SET THEORY AND LOGIC SUMMARY NOTES

1. Logic and Quantifiers

Mathematical Statement or Proposition
Definition: A mathematical statement is a declarative sentence that is either
true or false, but not both at the same time. Examples:

1. 5 + 3 = 8 (True statement)

2. 7 is an even number (False statement)

3. “If n is even, then n2 is even.” (True proposition)

4. “There exists a prime number greater than 100.” (True proposition)

Predicate or Statement Frame

Definition: A predicate or statement frame is a statement involving one or
more variables. A predicate becomes a proposition when the variables are
given specific values from their domain. Examples:

1. P (x) : x2 > 4 (Predicate: “x squared is greater than 4.”)

2. Q(x, y) : x + y = 10 (Predicate: “The sum of x and y is 10.”)

3. “x is greater than 5” (Becomes a proposition when x is assigned a value,

e.g., x = 7.)

4. “x + y is divisible by 3” (Becomes a proposition when x and y are

assigned numbers.)

Quantifiers
Definition: Quantifiers are symbols used in logic to indicate the extent to
which a predicate applies to elements of a domain. The main types are:

ˆ Universal quantifier (∀) – means “for all” or “for every”.

ˆ Existential quantifier (∃) – means “there exists” or “there is at least

one”.

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Definition: A universal quantifier asserts that a given property holds for all
elements in a particular domain.
Symbolic form:
∀x ∈ D, P (x)
means “For every x in the domain D, the statement P (x) is true.”
Example:
∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0
(For every real number x, x2 is non-negative.)

2. Existential Quantifier (∃)

Definition: An existential quantifier asserts that there exists at least one
element in the domain for which the property holds.
Symbolic form:
∃x ∈ D, P (x)
means “There exists at least one x in the domain D such that P (x) is true.”
Example:
∃x ∈ R, x2 = 4
(There exists at least one real number x whose square is 4.)
Examples with one variable:

1. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0
(For all real numbers x, x2 is non-negative.)

2. ∃x ∈ N such that x2 = 16
(There exists a natural number x such that x2 = 16.)

Examples with several variables:

1. ∀x, y ∈ R, x2 + y 2 ≥ 0
(For all real numbers x and y, x2 + y 2 is non-negative.)

2. ∃x, y ∈ Z such that 3x + 5y = 1

(There exist integers x and y such that 3x + 5y = 1.)

3. ∀x ∈ [0, 1], ∃y ∈ [0, 1] such that x + y = 1

(For every x in [0, 1], there exists a y in [0, 1] such that x + y = 1.)

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2. Logical Connectives
Definition: Logical connectives are symbols or words used to connect propo-
sitions and form more complex logical statements. Common ones are:

∧ (and), ∨ (or), ¬ (not), → (implies), ↔ (if and only if)

Examples:
1. p ∧ q: “It is raining and it is cold.”
2. p → q: “If it rains, then the ground will be wet.”

Common Connectives and Truth Tables

1. Negation (¬P )
P ¬P
T F
F T

2. Conjunction (P ∧ Q)
P Q P ∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

3. Disjunction (P ∨ Q)
P Q P ∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

4. Implication (P → Q)
P Q P →Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

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 5. Biconditional (P ↔ Q)
P Q P ↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Tautologies and Equivalent Statements

Tautology
A tautology is a compound statement that is always true regardless of the
truth values of its components.
Examples:
1. P ∨ ¬P

2. (P ∧ Q) → P

3. P → (Q ∨ ¬Q)

Equivalent Statements
Two statements P and Q are logically equivalent if they have the same
truth value for all possible truth values of their components. We write P ≡ Q.
Examples:
1. ¬(P ∨ Q) ≡ ¬P ∧ ¬Q (De Morgan’s Law)

2. ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ ¬P ∨ ¬Q (De Morgan’s Law)

3. P → Q ≡ ¬P ∨ Q

3. Negation of Quantifiers
Definition: Negating a quantified statement switches the type of quantifier
and negates the predicate:

¬(∀x P (x)) ≡ ∃x ¬P (x), ¬(∃x P (x)) ≡ ∀x ¬P (x)

Examples:

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 1. Negation of ∀x ∈ N, x > 0:
∃x ∈ N such that x ≤ 0.

