2. Understanding Space
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Nashid Pavel2. Understanding Space
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Nashid PavelUnderstanding Space
An Introduction to Astronautics
SP ACE TECHNOLOGY SERIES
This book is published as part of the Space Technology Series,
a cooperative activity of the United States Department of Defense and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Wiley J. Larson
Managing Editor
From Kluwer and Microcosm Publishers:
Space MissionAnalysisand Design Third Edition by Larson and Wertz.
SpacecraftStructuresand Mechanisms: From Concept to Launch by Sarafin.
ReducingSpace MissionCost by Wertz and Larson.
From McGraw-Hill:
UnderstandingSpace: An Introductionto AstronauticsSecond Edition by Sellers.
Space PropulsionAnalysisand Design by Humble, Henry, and Larson.
Cost-EffectiveSpace MissionOperations by Boden and Larson.
Fundamentals of Astrodynamicsand Applicationsby Vallado.
AppliedModelingand Simulation:An Integrated Approachto Development and
Operation by Cloud and Rainey.
Human Spaceflight:MissionAnalysisand Design by Larson and Pranke.
The Lunar Base Handbookby Eckart.
Future Books in the Series:
Space TransportationSystems Design and Operations by Larson.
Visit the website:
www.understandingspace.com
Revi!ied Second Edition
UNDERSTANDING SPACE An Introduction ta Astronautics
.Jerry .Jon Seller§
With Contribution§ by:
Willia111!i_J_ A!itore
Robert B. 6iffen
Wiley _J_ Lar!ion
a// from
United State§ Air Force Academy
Editor
aougla!i H. Kirkpatrick
lllu!itrated by:
Dale liay
Text De!iign by:
Anita Shute
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UNDERSTANDING SPACE
An Introduction to A!itrnnautic!!i
Revi!!ied Second Edition
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1r!34567890 WCKWCK 09876543
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This book is dedicated to the thousands of people
who've devoted their lives to exploring space.
Understanding Space
An Introductionto Astronautics
Chapter1 Space in Our Lives 1
Why Space? 3
The Space Imperative 3
Using Space 5
Elements of a Space Mission 13
The Mission 13
The Spacecraft 14
Trajectories and Orbits 15
Launch Vehicles 16
Mission Operations Systems 18
Mission Management and Operations 18
The Space Mission Architecture in Action 21
Chapter 2 Exploring Space 29
Early Space Explorers 33
Astronomy Begins 33
Reordering the Universe 35
Entering Space 44
The Age of Rockets 44
Sputnik: The Russian Moon 46
Armstrong's Small Step 49
Satellites and Interplanetary Probes 51
Space Comes of Age 53
Space International 53
Space Science Big and Small 54
The New High Ground 61
The Future 62
Chapter3 The Space Environment 71
Cosmic Perspective 73
Where is Space? 73
The Solar System 74
The Cosmos 76
The Space Environment and Spacecraft 79
Gravity 79
Atmosphere 81
Vacuum 82
vii
Micrometeoroids and Space Junk 84
The Radiation Environment 85
Charged Particles 86
Living and Working in Space 91
Free fall 91
Radiation and Charged Particles 93
Psychological Effects 95
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits 103
Orbital Motion 105
Baseballs in Orbit 105
Analyzing Motion 107
Newton's Laws 109
Weight, Mass, and Inertia 109
Momentum 111
Changing Momentum 114
Action and Reaction 115
Gravity 116
Laws of Conservation 123
Momentum 123
Energy 124
The Restricted Two-body Problem 130
Coordinate Systems 130
Equation of Motion 132
Simplifying Assumptions 133
Orbital Geometry 135
Constants of Orbital Motion 140
Specific Mechanical Energy 140
Specific Angular Momentum 143
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits 153
Orbital Elements 155
Defining the Classic Orbital Elements (COEs) 156
Alternate Orbital Elements 164
Computing Orbital Elements 167
Finding Semimajor Axis, a 167
Finding Eccentricity, e 168
Finding Inclination, i 168
Finding Right Ascension of the Ascending Node, Q 169
Finding Argument of Perigee, co 171
Finding True Anomaly, v 172
Spacecraft Ground Tracks 179
viii
Chapter6 Maneuvering In Space 191
Hohmann Transfers 193
Plane Changes 203
Simple Plane Changes 203
Combined Plane Changes 205
Rendezvous 208
Coplanar Rendezvous 209
Co-orbital Rendezvous 213
Chapter 7 InterplanetaryTravel 221
Planning for Interplanetary Travel 223
Coordinate Systems 223
Equation of Motion 224
Simplifying Assumptions 224
The Patched-conic Approximation 227
Elliptical Hohmann Transfer between Planets-
Problem 1 230
Hyperbolic Earth Departure-Problem 2 238
Hyperbolic Planetary Arrival-Problem 3 243
Transfer Time of Flight 248
Phasing of Planets for Rendezvous 248
Gravity-assist Trajectories 252
Chapter8 Predicting Orbits 259
Predicting an Orbit (Kepler's Problem) 261
Kepler's Equation and Time of Flight 262
Orbital Perturbations 272
Atmospheric Drag 273
Earth's Oblateness 273
Other Perturbations 277
Predicting Orbits in the Real World 280
Chapter9 Getting To Orbit 289
Launch Windows and Times 291
Launch Windows 291
Launch Time 292
When and Where to Launch 298
Launch Velocity 308
ix
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry 323
Analyzing Re-entry Motion 325
Trade-offs for Re-entry Design 325
The Motion Analysis Process 327
Re-entry Motion Analysis in Action 332
Options for Trajectory Design 335
Trajectory and Deceleration 335
Trajectory and Heating 337
Trajectory and Accuracy 340
Trajectory and the Re-entry Corridor 340
Options for Vehicle Design 342
Vehicle Shape 342
Thermal-protection Systems 345
Lifting Re-entry 350
Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering 359
Space Mission Design 361
The Systems Engineering Process 361
Designing Payloads and Subsystems 368
The Design Process 374
Remote-sensing Payloads 382
The Electromagnetic Spectrum 383
Seeing through the Atmosphere 385
What We See 386
Payload Sensors 388
Payload Design 393
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems 401
Control Systems 403
Attitude Control 407
Having the Right Attitude 407
Attitude Dynamics 410
Disturbance Torques 413
Spacecraft Attitude Sensors 417
Spacecraft Attitude Actuators 422
The Controller 429
Orbit Control 434
Space Vehicle Dynamics 434
Navigation-The Sensor 435
Rockets-The Actuators 437
Guidance-The Controller 438
x
Chapter13 Spacecraft Subsystems 447
Communication and Data-handling Subsystem
(CDHS) 449
System Overview 449
Basic Principles 450
Systems Engineering 457
Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) 461
Basic Principles 462
Systems Engineering 474
Environmental Control and Life-support
Subsystem (ECLSS) 480
System Overview 480
Basic Principles of Thermal Control 481
Basic Principles of Life Support 488
Systems Engineering 493
Structures and Mechanisms 498
System Overview 498
Basic Principles 501
Systems Engineering 509
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles 531
Rocket Science 533
Thrust 533
The Rocket Equation 535
Rockets 539
Propulsion Systems 560
Propellant:rvlanagement 561
Thermodynamic Rockets 564
Electrodynamic Rockets 574
System Selection and Testing 576
Exotic Propulsion Methods 578
Launch Vehicles 586
Launch-vehicle Subsystems 586
Staging 591
Chapter15 Space Operations 607
Mission Operations Systems 609
Spacecraft Manufacturing 610
Operations 614
Communication 617
Satellite Control Networks 623
xi
Mission Management and Operations 630
Mission Teams 631
Mission Management 638
Spacecraft Autonomy 645
Chapter 16 Using Space 653
The Space Industry 655
Globalization 656
Commercialization 657
Capital Market Acceptance 660
Emergence of New Industry Leaders 661
Space Politics 662
Political Motives 662
Laws, Regulations, and Policies 664
Space Economics 668
Lifecycle Costs 668
Cost Estimating 675
Return on Investment 676
The FireSat Mission 677
Appendix A Math Review 685
Trigonometry 685
Trigonometric Functions 685
Angle Measurements 687
Spherical Trigonometry 687
Vector Math 689
Definitions 689
Vector Components 689
Vector Operations 689
Transforming Vector Coordinates 694
Calculus 695
Definitions 695
Appendix B Units and Constants 699
Canonical Units 699
Canonical Units for Earth 699
Solar Canonical Units 700
Unit Conversions 701
Constants 706
Greek Alphabet 708
xii
Appendix C Derivations 709
Restricted Two-body Equation of Motion 709
Constants of Motion 710
ProvingSpecific MechanicalEnergyis Constant 710
ProvingSpecific AngularMomentumis Constant 712
Solving the Two-body
Equation of Motion 714
Relating the Energy Equation
to the Semimajor Axis 718
The Eccentricity Vector 720
Deriving the Period Equation
for an Elliptical Orbit 723
Finding Position and Velocity
Vectors from COEs 724
Vburnout in SEZ Coordinates 728
Deriving the Rocket Equation 729
Deriving the Potential Energy Equation and
Discovering the Potential Energy Well 731
AppendixD Solar and PlanetaryData 733
Physical Properties of the Sun 733
Physical Properties of the Earth 734
Physical Properties of the Moon 735
Planetary Data 737
Spheres of Influence for the Planets 738
Appendix E Motion of Ballistic Vehicles 741
Equation of Motion 741
Ground-trackGeometry 742
TrajectoryGeometry 744
MaximumRange 745
Time of Flight 745
Rotating-EarthCorrection 747
Error Analysis 747
Appendix F Answers to Numerical
Mission Problems 749
xiii
Preface
This 2nd edition of Understanding Space gives us the opportunity to update and expand the
discussions on the elements of space missions. Our goal is to give the reader a more comprehensive
overview of space systems engineering and how we apply it to spacecraft subsystems, rockets, and
operations systems. In this second edition we've updated everything, added about 20% new
material and developed a full-color format, all to better help you understand (and enjoy!) space.
Space travel and exploration are exciting topics; yet, many people shy away from them because
they seem complex. The study of astronautics and space missions can be difficult at times, but our
goal in this book is to bring space down to Earth. If we're successful-and you'll be the judge-after
studying this book you should understand the concepts and principles of spaceflight, space
vehicles, launch systems, and space operations.
We want to help you understand space missions while developing enthusiasm and curiosity about
this very exciting topic. We've been inspired by the thousands of people who've explored space-
from the people who've studied and documented the heavens, to the people who've given their
lives flying there. We hope to inspire you! Whether you're interested in engineering, business,
politics, or teaching-you can make a difference. We need talented people to lead the way in
exploring space, the stars, and galaxies, and you are our hope for the future.
This book is intended for use in a first course in astronautics, as well as a guide for people needing
to understand the "big picture" of space. Practicing engineers and managers of space-related
projects will benefit from the brief explanations of concepts. Even if you're a junior or senior in high
school and have a strong background in physics and math, come on in-you'll do fine!
If you don't like equations-don't worry! The book is laid out so you can learn the necessary
concepts from the text without having to read or manipulate the equations. The equations are for
those of you who want to be more fully grounded in the basics of astronautics.
We've included helpful features in this book to make it easier for you to use. The first page of each
chapter contains
• An outline of the chapter, so you know what's coming
• An "In This Chapter You'll Learn To ... " box that tells you what you should learn in the
chapter
• A "You Should Already Know ... " box, so you can review material that you'll need to
understand the chapter
Each section of the chapter contains
• An "In This Section You'll Learn To ... " box that gives you learning outcomes
• A detailed section review which summarizes key concepts and lists key terms and
equations
xv
Within each chapter you'll find
• Key terms italicized and defined
• Full-color diagrams and pictures "worth a thousand words"
• Tables summarizing important information and concepts
• Key equations boxed
• Detailed, step-by-step solutions to real-world example problems
• "Astro Fun Facts" to provide interesting insights and space trivia
At the end of each chapter you'll find
• A list of references for further study
• Problems and discussion questions, so you can practice what you've read. Astronautics is
not a spectator sport-the real learning happens when you actually do what you've
studied.
• Mission profiles designed to give you insight on specific programs and a starting point for
discussion
We hope these features help you learn how exciting space can be!
xvi
Acknowledgments
Books, like space missions, are a team effort. This book is the result of several years of effort by an
international team of government, industry, and academic professionals. The Department of
Astronautics, United States Air Force Academy, provided unwavering support for the project.
Robert B. Giffen and Michael Delorenzo, past and present Department Heads, respectively,
furnished the time, encouragement, and resources necessary to complete this edition. The entire
Department of Astronautics, most notably Dave Cloud and Jack Ferguson, along with many cadets
reviewed numerous drafts and provided very useful comments and suggestions. Michael Caylor
and his Understanding Space review team did an incredible job of reviewing and commenting on
the contents, finding and correcting errors, and enhancing the presentation of the material. The
review team included Dr. Werner Balogh, United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs (and
currently the Austrian Space Agency); Dr. Tarik Kaya, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (and
the International Space University); Ms. Elizabeth Bloomer, NASA Johnson Space Center; Vadim
Zak.irov, University of Surrey; and Dr. Gabrielle Belle, U.S. Air Force Academy. Thanks also goes
to additional reviews and helpful comments provided by Ron Humble and Tim Lawrence. Connie
Bryant did a great deal of picture scanning for us.
We'd especially like to thank our illustrator, Dale Gay, for his creative ideas and patience in
creating several hundred full-color illustrations. These truly make the book come alive. The
contributing authors-Bill Astore, Julie Chesley, and Bob Giffen-provided key expertise on
important topics and helped make the book complete. Their names are on the chapters they
contributed. McGraw-Hill was exceptionally helpful during the development and we'd thank our
publisher, Margaret Hollander, for her patience and guidance.
For the new material on space systems engineering and subsystems, we're grateful for the help and
support of the Surrey Space Centre and Surrey Satellite Technology, Ltd., U.K. We'd especially like
to thank Craig Underwood for his advise on the FireSat nanosatellite concept, Maarten "Max"
Meerrnan for all his help with the FireSat mechanical design, engineering drawings, and
microsatellite photographs, and Martin Sweeting for making their contributions possible.
We'd also like to thank the NASA Public Affairs Offices at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas,
Kennedy Space Center in Florida, Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, California, Marshall
Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, and Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California,
for their help with photographs.
Leadership, funding, and support essential to developing this book were also provided by the
following organizations
• Space and Missile Center, Los Angeles Air Force Base, California, including most program
offices
• U.S. Air Force Space Command and Air Force Research Laboratory
• Naval Research Laboratory, Office of Naval Research
• Army Laboratory Command
xvii
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration including Headquarters, Goddard Space
Flight Center, Johnson Space Center, Kennedy Space Center, Glen Research Center, and Jet
Propulsion Laboratory
• U.S. Departments of Commerce, Transportation, and Energy
• Industry sponsors including The Boeing Company and Lockheed Martin
• European Space Agency
Getting time and money to develop much-needed reference material is exceptionally difficult in the
aerospace community. We are deeply indebted to the sponsoring organizations for their support
and their recognition of the importance of projects such as this one.
The OAO Corporation and the National Northern Education Foundation (NNEF), in Colorado
Springs, Colorado, also provided exceptional contract support for the project. Richard Affeld and
Jerry Worden of OAO and David Nelson of NNEF were particularly helpful throughout the
development period.
Again we owe special thanks to Anita Shute for literally making this book happen. She took our crude, often
illegible drafts and sketches and created the product you'll be reading. Her creative ideas and talent are
surpassed only by her hard work and patience!
We sincerely hope this book will be useful to you in your study of astronautics. We've made every
effort to eliminate mathematical and factual errors, but some may have slipped by us. Please send
any errors, omissions, corrections, or comments to us, so we can incorporate them in the next
edition of the book. Good luck and aim for the stars!
April, 2000
Jerry Jon Sellers Douglas Kirkpatrick Wiley J. Larson
Author and Editor Editor Managing Editor
Department of Astronautics
United States Air Force Academy
USAF Academy, Colorado 80840
Voice: 719-333-4110 FAX: 719-333-3 723
Email: [email protected]
xviii
From a cosmic perspective, Earth's a very small place. This view of the spiral galaxy M4414 shows what the Milky Way may look like, if we
could get away and look back at it. (Courtesy of the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, lnc./Space Telescope Science
Institute)
Space in Our
Lives
!1111111 In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... == Outline
.- List and describe the unique advantages of space and some of the 1.1 Why Space?
missions that capitalize on them The Space Imperative
,.. Identify the elements that make up a space mission Using Space
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
!1111111 You Should Already Know ... The Mission
The Spacecraft
O Nothing about space yet. That's why we're here!
Trajectories and Orbits
Launch Vehicles
Mission Operations Systems
Mission Management and
Operations
The Space Mission Architecture
in Action
Space. T/1e Final Frontier. These are the voyages of tue Starship Enterprise. Its
continuing mission=to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new lifeand new
civilizations, to boldly go where no one has gone before!
Star Trek-The Next Generation
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
hy study space? Why should you invest the considerable time
W and effort needed to understand the basics of planet and satellite
motion, rocket propulsion, and spacecraft design-this vast area
of knowledge we call astronautics? The reasons are both poetic and
practical.
The poetic reasons are embodied in the quotation at the beginning of this
chapter. Trying to understand the mysterious beauty of the universe, "to
boldly go where no one has gone before," has always been a fundamental
human urge. Gazing into the sky on a starry night, you can share an experi-
ence common to the entire history of humankind. As you ponder the fuzzy
expanse of the Milky Way and the brighter shine and odd motion of the
planets, you can almost feel a bond with ancient shepherds who looked at
the same sky and pondered the same questions thousands of years ago.
The changing yet predictable face of the night sky has always inspired
our imagination and caused us to ask questions about something greater
than ourselves. This quest for an understanding of space has ultimately
given us greater control over our destiny on Earth. Early star gazers
contemplated the heavens with their eyes alone and learned to construct
calendars enabling them to predict spring flooding and decide when to
plant and harvest. Modern-day star gazers study the heavens with
sophisticated ground and space instruments, enabling them to push our
understanding of the universe far beyond what the unaided eye can see,
such as in Figure 1.1.
To study space, then, is to grapple with questions as old as humanity.
Understanding how the complex mechanisms of the universe work gives
us a greater appreciation for its graceful and poetic beauty.
While the practical reasons for studying space are much more down to
Ffgure 1·1. Hubble Image. This photo of a Earth, you can easily see them, as well, when you gaze at the night sky on
star forming region is one of thousands sent to
Earth by the Hubble Space Telescope. a clear night. The intent sky watcher can witness a sight that only the
(Courtesy of tile Association of Universities for current generation of humans has been able to see-tiny points of light
Researcil in Astronomy, lnc.!Space Telescope streaking across the background of stars. They move too fast to be stars or
Science Institute)
planets. They don't brighten and die out like meteors or "falling stars."
This now common sight would have startled and terrified ancient star
gazers, for they're not the work of gods but the work of people. They are
spacecraft. We see sunlight glinting off their shiny surfaces as they
patiently circle Earth. These reliable fellow travellers with Earth enable us
to manage resources and communicate on a global scale.
Since the dawn of the Space Age only a few decades ago, we have
come to rely more and more on spacecraft for a variety of needs. Daily
weather forecasts, instantaneous worldwide communication, and a
constant ability to record high-resolution images of vital regions are all
examples of space technology that we've come to take for granted.
Studying space offers us a chance to understand and appreciate the
complex requirements of this technology. See Figure 1-2.
Figure 1-2. Milstar Communication Satel- Throughout this book, we'll focus primarily on the practical aspects of
lite. The state-of-the-art Milstar satellite space-What's it like? And how do we get there? How do we use space
system provides worldwide communications to
thousands of users simultaneously. (Courtesy
for our benefit? In doing so, we hope to inspire a keen appreciation and
of tile U.S. Air Force) sense of poetic wonder about the mystery of space-the final frontier.
2
1.1 Why Space?
1.1 Why Space?
!!!!!!!!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn To...
.- List and describe the advantages offered by space and the unique
space environment
.- Describe current space missions
The Space Imperative
Getting into space is dangerous and expensive. So why bother? Space
offers several compelling advantages for modern society
• A global perspective-the ultimate high ground
• A clear view of the heavens-unobscured by the atmosphere
• A free-fall environment-enabling us to develop advanced materials
impossible to make on Earth
• Abundant resources-such as solar energy and extraterrestrial
materials
• A unique challenge as the final frontier
Let's explore each of these advantages in turn to see their potential benefit
to Earth.
Space offers a global perspective. As Figure 1-3 shows, the higher you
are, the more of Earth's surface you can see. For thousands of years, kings
and rulers took advantage of this fact by putting lookout posts atop the
Figure 1-3. A Global Perspective. Space is
tallest mountains to survey more of their realm and warn of would-be the ultimate high ground; it allows us to view
attackers. Throughout history, many battles have been fought to "take the large parts of Earth at once for various applica-
high ground." Space takes this quest for greater perspective to its tions. (Courtesy of Analytical Graphics, Inc.)
ultimate end. From the vantage point of space, we can view large areas of
Earth's surface. Orbiting spacecraft can thus serve as "eyes and ears in the
sky" to provide a variety of useful services.
Space offers a clear view of the heavens. When we look at stars in the
night sky, we see their characteristic twinkle. This twinkle, caused by the
blurring of "starlight" as it passes through the atmosphere, we know as
sciutiilaiion. The atmosphere blurs some light, but it blocks other light
altogether, which frustrates astronomers who need access to all the
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum to fully explore the universe. By
placing observatories in space, we can get instruments above the
atmosphere and gain an unobscured view of the universe, as depicted in
Figure 1-4. The Hubble Space Telescope, the Gamma Ray Observatory,
and the Chandra X-ray Observatory are all armed with sensors operating Figure 1-4. Space Astronomy . Earth's
far beyond the range of human senses. Results using these instruments atmosphere obscures our view of space, so we
put satellites. like the Hubble Space Telescope,
from the unique vantage point of space are revolutionizing our above the atmosphere to see better. (Courtesy
understanding of the cosmos. of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
3
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
Space offers a free-fall environment enabling manufacturing processes
not possible on Earth's surface. To form certain new metal alloys, for
example, we must blend two or more metals in just the right proportion.
Unfortunately, gravity tends to pull heavier metals to the bottom of their
container, making a uniform mixture difficult to obtain. But space offers the
solution. A manufacturing plant in orbit (and everything in it) is literally
falling toward Earth, but never hitting it. This is a condition known as free
fall (NOT zero gravity, as we'll see later). In free fall there are no contact
forces on an object, so, we say it is weightless, making uniform mixtures of
dissimilar materials possible. We'll explore this concept in greater detail in
Chapter 3. Unencumbered by the weight felt on Earth's surface, factories in
orbit have the potential to create exotic new materials for computer
components or other applications, as well as promising new
pharmaceutical products to battle disease on Earth. Studying the effects of
weightlessness on plant, animal, and human physiology also gives us
greater insight into how disease and aging affect us (Figure 1-5).
Figure 1-5. Free-fall Environment. Astro-
nauts Duque (right-side up) and Lindsey (up- Space offers abundant resources. While some people argue about how to
side down) enjoy the free fall experience on carve the pie of Earth's finite resources into ever smaller pieces, others
STS-95. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space contend that we need only bake a bigger pie. The bounty of the solar
Center)
system offers an untapped reserve of minerals and energy to sustain the
spread of mankind beyond the cradle of Earth. Spacecraft now use only
one of these abundant resources-limitless solar energy. But scientists have
speculated that we could use lunar resources, or even those from the
asteroids, to fuel a growing space-based economy. Lunar soil, for example,
is known to be rich in oxygen and aluminum. We could use this oxygen in
rocket engines and for humans to breathe. Aluminum is an important
~----AstroFunFact-------
ShotTowers
In the mid sixteenth century, Italian weapon makers developed a secret method to
manufacture lead shot for use in muskets. Finding that gravity tended to misshape
the shots when traditionally cast, the Italians devised a system that employed
principles of free fall. In this process, molten lead was dropped through a tiny
opening at a height of about 100 m (300 ft.) from a "shot tower." As the molten lead
plummeted, it cooled into a near perfect sphere. At journey's end, the lead felt into
a pool of cold water where it quickly hardened. As time passed, shot towers became
common throughout Europe and the United States. More cost-effective and
advanced methods have now replaced them.
Burrard, Sir Major Gerald. The Modern Shotgun Volume II: The Cartridge.
London: Herbert Jenkins Ltd., 1955.
Deane. Deane's Manual of Fire Arms. London: Longman, Brown, Green,
Longmans and Robers, 1858.
Contributed by Troy Kitch, the U.S. Air Force Academy
4
1.1 Why Space?
metal for various industrial uses. It is also possible that water ice may be
trapped in eternally-dark craters at the Lunar poles. These resources,
coupled with the human drive to explore, mean the sky is truly the limit!
Finally, space offers an advantage simply as a frontier. The human
condition has always improved as new frontiers were challenged. As a
stimulus for increased technological advances, and a crucible for creating
greater economic expansion, space offers a limitless challenge that
compels our attention. Many people have compared the challenges of
space to those faced by the first explorers to the New World. European
settlers explored the apparently limitless resources, struggling at first,
then slowly creating a productive society out of the wilderness.
We're still a long way from placing colonies on the Moon or Mars. But
already the lure of this final frontier has affected us. Audiences spend
millions of dollars each year on inspiring movies such as Star Wars, Star
Trek, Independence Day, and Contact. The Apollo Moon landings and scores
of Space Shuttle flights have captured the wonder and imagination of
people across the planet. NASA records thousands of hits per day on
their Mars Mission websites. Future missions promise to be even more
captivating as a greater number of humans join in the quest for space. For
each of us "space" means something different, as illustrated in Figure 1-6.
