establish “difficulty” of a problem and develop “optimal” algorithms.
・Ex. 3-SUM.
Upper bound. A specific algorithm.
・Ex. Improved algorithm for 3-SUM.
・Running time of the optimal algorithm for 3-SUM is O(N 2 log N ).

Lower bound. Proof that no algorithm can do better.

・Ex. Have to examine all N entries to solve 3-SUM.
・Running time of the optimal algorithm for solving 3-SUM is Ω(N ).
Open problems.
・Optimal algorithm for 3-SUM?
・Subquadratic algorithm for 3-SUM?
・Quadratic lower bound for 3-SUM?
68
Algorithm design approach

Start.
・Develop an algorithm.
・Prove a lower bound.
Gap?
・Lower the upper bound (discover a new algorithm).
・Raise the lower bound (more difficult).
Golden Age of Algorithm Design.
・1970s-.
・Steadily decreasing upper bounds for many important problems.
・Many known optimal algorithms.
Caveats.
・Overly pessimistic to focus on worst case?
・Need better than “to within a constant factor” to predict
performance. 69
Commonly-used notations in the theory of algorithms

notation provides example shorthand for used to

10 N 2 provide
Tilde leading term ~ 10 N 2 10 N 2 + 22 N log N approximate
10 N 2 + 2 N + 37 model

½ N2
asymptotic order of classify
Big Theta Θ(N2) 10 N 2
growth algorithms
5N 2+ 22 N log N + 3N

10 N 2
develop
Big Oh Θ(N2) and smaller O(N2) 100 N
upper bounds
22 N log N + 3 N

½N2
develop
Big Omega Θ(N2) and larger Ω(N2) N 5
lower bounds
N 3+ 22 N log N + 3 N

Common mistake. Interpreting big-Oh as an approximate model.

70
 1.4 A NALYSIS OF A LGORITHMS
‣ introduction
‣ observations
‣ mathematical models
‣ order-of-growth classifications
‣ theory of algorithms
h t t p : / / a l g s 4. c s . p r i n c e t o n . e d u ‣ memory
Basics

Bit. 0 or 1. NIST most computer scientists

Byte. 8 bits.
Megabyte (MB). 1 million or 220 bytes.
Gigabyte (GB). 1 billion or 230 bytes.

64-bit machine. We assume a 64-bit machine with 8-byte pointers.

・Can address more memory.
・Pointers use more space. some JVMs "compress" ordinary object
pointers to 4 bytes to avoid this cost

73
Typical memory usage for primitive types and arrays

Arrays in Java are Objects

type bytes type bytes

boolean 1 char[] 2 N + 24

byte 1 int[] 4 N + 24

char 2 double[] 8 N + 24

short 2
one-dimensional arrays

int 4

float 4
type bytes
long 8
char[][] ~2MN
double 8
int[][] ~4MN
primitive types

double[][] ~8MN

two-dimensional arrays
74
Typical memory usage for objects in Java

Object overhead. 16 bytes.

Hotspot JVM
Reference. 8 bytes.
Object
Padding. Each object uses a multiple of 8 bytes. 8 bytes
overhead

Reference 4 bytes

Ex 1. A Date object uses 32 bytes of memory.

75
Typical memory usage summary

Total memory usage for a data type value:

・Primitive type: 4 bytes for int, 8 bytes for double, …
・Object reference: 8 bytes.
・Array: 24 bytes + memory for each array entry.
・Object: 16 bytes + memory for each instance variable.
・Padding: round up to multiple of 8 bytes.
+ 8 extra bytes per inner class object
(for reference to enclosing class)

Shallow memory usage: Don't count referenced objects.

Deep memory usage: If array entry or instance variable is a reference,

count memory (recursively) for referenced object.

77
Example

Q. How much memory does WeightedQuickUnionUF use as a function of N ?

Use tilde notation to simplify your answer.

16 bytes
public class WeightedQuickUnionUF
(object overhead)
{
8 + (4N + 24) bytes each
private int[] id;
(reference + int[] array)
private int[] sz; 4 bytes (int)
private int count; 4 bytes (padding)

public WeightedQuickUnionUF(int N) 8N + 88 bytes

{
id = new int[N];
sz = new int[N];
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) id[i] = i;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) sz[i] = 1;
}
...
}
A. 8 N + 88 ~ 8 N bytes.
79
Turning the crank: summary

Empirical analysis.
・Execute program to perform experiments.
・Assume power law and formulate a hypothesis for running time.
・Model enables us to make predictions.
Mathematical analysis.
・Analyze algorithm to count frequency of operations.
・Use tilde notation to simplify analysis.
・Model enables us to explain behavior.
Scientific method.
・Mathematical model is independent of a particular system;
applies to machines not yet built.
・Empirical analysis is necessary to validate mathematical models
and to make predictions.

81