2. Negation of ∃y ∈ R, y 2 = −1:
∀y ∈ R, y 2 ̸= −1.

¬(∀x P (x)) ≡ ∃x ¬P (x)

¬(∃x P (x)) ≡ ∀x ¬P (x)
In words:

ˆ The negation of “for all” is “there exists”.

ˆ The negation of “there exists” is “for all”.

Example 1: Single Variable Let P (x) be “x2 ≥ 0” with x ∈ R.

¬(∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0) ≡ ∃x ∈ R, x2 < 0

Since x2 < 0 is never true for real x, the negation is false.

Example 2: Single Variable with Existence Let Q(x) be “x > 5” with

x ∈ Z.
¬(∃x ∈ Z, x > 5) ≡ ∀x ∈ Z, x ≤ 5

Example 3: Two Variables (Function of Several Variables) Let

R(x, y) be “x + y = 0” with x, y ∈ R.

¬(∀x ∈ R, ∀y ∈ R, x + y = 0) ≡ ∃x ∈ R, ∃y ∈ R, x + y ̸= 0

This states that “there exists a pair (x, y) such that x + y ̸= 0.”

Example 4: Mixed Quantifiers Let S(x, y) be “x2 + y 2 > 1” with

x, y ∈ R.
¬(∀x ∈ R, ∃y ∈ R, x2 + y 2 > 1)
≡ ∃x ∈ R, ∀y ∈ R, x2 + y 2 ≤ 1
This means “there exists an x such that for all y, the point (x, y) lies inside
or on the unit circle.”

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Example 5: Function of Three Variables Let T (x, y, z) be “x+y +z >
0” with x, y, z ∈ Z.

¬(∃x ∈ Z, ∀y ∈ Z, ∃z ∈ Z, x + y + z > 0)

≡ ∀x ∈ Z, ∃y ∈ Z, ∀z ∈ Z, x + y + z ≤ 0
Here, the negation forces a swap of quantifiers and the predicate inequality.

Example 6: Real-valued Function Constraint Let F (x, y) be “xy ≥

1” with x, y > 0.
¬(∀x > 0, ∃y > 0, xy ≥ 1)
≡ ∃x > 0, ∀y > 0, xy < 1
This states “there exists a positive x such that no matter what positive y is
chosen, the product xy is less than 1.”

4. Sets
Definition of a Set
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, called elements or mem-
bers of the set. We denote a set using curly braces, for example:

A = {1, 2, 3}

means that the set A contains the elements 1, 2, 3.

Subsets
A set A is a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an element of B.
We write:
A ⊆ B if (∀x)(x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B)
Examples:

1. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Then A ⊆ B.

2. Let C = {red, blue} and D = {red, blue, green}. Then C ⊆ D.

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Proper Subset
If A ⊆ B and A ̸= B, then A is called a proper subset of B, denoted:

A⊂B

Contains
We say that a set B contains a set A if A is a subset of B. In symbols:

B ⊇ A means A ⊆ B

Examples:

1. {1, 2, 3} ⊇ {1, 2}

2. {a, b, c} ⊃ {a, b}

Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. In
symbols:
A = B if and only if (∀x)(x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B)
Examples:

1. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 2, 1}, then A = B.

2. If C = {cat, dog} and D = {dog, cat}, then C = D.

Theorem: If A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C, then A ⊂ C

Proof: Let x ∈ A be arbitrary. Since A ⊂ B, it follows that: x ∈ B
Similarly, since B ⊂ C, we have: x ∈ C Thus, ∀, x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ C.
Therefore: A ⊂ C □

5. Restricted Variables
Definition: A restricted variable is a variable that is only considered over a
specific subset of a domain, rather than the whole universe of discourse.
Examples:

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 1. “For all x in N” – here x is restricted to natural numbers.
2. “There exists y in [0, 1]” – here y is restricted to the closed interval
from 0 to 1.

6. Relation — definition
A relation E between two sets X and Y is a collection of ordered pairs in
which the first entry comes from X and the second from Y . Equivalently, it
is a subset of the Cartesian product X × Y . i.e.E ⊆ X × Y, E ⊆ {(x, y) |
x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }.

2. Ordered pair (Kuratowski definition)

Definition (in words): An ordered pair (a, b) is an object that records first
the element a and second the element b, so that the order matters.
Kuratowski (set-theoretic) definition (in symbols):

(a, b) := {{a}, {a, b}}.