Figure 1-6. Space. Space is many things to many people. It's the wonder of the stars,
rockets, spacecraft, and all the other aspects of the final frontier.
Using Space
Although we have not yet realized the full potential of space, over the
years we've learned to take advantage of several of its unique attributes
in ways that affect all of us. The most common space missions fall into
four general areas
5
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
• Communications
• Remote sensing
• Navigation
• Science and exploration
Let's briefly look at each of these missions to see how they are changing
the way we live in and understand our world.
Space-based Communications
In October 1945, scientist and science-fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke
(author of classics, such as 2001: A Space Odyssey) proposed an idea that
would change the course of civilization.
One orbit, with a radius of 42,000 km, has a period ( the time it takes to go
once around the Earth) of exactly 24 hours. A body in such an orbit, if its
plane coincided with that of the Earth's equator, would revolve with the
Earth and would thus be stationary above the same spot . . [a satellite] in
this orbit could be provided with receiving and transmitting equipment
and could act as a repeater to relay transmissions between any two points
on the hemisphere beneath . . A transmission received from any point on
the hemisphere could be broadcast to the whole visible face of the globe.
(From Wireless World [Canute and Chagas, 1978].)
The information age was born. Clarke proposed a unique application
of the global perspective space offers. Although two people on Earth may
Figure 1-7. Communication Through Sat-
ellites. A satellite's global perspective allows be too far apart to see each other directly, they can both "see" the same
users in remote parts of the world to talk to spacecraft in high orbit, as shown in Figure 1-7, and that spacecraft can
each other. relay messages from one point to another.
Few ideas have had a greater impact in shrinking the apparent size of
the world. With the launch of the first experimental communications
satellite, Echo I, into Earth orbit in 1960, Clarke's fanciful idea showed
promise of becoming reality. Although Echo I was little more than a
reflective balloon in low-Earth orbit, radio signals were bounced off it,
demonstrating that space could be used to broaden our horizons of
communication. An explosion of technology to exploit this idea quickly
followed.
Without spacecraft, global communications as we know it would not be
possible. We now use spacecraft for most commercial and governmental
communications, as well as domestic cable television. Live television
broadcasts by satellite from remote regions of the globe are now common
on the nightly news. Relief workers in remote areas can stay in continuous
contact with their home offices, enabling them to better distribute aid to
desperate refugees. Figure 1-8 shows a soldier in the field sending a
Figure 1-8. Satellite Communications. The
explosion in satellite communication tech- message via satellite. Military commanders now rely almost totally on
nology has shrunk the world and linked us spacecraft, such as the Defense Satellite Communication System and the
more tightly together in a global community. Milstar system, to communicate with forces deployed worldwide.
Here we see a soldier sending a message
through a portable ground station. (Courtesy of Communication satellites have also been a boon to world development.
Rockwell Collins) Canu to and Chagas [1978] described how the launch of the Palapa A and
6
U Why Space?
B satellites, for example, allowed the tropical island country of Indonesia
to expand telephone service from a mere 625 phones in 1969 (limited by
isolated population centers), to more than 233,000 only five years later
(Figure 1-9). This veritable explosion in the ability to communicate has
been credited with greatly improving the nation's economy and
expanding its gross national product, thus benefiting all citizens. All this
from only two satellites! Other developing nations have also realized
similar benefits. Many credit the worldwide marketplace of ideas ushered Figure 1-9. Palapa A Coverage. The cover-
in by satellites with the former Soviet Union's collapse and the rejection of age for the Palapa A satellite means telephone
closed, authoritarian regimes. service is available from one end of Indonesia
to the other. (Courtesy of Hughes Space and
Today, a large collection of spacecraft in low-Earth orbit form a global Communications Company)
cellular telephone network. With this network in place, anyone with one
of the small portable phones can call any other telephone on the planet.
Now, no matter where you go on Earth, you are always able to phone
home. We can only imagine how this expanded ability to communicate
will further shrink the global village.
Remote-sensing Satellites
Remote-sensing satellites use modern instruments to gather information
about the nature and condition of Earth's land, sea, and atmosphere.
Located in the "high ground" of space, these satellites use sensors that can
"see" a broad area and report very fine details about the weather, the
terrain, and the envirorunent. The sensors receive electromagnetic
emissions in various spectral bands that show what objects are visible, such Figure 1-1 O. Earth Observation Satellite
as clouds, hills, lakes, and many other phenomena below. These (EOS). This satellite takes high-resolution
instruments can detect an object's temperature and composition (concrete, images of sites on Earth's surface. Govern-
ment agencies and commercial firms use the
metal, dirt, etc.), the wind's direction and speed, and environmental images for many purposes, such as city plan-
conditions, such as erosion, fires, and pollution. With these sophisticated ning and market growth analysis. (Courtesy of
satellites, we can learn much about the world we live in (Figure 1-10). NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center)
For decades, military "spy satellites" have kept tabs on the activities of
potential adversaries using remote-sensing technology. These data have
been essential in determining troop movements and violations of
international treaties. During the Gulf Wat~ for example, remote-sensing
satellites gave the United Nations alliance a decisive edge. The United
Nations' forces knew nearly all Iraqi troop deployments, whereas the
Iraqis, lacking these sensors, didn't know where allied troops were.
Furthermore, early-warning satellites, originally orbited to detect
strategic missile launches against the United States, proved equally
effective in detecting the launch of the smaller, Scud, missiles against
allied targets. This early warning gave the Patriot antimissile batteries
time to prepare for the Scuds.
Military remote-sensing technology has also had valuable civilian
applications. The United States' Landsat and France's SPOT (Satellite Pour Figure 1·11. City Planning from Space.
Government officials can use remote-sensing
!'Observation de la Terre) systems are good examples. Landsat and SPOT images, such as this one from the Landsat
satellites produce detailed images of urban and agricultural regions, as spacecraft, for urban planning. In this image of
demonstrated in Figure 1-11 of Washington, D.C., and Figure 1-12 of Washington, D.C.. specialists merged a
Landsat image and a Mir space station
Kansas. These satellites "spy" on crops, ocean currents, and natural photograph to get 2-m resolution. (Courtesy of
resources to aid farmers, resource managers, and demographic planners. NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center)
7
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
In countries where the failure of a harvest may mean the difference
between bounty and starvation, spacecraft have helped planners manage
scarce resources and head off potential disasters before insects or other
blights could wipe out an entire crop. For example, in agricultural regions
near the fringes of the Sahara desert in Africa, scientists used Landsat
images to predict where locust swarms were breeding. Then, they were
able to prevent the locusts from swarming, saving large areas of crop land.
Remote-sensing data can also help us manage other scarce resources
by showing us the best places to drill for water or oil. From space,
astronauts can easily see fires burning in the rain forests of South America
as trees are cleared for farms and roads. Remote-sensing spacecraft have
become a formidable weapon against the destruction of the envirorunent
because they can systematically monitor large areas to assess the spread
of pollution and other damage.
Figure 1-12. Two Views of Kansas. A remote-sensing image from the French SPOT satellite shows irrigated fields (the circular
areas) in Kansas. Red means crops are growing. Light blue means the fields lay fallow. On the right, astronaut Joe Engle, a native
of Kansas, gives his opinion of being In space. (Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and Johnson Space Center)
Remote-sensing technology has also helped map makers. With satellite
imagery, they can make maps in a fraction of the time it would take using
a laborious ground survey. This enables city planners to better keep up
with urban sprawl and gives deployed troops the latest maps of
unfamiliar terrain.
National weather forecasts usually begin with a current satellite view
of Earth. At a glance, any of us can tell which parts of the country are
clear or cloudy. When they put the satellite map in motion, we easily see
the direction of clouds and storms. An untold number of lives are saved
every year by this simple ability to track the paths of hurricanes and other
Figure 1-13. Viewing Hurricanes From
Space. It's hard to imagine a world without deadly storms, such as the one shown in Figure 1-13. By providing
weather satellites. Images of hurricanes and farmers valuable climatic data and agricultural planners information
other severe storms provide timely warning to about potential floods and other weather-related disasters, this tech-
those in their path and save countless lives
every year. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson nology has markedly improved food production and crop management
Space Center) worldwide.
8
1.1 Why Space?
Overall, we've come to rely more and more on the ability to monitor
and map our entire planet. As the pressure builds to better manage scarce
resources and assess environmental damage, we'll call upon remote-
sensing spacecraft to do even more.
Navigation Satellites
Satellites have revolutionized navigation-determining where you are
and where you're going. The Global Positioning System (GPS), developed
by the U.S. Department of Defense, and the GLONASS system,
developed by the Russian Federation, use a small armada of satellites to
help people, airplanes, ships, and ground vehicles navigate around the
globe.
Besides supporting military operations, this system also offers
incredible civilian applications. Surveyors, pilots, boaters, hikers, and
many others who have a simple, low-cost receiver, can have instant
information on where they are-with mind-boggling accuracy. With four
satellites in view, as shown in Figure 1-14, it can "fix" a position to within
a hundred meters. In fact, the biggest problem some users face is that the
fix from GPS is more accurate than many maps!
Figure 1-14. Global Positioning System (GPS). The GPS space segment consists of a constellation of satellites deployed and operated by
the U.S. Air Force. GPS has literally revolutionized navigation by providing highly accurate position, velocity, and time information to users on
Earth.
Car manufacturers now offer GPS receivers as a standard feature on
some models. Now you can easily find your way across a strange city
without ever consulting a map. You simply put in the location you're
trying to reach, and the system tells you how to get there. No more stops
at gas stations to ask directions!
9
Chapter l Space in Our Lives
Science and Exploration Satellites
Since the dawn of the space age, scientists have launched dozens of
satellites for purely scientific purposes. These mechanical explorers have
helped to answer (and raise) basic questions about the nature of Earth,
the solar system, and the universe. In the 1960s and 1970s, the United
States launched the Pioneer series of spacecraft, to explore Venus,
Mercury, and the Sun. The Mariner spacecraft flew by Mars to give us the
first close-up view of the Red Planet. In 1976, two Viking spacecraft
landed on Mars to do experiments designed to search for life on the one
planet in our solar system whose environment most closely resembles
Figure 1-15. Images of Venus. Magellan,
another interplanetary spacecraft, has provided
Earth's. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Voyager spacecraft took us on a grand
a wealth of scientific data. Using its powerful tour of the outer planets, beginning with Jupiter and followed by Saturn,
synthetic aperture radar to pierce the dense Uranus, and Neptune. The Magellan spacecraft, launched in 1989, has
clouds of Venus, it has mapped the Venusian
surface in detail. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet mapped the surface of Venus beneath its dense layer of clouds, as shown
Propulsion Laboratory) in Figure 1-15. The first mobile Martian-the Sojourner rover-part of the
Mars Pathfinder mission, fascinated Earthlings in 1997, as it made the
first, tentative exploration of the Martian surface. The Hubble Space
Telescope orbits Earth every 90 minutes and returns glorious images of
our solar-system neighbors, as well as deep-space phenomena that
greatly expand our knowledge, as shown in Figures 1-1 and 1-16.
Although all of these missions have answered many questions about
space, they have also raised many other questions which await future
generations of robotic and human explorers.
Since the launch of cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on April 12, 1961, space
has been home to humans as well as machines. In the space of a
generation, humans have gone from minute-long missions in cramped
capsules to a year-long mission in a space station. The motivation for
sending humans into space was at first purely political, as we'll see in
Figure 1-16. Hubble Image. This photo of
Chapter 2. But scientific advances in exploration, physiology, material
Spiral Galaxy M 100 is one of thousands sent to processing, and environmental observation have proved that, for widely
Earth by the Hubble Space Telescope. (Cour- varying missions, humans' unique ability to adapt under stress to
tesy of the Association of Universities for
Research in Astronomy. lnc./Space Telescope changing conditions make them essential to mission success.
Science Institute)
Future Space Missions
What does the future hold? In these times of changing world order and
continuous budget fluctuation, it's impossible to predict. The International
Space Station is under construction. The debate continues about sending
humans back to the Moon, this time to stay, and then on to Mars, as shown
in Figure 1-17.
As we become more concerned about damage to Earth's environment,
we look to space for solutions. We continue to use our remote sensing
satellites to monitor the health of the planet. Data from these satellites help
Figure 1-17. Going to Mars. Future human
missions may explore the canyons of Mars for us assess the extent of environmental damage and prepare better programs
signs that life may have once flourished there, for cleaning up the environment and preventing future damage. Figure 1-
only to be extinguished as the planet's
atmosphere diminished. (Courtesy of NASAi
18 shows one example of monitoring the environment from space. We use
Ames Research Center) these images, taken by the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, to track the
10
1.1 Why Space?
ozone concentration which protects us from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Concerns about its depletion have mobilized scientists to monitor and
study it in greater detail using a variety of space-based sensors.
Figure 1-18. Monitoring Ozone. Images from the Nimbus 4 Backscatter Ultraviolet (BUV)
instrument for 1970-1973, and Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) for 1979-1993,
show variations in the ozone amounts over Antarctica. A DU is a Dobson Unit. 300 DUs is
equivalent to a 3 mm thick layer of ozone at standard sea level atmospheric pressure. Black
dots indicate no data. Note that the amount of dark blue (low total ozone) grows over the
years. (Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center)
The International Space Station had its first module launched in
November 1998, and will continue adding modules through 2004 (Figure
1-19). The research onboard this modern vessel will advance our
understanding of life and help us improve our quality of life worldwide.
The manned mission to Mars continues to gain momentum, but
overcoming the obstacles for this mission will take experts in many fields
and several governments to commit resources. The rewards for exploring
Mars are many and varied, including medical research, Martian resource
evaluation, and scientific innovation.
The eventual course of the space program is very much up to you.
Whether we continue to expand and test the boundaries of human
experience or retreat from it depends on the level of interest and technical
Figure 1-19. International Space Station
competence of the general public. By reading this book, you've already (ISS). The ISS will provide a free fall laboratory
accepted the challenge to learn about space. In this study of astronautics for studying many aspects of spaceflight.
you too can explore the final frontier. (Courtesy of NASA/Ames Research Center}
11
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
free fall > Space offers several unique advantages which make its exploration essential
remote-sensing for modern society
scintillation • Global perspective
• A clear view of the universe without the adverse effects of the atmosphere
• A free-fall environment
• Abundant resow·ces
• A final frontier
> Since the beginning of the space age, missions have evolved to take advantage
of space
• Communications satellites tie together remote regions of the globe
• Remote-sensing satellites observe the Earth from space, providing weather
forecasts, essential military information, and valuable data to help us better
manage Earth's resources
• Navigation satellites revolutionize how we travel on Earth
• Scientific spacecraft explore the Earth and the outer reaches of the solar
system and peer to the edge of the universe
• Manned spacecraft provide valuable information about living and working
in space and experiment with processing important materials
12
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
l!!!!!!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,... Identify the elements common to all space missions and how they
work together for success
Now that you understand a little more about why we go to space, let's
begin exploring how. In this section we introduce the basic building
blocks, or elements, of space missions. These elements form the basis for
our exploration of astronautics (the science and technology of spaceflight)
in the rest of the book.
When you see a weather map on the nightly news or use the phone to
make an overseas call, you may not think about the complex network of
facilities that make these communications possible. If you think about
space missions at all, you may picture an ungainly electronic box with
solar panels and antennas somewhere out in space-a spacecraft.
However, while a spacecraft represents the result of years of planning,
designing, building, and testing by a veritable army of engineers,
managers, operators, and technicians, it is only one small piece of a vast
array of technology needed to do a job in space.
We define the space mission architecture, shown in Figure 1-20, as the
collection of spacecraft, orbits, launch vehicles, operations networks, and
all other things that make a space mission possible. Let's briefly look at
each of these elements to see how they fit together.
The Mission
At the heart of the space mission architecture is the mission. Simply
stated, the mission is why we're going to space. All space missions begin
with a need, such as the need to communicate between different parts of
the world (Figure 1-21) or to monitor pollution in the upper atmosphere.
This need creates the mission. Understanding this need is central to
understanding the entire space mission architecture. For any mission, no
matter how complex, we must understand the need well enough to write
a succinct mission statement that tells us three things
• The mission objective-why do the mission
• The mission users or customers-who will benefit
• The mission operations concept-how the mission elements will work
together
Figure 1-21. Iridium Phone. The need for a
For example, the mission objective for a hypothetical mission to warn global cellular telephone service triggered the
us about forest fires might look like this iridium commercial enterprise. With these
hand-held phones, you can phone anyone on
Mission objective- Detect and locate forest fires Earth from anywhere on Earth. (Courtesy of
worldwide and provide timely notification to users. Personal Salel/1/e Network, Inc.)
13
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
Figure 1-20. Space Mission Architecture. A space mission requires a variety of
Interrelated elements, collectively known as the space mission architecture. Central to the
architecture Is the Space Mission. Surrounding the architecture is the Mission Management
and Operations.
This mission objective tells us the "why" of the mission: we'll explore
the "who" and "how" of this space scenario in much greater detail
starting in Chapter 11. For now, simply realize that we must answer each
of these important questions before we can develop a cohesive mission
architecture.
We'll begin investigating the elements of a space mission architecture
by looking at the most obvious element-the spacecraft.
The Spacecraft
The word "spacecraft" may lead you to conjure up images of the
starship Enterprise or sleek flying saucers from all those 1950s Sci-Fi
movies. In reality, spacecraft tend to be more squat and ungainly than
sleek and streamlined. The reasons for this are purely practical-we build
spacecraft to perform a specific mission in an efficient, cost-effective
manner. In the vacuum of space, there's no need to be streamlined. When
14
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
it comes to spacecraft, form must follow function. In Chapter 11, we'll
learn more about spacecraft functions, and resulting forms. For now, it's
sufficient to understand that we can conceptually divide any spacecraft
into two basic parts-the payload and the spacecraft bus.
The payload is the part of the spacecraft that actually performs the
mission. Naturally, the type of payload a spacecraft has depends directly
on the type of mission it's performing. For example, the payload for a
mission to monitor Earth's ozone layer could be an array of scientific
sensors, each designed to measure some aspect of this life-protecting
chemical compound (Figure 1-22). As this example illustrates, we design
payloads to interact with the primary focus for the mission, called the
subject. In this example, the subject would be the ozone. If our mission
objective were to monitor forest fires, the subject would be the fire and we
would design spacecraft payloads that could detect the unique Figure 1-22. Upper Atmospheric Research
Satellite (LIARS). The payloads for the LIARS
characteristics or "signature" of forest fires, such as their light, heat, or are sensitive instruments, which take images
smoke. As we'll see in Chapter 11, understanding the subject, and its of various chemicals in Earth's atmosphere.
unique properties, are critical to designing space payloads to detect or (Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space Flight
Center)
interact with them.
The spacecraft bus does not arrive every morning at 7:16 to deliver the
payload to school. But the functions performed by a spacecraft bus aren't
that different from those a common school bus does. Without the
spacecraft bus, the payload couldn't do its job. The spacecrnft bus provides
all the "housekeeping" functions necessary to make the payload work.
The bus includes various subsystems that produce and distribute
electrical power, maintain the correct temperature, process and store data,
communicate with other spacecraft and Earth-bound operators, control
the spacecraft's orientation, and hold everything together (Figure 1-23).
We'll learn more about spacecraft bus design in Chapter 11 and explore
the fundamentals of all bus subsystems in Chapter 12-14. It's the
Figure 1-23. Defense Satellite Communi-
spacecraft's job to cany out the mission, but it can't do that unless it's in cation System (DSCS). The spacecraft bus
the right place at the right time. The next important element of the space ror this DSCS 111 spacecraft provides power,
mission architecture is concerned with making sure the spacecraft gets to attitude control, thermal control, and communi-
cation with mission operators. (Courtesy of the
where it needs to go. U.S. Air Force)
Trajectories and Orbits
A tmjectory is the path an object follows through space. In getting a
spacecraft from the launch pad into space, a launch vehicle follows a
carefully-chosen ascent trajectory designed to lift it efficiently out of
Earth's atmosphere. Once in space, the spacecraft resides in an orbit. We'Jl
look at orbits in great detail in later chapters, but for now it's useful to
think of an orbit as a fixed "racetrack" on which the spacecraft travels
around a planet or other celestial body. Similar to car racetracks, orbits
usually have an oval shape, as shown in Figure 1-24. Just as planets orbit Figure 1-24. The Orbit. We can think of an
the Sun, we can place spacecraft into orbit around Earth. orbit as a fixed racetrack in space that the
spacecraft drives on. Depending on the
When selecting an orbit for a particular satellite mission, we need to mission, this racetrack's size, shape, and
know where the spacecraft needs to point its instruments and antennas. orientation will vary.
15
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
We can put a spacecraft into one of a limitless number of orbits, but we
must choose the orbit which best fulfills the mission. For instance,
suppose our mission is to provide continuous communication between
New York and Los Angeles. Our subject-the primary focus for the
mission-is the communication equipment located in these two cities, so
we want to position our spacecraft in an orbit that allows it to always see
both cities. The orbit's size, shape, and orientation determine whether the
payload can observe these subjects and carry out the mission.
Just as climbing ten flights of stairs takes more energy than climbing
only one, putting a spacecraft into a higher (larger) orbit requires more
energy, meaning a bigger launch vehicle and greater expense. The orbit's
field of view size (height) also determines how much of Earth's surface the spacecraft
instruments can see. Naturally, the higher the orbit, the more total area
they can see at once. But just as our eyes are limited in how much of a
scene we can see without moving them or turning our head, a spacecraft
payload has similar limitations. We define the payload's field-of-view
(FOV), as shown in Figure 1-25, to be the cone of visibility for a particular
sensor. Our eyes, for example, have a useful field of view of about 204
degrees, meaning without moving our eyes or turning our head, we can
see about 204 degrees of the scene around us. Depending on the sensor's
field of view and the height of its orbit, a specific total area on Earth's
surface is visible at any one time. We call the linear width or diameter of
Figure 1-25. Field-of-View (FOV). The FOV
this area the swath width, as shown in Figure 1-25.
of a spacecraft defines the area of coverage on
Earth's surface, called the swath width. Some missions require continuous coverage of a point on Earth or the
ability to communicate simultaneously with every point on Earth. When
this happens, a single spacecraft can't satisfy the mission need. Instead,
we build a fleet of identical spacecraft and place them in different orbits
to provide the necessary coverage. We call this collection of cooperating
spacecraft a constellation.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) mission requirement is a good
example of one that requires a constellation of satellites to do the job. The
mission statement called for every point on Earth be in view of at least
four GPS satellites at any one time. This was impossible to do with just
four satellites at any altitude. Instead, mission planners designed the GPS
constellation to contain 24 satellites working together to continuously
cover the world (Figure 1-26).
Another constellation of spacecraft called the Iridium System, provides
Figure 1-26. Global Positioning System
(GPS) Constellation. The GPS constellation
global coverage for personal communications. This constellation of 66
guarantees that every point on the globe satellites operates in low orbits. This new mobile telephone service is
receives at least four satellite signals sfmulta- revolutionizing the industry with person-to-person phone links, meaning
neously, for accurate position, velocity, and
time computations. (Courtesy of the National
we can have our own, individual phone number and call any other
Air and Space Museum) telephone on Earth from virtually anywhere, at any time.
LaunchVehicles
Now that we know where the spacecraft's going, we can determine how
to get it there. As we said, it takes energy to get into orbit-the higher the
orbit, the greater the energy. Because the size of a spacecraft's orbit
16
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
determines its energy, we need something to deliver the spacecraft to the
right mission orbit-a rocket. The thunderous energy released in a rocket's
fiery blast-off provides the velocity for our spacecraft to "slip the surly
bonds of Earth" (as [ohn Gillespie Magee wrote in his poem, "High Flight")
and enter the realm of space, as the Shuttle demonstrates in Figure 1-27.
A launch vehicle is the rocket we see sitting on the launch pad during
countdown. It provides the necessary velocity change to get a spacecraft
into space. At lift-off, the launch vehicle blasts almost straight up to gain
altitude rapidly and get out of the dense atmosphere which slows it down
due to drag. When it gets high enough, it slowly pitches over to gain
horizontal velocity. As we'll see later, this horizontal velocity keeps a
spacecraft in orbit.
As we'll see in Chapter 14, current technology limits make it very
difficult to build a single rocket that can deliver a spacecraft efficiently
into orbit. Instead, a launch vehicle consists of a series of smaller rockets
that ignite, provide thrust, and then burn out in succession, each one
handing off to the next one like runners in a relay race. These smaller
rockets are stages. In most cases, a launch vehicle uses at least three stages
to reach the mission orbit. For example, the Ariane V launch vehicle,
shown in Figure 1-28, is a three-stage booster used by the European Space
Agency (ESA).
Figure 1-27. Lift Off! The Space Shuttle
For certain missions, the launch vehicle can't deliver a spacecraft to its acts as a booster to lift satellites into low-Earth
final orbit by itself. Instead, when the launch vehicle finishes its job, it orbit. From there, an upperstage moves the
leaves the spacecraft in a parking orbit. A parking orbit is a temporary orbit satellite into a higher orbit. (Courtesy of
NASA/Johnson Space Center)
where the spacecraft stays until transferring to its final mission orbit. After
the spacecraft is in its parking orbit, a final "kick" sends it into a transfer
orbit. A transferorbit is an intermediate orbit that takes the spacecraft from
its parking orbit to its final, mission orbit. With one more kick, the
spacecraft accelerates to stay in its mission orbit and can get started with
business, as shown in Figure 1-29.
y'parking orbit
Figure 1-29. Space Mission Orbits. We use the booster primarily to deliver a spacecraft
into a low-altitude parking orbit. From this point an upperstage moves the spacecraft into a
transfer orbit, and then to the mission orbit.
The extra kicks of energy needed to transfer the spacecraft from its Figure 1-28. Ariane. The European Space
parking orbit to its mission orbit comes from an upperstage. In some cases, Agency's Ariane V booster lifts commercial satel-
the upperstage is actually part of the spacecraft, sharing the plumbing lites into orbit. Here we see ii lifting ofi from its
pad in Kourou, French Guyana, South America.
and propellant which the spacecraft will use later to orient itself and (Courtesy of Service Optique CSG; Copyrig/Jtby
maintain its orbit. In other cases, the upperstage is an autonomous Arianespace/European Space Agency/CNES)
17
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
spacecraft with the one-shot mission of delivering the spacecraft to its
mission orbit. In the latter case, the upperstage releases the spacecraft
once it completes its job, then moves out of the way by de-orbiting to
burn up in the atmosphere or by raising its orbit a bit (and becoming
another piece of space junk). Regardless of how it is configured, the
upperstage consists mainly of a rocket engine (or engines) and the
propellent needed to change the spacecraft's energy enough to enter the
desired mission orbit. Figure 1-30 shows the upperstage used to send the
Magellan spacecraft to Venus.
After a spacecraft reaches its mission orbit, it may still need rocket
engines to keep it in place or maneuver to another orbit. These relatively
small rocket engines are thrusters and they adjust the spacecraft's
orientation and maintain the orbit's size and shape, both of which can
change over time due to external forces. We'll learn more about rockets of
all shapes and sizes in Chapter 14.
Mission Operations Systems
As you can imagine, designing, building, and launching space
missions requires a number of large, expensive facilities. Communicating
Figure 1 ·30. The Inertial Upperstage with and controlling fleets of spacecraft once they're in orbit requires
(IUS). The IUS, attached to the Magellan even more expensive facilities. The mission operations system include the
spacecraft, boosted it to Venus. (Courtesy of
NASA/Johnson Space Center) ground and space-based infrastructure needed to coordinate all other
elements of the space mission architecture. It is the "glue" that holds the
mission together.
As we'll see in Chapter 15, operations systems include manufacturing
and testing facilities to build the spacecraft, launch facilities to prepare
the launch vehicle and get it safely off the ground, and communication
networks and operations centers used by the flight-control team to
coordinate activities once it's in space.
One of the critical aspects of linking all these far-flung elements
together is the communication process. Figure 1-31 shows the compo-
nents of a typical communication network. Whether we're talking to our
friend across a noisy room or to a spacecraft on the edge of the solar
system, the basic problems are the same. We'll see how to deal with these
problems in greater detail in Chapter 15.
Mission Management and Operations
So far, most of our discussion of space missions has focused on
hardware-spacecraft, launch vehicles, and operations facilities. But
while the mission statement may be the heart of the mission, and the
hardware the tools, the mission still needs a brain. No matter how much
we spend on advanced technology and complex systems there is still the
need for people. People are the most important element of any space
mission. Without people handling various jobs and services, all the
expensive hardware is useless.
18
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
Tracking and Data
Relay Satellite (TDRS) ~
Figure 1-31. Mission Operations System. The flight-control team relies on a complex infrastructure of control centers, tracking
sites, satellites, and relay satellites to keep them in contact with spacecraft and users. In this example, data goes to the Space
Shuttle from a tracking site, which relays it through another satellite, such as the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), back
to the control center. The network then passes the data to users through a third relay satellite.
Hollywood tends to show us only the most "glamorous" space jobs-
astronauts doing tasks during a space walk or diligent engineers hunched
over computers in the Mission Control Center (Figure 1-32). But you
don't have to be an astronaut or even a rocket scientist to work with
space. Thousands of jobs in the aerospace industry require only a desire
to work hard and get the job done. Many of these jobs are in space
mission management and operations. Mission management and operations
encompasses all of the "cradle to grave" activities needed to take a
mission from a blank sheet of paper to on-orbit reality, to the time when
they turn out the lights and everyone moves on to a new mission. Figure 1-32. Mission Control Center. After
several tense days, the mission control team at
Mission managers lead the program from the beginning. The mission the Johnson Space Center watch the Apollo
management team must define the mission statement and lay out a 13 crew arrive on the recovery ship after
workable mission architecture to make it happen. Team members are splashdown. (Courtesy of NASNJohnson
Space Center)
involved with every element of the mission architecture, including
• Designing, building, and testing the spacecraft
• Performing complex analysis to determine the necessary mission
orbit
19
Chapter 1 Space in Olli Lives
• Identifying a launch vehicle (or designing, building and testing a new
one!) and launching the spacecraft to its mission orbit
• Bringing together the far-flung components of the mission operations
systems to allow the flight-control team to run the entire mission
But mission management is far more than just technical support. From
food services to legal services, a diverse and dedicated team is needed to
get any space mission off the ground. It can take a vast army of people to
manage thousands of separate tasks, perform accounting services, receive
raw materials, ship products, and do all the other work associated with
any space mission. Sure, an astronaut turning a bolt to fix a satellite gets
his or her picture on the evening news, but someone had to make the
wrench, and someone else had to place it in the toolbox before launch.
As soon as the spacecraft gets to orbit, mission operations begin. The
first word spoken by humans from the surface of the Moon was
"Houston." Neil Armstrong was calling back to the Mission Control
Center at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, to let them know the
Eagle had successfully landed. To the anxious Flight Director and his
operations team, that first transmission from the lunar surface was
important "mission data." In the design of an operations concept to
support our mission statement, we have to consider how we will collect,
store, and deliver the mission data to users or customers on Earth.
Furthermore, we have to factor in how the flight-control team will receive
and monitor data on the spacecraft's health and to build in ground
Figure 1 ·33. Small Satellite Ground Sta- control for commanding the spacecraft's functions from the complex,
tion. The size and complexity of the control
center and flight-control team depends on the minute to minute, activities on the Space Shuttle, to the far more relaxed
mission. Here a single operator controls over a activities for less complex, small satellites, as shown in Figure 1-33.
dozen small satellites. (Courtesy of Surrey
Satellite Technology. Ltd., U.K.) It would be nice if, once we deploy a spacecraft to its final orbit, it
would work day after day on its own. Then users on Earth could go about
their business without concern for the spacecraft's "care and feeding."
Unfortunately, this automatic mode is not yet possible. Modern
spacecraft, despite their sophistication, require a lot of attention from a
team of flight controllers on the ground.
The mission operations team monitors the spacecraft's health and status
to ensure it operates properly. Should trouble arise, flight controllers have
an arsenal of procedures they can use to nurse the spacecraft back to
health. The flight-control team usually operates from a Mission (or
Operations) Control Center (MCC or OCC) such as the one in Houston,
Texas, used for United States' manned missions and shown in Figure 1-
34. U.S. military operators and their contractor support teams control
Department of Defense robotic satellites at similar MCCs (or OCCs) at
Schriever Air Force Base, in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and Onizuka
Air Station, Sunnyvale, California. A new OCC is under construction at
Schriever AFB-the old Falcon AFB.
Within the mission's operation center, team members hold positions
that follow the spacecraft's functional lines. For example, one person may
monitor the spacecraft's path through space while another keeps an eye
20
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
Figure 1-34. The Space Shuttle Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas. Space
operations involves monitoring and controlling spacecraft from the ground. Here, flight
controllers attend to their Guidance/Navigation, Propulsion, and Flight Dynamics consoles.
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
on the electrical-power system. The lead mission operator, called the flight
director (operations director or mission director), orchestrates the inputs from
each of the flight-control disciplines. Flight directors make decisions
about the spacecraft's condition and the important mission data, based on
recommendations and their own experience and judgment. We'll
examine the specific day-to-day responsibilities of mission operators in
greater detail in Chapter 15.
The Space Mission Architecturein Action
Now that we've defined all these separate mission elements, let's look
at an actual space mission to see how it works in practice. NASA
launched Space Shuttle mission STS-95 from the Kennedy Space Center
(KSC) in Florida on October 29, 1998. The primary objectives of this
mission were to deploy three science and engineering satellites, run
experiments on human physiology, and operate microgravity tests. The
three satellites were the Spartan 201 Solar Observer, the International
Extreme Ultraviolet Hitchhiker Experiment, and the HST Optical Systems
Test platform. In Figure 1-35, we show how all the elements for this
mission tie together.
Throughout the rest of this book, we'll focus our attention on the
individual elements that make up a space mission. We'll begin putting
missions into perspective by reviewing the history of spaceflight in
Chapter 2. Next, we'll set the stage for our understanding of space by
exploring the unique demands of this hostile environment in Chapter 3.
In Chapters 4-10, we'll consider orbits and trajectories to see how their
behavior affects mission planning. In Chapters 11-13, we turn our
attention to the spacecraft to learn how all payloads and their supporting
subsystems tie together to make an effective mission. In Chapter 14 we'll
focus on rockets to see how they provide the transportation to get
21
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
Communication STS-95 Crew Members Trajectory
Network and Orbits
Altitude: 300 km (184 miles)
NASA's tracking and data
relay satellite system
Clockwise from top: Scott Parazynski, John Glenn. Curtis Brown,
Steven Lindsey, Stephen Robinson. Pedro Duque, and Chiaki Mukai.
Operation Concept:
Ground controllers
The Space Shuttle delivers the crew
In Houston, Texas.
and cargo to low-Earth orbit.
monitor and support
the Shuttle crew
around the clock for
this 10-day mission.
Figure 1-35. STS-95 Space Mission Architecture. (All photos courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
22
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
spacecraft into space and move them around as necessary. Chapter 15
looks at the remaining two elements of a space mission-operations
systems and mission management and operations. There we explore
complex communication networks and see how to manage and operate
successful missions. Finally, in Chapter 16, we look at trends in space
missions, describe how space policy affects missions and how the bottom
line, cost, affects everything we do in space.
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
astronautics >- Central to understanding any space mission is the mission
constellation itself
customers • The mission statement clearly identifies th major objectives
field-of-view (FOV) of the mission (why we do it), the users (who will benefit),
Hight-control team and the operations concept (how all the pieces fit together)
flight director
launch vehicle >- A space mission architecture includes the following elements
mission • The spacecraft-composed of the bus, which do s es ential
mission director housekeeping, and the payload, that performs the mission
mission management and operations
• The trajectories and orbits-the path the spacecraft follows
mission operations system
through space. This includes the orbit (or racetrack) the
mission operations team
spacecraft follows around the Earth.
mission statement
objective • Launch vehicles-the rockets which propel the spacecraft
operations concept into space and maneuver it along its mission orbit
operations director • The mission operations systems-the "glue" that holds the
orbit mission together. It consists of all the infrastructure needed
parking orbit to get the mission off the ground, and keep it there, such as
payload manufacturing facilities, launch sites, communications
space mission architecture networks, and mission operations centers.
spacecraft bus
• Mission management and operations-the brains of a space
stages
mission. An army of people make a mission successful. From
subject
the initial idea to the end of the mission, individuals doing
swath width
their jobs well ensure the mission products meet the users'
thrusters
needs.
trajectory
transfer orbit
upperstage
users
23
Chapter 1 Space in Our Lives
=== References 7 What is a parking orbit? A transfer orbit?
Canu to, Vittorio and Carlos Chagas. The Impact of Space
Exploration on Mankind. Pontificaia Academia
Scientiarum, proceedings of a study week held
October 1-5, 1984, Ex Aedibus Academicis In 8 Describe what an upperstage does.
Civitate Vaticana, 1986.
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999. 9 Why do we say that the operations network is the
"glue" that holds the other elements together?
Wilson, Andrew (ed.), Space Directory 1990-91. Jane's
=
information group. Alexandria, VA, 1990.
Mission Problems
10 What is the mission management and operations
1.1 Why Space? element?
1 What five unique advantages of space make its
exploitation imperative for modern society?
11 Use this mission scenario to answer the following
questions. NASA launches the Space Shuttle from
Kennedy Space Center on a mission to deploy a
2 What are the four primary space missions in use spacecraft that will monitor Earth's upper
today? Give an example of how each has affected, atmosphere. Once deployed from the low Shuttle
or could affect, your life. orbit, an inertial upperstage (IUS) will boost the
spacecraft into its transfer orbit and then to its
mission orbit. Once in place, it will monitor Earth's
atmosphere and relay the data to scientists on
Earth through the Tracking and Data Relay
1.2 Elements of a Space Mission
Satellite (TORS).
3 The mission statement tells us what three things? a) What is the mission of this Shuttle launch?
b) What is the mission of the spacecraft?
4 What are the elements of a space mission?
c) Discuss the spacecraft, trajectory, upperstage,
and mission management and operations.
5 List the two basic parts of a spacecraft and discuss d) Who are the mission users?
what they do for the mission.
e) What is the subject of the mission?
f) What part does TORS play in this mission?
6 What is an orbit? How does changing its size affect
the energy required to get into it and the swath
width available to any payload in this orbit? g) Briefly discuss ideas for the operations concept.
24
Mission Problems
For Discussion Projects
12 What future missions could exploit the free-fall 15 Moderate a debate between sides for and against
environment of space? space exploration. Outline what points you'd
expect each side to make.
16 Given the following rrussion statement, select
13 What future space missions could exploit lunar- appropriate elements to accomplish the task.
based resources?
Mission Statement: To monitor iceflows in the
Arctic Ocean and warn ships in the area.
14 You hear a television commentator say the Space
17 Obtain information from NASA on an upcoming
Shuttle's missions are a waste of money. How
space mission and prepare a short briefing on it to
would you respond to this charge?
present to your class.
18 Write a justification for a manned mission to Mars.
List and explain each element of the mission.
Compile a list of skills needed by each member of
the astronaut crew and the mission team.
25
Notes--
26
Mission Proiile- -Voyager
The Voyager program consisted of two spacecraft MissionImpact
launched by NASA in late 1977 to tour the outer plan-
ets, taking pictures and sensor measurements along The overwhelming success of the Voyager mission has
the way. Voyager 2 actually launched a month prior to prompted a new surge of planetary exploration by
Voyager 1, which flew on a shorter, faster path. This NASA. Two of these are the Cassini mission to explore
shorter trajectory enabled Voyager 1 to arrive at the Saturn and the Galileo mission to study Jupiter. These
first planet, Jupiter, four months before Voyager 2. The two new missions by NASA will help to answer the
timing of the operation was critical. Jupiter, Saturn, new questions the Voyager missions have uncovered.
Uranus, and Neptune align themselves for such a mis-
sion only once every 175 years. The results from the
Voyager program have answered and raised many
basic questions about the origin of our solar system.
MissionOverview
NASA engineers designed the Voyager spacecraft with
two objectives in mind. First, they built two identical
spacecraft for redundancy. They feared that the avail-
able technology meant at least one of the spacecraft
would fail. Second, they planned to visit only Jupiter
and Saturn, with a possibility of visiting Neptune and
Uranus, if the spacecraft lasted long enough. It was
generally agreed that five years was the limit on space-
Voyager Mission. The Voyager spacecraft points Its sensitive
craft lifetimes. In the end, both spacecraft performed instruments toward Saturn and keeps its high-gain antenna directed
far better than anyone wildly imagined. Today they at Earth. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
continue their voyage through empty space beyond
our solar system, their mission complete.
For Discussion
MissionData
• The major problem with space exploration is
.! The Voyager spacecraft used the gravity of the exorbitant cost. Do you think the United States
planets they visited to slingshot themselves to their should spend more money on future exploratory
next target. This gravity assist (described in Chap. 7) missions? What about teaming up with other
shortened each spacecraft's voyage by many years. advanced countries?
,/ Voyager 1 headed into deep space after probing What is the benefit for humans to uncover the
Saturn's rings. Voyager 2, however, successfully mysteries and perplexities of our solar system? Do
probed Neptune and Uranus, as well. you think there will be pay back in natural
.! Voyager 1 discovered that one of Jupiter's moons, resources?
Io, has an active volcano spouting lava 160 km (100
mi.) into space . Contributor
./ Miranda, one of Uranus' 15 known moons, has been Troy Kitch, the U.S. Air Force Academy
called the "strangest body in the solar system."
Discovered by Voyager 2, it's only 480 km (300 References
miles) across and constantly churning itself inside-
Davis, Joel. FLYBY: The Interplanetary Odyssey of
out. Scientists believe this is caused by the strong
Voyager 2. New York: Atheneum, 1987.
gravity from Uranus reacting with a process called
differentiation (where the densest material on the Evans, Barry. The Wrong Way Comet and Other Mysteries
moon migrates to the core). The result is a moon of Our Solar System. Blue Ridge Summit: Tab Books,
which looks like "scoops of marble-fudge ice 1992.
cream"-the dense and light materials mixed Vogt, Gregory. Voyager. Brookfield: The Millbrook
randomly in jigsaw fashion. Press, 1991.
27
Buzz Aldrin poses against the stark lunar landscape. Neil Armstrong can be seen reflected in his helmet. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Exploring
Space
William J. Astore
the U.S. Air Force Academy
= In This Chapter You'll Learn to ...
,.. Describe how arty pace explorers used their eyes and minds to
1111111111 Outline
2.1 Early Space Explorers
explore space and contribute to our understanding of it Astronomy Begins
..- Explain the beginnings of the Space Age and the significant events that Reordering the Universe
have led to OUl' current capabilities in space
2.2 Entering Space
.- Describe emerging space trends, to include the growing
commercialization of space The Age of Rockets
Sputnik: The Russian Moon
Armstrong's Small Step
!1111!!1 You Should Already Know ... Satellites and Interplanetary
Probes
othing yet; we'll explore space together
2.3 Space Comes of Age
Space International
Space Science Big and Small
The New High Ground
The Future
It is difficult to say wlrnt is impossible, for tire dream of yesterday is the hope of
today and the reali11J of tomorrow.
Robert H. Goddard
Space
1802
c. 1600 B,C. Herschel discovers
Babylonians Uranus and
rewgnlla 18-year cycle binary stars
tor lunar eclipses
c.350 B.C.
Arlstolle dell ns s
the u nlve rse to be 1908
Earln·cenlared Percival Lowell publishes
~~~~£!~
c, 270 B.C.
Arfsh:irct11rn or Sarnes
proposes a Su n-con le red
uruversa
140 A.O.
Plolemy explains the
moucn 01 Iha 11aa\/1lns
In an Earth-
1923
centered universe Horrnaun Olm,th
publishes Thu Rockol
lnln~~.
In Germany
1610
Gallloa publishes
SfUnrcus~.
h1 whlnh hn rcportr. hls
lcloscoplc obsorwilons
850
Arabs
pnrtect
aslrolabo 1609
Kepler publlshes
Aslroncrnla Nuvs.,
ooriialPllrig the lha!
two or tus three laws
ot planetary motton
1931
Amo!eur astronomer,
Clyde Tombaugh,
discovers Pluto
1680 1942
Braue begins tus rtrst successlut
observations of I llghl QI the
lhe planets Gorman V-2 rocket
30
me ine
1963
Valentina Tereshkova
becomes the lir•t woman
to orn,t tho Earth
1999
f11!ornntiun~I Space
Slollon modulo, Zmya,
launches from 8alkorn11
1972 Cosmodromc on a
Apollo 17 is Proton rocket.
tho lmil rnnrnmd nnssion
lo lhe Moon
1073
Skvlub Is launched,
bncnmos h<lme for lhree
sopamlo US crews
1975
Apollo·Soyuz tesl pro1ec1,
I/rs! US/Sovie! cooperative
space project
1997
Mars Palhllnder
1976 Images show rocky,
Vikings 1 and i Ted 6011
land on Mars
1995
Galileo soacecran
etscovers evidence of
II quid water on Jupiter's
moon, Europa
1984
On the 7th Space Shutlle
mission Sally Aide
becomes the lirst US
woman tn space
1991
Magellan
maps surlace
ol Venus
3J
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
Y
ou don't ever have to leave Earth to explore space. Long before
rockets and interplanetary probes escaped Earth's atmosphere,
people explored the heavens with their eyes and imagination.
Later, with the aid of telescopes and other instruments, humans continued
their quest to understand and bring order to the heavens. With order came
a deeper understanding of humanity's place in the universe.
Thousands of years ago, the priestly classes of ancient Egypt and
Babylon carefully observed the heavens to plan religious festivals, to
control the planting and harvesting of various crops, and to understand
at least partially the realm in which they believed many of their gods
lived. Later, philosophers such as Aristotle and Ptolemy developed
complex theories to explain and predict the motions of the Sun, Moon,
planets, and stars.
The theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy dominated astronomy and our
understanding of the heavens well into the 1600s. Combining ancient
traditions with new observations and insights, natural philosophers such
as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei offered rival
explanations from the 1500s onward. Using their ideas and Isaac
Newton's new tools of physics, astronomers in the 1700s and 1800s made
several startling discoveries, including two new planets-Uranus (Figure
2-1) and Neptune (Figure 2-2). As we moved into the 20th century,
physical exploration of space became possible. Advances in technology,
accelerated by World War II, made missiles and eventually large rockets
available, allowing us to escape Earth entirely. In this chapter, we'll follow
Figure 2-1. Uranus. Though Wiiiiam the trailblazers who have led us from our earliest attempts to explore
Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, we didn't space to our explorations of the Moon and beyond.
see it this well until the Hubble Space
Telescope took this Image In 1996. (Courtesy
of the Association of Universities for Research
in Astronomy. lnc./Space Telescope Science
Institute)
Figure 2-2. Neptune. It is a cold, distant planet, yet Hubble Space Telescope images bring
it to life and tell us much about its make up and atmospheric activity. (Courtesy of the
Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy; lnc.!Space Telescope Science
Institute)
32
2.1 Early Space Explorers
2.1 Early Space Explorers
!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn To...
,... Explain the two traditions of thought established by Aristotle and
Ptolemy that dominated astronomy into the 1600s
,.. Discuss the contributions to astronomy made by prominent
philosophers and scientists in the mod rn age
Astronomy Begins
More than 4000 years ago, the Egyptians and Babylonians were, for the
most part, content with practical and religious applications of their
heavenly observations. They developed calendars to control agriculture
and star charts both to predict eclipses and to show how the movements
of the Sun and planets influenced human lives (astrology). But the ancient
Greeks took a more contemplative approach to studying space. They held
that astronomy-the science of the heavens-was a divine practice best
understood through physical theories. Based on observations, aesthetic
arguments, and common sense, the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322
B.C.) developed a complex, mechanical model of the universe. He also
developed comprehensive rules to explain changes such as the motion of
objects.
Explaining how and why objects change their position can be difficult,
and Aristotle made mistakes. For example, he reasoned that if you
dropped two balls, one heavy and one light at precisely the same time,
the heavier ball would fall faster to hit the ground first, as illustrated in
Figure 2-3. Galileo would later prove Aristotle wrong. But his rigorous
logic set an example for future natural philosophers to follow.
Figure 2-3. Aristotle's Rules of Motion.
Looking to the heavens, Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, saw AristoUe predicted that heavy objects fall faster
perfection. Because the circle was perfectly symmetric, the Greeks than light objects.
surmised that the paths of the planets and stars must be circular.
Furthermore, because the gods must consider Earth to be of central
importance in the universe, it must occupy the center of creation with
everything else revolving around it.
In this geostatic (Earth not moving) and geocentric (Earth-centered)
universe, Aristotle believed solid crystalline spheres carried the five
known planets, as well as the Moon and Sun, in circular paths around the
Earth. An outermost crystalline sphere held the stars and bounded the
universe. In Aristotle's model, an "unmoved mover," or god, inspired
these spheres to circle Earth.
Aristotle further divided his universe into two sections-a sublunar
realm (everything beneath the Moon's sphere) and a superlunar realm
(everything from the Moon up to the sphere of the fixed stars), as seen in
33
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
Figure 2-4. Humans lived in the imperfect sublunar realm, consisting of
four elements-earth, water, air, and fire. Earth and water naturally
moved down-air and fire tended to move up. The perfect superlunar
realm, in contrast, was made up of a fifth element (aether) whose natural
motion was circular. In separating Earth from the heavens and using
different laws of physics for each, Aristotle complicated the efforts of
future astronomers.
Although this model of the universe may seem strange to us, Aristotle
developed it from extensive observations combined with a strong dose of
common sense. What should concern us most is not the accuracy but the
audacity of Aristotle's vision of the universe. With the power of his mind
alone, Aristotle explored and ordered the heavens. His geocentric model
of the universe dominated astronomy for 2000 years.
Astronomy in the ancient world reached its peak of refinement in
about 140 A.O. with Ptolemy's Almagest. Following Greek tradition,
Ptolemy calculated orbits for the Sun, Moon, and planets using complex
combinations of circles. These combinations, known as eccentrics,
Figure 2-4. Aristotle's Model.The universe epicycles, and equants, were not meant to represent physical reality-
divided into two sections-a sublunar and a they were merely devices for calculating and predicting motion. Like
superlunar realm-each having its own distinct Aristotle, Ptolemy held that heavenly bodies-suspended in solid
elements and physical laws. (Courtesy of
Sigloch Edition) crystalline spheres, composed of aether-followed their natural tendency
to circle Earth. In the eyes of the ancients, describing motion (kinematics)
and explaining the causes of motion (dynamics) were two separate
problems. It would take almost 1500 years before Kepler healed this split.