Under this definition the ordered pair is a specific set built from a and b.

3. Domain, Range, Inverse, Restriction, Image

Let E ⊆ X × Y be a relation.

ˆ Domain (in words): the domain of E is the set of all first-coordinates

that occur in pairs of E.

i.e. dom(E) = {x ∈ X | ∃y ∈ Y, (x, y) ∈ E}.

ˆ Range (often called image or codomain image): the set of all second-
coordinates that occur in pairs of E.

i.e. ran(E) = {y ∈ Y | ∃x ∈ X, (x, y) ∈ E}.

ˆ Inverse relation (in words): the inverse E −1 swaps each ordered pair
of E; i.e. it contains (y, x) whenever E contains (x, y).

i.e. E −1 = {(y, x) ∈ Y × X | (x, y) ∈ E}.

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 ˆ Restriction (in words): the restriction of E to a subset A ⊆ X is the
relation consisting of exactly those pairs in E whose first component
lies in A. for A ⊆ X,

i.e. E ↾A := {(x, y) ∈ E | x ∈ A}

(equivalently E ∩ (A × Y )).

ˆ Image of a set A under E (in words): the image E[A] is the set of
all second-coordinates that are related by E to some element of A.

i.e. E[A] = {y ∈ Y | ∃x ∈ A, (x, y) ∈ E}.

Often the image of a single element x is written E(x) := {y ∈ Y |

(x, y) ∈ E}.

4. Equality of unordered pairs (sets) — a short fact

Claim (a). For any elements a, b, c, d,

{a, b} = {c, d} ⇐⇒ (a = c and b = d) or (a = d and b = c).

Proof. (⇒) Suppose {a, b} = {c, d}. Every element of the left-hand
set is an element of the right-hand set and vice versa. Thus a ∈ {c, d} and
b ∈ {c, d}. There are two possibilities for where a lies: either a = c or a = d.

ˆ If a = c, then since b ∈ {c, d} we have b = c or b = d. If b = c

then {a, b} = {c}, which forces a = b = c and then both conditions
a = c, b = d or a = d, b = c reduce to the same equalities (and one of
them holds). If b = d, we get a = c and b = d, as required.

ˆ If a = d, a similar argument yields either b = c or b = d. If b = c we

obtain the case a = d and b = c. If b = d then a = b = d and again one
of the displayed alternatives holds.

(⇐) Conversely, if a = c and b = d, then {a, b} = {c, d} trivially. If a = d

and b = c, then {a, b} = {d, c} = {c, d}. This completes the proof. □

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5. Equality of Kuratowski ordered pairs
Claim (b). With the Kuratowski definition (x, y) := {{x}, {x, y}}, we have

(a, b) = (c, d) ⇐⇒ a = c and b = d.

Proof. Suppose

{{a}, {a, b}} = {{c}, {c, d}}.

We show first a = c. Note that {a} is a member of the left-hand set, so {a}
is a member of the right-hand set. Thus {a} = {c} or {a} = {c, d}.
Case 1: {a} = {c}. Then a = c.
Case 2: {a} = {c, d}. The left-hand side is a singleton, so the right-hand
side {c, d} must also be a singleton. Hence c = d. From {a} = {c, d} = {c}
we again get a = c. Thus in every case a = c.
Having established a = c, the equality of the two Kuratowski pairs reduces
to
{{a}, {a, b}} = {{a}, {a, d}}.
Cancel the common element {a} from both two-element sets (i.e. remove
{a} from each side) to obtain {a, b} = {a, d}. Using the unordered-pair fact
from Claim (a) with a in place, we conclude b = d. (More explicitly: since
{a, b} = {a, d}, either b = a and d = a (in which case b = d), or b = d. In all
subcases b = d.)
Thus a = c and b = d. This proves the (⇒) direction.
Conversely, if a = c and b = d then

{{a}, {a, b}} = {{c}, {c, d}},

so (a, b) = (c, d). This proves the (⇐) direction.

Therefore (a, b) = (c, d) iff a = c and b = d. □

6. Remarks and useful identities

ˆ The Kuratowski definition is one standard set-theoretic way to repre-
sent ordered pairs so that ordered pairs themselves are sets and stan-
dard set-theoretic machinery applies.