Astronomers made further strides during the Middle Ages, with
Arabic contributions being especially noteworthy. While Europe
struggled through the Dark Ages, Arabic astronomers translated the
Almagest and other ancient texts. They developed a learned tradition of
commentary about these texts, which Copernicus later found invaluable
in his reform of Ptolemy. Arabs also perfected the astrolabe, a
sophisticated observational instrument, shown in Figure 2-5, used to
chart the courses of the stars and aid travellers in navigation. Their
observations, collected in the Toledan tables, formed the basis of the
Alfonsine Tables used for astronomical calculations in the west from the
13th century to the mid-16th century. Moreover, Arabic numerals,
combined with the Hindu concept of zero, replaced the far clumsier
Roman numerals. Together with Arabic advances in trigonometry, this
new numbering system greatly enhanced computational astronomy. Our
language today bears continuing witness to Arabic contributions-we
adopted algebra, nadir, zenith, and other words and concepts from them.
With the fall of Toledo, Spain, in 1085, Arabic translations of and
commentaries about ancient Greek and Roman works became available to
Figure 2-5. Astrolabe. Arabic scholars used the west, touching off a renaissance in 12th-century Europe. Once again,
an astrolabe to determine latitude, tell time,
and make astronomical calculations. It revolu-
Europeans turned their attention to the heavens. But because medieval
tionized astronomy and navigation. (Courtesy scholasticism had made Aristotle's principles into dogma, centuries passed
of Sigloc/1 Edition) before fundamental breakthroughs occurred in astronomy.
34
2.1 Early Space Explorers
Reordering the Universe
With the Renaissance and humanism came a renewed emphasis on the
accessibility of the heavens to human thought. Nicolaus Copernicus
(1473-1543), a Renaissance humanist and Catholic cleric (Figure 2-6),
reordered the universe and enlarged humanity's horizons within it. He
placed the Sun near the center of the solar system, as shown in Figure 2-7,
and had Earth rotate on its axis once a day while revolving about the Sun
once a year. Copernicus promoted his heliocentric (sun-centered) vision of
the universe in his On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, which he
dedicated to Pope Paul III in 1543.
A heliocentric universe, he explained, is more symmetric, simpler, and
matches observations better than Aristotle's and Ptolemy's geocentric
model. For example, Copernicus explained it was simpler to attribute the
observed rotation of the sphere of the fixed stars (he didn't abandon
Aristotle's notion of solid crystalline spheres) to Earth's own daily
rotation than to imagine the immense sphere of the fixed stars rotating at
near infinite speed about a fixed Earth.
Copernicus further observed that, with respect to a viewer located on
Earth, the planets occasionally appear to back up in their orbits as they
move against the background of the fixed stars. Ptolemy had resorted to Figure 2-6. Nicolaus Copernicus. He reor-
dered the universe and enlarged humanity's
complex combinations of circles to explain this retrograde or backward horizons. (Courtesy of Western Civilization
motion of the planets. But Copernicus cleverly explained that this motion Collection, the U.S. Air Force Academy)
was simply the effect of Earth overtaking, and being overtaken by, the
planets as they all revolve about the Sun.
Copernicus' heliocentric system had its drawbacks, however.
Copernicus couldn't prove Earth moved, and he couldn't explain why
Earth rotated on its axis while revolving about the Sun. He also adhered
to the Greek tradition that orbits follow uniform circles, so his geometry
was nearly as complex and physically erroneous as Ptolemy's. In
addition, Copernicus wrestled with the problem of parallax-the apparent
shift in the position of bodies when viewed from different locations. If
Earth truly revolved about the Sun, critics noted, a viewer stationed on
Earth should see an apparent shift in position of a closer star with respect
to its more distant neighbors. Because no one saw this shift, Copernicus'
sun-centered system was suspect. In response, Copernicus speculated
that the stars must be at vast distances from Earth, but such distances
were far too great for most people to contemplate at the time, so this idea
was also widely rejected.
Copernicus saw himself more as a reformer than as a revolutionary. Figure 2-7. Copernican Model of the Solar
Nevertheless, he did revolutionize astronomy and challenge humanity's System. Copernicus placed the Sun near the
center of the universe with the planets moving
view of itself and the world. The reality of his system was quickly denied around it in circular orbits. (Courtesy of Sigloch
by Catholics and Protestants alike, with Martin Luther bluntly asserting: Edition)
"This fool [Copernicus] wishes us to reverse the entire science of
astronomy ... sacred Scripture tells us that Joshua commanded the Sun to
stand still [Joshua 10:12-13], and not the Earth." Still, Catholics and
Protestants could accept the Copernican hypothesis as a useful tool for
astronomical calculations and calendar reform as long as it wasn't used to
represent reality.
35
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
Because of these physical and religious problems, only a few scholars
dared to embrace Copernicanism. Those who did were staggered by its
implications. If Earth were just another planet, and the heavens were far
more vast than previously believed, then perhaps an infinite number of
inhabited planets were orbiting an infinite number of suns, and perhaps
the heavens themselves were infinite. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)
promoted these views, but because of their radical nature and his
unorthodox religious views, he was burned at the stake in 1600.
Ironically, Bruno's vision of an infinite number of inhabited worlds
Figure 2-8. Tycho Brahe. He made valuable,
astronomical observations, overturning AristoUe's occupying an infinite universe derived from his belief that an omnipotent
theories and paving the way for later theoriclans. God could create nothing less. Eventually, other intrepid explorers
(Courtesy of Western Civilization Collection, seeking to plumb the depths of space would share his vision. But his
the U.S. Air Force Academy)
imaginative insights were ultimately less productive than more
traditional observational astronomy, especially as practiced at this time
by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601).
Brahe (Figure 2-8) rebelled against his parents, who wanted him to
study law and serve the Danish King at court in typical Renaissance
fashion. Instead, he studied astronomy and built, on the island of Hven in
the Danish Sound, a castle-observatory known as Uraniborg, or
"heavenly castle." Brahe's castle preserved his status as a knight, and a
knight he was, both by position and temperament. Never one to duck a
challenge, Brahe once dueled with another Danish nobleman and lost
part of his nose, which he ingeniously reconstructed out of gold, silver,
and wax.
Brahe brought the same ingenuity and tenacity to observational
astronomy. He obtained the best observing instruments of his time and
pushed them to the limits of their accuracy to achieve observations precise
to approximately one minute of arc (Figure 2-9). If you were to draw a circle
and divide it into 360 equal parts, the angle described would be a degree. If
Figure 2-9. Brahe's Quadrant. He used this you then divide each degree into 60 equal parts, you would get one minute
90° arc to precisely measure the angles of of arc. Figure 2-10 gives an idea of how small one minute of arc is.
celestial bodies above the horizon. (Courtesy
of Western Civilization Collection, the U.S. Air Brahe observed the supernova of 1572 and the comet of 1577. He
Force Academy). calculated that the nova was far beyond the sphere of the Moon and that
the comet's orbit intersected those of the planets. Thus, he concluded that
change does occur in the superlunar realm and that solid crystalline
spheres don't exist in space. In a sense, he shattered Aristotle's solid
spheres theory, concluding that space was imperfect and empty except
for the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars.
Although Brahe's findings were revolutionary, he couldn't bring himself
to embrace the Copernican model of the solar system. Instead, he kept the
Earth at the center of everything in a complex, geo-heliocentric model of
the universe. In this model, the Moon and Sw1 revolved about Earth, with
everything else revolving about the Sun. This alternative model preserved
many of the merits of the Copernican system while keeping Christians
Figure 2-10. What is One Minute of Arc? It
is the angle that a 1.83 m (6 ft.) tree makes when safely at the center of everything. Many scholars who could not accept
we see it 6289 m (3.9 mi.) away. Copernicanism, such as the Jesuits, adopted Brahe's system.
36
2.1 Early Space Expl rers
Brahe didn't take full advantage of his new, more precise observations,
partly because he wasn't a skilled mathematician. But Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630), shown in Figure 2-11, was. Astronomers, Kepler held, were
priests of nature who God called to interpret His creation. Because God
plainly chose to manifest Himself in nature, the study of the heavens
would undoubtedly be pleasing to God and as holy as the study of
Scripture.
Inspired by this perceived holy decree, Kepler explored the universe,
trying to redraw in his own mind God's harmonious blueprint for it. By
the age of twenty-five, Kepler published the Cosmic Mystery, revealing
God's model of the universe. Although his model attracted few supporters
in 1596 and seems bizarre to students today, Kepler insisted throughout
his life that this model was his monumental achievement. He even tried to
sell his duke on the idea of creating, out of gold and silver, a mechanical
miniature of this model which would double as an elaborate alcoholic
drink dispenser! Having failed with this clever appeal for support, Kepler
sought out and eventually began working with Brahe in 1600.
The Brahe-Kepler collaboration would be short-lived, for Brahe died in
Figure 2·11. Johannes Kepl,er. He
1601. Before his death, Brahe challenged Kepler to calculate the orbit of struggled to find harmony in the motion of the
Mars. Brahe's choice of planets was fortunate, for of the six planets then planets. (Courtesy of Western Civilization
known, Mars had the second most eccentric orbit (Mercury was the most Collection, the U.S. Air Force Academy)
eccentric). Eccentric means "off center," and eccentricil1J describes the
deviation of a shape from a perfect circle. A circle has an eccentricity of
zero, and an ellipse has an eccentricity between zero and one. As Kepler
began to pore through Brahe's observations of Mars, he found a
disturbing discrepancy. Mars' orbit wasn't circular. He consistently
calculated a difference of eight minutes of arc between what he expected
for a circular orbit and Brahe's observations.
-----Astro FunFact-----
"Thereis NothingNew Under the Sun"
Was Copernicus the first scientist to place the Sun, not Earth, in the center of the solar system? No! In the 5th
century B. C., Philoiaus, a Pythagorean, suggested that the Earth rotated on its axis once a day while revolving
about a central fire (not the Sun). Obsetvers on Earlh couldn't see this central fire, Philolaus explained,
because a "counter-earth" blocked the view, shielding Eatth from direct exposure to heat. In approximately
320 B. C., Aristarchus was born ln Samos of the Ancient Greek Empire. The profession he gr:ew into was
astronomy, so he moved to Alexandr/a then the cultural hub for natural philosophers. His work centered on
determining the distance from Ea1th to the Sun and the Moon. He did this through geometric measurements
of the Moon's phases and the size of Earth's shadow during lunar eclipses. He eventualJy showed that the Sun
was enormously larger than Eenn. Therefore, he believed that the Sun and not Earth occupied the center of
the known universe. More radically, he correctly surmised that Earth spun daily on its axis, while revolving
yearly around the Sun. Their findings were too revolutionary for their times, and if not for the fact that
Archimedes mentioned Aristarchus' work in some of his writings and Cooemicus mentioned Philolaus, their
ideas would be lost in obscurity.
Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technoloqv. Garden City, NJ;
Doubleday & Co. lnc., 1972.
Contributed by Thomas L. Yoder the U.S. Air Force Academy
37
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
Some astronomers would have ignored this discrepancy. Not Kepler,
however. He simply couldn't disregard Brahe's data. Instead, he began to
look for other shapes that would match the observations. After wrestling
with ovals for a short time he arrived at the idea that the planets moved
around the Sun in elliptical orbits, with the Sun not at the center but at a
focus. (Focus comes from a Latin term meaning hearth or fireplace.)
Confident in his own mathematical abilities and in Brahe's data, Kepler
codified this discovery into a Law of Motion. Although this was actually
the second law he discovered, we call this Kepler's First Law, shown in
Figure 2-12.
Kepler's First Law. The orbits of the planets are ellipses toith the Su11 at
one focus.
With his Second Law, Kepler began to hint at the Law of Universal
Gravitation that Newton would discover decades later. By studying
Figure 2-12. Kepler's First Law. Kepler's
First Law states that the orbits of the planets
individual "slices" of the orbit of Mars versus the time between
are ellipses with the Sun at one of the foci, as observations, Kepler noticed that a line between the Sun and Mars swept
shown here in this greatly exaggerated view of out equal areas in equal times. For instance, if a planet moved through
Ear1h's orbit around the Sun.
two separate arcs of its orbit, each in 30 days, both arcs would define the
same area. To account for this, he reasoned that as a planet draws closer
to the Sun it must move faster (to sweep out the same area), and when it
is farther from the Sun, it must slow down. Figure 2-13 shows this
varying motion.
planetary
motion over
30 days
area 1 = area 2
Figure 2-13. Kepler's Second Law. Kepler's Second Law states that planets (or anything
else in orbit) sweep out equal areas in equal times.
Kepler's Second Law. The line joining a planet to the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal times.
Kepler developed his first two laws between 1600 and 1606 and
published them in 1609. Ten years later, Kepler discovered his Third Law
while searching for the notes he believed the planets sang as they orbited
I average the Sun! Again, after much trial and error, Kepler formulated a
distance relationship, known today as his Third Law.
Figure 2-14. Kepler's Third Law. Kepler's Kepler's Third Law. The square of the orbital period-the time it takes to
Third Law states that square of an orbit's period
is proportional to the cube of the average complete one orbit-is directly proportional to the cube of the mean or
distance between the planet and the Sun. average distnnce bettoeen the 51.111 and the planet.
38
2.1 Early Space Explorers
Figure 2-14 illustrates these parameters. As we'll see in Chapter 4,
when we look at orbital motion in earnest, Kepler's Third Law allows us
to predict orbits not only of planets but also of moons, satellites, and
space shuttles.
Together with his three laws for describing planetary motion, Kepler's
astronomy brought a new emphasis on finding and quantifying the
physical causes of motion. Kepler fervently believed that God had drawn
His plan of the universe along mathematical lines and implemented it
using only physical causes. Thus, he united the geometrical or kinematic
description of orbits with their physical or dynamic cause.
Kepler also used his imagination to explore space, "traveling" to the
constellation of Orion in an attempt to prove the universe was finite.
(Harmony and proportion were everything to Kepler, and an infinite
universe seemed to lack both.) In 1608 he wrote a fictional account of a
Moon voyage (the Somniurn) which was published posthumously in 1634.
In the Somnium, Kepler "mind-trips" to the Moon with the help of magic,
where he discovers the Moon is an inhospitable place inhabited by Figure 2-15. Galileo Galilei. Galileo used the
specially-adapted Moon creatures. Kepler's Somntum would eventually telescope to revolutionize our understanding of
inspire other authors to explore space through imaginative fiction, the universe. (Courtesy of Western Civilization
Collection, the U.S. Air Force Academy)
including Jules Verne in From the Earth to the Moon (1865) and H.G. Wells
in The First Men in the Moon (1900).
Up to Kepler's time, humanity's efforts to explore the universe had
been remarkably successful but constrained by the limits of human
eyesight. But this was to change. In 1609 an innovative mathematician,
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), shown in Figure 2-15, heard of a new optical
device which could magnify objects so they would appear to be closer
and brighter than when seen with the unaided eye. Building a telescope
that could magnify an image 20 times, Galileo ushered in a new era of
space exploration. He made startling telescopic observations of the Moon,
the planets, and the stars, thereby attaining stardom in the eyes of his
peers and potential patrons.
Observing the Moon, Galileo noticed it looked remarkably like the
Earth's surface, with mountains, valleys, and even seas. Looking at the
Sun, Galileo saw blemishes or sunspots. These observations disproved
Aristotle's claim that the Moon and Sun were perfect and wholly different
from Earth. Observing the planets, Galileo noticed that Jupiter had four
moons or satellites (a word Kepler coined in 1611) that moved about it.
These Jovian moons disproved Aristotle's claim that everything revolved
about Earth. Meanwhile, the fact that Venus exhibited phases like the
Moon implied that Venus orbited the Sun, not Earth.
Observing the stars, Galileo solved the mystery of the "milkiness" of our
Milky Way galaxy. He explained it was due to the radiance of countless
faint stars which the unaided eye couldn't resolve. Galileo further noticed
that his telescope didn't magnify the stars, which seemed to confirm
Copernicus' guess about their vast distance from Earth (Figure 2-16).
Figure 2-16. Galileo's Telescope. Through
Galileo quickly published his telescopic discoveries in the Starry this crude device, Galileo discovered many
Messenger in 1610. This book, written in a popular, non-technical style, amazing truths that disproved earlier theories.
presented a formidable array of observational evidence against Aristotle's (Courtesy of Siglich Edition)
39
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
and Ptolemy's geocentric universe. Galileo at first had to overcome
people's suspicions, especially as to the trustworthiness of telescopes,
which used glass of uncertain quality. As he did so, he used his telescope
to subvert Aristotle's distinction between the sub- and superlunar realms
and to unify terrestrial and heavenly phenomena.
Almost immediately after Galileo published the Starry Messenger,
people began to argue by analogy that, i.f the Moon looks like Earth,
perhaps it too is inhabited. The search for extraterrestrial life encouraged
experts and laymen alike to explore the heavens. As early as 1638, in his
book The Discovery of a World i11 the Moone, John Wilkins encouraged
people to colonize the Moon by venturing out into space in "flying
chariots."
Galileo also reformed Aristotle's physics. He rolled a sphere down a
grooved rnmp and used a water clock to measure the time it took to reach
bottom. He repeated the experiment with heavier and lighter spheres, as
well as steeper and shallower ramps, and cleverly extended his results to
objects in free fall. Through these experiments, Galileo discovered,
contrary to Aristotle, that all objects fall at the same rate regardless of
their weight, as illustrated in Figure 2-17.
Galileo further contradicted Aristotle as to why objects, once in
motion, tend to keep going. Aristotle held that objects in "violent"
motion, such as arrows shot from bows, keep going only as long as
Figure 2-17. Everything Falls at the Same
Rate. Galileo was the first to demonstrate
something is physically in touch with them, pushing them onward. Once
through experiment that all masses, regard- this push died out, they resumed their natural motion and dropped
less of size, fall at the same rate when dropped straight to Earth. Galileo showed that objects in uniform motion keep
from the same height (neglecting air
resistance). going unless disturbed by some outside influence. He wrongly believed
that this uniform motion was circular, and he never used the term
"inertia." Nevertheless, we recognize him today for refining the concept
of inertia, which we'll explore in Chapter 4.
Another concept Galileo refined was relntivi(V (often termed Galilean
relativity to distinguish it from Albert Einstein's theory of relativity).
Galileo wrote,
Imagine two observers, one standing on a movi11g ship's deck at sea, the
other standing still on shore. A sailor near the top of the ship's mast drops
an object to the observer on deck. To this observer, the object falls straight
down. To the observer on shore, however, who does not share the horizontal
motion of the ship, the object follows a parabolic course as it falls. Both
observers are correct! [Galileo, 1632)
In other words, motion depends on the perspective or frame of reference
of the observer.
Figure 2-18. Isaac Newton. Newton was per- To complete the astronomical revolution, which Copernicus had
haps the greatest physicist who ever lived. He
developed calculus (independent of Gottfried started and which Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo had advanced, the
Leibniz), worked out laws of motion and gravity, terrestrial and heavenly realms had to be united under one set of natural
and experimented with optics. Yet, he spent laws. Isaac Newton (1642-1727), shown in Figure 2-18, answered this
more time studying alchemy and biblical
chronology! (Courtesy of Western Civilization challenge. Newton was a mercurial person, a brilliant natural
Collection, the U.S. Air Force Academy) philosopher, and mathematician, who provided a majestic vision of
40
2.1 Early Space Explorers
nature's unity and simplicity. During his "miracle year" in 1665, Newton
invented calculus, developed his law of gravitation, and performed
critical experiments in optics. Newton later developed the first
"Newtonian reflector," as shown in Figure 2-19. Extending Galileo's
groundbreaking work in dynamics, Newton published his three laws of
motion and the law of universal gravitation in the Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy, in 1687. With these laws one could explain and
predict motion not only on Earth but also in tides, comets, moons,
planets-in other words, motion everywhere.
Newton's crowning achievement helped inspire the Enlightenment of
the 18th century, an age when philosophers believed the universe was
thoroughly rational and understandable. Motivated by this belief, and
Newton's shining example, astronomers in the 18th century confidently
explored the night sky. Some worked in state-supported observatories to
determine longitudinal position at sea by using celestial observations.
Others, like William Herschel (1738-1822), tried to find evidence of
extraterrestrial life. Herschel never found his moon-dwellers, but with
help from his sister Caroline, he shocked the world in 1781 when he
accidently discovered Uranus (Figure 2-20). As astronomers studied Flgure 2·19. Newton's Telescope. While
Galileo had used refracting telescopes, Newton
Uranus, they noticed its orbit wobbled slightly. John Couch Adams developed the first reflecting telescope.
(1819-1892) and Urbain Leverrier (1811-1877) used this wobble, known (Courtesy of Sigloch Edition)
as an orbital perturbation, to calculate the location of a new planet which,
obeying Newton's Law of Gravity, would cause the wobble. Observing
the specified coordinates, astronomers at the Berlin observatory located
Neptune in 1846.
Other startling discoveries in the 19th century stemmed from
developments in spectroscopy (the study of radiated energy in visible
bands) and photography. By analyzing star spectra, William Huggins
(1824-1910) showed that stars are composed of the same elements as
those found here on Earth. His work overthrew once and for all the
ancient belief that the heavens consisted of a unique element-aether. He
also proved conclusively that some nebulas were gaseous. (Many
astronomers like William Herschel had suggested that, as more powerful Figure 2·20. Herschel's Telescope. This
telescopes became available, all nebulas would eventually be resolved huge instrument helped Herschel make many
into stars.) Using spectroscopes, astronomers could determine star planetary observations. (Courtesy of Sigloch
Edition)
distances, whether stars were single or double, their approximate surface
temperature, and whether they were approaching or receding from Earth
(as measured by their Doppler shift). They could even discover new
elements, as Joseph Norman Lockyer did in identifying helium in 1868
through spectroscopic analysis of the Sun.
Huggins' and Lockyers work marked the beginning of astrophysics
and brought to fruition Tycho Brahe's quest to unify terrestrial chemistry
with astronomy. Meanwhile, photography proved equally revelatory. A
camera's ability to collect light through prolonged exposures, for
example, provided clear evidence in 1889 that Andromeda was a galaxy,
not an incipient solar system. Similar to telescopes, spectroscopes and
cameras helped us to extend our explorations of the heavens.
41
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
Astra Fun Fact------
Measuring the Gravity Constant
In 1798, a physicist named Henry Cavendish performed an exciting experiment that helped him determine the
gravitational constant, G. Cavendish took a rod with a tiny, solid sphere at each end and hung it from a torsion
balance, using a thin metal thread. Then he placed two big, solid spheres close to and level with the small ones,
but not attached. Slowly, the small spheres moved toward the big ones. due to the gravitational pull. By choosing
an appropriate material for the thread, he simulated a free-fall condition between the big and small spheres.
Measuring the time of the "free fall" and the distance s with s = (a/2)t2, he calculated the gravitational
acceleration. Using the force F = ma = GmM!r2 with r being the distance between the two centers of mass, he
was able to compute G. Although he never intended to determine the gravitational constant, because his goal
was to find the mass of Earth, we recognize him as the first to compute a value for G.
Shaefer, Bergmann. Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, Vol. 1.
Contributed by Gabriele Belle, the U.S. Air Force Academy
The 20th century witnessed equally remarkable discoveries by
astronomers. Until 1918, astronomers believed that our solar system was
near the center of the Milky Way, that the Milky Way was the only galaxy
in the universe, and that its approximate size was a few thousand light-
years across. (A ligl1t year is the distance light travels in one year at a
speed of 300,000 km/ s [186,000 mi./ s]. which is about 9460 billion km
[5.88 x 1012 mi.].) By 1930 astronomers realized that our solar system was
closer to the edge than the center of our galaxy, that other galaxies existed
beyond the Milky Way, that the universe was expanding, and that
previous estimates of our galaxy's size had been ten times too small.
Two American astronomers, Harlow Shapley (1885-1972) and Edwin
Hubble (1889-1953), were most responsible for these radical shifts.
Shapley determined in 1918 that our solar system was near the fringes of
the Milky Way. Using the 250-cm reflecting telescope at Mount Wilson
observatory, Hubble roughly determined the size and structure of the
universe through a velocity-distance relationship now known as
Hubble's Law. By examining the Doppler or red-shift of stars, he also
determined the universe was expanding at an increasing rate. The red
shift comes from the apparent lengthening of electromagnetic waves as a
source and observer move apart. At this point, astronomers began to
speculate that a huge explosion, or "Big Bang," marked the beginning of
the universe.
While Hubble and others contemplated an expanding universe, Albert
Einstein (1879-1955), shown in Figure 2-21, revolutionized physics with his
concepts of relativity, the space-time continuum, and his famous equation,
Figure 2-21. Albert Einstein. Einstein revo-
lutionized physics with his concepts of relativity,
E = mc2. This equation showed the equivalence of mass and energy related
space-time, and the now famous equation, by a constant, the speed of light. Combined with the discovery of
=
E mc2. (Courtesy of Western Civilization radioactivity in 1896 by Henri Becquerel (1852-1908), Einstein's equation
Collection, the U.S. Air Force Academy) explained in broad terms the inner workings of the Sun.
42
2.1 Early Space Explorers
Neptune's discovery in the previous century had been a triumph for
Newton's laws. But those laws didn't explain why, among other things,
Mercury's orbit changes slightly over time. Einstein's general theory of
relativity accurately predicted this motion. Einstein explained that any
amount of mass curves the space surrounding it, and that gravity is a
manifestation of this "warped" space. Furthermore, Einstein showed that
the passage of time is not constant, but relative to the observer. This means
two objects traveling at different speeds will observe time passing at
different rates. This concept has profound implications for satellites such as
the Global Positioning System, which rely on highly accurate atomic clocks.
By the dawn of the Space Age, astronomers had constructed a view of
the universe radically different from earlier concepts. We continue to
explore the universe with our minds and Earth-based instruments. But
since 1957, we've also been able to launch probes into space to explore the
universe directly. Thus, advances in our understanding of the universe
increasingly depend on efforts to send these probes, and people, into space.
!!11111!1 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
astronomy > Two distinct traditions existed in astronomy through the early 1600s
degree • Aristotle's geocentric universe of concentric spheres
Doppler
eccentricity • Ptolemy's complex combinations of circles used to calculate orbits for
focus the Sun, Moon, and planets
geocentric > Several natural philosophers and scientists reformed our concept of
geostatic space from 1500 to the 20th century
heliocentric
• Copernicus d fined a heliocentric (sun-centered) universe
light year
minute of arc • Brahe vastly improved the precision of astronomical observations
parallax • Kepler developed his three laws of motion
perturba tion
- The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the Sun at one focus
red-shift
relativity - Orbits sweep out equal areas in equal times
spectroscopy - The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the
sublunar realm mean distance from the Sun
superlunar realm • Galileo developed dynamics and made key telescopic discoveries
• Newton developed his three laws of motion and the law of universal
gravitation
• Shapley proved om sola · system was near the fringe, not the center, of
our galaxy
• Hubble helped show that our galaxy was only one of billions of
galaxies, and that the universe was expanding at an ever-increasing
rate, perhaps due to a "Big Bang" at the beginning of time
• Einstein developed the theory of relativity and the relationship
between mass and energy described by E = mc2
43
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
2.2 Entering Space
!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn To...
.,.. Describe the rapid changes in space exploration in the 20th century
from the first crude rockets to space shuttles
We've shown that we don't need to leave the Earth's atmosphere to
explore space. With our senses, imagination, and instruments such as the
telescope, we can discover new features of and raise new questions about
the universe. But somehow, that's not enough. People long to go there.
Even before the myth of Daedalus and Icarus, we dreamed of flying. On
December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright made this dream come
true at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. From then on, advances in flight and
rocketry have led us to the edge of space and beyond.
The Age of Rockets
Kepler journeyed to the Moon by magic, and Jules Verne's hero in From
the Earth to the Moon was fired out of an immensely powerful cannon. But
rockets made spaceflight possible. Military requirements initially drove
rocket development. The first recorded military use of rockets came in
1232 A.O., when the Chin Tartars defended Kai-feng-fu in China by firing
rockets at the attacking Mongols.
In the early 19th century William Congreve (1772-1828), a British colonel
and artillery expert, developed incendiary rockets based on models cap-
tured in India (Figure 2-22). Congreve's rockets, powered by black powder,
r: ranged i.n size from 3 to 23 kg (6.6 to 50 lbs.). During the Napoleonic wars,
-- • L!;"..
the British fired two hundred of these rockets i.n thirty minutes against the
French at Boulogne, setting the town on fire. The British also fired rockets
against Fort McHenry in Baltimore, Maryland, during the War of 1812,
with the "rocket's red glare" inspiring Francis Scott Key to pen the United
,,_,~.,.... %,..
States National Anthem. After 1815 conventional artillery rapidly
' ' improved, however, and the British Army lost interest in rockets.
Waning military interest in rockets didn't deter theoretical studies,
Figure 2-22. Congreve's Rockets. Small however. One of the first people to research rocket-powered spaceflight
rockets, such as these, helped British soldiers was Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), the father of Russian
turn the tide of battle in the early 19th century. cosmonautics. In the 1880s he calculated the velocity (known as "escape
(Courtesy of Sigloch Edition)
velocity") required for a journey beyond the Earth's atmosphere. He also
suggested that burning a combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid
oxygen could improve rocket efficiency. (The Space Shuttle's main
engines run on these propellants.) Inspired by Tsiolkovsky's brilliance,
the former Soviet Union became the first country to endorse and support
the goal of spaceflight, creating in 1924 the Bureau for the Study of the
Problems of Rockets.
44
2.2 Entering Space
~----Astra FunFact----~
TheFatherof Cosmonautics
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (kon-stan-teen see-ol-koff-skee) (1857-1935) grew up
deaf in Russia, and without the benefit of the usual schools, he educated
himself Surprisingly, with little financial support or engineering background, he
applied Newton's third law (action and reaction) to describe the possibility of
rocket flight into outer space. Although he did no experiments, his theory,
written in 1903, on overcoming Earth's gravity using rockets, was the basis for
later tests by Russian engineers. His "reaction vehicles," as he called them,
could use liquid fuels to gain enough velocity to rise above Earth. Other
imaginative ideas he presented were reaction vehicles for interplanetary flight,
multistage rockets, and artificial Earth satellites, including manned space
platforms. He was a forward-thinking theorist, who we recognize today as the
Father of Cosmonautics.
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition Copyright ©1993, Columbia
University Press.
(Courtesy of Vladimir Lytkin)
The United States, in contrast, lagged far behind, except for a single
visionary, Robert H. Goddard (1882-1945), shown with one of his first
rockets in Figure 2-23. He experimented with liquid-fuel rockets,
successfully launching the first in history on March 16, 1926. A skilled
engineer and brilliant theorist, Goddard believed that a powerful-enough
rocket could reach the Moon or Mars, but he couldn't garner support
from the United States government for his ideas.
A far different state of affairs existed in Germany. Hermann J. Oberth's
(1894-1989) work on the mathematical theory of spaceflight and his book
The Rocket into Planetary Space (1923) fostered the growth of rocketry in
Germany and led to the founding of the Society for Space Travel in July
1927. Several German rocket societies flourished in the 1920s and 1930s,
composed mainly of students and their professors. German government
support of these organizations began in the mid-1930s and resulted
directly from the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I. The treaty
severely limited Germany's development and production of heavy
artillery. After Adolf Hitler assumed power in 1933, the German military
saw rockets as a means to deliver warheads over long distances without
violating the treaty. The Nazi regime thus supported several rocket
societies. Wernher von Braun (1912-1977), a young member of one of Figure 2-23. Robert Goddard. Goddard
these societies, progressed rapidly and finally led the development of the pioneered the field of liquid-fueled rocketry.
He's shown here with one of his early models.
V-2 rocket, the world's first ballistic missile. But Von Braun's life-long goal (Courtesy of NASNGoddard Space Flight
was to develop launch vehicles for interplanetary flight. His rocket Center)
research would culminate in the Saturn V moon rocket used in the U.S.
Apollo program.
45
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
The Germans launched more than two thousand V-2s, armed with one-
ton warheads, against allied targets during the last years of World War II.
Towards the end of the war, the Allies frantically sought to recruit
German rocket scientists. The United States hit paydirt with Project
Paperclip, when Von Braun and his research team, carrying their records
with them, surrendered to the Americans in 1945. The Russians also
recruited heavily, signing German scientists as the technical nucleus of
the effort that eventually produced Sputnik.
Besides recruiting German rocket scientists, the United States captured
the enormous Mittelwerke underground rocket factory in the Harz
Mountains of central Germany, as well as enough components to
assemble 68 V-2 rockets. Using these captured V-2s as sounding rockets,
with scientific payloads in place of warheads, the V-2 Upper Atmosphere
Research Panel studied Earth's atmosphere between 1946 and 1952 and
inaugurated the science of X-ray astronomy. The V-2s launched at White
Sands, New Mexico, yielded new information about Earth's atmosphere
and magnetic field, as well as solar radiation and cosmic rays (Figure 2-
24). Until 1957, American astronomers studied space at a leisurely pace.
However, Cold War tensions between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. made national
Figure 2-24. V-2 at White Sands. At the
White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico,
security, not astronomy, a priority. Scientists developed rockets such as
U.S. engineers used captured V-2 rockets to the Thor Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) and Atlas
advance knowledge of rocketry and the upper Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), not to explore space, but to
atmosphere. (Courtesy of NASA/While Sands
Missile Range)
deliver nuclear warheads.
Sputnik: The Russian Moon
In the 1950s, the distinction between airplane and rocket research
began to blur. Pilots assigned to the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA) in the United States flew experimental aircraft, such
as the Bell X-lA and X-2, to the edge of Earth's atmosphere. In this era,
many aerospace experts believed that pilots flying "spaceplanes" would
be the first to explore space. A strong candidate was North American
Aviation's X-15, shown in Figure 2-26, a rocket-propelled spaceplane able
to exceed Mach 8 (eight times the speed of sound) and climb more than
112 km (70 mi.) above Earth. Confident in its technological supremacy, the
United States was shocked when the Russians launched the unmanned
Figure 2-25. Sputnik. Weighing less than
100 kg and looking like a basketball trailing four
satellite Sputnik, shown in Figure 2-25, into orbit on October 4, 1957.
long antennas, Sputnik shook the world when it Sputnik changed everything. Space became the new high ground in the
became the first man-made satellite In 1957. Cold Wai~ and, in the crisis atmosphere following Sputnik, Americans
(Courtesy of Siglich Edition)
believed they had to occupy it first.
At least initially, however, the Russians surged ahead in what the
media quickly labeled the Space Race. One month after Sputnik, the
Russians launched Sputnik II. It carried a dog named Laika, the first
living creature to orbit Earth. In the meantime, the United States
desperately sought to orbit its own satellite. The first attempt, a Navy
Vanguard rocket, exploded on the launch pad on December 6, 1957, in
front of a national television audience. Fortunately, Von Braun and his
team had been working since 1950 for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency
46
2.2 Entering Space
Figure 2-26. X-15 Rocket Plane. The X-15 was piloted to the edge of space and helped
develop modern aeronautics and astronautics. (Courtesy of NASA/Dryden Flight Research
Center)
on the Redstone rocket, a further development of the V-2. Using a
modified Redstone, the United States successfully launched its first
satellite, Explorer 1, on January 31, 1958.
After the launch of Explorer 1, shown in Figure 2-27, Americans
clamored for more space feats to match and surpass the Russians. Most
shocking to United States scientists was the ability of their Russian
counterparts to orbit heavy payloads. Explorer 1 (Figure 2-28) weighed a
feather-light 14 kg (30 lbs.), whereas the first Sputnik weighed 84 kg (185
lbs.). Sputnik III, a geophysical laboratory orbited on May 15, 1958,
weighed a whopping 1350 kg (2970 lbs.). The Russians also enthralled the
world in October, 1959, when their space probe Luna 3 took the first
photographs of the dark side of the Moon.
Without question the Soviet Premier, Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971),
exploited the space feats of Sergei P. Korolev (1907-1966), the "Grand
Designer" of Soviet Rocketry in a deliberate propaganda campaign to Figure 2·27. Explorer 1. Explorer 1 was the
prove that Communism was superior to Democracy. Meanwhile, calls first United States satellite launched after
went out across the Western world to improve science education in many frustrating failures. (Courtesy of NASAi
Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
schools and to mobilize the best and brightest scientists to counter the
presumed Russian technical superiority. The capstone for this effort was
the creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) on October 1, 1958.
NASA was created to consolidate U.S. space efforts under a single
civilian agency and to put a man in space before the Russians. It also
managed the rapidly increasing budget devoted to the United States
space effort, which rocketed from $90 million for the entire effort in 1958
to $3.7 billion for NASA alone in 1963. These were heady days for NASA, Figure 2-28. Explorer 1 Satellite. This small
satellite measured the charged particles that
a time of great successes and equally spectacular failures. In this scientific
surround Earth and comprise the Van Allen
dimension of the Cold War, United States astronauts became more like bells. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion
swashbucklers defending the ship of state than sage scientists seeking Laboratory)
47
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
knowledge. President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) reinforced this
nationalistic mood when he recruited the original seven Mercury
astronauts exclusively from the ranks of military test pilots, as shown in
Figure 2-29. The Mercury program suffered serious initial teething pains.
Mercury-Atlas L launched on July 29, 1960, exploded one minute after
lift-off. On November 21, 1960, Mercury-Redstone 1 ignited momentarily,
climbed about 10 cm (4 in.) off the launch pad before its engine cutoff,
then settled back down on the launch pad as the escape tower blew.
Despite these failures, NASA persisted. On January 21, 1961, Mercury-
Redstone 2 successfully launched a chimpanzee called Ham on a
Figure 2-29. Mercury Program Astronauts.
suborbital flight.
These men were the first U.S. astronauts. They Once again, however, the Russians caused the world to hold its
endured seemingly endless tests of endurance collective breath when on April 12, 1961, Major Yuri A. Gagarin, shown in
and extremes to establish the envelope for
human survival in space. (Courtesy of NASA/ Figure 2-30, completed an orbit around Earth in Vostok I. Here was proof
Johnson Space Center) positive, in Khrushchev's eyes, of the superiority of Communism. After
all, the United States could only launch astronauts Alan B. Shepard, Jr.,
and Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom on suborbital flights in May and July, 1961.
The Russians astounded the world once more on August 7, 1961, by
launching cosmonaut Gherman S. Titov on a day-long, seventeen-orbit
flight about the Earth. After what some Americans no doubt thought was
an eternity, the United States finally orbited its first astronaut, John H.
Glenn, Jr., on February 20, 1962. Glenn's achievement revived America's
sagging morale, although he completed only three orbits due to a
problem with his capsule's heat shield.
From 1961-1965, the Russians orbited more cosmonauts (including one
woman, Valentina Tereshkova, on June 16, 1963), for longer periods, and
always sooner than their American rivals. The Russians always seemed to
Figure 2-30. Yuri Gagarin. The Soviet Union
scored another first in the space race when Yuri be a few weeks or months ahead. For example, cosmonaut Alexei Leonov
Gagarin became the first human to orbit Earth. beat astronaut Edward H. White II by eleven weeks for the honor of the
(Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space Flight first spacewalk, which took place on March 18, 1965.
Center)
The United States recorded some space firsts in communication,
however. Echo I (Figure 2-31), launched on August 12, 1960, was an
aluminum-coated, 30.4 meter-diameter plastic sphere that passively
reflected voice and picture signals. It demonstrated the feasibility of satellite
communications. Echo's success paved the way for Telstar, the first active
communications satellite. Launched on July 10, 1962, it relayed communica-
tion between far-flung points on the Earth. Echo and Telstar were the fore-
runners of the incredible variety of communication satellites now circling the
Earth, upon which our modern information society depends.
Echo, Telsrar, and interplanetary probes such as the Mariner series
helped reinflate sagging American prestige in the early 1960s. But the
United States needed something more dramatic, and President John F.
Kennedy (1917-1963) supplied it. In a speech before a joint session of
Congress in 1961, he launched the nation on a bold, new course. "I believe
this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade
Figure 2·31. Echo I. From meager hard- is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the
ware, such as this "balloon" satellite, long-
distance communication via satellite got its Earth." For Kennedy, the clearest path to Unlted States pre-eminence in
start. (Courtesy of Siglich Edition) space led directly to the Moon.
48
2.2 Entering Space
--------Astra Fun Fact------------
Disney and the Russian Rocket Program
The Russian rocket program was unwittingly boosted by the Walt Disney movie, Man In Space, shown in August,
1955, at an international space conference in Copenhagen which two Russian rocket scientists attended. The
Russian newspaper, Pravda, reported on the conference and increased the Russian feeling that the United
States was serious about space. The Pravda article also emphasized the need for more Russian public
awareness of spaceflight. Professor Leonid I. Sedov, Chairman of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Science's
Interdepartmental Commission on Interplanetary Communications. addressed this issue in his Pravda article of
September 26, 1955: "A popular-science artistic cinema film entitled Man In Space, released by the American
director Walt Disney and the German rocket-missile expert Von Braun, chief designer of the V-2, was shown at
the Congress... it would be desirable that new popular-science films devoted to the problems of interplanetary
travels be shown in our country in the near future. It is also extremely important to increase the interest of the
general public in the problem of astronautics. Here is a worthwhile field of activity for scientists, writers, artists,
and for many works of Russian culture." As a result, the Russians became more concerned with the United
States' space effort and focused more on their own efforts to launch satellites.
Krieger, F.J. Behind the Sputniks-A Survey of Soviet Space Science. Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs
Press, 1958.
Contributed by Dr. Jackson R. Ferguson, Jr., the U.S. Air Force Academy
Armstrong's Small Step
The Apollo program to put an American on the Moon by 1970 was
meant to accept the challenge of the space race with the Russians and prove
which country was technically superior. By 1963,Apollo already consumed
two-thirds of the United States' total space budget. Support for Apollo was
strong among Americans, but the program was not without critics. Former
President Eisenhower remarked that "Anybody who would spend 40
billion dollars in a race to the Moon for national prestige is nuts."
Critics notwithstanding, Neil Armstrong's and Buzz Aldrin's first
footprints in the lunar soil on July 20, 1969, as shown in Figure 2-32,
marked an astonishing technical achievement. The world watched the Figure 2-32. First on the Moon. In 1969,
dramatic exploits of Apollo 11 with great excitement and a profound Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left their
footprints on the surface of the Moon.
sense of awe. President Richard M. Nixon was perhaps only slightly (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
exaggerating when he described Apollo ll's mission as the "greatest
week in the history of the world since the Creation."
Begun as a nationalistic exercise in technological chest-thumping,
Apollo became a spiritual adventure, a wonderous experience that made
people stop and think about life and its deeper meaning. The plaque left
behind on the Apollo 11 lunar module perhaps best summed up the
mission. ''Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon
July 1969, A.D. We came in peace for all mankind." A gold olive branch
remains today at the Sea of Tranquility, left behind by the Apollo 11
astronauts as a symbol of peace.
49
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
Apollo was perhaps NASA's greatest triumph. Even when disaster
struck 330,000 km (205,000 mi.) from the Earth during the Apollo 13
mission, NASA quickly rallied and brought the astronauts home safely.
After Apollo 11, there would be five additional Moon landings between
November, 1969, and December, 1972. The six Apollo Moon missions
brought back 382 kg (840 lbs.) of Moon rocks and soil. Scientists had
hoped these rocks would be a "Rosetta stone," helping them date the
beginning of the solar system. Regrettably, the rocks turned out to be
millions of years younger than expected. Still, the Apollo missions
revealed much about the nature of the Moon, although some scientists
remained critical of Apollo's scientific worth. This criticism came partly
Figure 2-33. Lunar Goal Achieved. because only on the last mission (Apollo 17) did NASA send a scientist,
Astronaut Harrison Schmitt (geologist) takes
samples of lunar dust and rock. (Courtesy of Dr. Harrison H. Gack) Schmitt, shown in Figure 2-33, to explore the Moon.
NASA/Johnson Space Center) After the triumph of Apollo, NASA's achievements were considerable
if somewhat anticlimactic. For example, in a display of brilliant
improvisation, NASA converted a Saturn V third-stage into a laboratory
module called Skylab, shown in Figure 2-34. After suffering external
damage during launch on May 14, 1973, Skylab was successfully repaired
by space-walking astronauts and served three separate crews as a
laboratory in space for 28, 59, and 84 days, respectively.
ln July, 1975, space became a forum for international cooperation
between strong and sometimes bitter rivals when Apollo 18 docked with
a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft. A triumph for detente, Apollo-Soyuz was
perhaps a harbinger of the future of space exploration-progress through
cooperation and friendly competition.
With the end of the Apollo program, NASA began work on a new
Figure 2-34. Skylab. Launched on May 14, challenge-the Space Shuttle. On April 12, 1981, twenty years to the day
1973, Skylab was America's first space station.
During nine months, three different crews after Gagarin's historic flight, astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen
called it home. Pulled back to Earth because of piloted the reusable spacecraft Columbia on its maiden flight. Columbia,
atmospheric drag, Skylab burned up in 1979. joined by her sister ships Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and later
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Endeavour, proved the versatility of the shuttle fleet. Shuttle missions
have been used to deploy satellites, launch interplanetary probes, rescue
and repair satellites, conduct experiments, as shown in Figure 2-35, and
monitor the Earth's environment.
While the U.S. focused on the Shuttle, the Russian space program took
a different path. Relying on expendable Soyuz boosters, the Russians
concentrated their efforts on a series of space stations designed to extend
the length of human presence in space. From 1971-1982, the Russians
launched seven increasingly capable variations of Salyut space stations,
home to dozens of crews. In 1986, the expandable Mir (or "peace") Space
Station marked a new generation of space habitat (Figure 2-36). In 1988,
cosmonauts Vladimir Titov and Musa Manarov became the first humans
to spend more than one year in space aboard Mir.
Partly in response to these efforts, and to exploit the capabilities of the
Space Shuttle, in 1984 President Reagan committed NASA to building its
Figure 2-36. Mir Space Station. Astronauts
in the Russian space station set many records,
own space station-Freedom. Ironically, the collapse of the former Soviet
including Valeri Poliakov's longest stay of 438 Union opened the way for these space rivals to join forces, so the Space
days. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Shuttle docked with Mir and the Russians became partners on the re-
Center)
designed International Space Station.
50
2.2 Entering Space
Figure 2-35. Experiments on the Space Shuttle. Shuttle crewmember, Bonnie Dunbar,
conducts a variety of experiments in biology, life science, and material processing. (Courtesy
of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Satellites and InterplanetaryProbes
While manned space programs drew the lion's share of media attention
during the Cold War, satellites and interplanetary probes were quietly
revolutionizing our lives and our knowledge of the solar system. Satellites
serve as navigation beacons, relay stations for radio and television signals,
and other forms of communication. They watch our weather and help us
verify international treaties. Satellites are able to discover phenomena that
cannot be observed or measured from Earth's surface because of
atmospheric interference. While the race to the Moon was on in the 1960s,
scientists used satellites to explore the atmosphere. They studied
gravitational, electrical, and magnetic fields, energetic particles, and other
space phenomena. In addition, projects such as the United States Land
Remote Sensing Program (Landsat) started in the early 70's and proved
invaluable for tracking and managing Earth's resources.
We've also gained invaluable insights into the nature of our solar
system with interplanetary probes. On February 12, 1961, the former
Soviet Union launched Venera 1, which passed within 60,000 km (37,200
mi.) of Venus and analyzed its atmosphere. In the 1960s Rangers 7-9 took
more than 17,000 detailed photographs of the Moon's surface in
preparation for the Apollo landings. The Surveyor probes extended this
investigation by testing the composition of lunar soil to ensure it would
support the Apollo lunar lander. Between 1962 and 1973, seven Mariner
probes studied Mercury, Venus, and Mars. Many practical lessons for
Earth emerged from these studies. Large dust storms that Mariner 9
detected on Mars in 1971 led scientists to conclude that these storms
cooled Mars' surface. Scientists, such as Carl Sagan, have since speculated
51
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
about potentially disastrous cooling of Earth's surface from large dust
clouds that would be raised by a nuclear war. Similarly, studies of Venus's
atmosphere have shed light on the greenhouse effect and global warming
from carbon dioxide emissions on Earth.
In the 1970s the Viking and Voyager series of probes led to fundamental
breakthroughs in planetary science. Although Vikings 1 and 2 did not
discover life on Mars in 1976, they did analyze Martian soil, weather, and
atmospheric composition as well as capture more than 4500 spectacular
images of the red-planet's surface. Images of Jupiter, Saturn, and their
moons, taken by Voyagers 1 and 2 from 1979-1981, were even more
spectacular. Among many notable discoveries, Voyager pictures revealed
that Jupiter's Great Red Spot was an enormous storm and that Saturn's
rings were amazingly complex (and beautiful) with unanticipated kinks
and spokes. Originally intended to explore Jupiter and Saturn only,
Voyager 2 went on to take revelatory photographs of Uranus in 1986 and
Neptune in 1989.
We've also moved some of our most complex and capable scientific
instruments into space to escape the interference of Earth's atmosphere.
Perhaps the most famous of these space instruments is the Hubble Space
Telescope, named in honor of astronomer Edwin Hubble and launched in
1990. The Shuttle has also carried astronomical observatories with
specialized instruments to observe ultraviolet and X-ray phenomena,
bands of the electromagnetic spectrum that we simply can't perceive with
our own eyes.
Today, satellites, interplanetary probes, and space-based instruments
continue to revolutionize our lives and understanding of the universe. In
Section 2.3 we'll examine some of the more important discoveries and
accomplishments made in the 1990s by these technologies.
~ Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
ballistic missile > Rockets evolved from military weapons in the 1800s to launch
communication satellites vehicles for exploring space after World War I1
> Sputnik, launched by the former Soviet Union on October 4, 1957,
was the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth
> Yuri Gagarin was the first human to orbit Earth on April 12, 1961
> The space race between the United States and former Soviet Union
culminated in Apollo 11, when eil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin
became the first humans to walk on the Moon
> Satellites revolutionized communication and military intelJigence
and surveillance
>- Interplanetary probes, such as Viking and Voyager, greatly extended
our knowledge of the solar system in the 1970s and 1980s
52
2.3 Space Comes of Age
2.3 Space Comes of Age
!!!!1111111 In This Section You'll Learn To...
.- Describe some of the major trends in space during the 1990s
rir Discuss recent scientific and commercial space achievements
In the 1990s space exploration and exploitation entered a new stage of
maturity. Space exploration witnessed remarkable discoveries by the
repaired Hubble Space Telescope and by a series of low-cost,
interplanetary probes, such as the Mars Pathfinder. As a result of the Gulf
War and other commitments, the U.S. military gained a keener
appreciation for the importance of space assets in conducting operations
and maintaining world-wide command and control. Finally, commercial
space missions surged and, for the first time, civilian spending on space
surpassed government spending.