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 ˆ With ordered pairs defined, the Cartesian product and relations are
defined purely in set terms: X × Y = {(x, y) | x ∈ X, y ∈ Y } and any
relation E ⊆ X × Y is a set of such Kuratowski ordered pairs.

ˆ For a relation E ⊆ X ×Y and A ⊆ X, the restriction E ↾A = E ∩(A×Y )

and the image E[A] = { y ∈ Y | ∃x ∈ A (x, y) ∈ E } are frequently
used in proofs and constructions.

7. Functions
Definition of a Function
A function f from a set X to a set Y is a relation f ⊆ X × Y such that for
every x ∈ X there exists a unique y ∈ Y with (x, y) ∈ f . We write:

f : X → Y, f (x) = y.

Injective Function (One-to-One)

A function f : X → Y is injective if different inputs produce different
outputs; that is:

∀x1 , x2 ∈ X, f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 .

Surjective Function (Onto)

A function f : X → Y is surjective if every element of Y is the image of
some element of X; that is:

∀y ∈ Y, ∃x ∈ X such that f (x) = y.

Bijective Function
A function f : X → Y is bijective if it is both injective and surjective. In
other words, it is a one-to-one correspondence between X and Y .

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Inverse Function
If f : X → Y is bijective, then its inverse function f −1 : Y → X is defined
by:
f −1 (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y.
The inverse satisfies:
f −1 (f (x)) = x, ∀x ∈ X,
and
f (f −1 (y)) = y, ∀y ∈ Y.

8. Set Operations
Definition: Set operations are processes that produce new sets from given
sets, such as union (∪), intersection (∩), difference (\), and complement.

Union
Definition (words): The union of two sets A and B is the set of all
elements that belong to A or to B (or to both).

i.e. A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Intersection
Definition (words): The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of
all elements that belong to both A and B.

i.e. A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Complement
Definition (words): Given a universal set U , the complement of a set A
(relative to U ) is the set of all elements in U that are not in A.

i.e. Ac = {x ∈ U | x ∈
/ A}.

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Difference (Set Difference)
Definition (words): The difference of two sets A and B (also called the
relative complement of B in A) is the set of all elements that belong to A
but not to B.
i.e. A \ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ / B}.

9. Partitions and Equivalence Relations

Definition: An equivalence relation on a set X is a relation ∼ on X that
is:

ˆ Reflexive: ∀x ∈ X, x ∼ x.

ˆ Symmetric: ∀x, y ∈ X, x ∼ y =⇒ y ∼ x.

ˆ Transitive: ∀x, y, z ∈ X, (x ∼ y ∧ y ∼ z) =⇒ x ∼ z..

Examples of Equivalence Relations

1. Equality relation on any set X: x ∼ y ⇐⇒ x = y. This is trivially
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

2. Congruence modulo n on Z: For a fixed positive integer n, define

a ∼ b ⇐⇒ n | (a − b),

meaning a is congruent to b modulo n. This relation partitions the

integers into n equivalence classes called residue classes modulo n.

Equivalence Classes
Definition: For an equivalence relation ∼ on X, the equivalence class of
an element x ∈ X is the set of all elements of X that are related to x:

i.e [x] = {y ∈ X | y ∼ x}.

Example: In the congruence modulo 5 relation on Z, the equivalence

class of 2 is
[2] = {. . . , −8, −3, 2, 7, 12, . . .}
all integers congruent to 2 modulo 5.

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Partitions
Definition: A partition of a set X is a collection {Ai }i∈I of nonempty,
pairwise disjoint subsets of X whose union is X. That is:

ˆ Ai ̸= ∅ for all i.

ˆ Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ for all i ̸= j.

ˆ i∈I Ai = X.
S

Examples of Partitions
1. The set Z partitioned into equivalence classes modulo 3:

. . . , [−1]3 = {. . . , −7, −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, . . .}, [0]3 = {. . . , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, . . .}, [1]3 = {. . .

2. Partition of R into intervals of the form [n, n + 1), for n ∈ Z:

{[n, n + 1) | n ∈ Z}

This partitions the real line into disjoint intervals covering all real num-
bers.

Connection Between Equivalence Relations and Parti-

tions
Every equivalence relation ∼ on a set X induces a partition of X into its
equivalence classes {[x] | x ∈ X}. Conversely, every partition of X defines
an equivalence relation where two elements are related if and only if they lie
in the same part of the partition.

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