We can identify four major trends in space that characterized the last
decade of the 20th century, and set the stage for the beginning of the new
millennium:
1) Space International-Greater international cooperation in
manned spaceflight
2) Space Science, Big and Small-Big high-cost missions made
remarkable advances, but smaller and less expensive missions
began to show their worth
3) Space Incorporated-Commercial missions began to dominate
space activities
4) The New High Ground-Increased importance of space in military
planning and operations
In this section we'll examine these trends to understand the never-
ending wonder of space exploration and the increasingly routine nature
of commercial space exploitation. We'll look at the increasing maturity of
space efforts in the 1990s, starting with exploration and science and
ending with new commercial and military applications in space.
Space International
Throughout the 90's, the Space Shuttle remained NASA's workhorse
for putting people and important payloads into space. One of the most
highly publicized shuttle flights, perhaps of all time, took place in 1998 Figure 2-37. John Glenn in the Shuttle.
with John Glenn's nostalgic return to space (Figure 2-37). During this and Here, Astronaut John Glenn reviews docu-
ments before performing more experiments
dozens of other missions, Shuttle crews continued to launch important onboard the Shuttle. (Courtesy of NASA/
spacecraft, such as Galileo to study Jupiter and its moons, retrieve and Johnson Space Center)
53
Chapter 2 Expl ring Space
repair scientific platforms, such as Hubble, conduct valuable experiments
in microgravity and other areas of space science, and lay the foundations
for the International Space Station.
A major feature of maimed space programs in the 1990s was increased
cooperation between the United States and the former Soviet Union. Bitter
rivals since the dawn of the Space Age, the two superpowers had only
cooperated in space once before, during the Apollo/Soyuz mission. But
the break-up of the former Soviet Union in the late 80's made cooperation
between the two world space powers not only possible, but necessary.
With the Shuttle, NASA astronauts had nearly routine access to space.
With their Mir space station, the Russians had an outpost in low-Earth
orbit (Figure 2-38). By combining the two assets, both countries could
more easily achieve important scientific, technical, and operational goals.
The Shuttle docked with Mir nine times between 1995 and 1998, with
Figure 2·38. Mir Close-up. Over many seven American astronauts joining cosmonauts for extended stays on Mir.
years, this space station housed astronauts Some of these stays were punctuated by moments of grave concern, as by
from a variety of nations. Lessons learned will
help the International Space Station succeed.
the mid-1990s Mir approached the end of its useful life. Its age contributed
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center) to a host of major problems with computers, loss of cabin pressure,
on board fires and even a collision with a relief craft. If anything, Mir's
problems proved that humans can resolve life-threatening problems while
living and working in space. Using Mir, a Russian cosmonaut, Valeri
Poliakov, set a space endurance record by spending 438 days in orbit.
When President Reagan began the American space station "Freedom"
in 1984, it was in response to Mir's capabilities. But in the 1990's, the
newly-named International Space Station (ISS) brought the Russians
onboard as major partners (Figure 2-39). Not only are the U.S. and Russia
involved: the ISS represents unprecedented international collaboration
among 16 nations. The Russians are building the service module that will
Figure 2·39. International Space Station
(ISS). This artist's concept shows how complex
provide living quarters and a control center, the U.S. is building a
the space station will be. With international laboratory module, the Japanese are providing an experiment module,
cooperation, the cost, technical aspects, and and the Canadians are building the main robotic arm for the station.
daily operations will be shared by many nations.
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center) The first element of the space station, the Russian Zarya Control
Module, launched in November 1998, from Baikonur Cosmodrome, atop
a Proton rocket, was followed closely by the first Shuttle assembly flight
in December 1998 (Figure 2-40). On future missions, the growing station
will add the main components and astronauts will outfit it with essential
equipment and provisions. When completed, ISS will cover the area of
two football fields consisting of over 460 tons of structures and
equipment.
Space Science Big and Small
As the decade began, a few big projects dominated space science, such
Figure 2-40. Zarya Control Module. Zarya
(meaning "sunrise") launched on a Russian as Magellan and Hubble. We'll start by reviewing the major successes of
Proton rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome these large space programs, then turn our attention to the smaller,
in November, 1998. The International Space
Station was off the ground. (Courtesy of
cheaper missions that characterized space science missions at the end of
NASA/Johnson Space Center) the '90s and into the 21st century.
54
2.3 Space Comes of Age
Big Missions
Magellan. From 1990-1994 the Magellan spacecraft (Figure 2-41) used
its powerful synthetic aperture radar to "peel back" the dense cloud
cover of Earth's sister planet, mapping 98% of Venus's surface, at 100-
meter resolution. These amazing images revealed a planet whose surface
is young and changing due to volcanic eruptions. Because its thick
atmosphere traps heat in a run-away greenhouse effect, Venus is the solar
system's hottest planet, with surface temperatures reaching 482° C.
Galileo. Another expensive and complex mission, the ambitious $1.35
billion Galileo spacecraft (Figure 2-42) launched in 1989 to explore Jupiter,
initially seemed crippled by a jammed main antenna and a malfunctioning
data-storage tape recorder. Fortunately, NASA engineers improvised and
employed a much slower, but, nevertheless effective, secondary antenna
to preserve 70% of the mission's objectives. On its way to Jupiter, Galileo
took the first close-up photographs of asteroids and discovered Dactyl, a
mile-wide moonlet orbiting the asteroid Ida. In July 1994, scientists
positioned Galileo to study the spectacular impact of Jupiter by comet
Shoemaker-Levy 9. The largest fragment of this comet, approximately 3 Figure 2-41. Magellan. Named for the 16th-
century Portuguese explorer, this spacecraft
km across, sent hot gas plumes 3500 km into space, producing shock used radar to map Venus from an elliptical,
waves equivalent to several million megatons of TNT. The potential life- polar orbit. (Courtesy of NASA)/Johnson
ending implications of a similar impact on Earth's surface were not lost on Space Center
scientists or the general public and contributed to Hollywood's penchant
for disaster movies such as Deep Impact and Armageddon.
Galileo fulfilled another mission objective in December 1995 when its
probe plunged through Jupiter's atmosphere, transmitting data for an
hour before being crushed by atmospheric pressure. Scientists quickly
learned that many of their predictions about Jupiter's atmosphere were
wrong. The probe revealed Jupiter's atmosphere was drier, more
turbulent, and windier than predicted, with wind speeds exceeding 560
km/hr (350 m.p.h.) in Jupiter's upper atmosphere. It also proved thicker
and hotter than predicted, with temperatures exceeding 700° C. Perhaps
most remarkably, Galileo later uncovered intriguing evidence that
suggested that liquid water exists beneath the frozen crust of one of
Jupiter's moons, Europa, and possibly Callisto, as well. Some scientists
Figure 2-42. Galileo. This artist's conception
now suggest that the best chance of finding life in our solar system may of the Galileo mission shows the spacecraft
reside in Europa's liquid oceans, which may receive heat from the with Jupiter behind it and a close up of the
radioactive decay of Europa's core and immense gravitational squeezing moon, lo, in front of it. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet
Propulsion Laboratory)
applied to Europa by Jupiter. The combination of liquid water and heat
suggests that Europa could support life in the form of simple
microorganisms. Galileo continues to study Europa, as well as volcanic
activity on the moon, Io, with Galileo's last objective being a close look at
Io's rapidly changing surface from a height of 300 km.
Ulysses. NASA has also studied our source of energy and life: the Sun.
Worh1g with the European Space Agency (ESA), NASA developed
Figure 2·43. Ulysses. NASA and the
Ulysses (Figure 2-43), which flew over the south and north poles of the European Space Agency collaborated on this
Sun in 1994 and 1995. Ulysses measured the solar corona, solar wind, and mission to explore the Sun's polar atmosphere.
It passed the Sun in 1994 and 1995, and will
other properties of the heliosphere. In 1999 and 2000, Ulysses will re- visit the same path in 2000 and 2001.
examine these properties under the conditions of solar maximum (the (Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
55
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
eleven-year cycle of solar activity). Another NASA and ESA project, the
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), is currently studying the
Sun's internal structure, its outer atmosphere, and the origins and
acceleration of the solar wind. Finally, as part of NASA's Small Explorer
Program, the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) probe is
studying the Sun's magnetic fields and their relationship to heating
within the Sun's corona.
Cassini. The first decade of the new millennium promises equally
remarkable discoveries. Already on its way to explore Saturn is Cassini
(Figure 2-44). Scheduled to reach Saturn in July 2004, Cassini will deploy
a probe (Huygens) built by ESA that will parachute to the surface of
Titan, Saturn's Earth-sized moon, to search for life. Cassini will remain in
orbit for four years to study Saturn and its rings and moons. Cassini may
Figure 2-44. Cassini. This science mission be the last of the multi-billion-dollar probes.
must fly-by Venus and Earth to get a gravity-
assist to Saturn. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet Hubble. When it comes to space astronomy, we could call the '90s the
Propulsion Laboratory) "Hubble Decade." Dogged by problems when the Shuttle first deployed
it in 1988, Shuttle astronauts later repaired and upgraded it during
subsequent missions (Figure 2-45). The upgraded Hubble Space
Telescope and its suite of improved cameras and instruments, have made
a long series of remarkable observations of the Universe. Within our solar
system, Hubble has revealed vast storms on Saturn, the presence of dense
hydrocarbons in Titan's atmosphere, and drastic changes over several
days in Neptune's cloud features. Peering beyond our solar system,
Hubble has recorded stars being born, stars in their death throes, and
galaxies colliding, and provided deeper understanding of black holes,
quasars, and other structural elements of the universe.
In 1998 Hubble detected an enormously powerful black hole at the
Figure 2-45. Shuttle Astronaut Repairs center of galaxy Centaurus A, whose mass is the equivalent of nearly one
Hubble. While travelling 28,440 km/hr (17,000 billion Sun-like stars, compressed into an area roughly the size of our
m.p.h.), astronauts Gregory Harbaugh and
Joseph Tanner ignore their "head-down" posi- solar system. Most startling of all were the results of the Deep Field
tion to replace a vital part. (Courtesy of NASA/ photograph, produced when Hubble focused for ten days on a small,
Johnson Space Center) seemingly unimportant slice of the sky. Where Earth-bound telescopes
could resolve little of interest, Hubble revealed at least 1500 galaxies
(Figure 2-46), some of which may be 12 billion light years distant. This
startling photograph suggests there are perhaps 50 billion galaxies in our
universe, five times as many as scientists had predicted. Finally, in May
1999, astronomers completed an eight-year study to measure the size and
age of the universe. With data from Hubble, scientists narrowed the age
of the universe to between 12 and 13.5 billion years, a vast improvement
over earlier estimates of between 10 and 20 billion years.
As is the nature of basic research, missions such as Hubble often raise as
many questions as they answer. To answer these perplexing questions,
NASA and ESA are planning to launch and operate new instruments into
space in the early 21st century. The first of these is the Chandra X-Ray
Figure 2-46. Galaxies. Hubble Space
Telescope images reveal many new galaxies, Observatory (Figure 2-47). Launched in 1999, this powerful instrument has
each composed of millions of stars. (Courtesy already begun to answer questions about dark matter and the source of
of the Association of Universities for Research
In Astronomy, lnc.!Space Telescope Science extremely powerful energy and radiation emissions, emanating from the
Institute) centers of many distant galaxies. NASA has also begun planning the Next
56
2.3 Space Comes of Age
Generation Space Telescope (NGST), a successor to the Hubble that could
launch as early as 2007. To add to the data collection, the ESA is working on
two space observatories to launch in 2007. The first, Planck, will study the
background radiation in space, the faint echoes of the Big Bang of 12-13.5
billion years ago, to enhance our understanding of the universe's structure
and rate of expansion. Complementing Planck will be Far Infrared and
Submillimetre Telescope (FIRST), which will study planetary systems and
the evolution of galaxies in a previously neglected wavelength band (80-
670 microns).
Small Missions
Figure 2-47. Chandra X-Ray Observatory.
Billion-dollar-plus programs such as Cassini and Hubble represent the This advanced satellite, launched in July, 1999,
culmination of more than ten years of effort by thousands of scientists will greally advance our understanding of the
and engineers world-wide. But the constrained budgets that followed the universe by detecting high energy, short-wave-
length radiation from distant stars and galaxies.
end of the Cold War, as well as the well-publicized problems with Hubble (Courtesy of NASA/Chandra X-ray Center/
and the complete loss of the Mars Observer in 1993, brought an end to the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory)
era of Big Science. NASA Administrator Dan Goldin laid down the
gauntlet when he challenged NASA, and the entire space industry, to
pursue a new era of "faster, better, cheaper" missions. Missions such as
Pathfinder, Lunar Prospector and a host of other government, academic
and commercial small satellite missions rose to the challenge and
vindicated the wisdom of this new strategy.
An example of NASA's new strategy is Stardust (Figure 2-48).
Launched in 1999, Stardust will rendezvous with comet Wild-2 in January
2004, approaching to within 150 km of its nucleus. Stardust's mission is to
collect cometary fragments as well as interstellar dust and return them to
Earth for analysis in January 2006 (the first return of extraterrestrial
material since Apollo). Scientists believe that these cometary fragments
will provide information on the evolution of our solar system, including
its early composition and dynamics. Stardust may even provide clues as
to how life evolved here on Earth. Some scientists have suggested that
comets "seeded" Earth with carbon-based molecules, the building blocks Flgure 2-48. Stardust. This Discovery-
of life, in the first billion years of Earth's existence. NASA also has begun program mission is the first robotic mission to
planning a mission to Pluto, the only planet yet to be visited by a probe. return samples of our Solar System to Earth.
(Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
After examining Pluto and its moon Charon in 2010 or later, the probe
may continue on to explore the Edgeworth-Kuiper Disk of "ice dwarfs"
or minor planets located at the edge of our solar system.
Back to Mars. Following the loss of Mars Observer, NASA redoubled
its efforts to explore the Red Planet, this time through a series of small,
less ambitious missions. Pathfinder and Global Surveyor were the first of
these. In July 1997 Pathfinder and its rover, Sojourner, explored the Ares
Vallis region, an ancient flood plain. Pathfinder sent back spectacular
photographs of the Red Planet's surface (Figure 2-49) and showed that it
could make a safe and inexpensive landing (cushioned by low-tech
Flgure 2-49. Mars' Twin Peaks. This Mars
airbags) on Mars and that small robots could move across its surface to Pathfinder image of the Martian landscape
conduct rock and soil analysis. Pathfinder's pictures captivated a world makes the red planet look habitable. (Courtesy
of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
audience, with NASA's Internet web site experiencing an unprecedented
100 million "hits" in a single day.
57
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
Building on Pathfinder's success was Global Surveyor, which, in 1998,
observed the progress of a massive Martian dust storm, whose effects
could be detected as high as eighty miles above the surface. In keeping
with NASA's new low-cost approach, Global Surveyor employed
aerobraking (using the drag created by Mars' atmosphere) rather than
expending fuel to slow its speed. (This concept is explained in more detail
in Chapter 10.) In March 1999, Global Surveyor began to map Mars'
surface and study the role of dust and water in Mars' climate (Figure 2-
Figure 2-50. Mars Global Surveyor. This 50). Global Surveyor quickly uncovered evidence of dynamic changes in
successful mission has mapped the entire
Martian surface, so planners can locate future Mars' crust that are similar to plate tectonic shifts in Earth's geological
landing sites with potentially valuable resources. history. The mission also produced the first three-dimensional, global
(Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory) map of Mars, which measured the Hellas impact crater in Mars' southern
hemisphere as being 1300 miles across and nearly six miles deep. NASA
concluded that the asteroid that hit Mars threw debris nearly 2500 miles
across the planet's surface, enough to cover the continental U.S. in a two-
mile thick layer of Martian dust. Despite the back-to-back losses of the
Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar Lander missions in late 1999,
NASA will continue to focus on understanding the Red Planet.
Back to the Moon and Beyond. The last manned mission to the Moon
was Apollo 17 in 1972. For nearly 25 years, the Moon was neglected until
a new series of "faster, better, cheaper" missions again visited Earth's
closest neighbor. Clementine was a U.S. DoD mission testing technologies
developed for the Strategic Defense Initiative (Figure 2-51). In 1994 this
small spacecraft sent images of the Moon's poles, suggesting that ice from
ancient comet impacts may lie in craters forever in shadow.
Following this success, NASA mounted the first mission in its small,
Figure 2-51. Clementine. Launched in 1994,
low-cost Discovery series: Lunar Prospector (Figure 2-52). Produced for
this low-cost mission validated several new less than $63 million, and launched in 1998, true to its name it discovered
space technologies and took Images of the further signs of ice at the Lunar poles. The presence of perhaps 6 billion
Moon's south pole that indicate water ice is
present. (Courtesy of Lawrence Livermore
metric tons of frozen water would be a major boost to future plans for
National Laboratory) human exploration of the Moon. Having a ready supply of drinking
water would be important enough, but by separating the hydrogen and
oxygen that make up water, future Lunar settlers could produce rocket
propellant and other vital products that would help them "live off the
land," and depend less on costly supplies from Earth. In addition to this
important find, Lunar Prospector uncovered evidence that supports the
theory that the Moon was torn from Earth, billions of years ago, in a
collision with an object roughly the size of Mars.
Future space settlers will need other sources of raw materials as well.
Examining the practicality of mining operations on asteroids is just one of
the objectives of another low-cost mission: the Near-Earth Asteroid
Rendezvous (NEAR). By examining the near-Earth asteroid Eros, NEAR
promises to reveal much richer knowledge of asteroids, including their
Figure 2-52. Lunar Prospector. This
Discovery-program mission took images of
structure and composition, possibly identifying the presence of iron,
water ice on the Moon, then performed a iridium and other important minerals. NEAR rendezvoused with Eros in
controlled crash landing in a small crater on the February 2000.
south pole. (Courtesy of NASA/Ames Research
Center)
5
2.3 Space Comes of Age
Space Incorporated
One of the more significant trends of the 1990's was increased globaliza-
tion and commercialization of space. Before then, space was the domain of the
U.S., U.S.S.R.,China, Japan, and European countries, independently and as
part of the European Space Agency (ESA). In the 1990's, the ability to build
and launch missions was no longer confined to these countries. Other
countries joined the "space club," including Israel, Brazil, and India, with
their own launch vehicles and satellites. Korea, Thailand, and Chile started
their own national programs by building satellites and launching them on
foreign launch vehicles. Even more significant than this globalization of
space has been the increasing commercial value of the high frontier. For the
first time since the dawn of the Space Age, commercial investment in space
surpassed government spending. This commercial growth is a significant
milestone on the road to the stars.
Although Hollywood has tended to portray space as a hostile and
largely empty realm, to commercial companies, space is a place rich with
potential. Inexhaustible energy from the Sun, mineral wealth on the
Moon and asteroids, unique microgravity conditions for manufacturing
exotic materials and medicines of unprecedented purity-all of these
opportunities, and more, await intrepid entrepreneurs. Visionaries speak
of hypersonic space planes transporting packages and people from New
York to Tokyo in a matter of minutes, of tourism and vacations in space,
and of colonization of our solar system in the next few decades.
Ultimately, however, corporate visionaries will have to budget carefully.
Unlike the government, corporations risk their own capital, and
shareholders expect a return on their investment. Commercial activities
that prosper in space, therefore, must produce profits for shareholders.
Figure 2-53. GPS Surveying. Precision
Currently, the most profitable sector of civilian space activity involves surveying is one of many industries that benefit
information and communications. The Global Positioning System (CPS) from the GPS navigation signal. (Courtesy of
was developed by the U.S. military to provide pinpoint navigation Leica Geosystems, Inc.)
information for airplanes, ships, and troops world-wide. However, the
civilian applications of this now essential system have created an $8
billion industry (Figure 2-53), involving everything from hand-held
receivers for camping to satellite-guided navigation systems for your car.
Communication services may offer the biggest bonanza for space com-
mercialization. Several companies are currently building global commu-
nication networks to support cellular phones and high-speed, digital,
data transmission. The first of these to come to market is the 66-satellite
constellation, called the Iridium System. Built by Motorola, at a cost of $5
billion, as part of a world-wide consortium of companies, Iridium LLC
now has launched its global cellular phone service (Figure 2-54). Any-
where on Earth, from the top of Mount Everest to the South Pole, is a
phone call away.
Several other companies plan to build low-Earth-orbit communication
constellations to provide world-wide telephone and internet services. By Figure 2-54. Iridium Coverage. To guar-
some industry projections, perhaps 1800 new satellites will begin antee that global phone calls have high
reliability, the Iridium constellation uses 66
operating between 1999 and 2008 (to join the 500 or so currently in orbit), satellites that cover the globe. (Courtesy of
with U.S. government launches accounting for only ten percent of these. Personal Satellite Network)
59
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
One of the biggest drivers of increased commercialization has been the
availability, and world-wide marketplace for launch services. Arianespace,
a consortium of European countries headed by France, led the way in
capitalizing on industry demands for reliable, affordable, launch
opportunities. The Ariane IV launcher was the commercial workhorse of
the 1990's, launching dozens of communication and remote sensing
payloads. The newest launcher in the series, Ariane V, offers increased
capability to boost larger and more complex geostationary platforms.
Small launchers, aimed at the increasing market for small satellites,
also came of age during the '90s. The Pegasus launch vehicle, built by
Orbital Sciences Corporation in the U.S., resembles a small winged
airplane when a converted L1011 jet carries it aloft (Figure 2-55). With a
1000 kg (2205 lbs.) spacecraft tucked inside the nosecone, it drops off the
mother plane at an altitude of 10,700 m (35,000 ft.), then ignites a solid
rocket to propel it into low-Earth orbit.
The end of the Cold War also opened Russian launch vehicles to the
world market. The Russians have used their traditional, dedicated
Figure 2-55. Pegasus. It's small but offers a
flexible launch site and azimuth for small launchers such as the Proton (Figure 2-56), Zenit, and Tsyklon to deliver
spacecraft. Here, a Pegasus XL begins its commercial payloads to orbit. They also used converted ICBMs, such as
trajectory into space. (Courtesy of Orbital the SS-18 Satan, now called the Dnepr launch vehicle. The U.S. has also
Sciences Corporation)
converted some of its ICBM stockpile into launch vehicles, such as the
Titan II and Minuteman missiles. Issues about stifling the U.S. launch
market have made this a slower process than in the former Soviet Union.
The reduced cost of access to space, especially for small spacecraft that
can "hitch hike" a low-cost ride, has been a boon to the small satellite
industry. The Ariane launcher pioneered th.is capability with its Ariane
Structure for Auxiliary Payloads (ASAP). The Ariane IV ASAP can carry up
to six 50-kg "microsatellites," as secondary payloads, each about the size of
a small filing cabinet. Its bigger brother, the Ariane V, can carry small
satellites up to 100-kg in mass. These opportunities, together with low-cost
surplus Russian launchers, enabled universities and small companies to
build inexpensive spacecraft, using off-the-shelf terrestrial technology,
rather than the specialized components developed especially for space.
Surrey Satellite Technology, Ltd., a university-owned company, has focused
exclusively on this market, building over a dozen microsatellites for a
variety of commercial, scientific, and government applications. Other
universities and organizations around the world have followed suit,
turning microsatellites from interesting toys into serious business.
But space launches are still expensive, at least $20,000 per kg delivered
Figure 2-56. Proton. This launch vehicle to orbit, making commercial exploitation of space risky. So, commercial
carries the lnmarsat Ill communication satellite
to its geostationary orbit from Baikonur
ventures need innovative launch ideas. Several companies are competing
Cosmodrome, in Khazakstan. (Courtesy of to produce reliable, and in some cases reusable launch vehicles at much
International Launch Services) lower cost and with a higher launch rate than is currently possible using
the Space Shuttle or expendable rockets. Within the U.S., the Air Force-
sponsored Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) project aims at
building a reduced-cost launcher by focusing on simplified design and
operations, using conventional technology. Other programs are trying to
reduce launch costs by applying unconventional technology. The K-1
launcher proposed by Kistler Aerospace, for example, will use rocket
60
2.3 Space Comes of Age
engines developed for the Soviet Lunar program, with airbags to recover
its two-stage reusable vehicle. The X-33 is a single-stage-to-orbit proof-of-
concept being developed by a NASA-Industry team. This program is
pushing the state-of-the-art in propulsion, automatic controls, and
structural materials.
Modeled after the aviation prizes of the early 20th century that spurred
pioneers such as Charles Lindbergh to push the envelope of technical
capability, the X-Prize hopes to encourage launch vehicle innovation. Its
sponsors offer up to $10M to the first group that can launch a person to an
altitude of 160 km (100 mi.), return him or her safely to Earth, and repeat
it within a few weeks. Many organizations around the world have
thrown their hat in the ring, but so far, no one has claimed the prize. The
group that does may well point the way to a new era of space travel for
ordinary citizens and open the way for a new industry of space tourism.
Figure 2-57. Defense Meteorological
The New High Ground Satellite Program. A small constellation of
military weather satellites provide global
The increasing importance of space as the new high ground for military coverage for military operations. (Courtesy of
operations became obvious during the 1990's. During the Gulf War to the U.S. Air Force)
expel Iraqi soldiers from Kuwait in 1991, space assets provided
navigation, communications, intelligence, and imagery that were essential
to increasing the combat effectiveness of the allied coalition, while limiting
civilian casualties in Iraq. Space was so crucial to nearly every aspect of
the operation that some military leaders called it the first true "space war."
They began to speak of space as a strategic center of gravity essential for
national security that we had to defend and control.
To the U.S. military, space does not represent an entirely new mission,
but rather, a new environment that can enhance traditional missions. In
defining the importance of space to national security, the Air Force
identifies ways in which effective exploitation of space can enhance
Figure 2-58. Defense Support Program
global awareness, global reach, and global power. Historically, satellites (DSP). DSP satellites sit in geostationary orbits,
have played crucial roles in enhancing global awareness. These roles "watching" constantly for ballistic missile
include intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR), as well as launches. (Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force)
weather prediction (Figure 2-57) and early warning of attacks (Figure 2-
58). ISR includes high-resolution imagery, electronic eavesdropping,
treaty monitoring and verification, determining enemy capabilities and
movements, and related functions. Global reach-the ability to deploy
troops or weapons anywhere in the world, rapidly and effectively-
depends crucially on satellite communications. Likewise, global power
depends on communications for command and control, and precise
coordinates for better weapon accuracy. Global Positioning System (GPS)
satellites (Figure 2-59) are especially important to ensuring that weapons
hit their intended military targets.
In attacking targets, the military needs to find, lock on, track, target,
and engage the enemy. Engaging a target then leads to "kill
assessment" -determining whether the weapon hit the target, and if so, Figure 2-59. GPS Block 2F. The next
generation of GPS satellites will make
how badly it damaged the target (known as battle damage assessment, or improvements in signal security and system
BDA). Sensors located in space are essential to all of these attack phases, accuracy. (Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force)
61
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
except engagement-narrowly defined here as placing bombs on target.
For example, spacecraft track targets from space with sophisticated
infrared, optical, radar, or other sensors. After an attack, these same
sensors gather data for the BOA phase. If the military ever places
automated weapons, such as lasers, in space, it is conceivable that all
phases of an attack would take place from orbit. Conceptually, military
theorists suggest that space-based offensive weapons would constitute a
military-technical revolution analogous to the invention of gunpowder
weapons or airplanes.
If space promises to revolutionize offensive warfare, it is equally likely
that space may revolutionize defensive warfare. Space defense today
focuses on intercepting ballistic missiles that may carry nuclear, biological,
or chemical warheads (known as weapons of mass destruction). The U.S.
military is currently considering deploying a limited defensive system
against ballistic missile attacks by rogue states.
In the next fifty years, space promises to become a new arena of intense
economic competition. As space becomes increasingly important to
communication, manufacturing, mining, and other commercial activities,
space assets become richer targets. Space assets are important enough
today, such that many countries treat attacks upon them as acts of war.
The United States considered the threat of such attacks to be serious
enough to warrant the creation in 1993 of a Space Warfare Center at
Schriever Air Force Base, Colorado.
Ironically, this realization of the critical role space plays in national
security comes as overall military influence in space began to wane. For
most of the Space Age, government and military needs dominated. But as
space became increasingly commercialized, this influence began to
diminish. Dr. Daniel Hastings, Chief Scientist of the Air Force, noted that,
if commercial companies can build cheaper launch vehicles and
communication networks, the government would be foolish to duplicate
these efforts. Instead, the government should focus on missions and
technologies vital to national security, such as ballistic-missile early
warning and defense.
Despite potential technical and political hurdles, it is likely that
military reliance on space will continue to increase. Not only does space
provide global perspective as the new high ground, it also provides an
arena for global communication (Figure 2-60) and information gathering.
Already, U.S. military leadership has suggested the U.S. Air Force evolve
Figure 2·60. Milstar Crosslinks. The Mllslar to become the Air & Space Force, and eventually the Space & Air Force.
constellation provides worldwide communica-
tion using crosslinks between spacecraft. Starships operated by a "Star Fleet" as depicted in Star Trek may
(Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force) eventually become science fact instead of fiction.
The Future
Clearly, space remains an environment of untold, unimaginable, and
perhaps unfathomable possibilities and wonders. Yet space also remains
an unforgiving environment, and therefore space exploration is
inherently risky. The Challenger explosion in 1986 sobered Americans to
62
2.3 Space Comes of Age
the risks of space exploration. And a string of six U.S. rocket-launch
failures in 1998-1999 reminds us that spaceflight is not yet routine. Goals
worth achieving, however, usually carry with them a measure of risk, and
men and women have shown themselves willing to take great risks for
even greater rewards.
The most ambitious goal for the first part of the 21st century would be
a manned mission to Mars (Figure 2-61). Although a mission to Mars
remains uncertain, other manned missions in space hold considerable
promise. Men and women will continue to fly on the Shuttle and its
successor, and to live and work in orbit onboard the International Space
Station. Where humanity goes from here will be exciting to see. The
astrophysicist Freeman Dyson has suggested that the next fifty years may
witness an era of cheap unmanned missions, whereas the following fifty
years may inaugurate an era of cheap maimed spaceflight throughout our
solar system. Manned interstellar missions over immense distances,
however, will most likely remain impractical for the foreseeable future.
New interplanetary probes will continue to amaze us with unexpected Figure 2-61. Mars Habitat. With the success
of the recent Mars robotic explorers, many
information about our solar system. Many practical lessons have emerged people envision a day when humans will live on
from studies of Earth's neighbors, and this will doubtless continue. Mars. (Courtesy of NASA/Ames Research
Further studies of Venus's atmosphere, for example, may shed more light Center)
on the greenhouse effect and global warming from carbon dioxide
emissions on our own planet. Many, many scientific questions about our
universe remain unanswered. Many also remain unasked. Black holes,
naked singularities, pulsars, quasars, the Big Bang theory, the expanding
universe-scientists, with the help of space-based instruments and
probes, have much left to explore.
This chapter has provided historical perspective on the evolution of
humanity's knowledge and exploration of space. During the rest of the
book, we'll focus on scientific and technical aspects of exploring space.
We'll look at orbits, spacecraft, rockets, and operational concepts that are
critical to space missions. But in Chapter 16, we'll return to these
emerging space trends to explore how technical, political, and economic
issues form the context for future missions and are shaping our destiny in
the High Frontier. Yet ultimately it's our human qualities that will shape
our destiny in the universe. Men and women shall continue to quest for
knowledge about space, and to explore realms beyond the warm and
reassuring glow of Earth's atmosphere, as long as we remain creative,
imaginative, and strong-minded.
63
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
commercialization of space > Space exploration and science made great strides during the 1990s
• Magellan's synthetic aperture radar mapped more than 98% of Venus's
surface
• Mars Pathfinder successfully landed and explored a small part 0£ the
Martian surface. The Mars Global Surveyor rbited Mars and mapp d
most of its surface, watching for large dust storms.
• Lunar Prospector orbited the Moon and discovered vast amounts of water
ice that makes a lunar base more feasible
• The Galileo spacecraft took unique photos of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
as it smashed into Jupiter
• Ulysses orbited the Sun in a polar orbit and gathered data on the olar
corona, olar wind and other properties of th heliosphere
• The Hubble Space Telescope expanded our understanding of our solar
system and the universe with spectacular photos of the outer planets and
their moons, giant black holes, and previously unseen galaxies
> Manned spaceflight continued to be productive in low-Earth orbit
• The Space Shuttle launched space probes, deployed Earth satellites,
docked with the Mir space station, and conducted numerous experiments
in space cience
• The Mir housed several international astronaut teams, which conducted
experiments, learned to live for long periods in free-fall, and solved major
equipment problems with limited resources
• The first components of the International Space Station arrived in orbit
using the U.S. Space Shuttle and a Russian Proton booster
> Military use 0£ space leaped forward in many areas
• InteIJigence gathering, surveillance, and reconnaissance continue to be
important
• Military satellites provide secure communication capability; routine
military call use commercial satellite services
• The Global Positioning System (CPS) revolutionized the way planes, ships,
and ground vehicles navigate and deliver weapons
• Fielding an Antiballistic Missile system remains a high U.S. military
priority, with plans to use spaceborne sensors for locating and tracking
enemy missiles
Continued on next page
64
2.3 Space Comes of Age
!!!!!! Section Review (Continued)
Key Concepts (Continued)
>-- Commercial space activities experienced tremendous growth in the 90s
• Communication constellations took shape, enabling global cellular telephone services
• Commercial uses of GPS blossom d into a va t industry, These uses include surveying; land, sea, and air
navigation; accurate crop fertilizing and watering; delivery fleet location and optimal control; and
recreational travel.
• Ventures to design and build single-stage-to-orbit launch vehicles pushed the state of the art in
propulsion, hypersonic control, and high-temperature I high pressure materials
>-- A manned mission to Mars may become reality with a strong design team's effort to hold down costs,
while planning a safe, productive journey to the Red Planet
65
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
- For Further Reading Hearnshaw, J.B. The Analysis of Starlight: One Hundred
and Fifty Years of Astronomical Spectroscopy.
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press,
Baker, David. The History of Manned Space Flight. New
1986.
York: Crown Publishers, 1981.
Hetherington, Norriss S. Science and Objectivity:
Baucom, Donald R. The Origins of SDI, 1944-1983.
Episodes in the History of Astronomy. Ames, IA: Iowa
Lawrence, KS: University Press 0£ Kansas, 1992. University Press, 1988.
Buedeler, Werner. Geschichte der Raumjahrt. Germany: Johnson, Dana J., Scott Pace and C. Bryan Gabbard.
Sigloch Edition, 1982. Space: Emerging Options for National Power. Santa
Monica, CA: RAND, 1998.
Burrows, William E. This New Ocean: The Stan; of the
First Space Age. New York: Random House, 1998. Kepler, Johannes. JOH. Keppleri Mathematitici Olim
lmperatorii Somnium, Sev Opus posihumum De
Chaikin, Andrew. A Man on the Moon: The Voyage of the Astronomia Lunari. Divulgatum M. Ludovico Kepplero
Apollo Astronauts. New York: Viking, 1994. Filia, Medicinae Candidate. 1634.
Compton, William D. Where No Man Has Gone Before: A Krieger, Firmin J. Behind the Sputniks: A Survey of Soviet
History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions. Space Science. The Rand Corporation: Washington,
Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1958.
Administration, 1989.
Launius, Roger 0. "Toward an Understanding 0£ the
Crowe, Michael J. Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750 - Space Shuttle: A Historiographical Essay." Air
1900: The Idea of a Plurality of Worlds. Cambridge and Power History, Winter 1992, 3-18.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Lewis, John S. Mining the Sky: Untold Riches from the
Dick, Steven J. Plurality of Worlds: The Origins of the Asteroids, Comets, and Planets. Reading, MA: Helix
Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Democritus to Kant. Books, 1997.
Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1982. Lewis, Richard. Space in the 21st Century. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1990.
Dyson, Freeman J. "The Future 0£ Space Exploration:
Warm-Blooded Plants and Freeze-Dried Fish." Logsdon, John M. The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project
Atlantic Monthly, November 1997, 71-80. Apollo and the National Interest. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1970.
Galilei, Galileo. Sidereus Nuncius. 1610. Translated with
McCurdy, Howard E. Space and the American
introduction, conclusion, and notes by Albert Van
Imagination. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian
Heiden. Chicago, IL: University 0£ Chicago Press,
Institution Press, 1997.
1989.
McCurdy, Howard E. Inside NASA: High Technology and
Galilei, Galileo. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chi~fWorld Organizational Change in the U.S. Space Program.
Systems. (orig. 1632) Translated by Stillman Drake. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press,
Berkeley, California: University 0£ California Press, 1993.
1967.
McDougall, Walter A. ... the Heavens and the Earth: A
Gingerich, Owen. "Islamic Astronomy." Scientific Political History of the Space Age. New York: Basic
American, April 1986, pp. 74-83. Books, 1985.
Gray, Colin S. American Military Space Policy. Michener, James. Space. New York: Ballantine Books,
Cambridge, MA: Abt Books, 1983. 1982.
Hays, Peter L. et al., eds. Spacepower for a New Newell, Homer E. Beyond the Atmosphere: Early Years of
Millennium: Space and U.S. National Security. New Space Science. Washington, D.C.: Scientific and
York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. Technical Information Branch, NASA, 1980.
66
Mission Problems
Peebles, Curtis. High Frontier: The United States Air
Force and the Military Space Program. Washington,
- Mission Problems
D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program,
1997. 2.1 Early Space Explorers
Preston, Bob. Plowshares and Power: The Military l..lse of
Civil Space. Washington: National Defense 1 Why did astronomers continue to believe the
University Press, 1995. planets followed circular orbits from Aristotle's
time until Kepler's discovery?
Rycroft, Michael (ed.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
Space. New York, NY: Press Syndicate of the
University of Cambridge, 1990.
Sheehan, William. Planets and Perception: Telescopic
2 Why were people reluctant to adopt Copernicus's
Views and Interpretations, 1609-1909. Tucson, AZ:
University of Arizona Press, 1988. heliocentric system of the universe?
Smith, Robert W. The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's
'Great Debate' 1900-1931. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1982.
3 Why might we call Brahe and Kepler a perfect
Spires, David N. Beyond Horizons: A Half Century of team?
Space Leadership. Colorado Springs, CO: Air Force
Space Command, 1997.
Van Heiden, Albert. Measuring the Universe: Cosmic
Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press, 1985. 4 List four theories from Aristotle that Galileo
disproved.
Vaughan, Diane. The Challenger Launch Decision: Risky
Technology, Culture, and Deviance at NASA. Chicago,
IL: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
Wilson, Andrew. Space Directory. Alexandria, VA:
Jane's Information Group Inc., 1990. 5 How did Newton complete the Astronomical
Revolution of the 17th century?
Winter, Frank H. Rockets into Space. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1989.
Winter, Frank H. The First Golden Age of Rocketry;
Congreve and Hale Rockets of the Nineteenth Century.
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 6 Why are instruments such as telescopes such
1989. powerful tools for learning and discovery?
Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff. New York: Farrar, Straus &
Giroux, 1979.
Zubrin, Robert. The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the
Red Planet and Why We Must. New York: The Free 7 How did our concept of the universe change in the
Press, 1996. first few decades of the 20th century?
67
Chapter 2 Exploring Space
2.2 Entering Space 15 What missions do militaries hope to accomplish in
space? Should weapons be deployed in space?
8 What are the various ways that humans can
explore space?
16 Besides Earth, where are we most likely to find life
9 Why might we call 1957-1965 the years of Russian in our solar system?
supremacy in space?
For Discussion
10 What was the chief legacy of the Apollo manned 17 Do we need to launch men and women into space,
missions to the Moon? or should we rely exclusively on probes and Earth-
based instruments to explore space?
2.3 Space Comes of Age
11 What are some of the key discoveries made during
the 1990s with the Hubble Space Telescope? 18 In exploring space, can we learn anything that can
help us solve problems here on Earth?
12 Why should we build an International Space
Station? What are its benefits and drawbacks?
19 How much do movies and television shows such
as 2001: A Space Odyssey, Alien, Star Wars, Star Trek,
and Contact point the way to humanity's future in
space?
13 How might we reduce costs of a manned mission
to Mars? If humans venture to Mars, which planet
should we visit next?
20 Has the search for extraterrestrials been important
to the development of astronomy? Should we
14 Why are commercial companies becoming inter- continue searching for other life forms and
ested in space? inhabited planets?
68
Mission Profi/.....-V-2
e
The German Army first developed the V-2 rocket in 1944, and built 3,745 and launched most of those for
1942. V-2 stood for "Vengeance Weapon 2," indicative of the Axis war effort.
Hitler's wish for a weapon which could conquer the
world. Yet, the scientists who developed the missile ./ The V-2 design team produced 60,000 necessary
worked independently of Hitler's influence until the changes after they considered it ready for mass
missile was ready. They called their experimental rocket production.
the A-4. Hitler actually had little interest in the rocket's
development and failed to adequately fund the project ./ The primary advantage of the V-2 was its low cost:
until it was too late to decisively employ it in the Second $38,000. This compared favorably to the $1,250,000
World War. The rocket had no single inventor. Rather, it cost of a manned German bomber.
resulted from a team effort of individual Germans, who
envisioned the good and ill of applied modern rocketry. Mission Impact
While many of the original
MissionOverview Peenemuende team dreamed of
possible implications for space
The V-2 (or A-4) program had obscure beginnings in
travel, the V-2 was first and foremost
the late 1920s. Many of the members of the initial V-2
a machine of war. Yet, it was the first
team wished to create a long range rocket, which
supersonic rocket and we generally
might serve as a stepping stone for future spaceflight
regard it as a monumental step in
applications. Yet the mission remained open-ended:
the history of modern rocket tech-
the small team of scientists at Peenemuende (located
nology. After the war ended, the V-2
on the Baltic coast) did not focus on the future. Because
technology and many German
the Treaty of Versailles (ending World War I) forbade
scientists came to the United States,
Germans from producing mass artillery, the project's
forming the foundation of the future
initial drive was to devise a new powerful weapon not
U.S. space program.
outlawed by the treaty. The Germans officially
constructed and funded the missile as a tactical (Courtesy of Sigloch Edition)
weapon with improved capabilities and a longer range For Discussion
than the existing long-range artillery. Can you think of any other technological advances
that began and grew through military channels?
MissionData Was the V-2 truly the beginning of the drive towards
space travel? What important developments led to
./ The V-2 was a single-stage rocket which burned a
the U.S. drive to place a man on the moon?
liquid oxygen and kerosene mixture for a thrust of
244,600 N (55,000 lbs.) • What happened to many of the top scientists from
Peenemuende after W arid War II? Do you think
./ The maximum design range of the missile was 275 that scientific interest should supersede political
km (171 mi.), enabling Hitler to bomb London, as agendas?
well as continental allied countries.
Contributor
./ The maximum altitude reached by the V-2 was 83
km (52 mi), for a total trajectory distance of 190 km Troy Kitch, the U.S. Air Force Academy
(118 mi). These distances were extraordinarily
better than any previous missile achieved. References
./ The overall missile length was 14 m (46 ft.), with a Emme, Eugene M., (ed.) The History of Rocket TechnoloSlJ,
maximum width of 3.57 m (11 ft. 8.5 in.) "The German V-2" by Walter R. Dornberger. Detroit,
Ml: Wayne State University Press, 1964.
./ They never mass-produced the V-2 at Peenemuende. Gatland, Kenneth. Missiles and Rockets. New York:
They moved production to mainland Germany in Macmillan Publishing Co., 1975.
69
An astronaut's eye view of our blue planet. ( Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
The Space
Environment
1111111111 In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... 111111111111 Outline
• Explain where space begins and describe our place in the universe
3.1 Cosmic Perspective
_. List the major hazards of the space environment and describe their Where is Space?
effects on spacecraft The Solar System
... List and describe the major hazards of the space environment that pose The Cosmos
a problem for humans living and working in space
3.2 The Space Environment and
Spacecraft
!!!1111 You Should Already Know ... Gravity
The elements of a space mission (Chapter 1) Atmosphere
Vacuum
Micrometeoroids and Space
Junk
The Radiation Environment
Charged Particles
3.3 Living and Working in Space
Free fall
Radiation and Charged Particles
Psychological Effects
tn space, no one can hear you whine.
Anomjmoue
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
S
pace is a place. Some people think of space as a nebulous region far
above their heads-extending out to infinity. But for us, space is a
place where things happen: spacecraft orbit Earth, planets orbit the
Sun, and the Sun revolves around the center of our galaxy.
In this chapter we'll look at this place we call space, exploring where it
begins and how far it extends. We'll see that space is actually very close
(Figure 3-1). Then, starting with our "local neighborhood," we'll take a
mind-expanding tour beyond the galaxy to see what's in space. Next
we'll see what space is like. Before taking any trip, we usually check the
weather, so we'll know whether to pack a swim suit or a parka. In the
same way, we'll look at the space environment to see how we must
prepare ourselves and our machines to handle this hostile environment.
Figure 3-1. Earth and Moon. Although in the night sky the Moon looks really far away,
Earth's atmosphere Is relatively shallow, so space is close. (Courtesy of NASA/Ames
Research Center)
72
3.1 Cosmic Perspective
3.1 Cosmic Perspective
11111111111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
..- Explain where space is and how it's defined
• Describe the primary outputs from the Sun that dominat the space
environment
..- Provide some perspective on the size of space
Where is Space?
If space is a place, where is it? Safe within the cocoon of Earth's
atmosphere, we can stare into the night sky at thousands of stars
spanning millions of light years. We know space begins somewhere
above our heads, but how far? If we "push the envelope" of a powerful jet
fighter plane, we can barely make it to a height where the sky takes on a
purplish color and stars become visible in daylight. But even then, we're
not quite in space. Only by climbing aboard a rocket can we escape
Earth's atmosphere into the realm we normally think of as space.
But the line between where the atmosphere ends and space begins is, by
no means, clear. In fact, there is no universally accepted definition of
precisely where space begins. If you ask NASA or the U.S. Air Force, you'll
find their definition of space is somewhat arbitrary. To earn astronaut
wings, for example, you must reach an altitude of more than 92.6 km (57.5
mi.) but don't actually have to go into orbit, as illustrated in Figure 3-2.
(That's why X-15 pilots and the first United States' astronauts to fly
suborbital flights in the Mercury program were able to wear these much-
coveted wings.) Although this definition works, it's not very meaningful.
tt stays in orbit, 130 km (Bl .
"cecra rn1.)
"'S'?
tronaut wings, 92.6 km (5?5 .
:::c ().5 · 1111.)
Figure 3-2. Where is Space? For awarding astronaut wings, NASA defines space at an
altitude of 92.6 km (57.5 mi.). For our purposes, space begins where satellites can maintain
orbit-about 130 km (81 mi.).
For our purposes, space begins at the altitude where an object in orbit
will remain in orbit briefly (only a day or two in some cases) before the
73
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
wispy air molecules in the upper atmosphere drag it back to Earth. This
occurs above an altitude of about 130 km (81 mi.). That's about the
distance you can drive in your car in just over an hour! So the next time
someone asks you, "how do I get to space?" just tell them to "tum straight
up and go about 130 km (81 mi.) until the stars come out."
As you can see, space is very close. Normally, when you see drawings
of orbits around Earth (as you'll see in later chapters), they look far, far
away. But these diagrams are seldom drawn to scale. To put low-Earth
orbits (LEO), like the ones flown by the Space Shuttle, into perspective,
imagine Earth were the size of a peach-then a typical Shuttle orbit
would be just above the fuzz. A diagram closer to scale (but not exactly) is
shown in Figure 3-3.
Now that we have some idea of where space is, let's take a grand tour
of our "local neighborhood" to see what's out there. We'll begin by
Figure 3-3. Shuttle Orbit Drawn Closer to looking at the solar system, then expand our view to cover the galaxy.
Scale. (If drawn exactly to scale, you wouldn't
be able to see it!) As you can see, space is very
close. Space Shuttle orbits are just barely The Solar System
above the atmosphere.
At the center of the solar system is the star closest to Earth-the Sun
(Figure 3-4). As we'll see, the Sun has the biggest effect on the space
environment. As stars go, our Sun is quite ordinary. It's just one small,
yellow star out of billions in the galaxy. Fueled by nuclear fusion, it
combines or "fuses" 600 million tons of hydrogen each second. (Don't
worry, at that rate it won't run out of hydrogen for about 5,000,000,000
years!). We're most interested in two by-products of the fusion process
• Electromagnetic radiation
• Charged particles
The energy released by nuclear fusion is governed by Einstein's famous
E = m c2 formula. This energy, of course, makes life on Earth possible. And
Figure 3-4. The Sun. It's our source or light the Sun produces lots of energy, enough each second to supply all the
and heat, but with the beneficial emissions,
come some pretty nasty radiation. This Solar energy the United States needs for about 624 million years! This energy is
and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) satellite primarily in the form of electromagnetic radiation. In a clear, blue sky, the
using the extreme ultraviolet imaging telescope Sun appears as an intensely bright circle of light. With your eyes closed on
shows how active our Sun is. (Courtesy of
SOHO/Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Telescope a summer day, you can feel the Sun's heat beating on you. But light and
consortium. SOHO is a project of international heat are only part of it's electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The term "radia-
cooperation between ESA and NASA)
tion" often conjures up visions of nuclear wars and mutant space
creatures, but EM radiation is something we live with every day. EM
radiation is a way for energy to get from one place to another. We can
think of the Sun's intense energy as radiating from its surface in all
directions in waves. We classify these waves of radiant energy in terms of
the distance between wave crests, or wavelength, J,., as in Figure 3-5.
What difference does changing the wavelength make? If you've ever
seen a rainbow on a sunny spring day, you've seen the awesome beauty
of changing the wavelength of EM radiation by only 0.0000003 meters
Figure 3-5. Electromagnetic (EM) Radiation. (9.8 x 10-7 ft.)! The colors of the rainbow, from violet to red, represent only
We classify EM radiation in terms of the a very small fraction of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. This
wavelenqth.x, (or frequency) of the energy. spectrum spans from high energy X-rays (like you get in the dentist's
74
3.1 Cosmic Perspective
office) at one end, to long-wavelength radio waves (like your favorite FM
station) at the other. Light and all radiation move at the speed of light-
300,000 km/ s or more than 671 million m.p.h.! As we'll see, solar
radiation can be both helpful and harmful to spacecraft and humans in ""'electrons
space. We'll learn more about the uses for EM radiation in Chapter 11. nucleus
The other fusion by-product we're concerned with is charged particles. ~
Scientists model atoms with three building-block particles-protons,
electrons, and neutrons, as illustrated in Figure 3-6. Protons and electrons
are charged particles. Protons have a positive charge, and electrons have a
/GO"'
proton neutron
negative charge. The neutron, because it doesn't have a charge, is neutral.
Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus or center of an atom. Electrons
swirl around this dense nucleus.
During fusion, the Sun's interior generates intense heat (more than
Figure 3-6. The Atom. The nucleus of an
1,000,000° C). At these temperatures, a fourth state of matter exists. We're atom contains positively charged protons and
all familiar with the other three states of matter-solid, liquid, and gas. If neutral neutrons. Around the nucleus are
we take a block of ice (a solid) and heat it, we get water (a liquid). If we negatively charged electrons.
continue to heat the water, it begins to boil, and turns into steam (a gas).
However, if we continue to heat the steam, we'd eventually get to a point
where the water molecules begin to break down. Eventually, the atoms
will break into their basic particles and form a hot plasma. Thus, inside the
Sun, we have a swirling hot soup of charged particles-free electrons and
protons. (A neutron quickly decays into a proton plus an electron.)
These charged particles in the Sun don't stay put. All charged particles
respond to electric and magnetic fields. Your television set, for example, Figure 3· 7. Solar Flares. They fly out from the
takes advantage of this by using a magnet to focus a beam of electrons at Sun long distances, at high speeds, and can
the screen to make it glow. Similarly, the Sun has an intense magnetic disrupt radio signals on Earth, and disturb
spacecraftorbits near Earth. (Courtesy of NASA/
field, so electrons and protons shoot away from the Sun at speeds of 300
Johnson Space Center)
to 700 km/s (about 671,000 to 1,566,000 m.p.h.). This stream of charged
particles flying off the Sun is called the solar uund.
Occasionally, areas of the Sun's surface erupt in gigantic bursts of
charged particles called solar particle events or solar flares, shown in Figure
3-7, that make all of the nuclear weapons on Earth look like pop guns.
Lasting only a few days or less, these flares are sometimes so violent they
extend out to Earth's orbit (150 million km or 93 million mi.)! Fortunately,
such large flares are infrequent (every few years or so) and concentrated
in specific regions of space, so they usually miss Earth. Later, we'll see
what kinds of problems these charged particles from the solar wind and
solar flares pose to machines and humans in space.
Besides the star of the show, the Sun, nine planets, dozens of moons,
and thousands of asteroids are in our solar system (Figure 3-8). The
planets range from the small terrestrial-class ones-Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars-to the mighty gas giants-Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune. Tiny Pluto is all alone at the edge of the solar system and may
be a lost moon of Neptune. Figure 3-9 tries to give some perspective on
the size of the solar system, and Appendix D.4 gives some physical data
Figure 3-8. Solar System. Nine planets and
on the planets. However, because we tend to spend most of our time near
many other objects orbit the Sun, which holds
Earth, we'll focus our discussion of the space environment on spacecraft the solar system together with its gravity.
and astronauts in Earth orbits. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
75
Chapter 3 The Spac Environment
S
0 ·61i-i
Moon 2.54 cm (1 in.) (.78ft.J
CD--
Earth
Milky Way 10 cm (4 in.)
x 100,000
OPluto 2.54 cm (1 in.)
Earth
Figure 3-9. The Solar System in Perspective. If the Earth were the size of a baseball, about
10 cm (-4 in.) in diameter, the Moon would be only 2.54 cm (1 in.) in diameter and about 5.6 m
(18 ft.) away. At the same scale the Sun would be a ball 10 m (33 ft.) in diameter (about the size
and volume of a small two-bedroom house); it would be more than 2 km (nearly 1.3 mi.) away.
Again, keeping the same scale, the smallest planet Pluto would be about the same size as
Earth's Moon, 2.54 cm (1 In.), and 86.1 km (53.5 ml.) away from the house-sized Sun.
mountains The Cosmos
Space is big. Really BIG. Besides our Sun, more than 300 billion other
x 10,000 stars are in our neighborhood-the Milky Way galaxy. Because the
distances involved are so vast, normal human reckoning (kilometers or
hand miles) loses meaning. When trying to understand the importance of
charged particles in the grand scheme of the universe, for example, the
x 10,000 mind boggles. Figure 3-10 tries to put human references on a scale with
the other micro and macro dimensions of the universe.
~ells One convenient yardstick we use to discuss stellar distances is the light
year. One light year is the distance light can travel in one year. At 300,000
km/s, this is about 9.46 x 1012 km (about 5.88 trillion mi.). Using this
measure, we can begin to describe our location with respect to everything
molecules
else in the universe. The Milky Way galaxy is spiral shaped and is about
100,000 light years across. Our Sun and its solar system is about half way
out from the center (about 25,000 light years) on one of the spiral arms.
The Milky Way (and we along with it) slowly revolves around the galactic
atoms center, completing one revolution every 240 million years or so. The time
it takes to revolve once around the center of the galaxy is sometimes
called a cosmic year. In these terms, astronomers think our solar system is
about 20 cosmic years old (4.8 billion Earth years).
Stars in our galaxy are very spread out. The closest star to our solar
elementary system is Proxima Centauri at 4.22 light years or 4.0 x 1013 km. away. The
particles Voyager spacecraft, currently moving at 56,400 km/hr. (35,000 m.p.h.),
would take more than 80,000 years to get there! Trying to imagine these
Figure 3-10. From Micro to Macro. To get
an idea about the relative size of things in the
kinds of distances gives most of us a headache. The nearest galaxy to our
universe, start with elementary particles- own is Andromeda, which is about 2 million light years away. Beyond
protons and electrons. You can magnify them Andromeda are billions and billions of other galaxies, arranged in strange
100,000 times to reach the size of an atom, etc.
configurations which astronomers are only now beginning to catalog.
76
3.1 Cosmic Perspective
Figure 3-11 puts the distance between us and our next closest star into
understandable terms. Figure 3-12 tries to do the same thing with the size
of our galaxy. In the next section we'll beam back closer to home to
understand the practical effects of sending machines and humans to Denver
0
explore the vast reaches of the cosmos. Sun
87 m (287 ft.)
o,--~~~~~~--o
Sun Proxima
Centuri
Q2.54 cm (1 in.) 2.54 cm (1 in.)
Q
Sun 1500 km (932 mi.) Proxima
Centuri
Figure 3-11. Stellar Distances. let our Sun
(1.4 x 106 km or 8.6 x 106 mi. in diameter) be
solar system 2.54 cm the size of a large marble, roughly 2.54 cm (1
(1 in.) in diameter in.) in diameter. At this scale, the nearest star to
our solar system, Proxima Centauri, would be
Fi~ure 3-12. Galactic Distances. Imagine the entire solar system (11.8 x 1 o9 km or 7.3 x more than 1500 km (932 mi.) away. So, if the
10 mi. across) were just the size of a large marble 2.54 cm (1 in.) in diameter. At this scale, Sun were the size of a large marble (2.54 cm or
the nearest star would be 87 m (287 ft.) away. The diameter of the Milky Way galaxy would 1 in. In diameter) in Denver, Colorado, the
then be 2038 km (1266 ml.). So, if the solar system were the size of a marble in Denver, nearest star would be in Chicago, Illinois. At this
Colorado, the Milky Way galaxy would cover most of the western United States. At this scale, stellar scale, the diameter of the Milky Way
the nearest galaxy would be 40,000 km (25,000 mi.) away. galaxy would then be 33.8 million km (21 million
mi.) across! Still too big for us to visualize!
Astra Fun Fact-----
Message In A Bottle
If you were going to send a "message in a bottle" to
another planet, what would you say? Dr. Carl Sagan and
a committee of scientists, artists, and musicians tried to
answer this question before the Voyager launched in 1977.
They developed a multi-media program containing two hours
of pictures, greetings, sounds, and music they felt represented
(Courtesy of NASA/Jet Earth's variety of culture. The collection contains such items as (Courtesy of NASA/Jet
Propulsion Laboratory) Chuck Berry's "Johnny B. Goode," people laughing, a Pakistan Propulsion Laboratory)
street scene, and a map to find your way to the Earth from other
galaxies. A record company manufactured a 12-inch copper disc to hold the information, and the record was
sealed in a container along with a specially designed phonograph. This package, which scientists estimate could
last more than a billion years, was placed onboard each of the Voyager spacecraft. We hope another life form
will encounter one of the Voyager probes, construct the phonograph, and play back the sounds of Earth. But don't
count on hearing from any space beings-the Voyagers won't visit another star until 80,000 years from now!
Eberhard, Jonathan. The World on a Record. Science News. Aug. 20, 1977, p. 124-125.
Wilford, John Noble. Some Beings Out There Just May Be Listening. New York Times Magazine. Sept. 4,
1977, p. 12-13.
Contributed by Donald Bridges, the U.S. Air Force Academy
77
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
1111111111 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
charged particles >- For our purposes, space begins at an altitude where c1 satellite can
cosmic year briefly rnai 1tain an orbit. Thus, space is close. It's only about 130
electromagnetic (EM) radiation km (81 mi.) straight up.
light year
plasma
>- The Sun is a fairly average yellow star which burns by the heat of
nuclear fusion. Its surface temperature is more than 6000 K and its
solar flares
output includes
solar particle events
solar wind • Electromagnetic radiation that we see and feel here on Earth as
wavelength, )... light and heat
• Streams of charged particles that weep out from the Sun as part
of the solar wind
• Solar particle events or solar flares, which are brief but intense
periods of charged-particle emissions
>- Our solar system is about half way out on one of the Milky Way
galaxy's spiral arms. Our galaxy is just one of billions and billions
of galaxies in the universe.
78
3.2 The Space Environment and Spacecraft
3.2 The Space Environment
and Spacecraft
!!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- List and describe major hazards of the space environment and their
effect on spacecraft
To build spacecraft that will survive the harsh space environment, we
must first understand what hazards they may face. Earth, the Sun, and
the cosmos combined offer unique challenges to spacecraft designers, as
shown in Figure 3-13.
• The gravitational environment causes some physiological and fluid
containment problems but also provides opportunities for
manufacturing
• Earth's atmosphere affects a spacecraft, even in orbit
• The vacuum in space above the atmosphere gives spacecraft another
challenge
• Natural and man-made objects in space pose collision hazards
• Radiation and charged particles from the Sun and the rest of the
universe can severely damage unprotected spacecraft
charged particles
(.~-! OG
'
.
\, ' .
. • I
-------- o1
. . .
atmosphere
~~ _,_-----
I
micrometeoroids ~ radiation
and debris vacuum
Figure 3-13. Factors Affecting Spacecraft in the Space Environment. There are six
challenges unique to the space environment we deal with-gravity, the atmosphere, vacuum,
micrometeoroids and debris, radiation, and charged particles.
Figure 3-14. Astronauts in Free Fall. In the
free-fall environment, astronauts Julie Payette
Gravity (left) and Ellen Ochoa (STS-96) easily move
supplies from the Shuttle Discovery to the
Whenever we see astronauts on television floating around the Space Zarya module of the International Space
Shuttle, as in Figure 3-14, we often hear they are in "zero gravity." But this Station. With no contact forces to slow them
down, the supplies need only a gentle push to
is not true! As we'll see in Chapter 4, all objects attract each other with a float smoothly to their new home. (Courtesy of
gravitational force that depends on their mass (how much "stuff" they NASA/Johnson Space Center)
79
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
have). This force decreases as objects get farther away from each other, so
gravity doesn't just disappear once we get into space. In a low-Earth
orbit, for example, say at an altitude of 300 km, the pull of gravity is still
91% of what it is on Earth's surface.
So why do astronauts float around in their spacecraft? A spacecraft and
everything in it are in free fnll. As the term implies, an object in free fall is
falling under the influence of gravity, free from any other forces. Free fall
is that momentary feeling you get when you jump off a diving board. It's
what skydivers feel before their parachutes open. In free fall you don't
feel the force of gravity even though gravity is present. As you sit there in
your chair, you don't feel gravity on your behind. You feel the chair
pushing up at you with a force equal to the force of gravity. Forces that act
only on the surface of an object are contact forces. Astronauts in orbit
experience no contact forces because they and their spacecraft are in free
fall, not in contact with Earth's surface. But if everything in orbit is
falling, why doesn't it hit Earth? As we'll see in more detail in Chapter 4,
an object in orbit has enough horizontal velocity so that, as it falls, it
keeps missing Earth.
Earth's gravitational pull dominates objects close to it. But as space-
craft move into higher orbits, the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun
begin to exert their influence. As we'll see in Chapter 4, for Earth-orbiting
applications, we can assume the Moon and Sun have no effect. However,
as we'll see in Chapter 7, for interplanetary spacecraft, this assumption
isn't true-"the Sun's gravitational pull dominates" for most of an inter-
planetary trajectory (the Moon has little effect on IP trajectories).
Gravity dictates the size and shape of a spacecraft's orbit. Launch
vehicles must first overcome gravity to fling spacecraft into space. Once a
spacecraft is in orbit, gravity determines the amount of propellant its
engines must use to move between orbits or link up with other spacecraft.
Beyond Earth, the gravitational pull of the Moon, the Sun, and other
planets similarly shape the spacecraft's path. Gravity is so important to
the space environment that an entire branch of astronautics, called
nstrodynnmics, deals with quantifying its effects on spacecraft and
planetary motion. Chapters 4 through 9 will focus on understanding
spacecraft trajectories and the exciting field of astrodynamics.
As we mentioned in Chapter 1, the free-fall environment of space
offers many potential opportunities for space manufacturing. On Earth, if
we mix two materials, such as rocks and water, the heavier rocks sink to
the bottom of the container. In free fall, we can mix materials that won't
mix on Earth. Thus, we can make exotic and useful metal alloys for
electronics and other applications, or new types of medicines.
However, free fall does have its drawbacks. One area of frustration for
Figure 3-15. Waterball. Astronaut Joseph engineers is handling fluids in space. Think about the gas gauge in your
Kerwin forms a perfect sphere with a large drop car. By measuring the height of a floating bulb, you can constantly track the
of water, which floats freely in the Skylab cabin. amount of fuel in the tank. But in orbit nothing "floats" in the tank because
left alone, the water ball may float to a solid
surface and coat the surface, making a mess the liquid and everything else is sloshing around in free fall (Figure 3-15).
that doesn't run to the floor. (Courtesy of Thus, fluids are much harder to measure (and pump) in free fall. But these
NASA/Johnson Space Center) problems are relatively minor compared to the profound physiological
80
3.2 The Space Environment and Spacecraft
problems humans experience when exposed to free fall for long periods.
We'll look at these problems separately in the next section.
Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere affects a spacecraft in low-Earth orbit (below about
600 km [375 mi.] altitude), in two ways
• Drag-shortens orbital lifetimes
• Atomic oxygen-degrades spacecraft surfaces
Take a deep breath. The air you breathe makes up Earth's atmosphere.
Without it, of course, we'd all die in a few minutes. While this
atmosphere forms only a thin layer around Earth, spacecraft in low-Earth density (kg/m3)
orbit can still feel its effects. Over time, it can work to drag a spacecraft 14 J0·121Q·IO ]OS 1Q6 JO·•I lQ·l lQO
100010
back to Earth, and the oxygen in the atmosphere can wreak havoc on
many spacecraft materials. 900
Two terms are important to understanding the atmosphere-pressure 800
and density. Atmospheric pressure represents the amount of force per unit "'i3'700
area exerted by the weight of the atmosphere pushing on us. Atmospheric d600
densihJ tells us how much air is packed into a given volume. As we go ~500
higher into the atmosphere, the pressure and density begin to decrease at .2400
:.p
an ever-increasing rate, as shown in Figure 3-16. Visualize a column of air cil 300 density
extending above us into space. As we go higher, there is less volume of air 200
/ /
above us, so the pressure (and thus, the density) goes down. If we were to 100 P:tefiSUite
go up in an airplane with a pressure and density meter, we would see that O
lQ-11' 1 -0 104 10-2 10° 102 1 . 106
as we go higher, the pressure and density begins to drop off more rapidly. pressure (NI m2)
Earth's atmosphere doesn't just end abruptly. Even at fairly high
Figure 3-16. Structure of Earth's Atmo-
altitudes, up to 600 km (375 mi.), the atmosphere continues to create drag sphere. The density of Earth's atmosphere
on orbiting spacecraft. Drag is the force you feel pushing your hand decreases exponentially as we go higher. Even
backward when you stick it out the window of a car rushing along the in low-Earth orbit, however, spacecraft can still
receive the effects of the atmosphere in the
freeway. The amount of drag you feel on your hand depends on the air's form of drag.
density, your speed, the shape and size of your hand, and the orientation
of your hand with respect to the airflow. Similarly, the drag on spacecraft
in orbit depends on these same variables: the air's density plus the
spacecraft's speed, shape, size, and orientation to the airflow.
Drag immediately affects spacecraft returning to Earth. For example, as
the Space Shuttle re-enters the atmosphere en.route to a landing at
Edwards AFB in California, the astronauts use the force of drag to slow the
Shuttle (Figure 3-17) from an orbital velocity of over 25 times the speed of
sound (27,900 km/hr or 17,300 m.p.h.) to a runway landing at about 360
km/hr. (225 m.p.h.). Similarly, drag quickly affects any spacecraft in a very
low orbit (less than 130 km or 81 mi. altitude), pulling them back to a fiery
encounter with the atmosphere in a few days or weeks.
The effect of drag on spacecraft in higher orbits is much more variable.
Between 130 km and 600 km (81 mi. and 375 mi.), it will vary greatly Figure 3-17. Shuttle Re-entry. Atmospheric
depending on how the atmosphere changes (expands or contracts) due to drag slows the Shuttle to landing speed, but the
air friction heats the protective tiles to
variations in solar activity. Acting over months or years, drag can cause extremely high temperatures. (Courtesy of
spacecraft in these orbits to gradually lose altitude until they re-enter the NASA/Ames Research Center)
81
hapter 3 The Space Environment
atmosphere and burn up. In 1979, the Skylab space station succumbed to
the long-term effects of drag and plunged back to Earth. Above 600 km
(375 mi.), the atmosphere is so thin the drag effect is almost insignificant.
Thus, spacecraft in orbits above 600 km are fairly safe from drag.
Besides drag, we must also consider the nature of air. At sea level, air is
about 21 % oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1 % miscellaneous other gasses,
such as argon and carbon dioxide. Normally, oxygen atoms like to hang
out in groups of two--molecules, abbreviated 02. Under normal
conditions, when an oxygen molecule splits apart for any reason, the
atoms quickly reform into a new molecule. In the upper parts of the
atmosphere, oxygen molecules are few and far between. When radiation
and charged particles cause them to split apart, they're sometimes left by
themselves as atomic oxygen, abbreviated 0.
So what's the problem with O? We've all seen the results of exposing a
piece of steel outside for a few months or years-it starts to rust.
Chemically speaking, rust is oxidation. It occurs when oxygen molecules
in the air combine with the metal creating an oxide-rust. This oxidation
problem is bad enough with 02, but when O by itself is present, the
reaction is much, much worse. Spacecraft materials exposed to atomic
oxygen experience breakdown or "rusting" of their surfaces, which can
eventually weaken components, change their thermal characteristics, and
degrade sensor performance. One of the goals of NASA's Long Duration
Exposure Facility (LDEF), shown in Figure 3-18, was to determine the
extent of atomic oxygen damage over time, which it did very well. In
many cases, depending on the material, the results were as dramatic as
Figure 3-18. Long Duration Exposure we just described.
Facility (LDEF). The mission of LDEF, de-
ployed by the Space Shuttle (STS-41-C) In On the good side, most atomic oxygen floating around in the upper
April, 1984, was to determine the extent of atmosphere combines with oxygen molecules to form a special molecule,
space environment hazards such as atomic 03, called ozone. Ozone acts like a window shade to block harmful
oxygen and micrometeoroids. (Courtesy of
NASA/Johnson Space Center) radiation, especially the ultraviolet radiation that causes sunburn and
skin cancer. In Chapter 11 we'll learn more about how the atmosphere
blocks various types of radiation.
Vacuum
Beyond the thin skin of Earth's atmosphere, we enter the vacuum of
space. This vacuum environment creates three potential problems for
spacecraft
• Out-gassing-release of gasses from spacecraft materials
• Cold welding-fusing together of metal components
• Heat transfer-limited to radiation
As we've seen, atmospheric density decreases dramatically with
altitude. At a height of about 80 km (50 mi.), particle density is 10,000
times less than what it is at sea level. If we go to 960 km (596 mi.), we
would find a given volume of space to contain one trillion times less air
than at the surface. A pure vacuum, by the strictest definition of the word,
is a volume of space completely devoid of all material. In practice,
82
3.2 The Space Environment and Spacecraft
however, a pure vacuum is nearly unattainable. Even at an altitude of 960
km (596 rni.), we still find about 1,000,000 particles per cubic centimeter.
So when we talk about the vacuum of space, we're talking about a "near"
or "hard" vacuum.
Under standard atmospheric pressure at sea level, air exerts more than
101,325 N/m2 (14.7 lb./in.2) of force on everything it touches. The soda
inside a soda can is under slightly higher pressure, forcing carbon dioxide
(C02) into the solution. When you open the can, you release the pressure,
causing some of the C02 to come out of the solution, making it foam.
Spacecraft face a similar, but less tasty, problem. Some materials used in
their construction, especially composites, such as graphite I epoxy, can trap Figure 3·19. Spacecraft in a Vacuum
tiny bubbles of gas while under atmospheric pressure. When this pressure Chamber. Prior to flight, spacecraft undergo
is released in the vacuum of space, the gasses begin to escape. This release rigorous tests, including exposure to a hard
vacuum in vacuum chambers. In this way we
of trapped gasses in a vacuum is called out-gassing. Usually, out-gassing is can test for problems with out-gassing, cold
not a big problem; however, in some cases, the gasses can coat delicate welding, or heal transfer. (Courtesy of Surrey
sensors, such as lenses or cause electronic components to arc, damaging Satellite Technologies, Ltd., U.K.)
them. When this happens, out-gassing can be destructive. For this reason,
we must carefully select and test materials used on spacecraft. We often
"bake" a spacecraft in a thermal-vacuum chamber prior to flight, as shown
in Figure 3-19, to ensure it won't outgas in space.
Another problem created by vacuum is cold welding. Colrl welding
-.
K (material property)
occurs between mechanical parts that have very little separation between
them. When we test the moving part on Earth, a tiny air space may allow
the parts to move freely. After launch, the hard vacuum in space
eliminates this tiny air space, causing the two parts to effectively "weld"
together. When this happens, ground controllers must try various
techniques to "unstick" the two parts. For example, they may expose one
part to the Sun and the other to shade so that differential heating causes
Figure 3·20. Conduction. Heat flows by
the parts to expand and contract, respectively, allowing them to separate. conduction through an object from the hot end
Due to cold welding, as well as practical concerns about mechanical to the cool end. Spacecraft use conduction to
failure, spacecraft designers carefully try to avoid the use of moving parts. remove heat from hot components.
However, in so.me cases, such as with spinning wheels used to control
spacecraft attitude, there is no choice. On Earth, moving parts, like you
find in your car engine, are protected by lubricants such as oil. Similarly,
spacecraft components sometimes need lubrication. However, because of
the surrounding vacuum, we must select these lubricants carefully, so
they don't evaporate or outgas. Dry graphite (the "lead" in your pencil) is
an effective lubricant because it lubricates well and won't evaporate into
the vacuum as a common oil would.
Finally, the vacuum environment creates a problem with heat transfer.
As we'll see in greater detail in Chapter 13, heat gets from one place to
another in three ways. Conduction is heat flow directly from one point to
another through a medium. If you hold a piece of metal in a fire long
..-:~Li::11
enough, you'll quickly discover how conduction works when it burns Figure 3-21. Convection. Boiling water on a
your fingers (Figure 3-20). The second method of heat transfer is stove shows how convection moves heat
convection. Convection takes place when gravity, wind, or some other through a fluid from the fluid near a hot surface
to the cooler fluid on top. Special devices on
force moves a liquid or gas over a hot surface (Figure 3-21). Heat transfers spacecraft use convection to remove heat from
from the surface to the fluid. Convection takes place whenever we feel a hot components.
83
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
chilled by a breeze or boil water on the stove. We can use both of these
methods to move heat around inside a spacecraft but not to remove heat
from a spacecraft in the free fall, vacuum environment of space. So we're
left with the third method-radiation. We've already discussed
electromagnetic radiation. Radiation is a way to transfer energy from one
point to another. The heat you feel coming from the glowing coils of a
space heater is radiated heat (Figure 3-22). Because radiation doesn't need
a solid or fluid medium, it's the primary method of moving heat into and
out of a spacecraft. We'll explore ways to do this in Chapter 13.
Figure 3-22. Radiation. The ShutUe Bay Micrometeoroids and Space Junk
doors contain radiators that collect heat from
the equipment bay and dump it into space. Be- The space around Earth is not empty. In fact, it contains lots of debris or
cause objects emit radiation, the bay door radi-
ators efficiently remove heat from the Shuttle. space junk most of which we're used to. If you've seen a falling star, you've
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center) witnessed just one piece of the more than 20,000 tons of natural materials-
dust, meteoroids, asteroids, and comets-that hit Earth every year. For
spacecraft or astronauts in orbit, the risk of getting hit by a meteoroid or
micrometeoroid, our name for these naturally occurring objects, is remote.
However, since the beginning of the space age, debris has begun to
accumulate from another source-human beings.
With nearly every space mission, broken spacecraft, pieces of old
booster segments or spacecraft, and even an astronaut's glove have been
left in space. The environment near Earth is getting full of this space
debris (about 2200 tons of it). The problem is posing an increasing risk to
spacecraft and astronauts in orbit. A spacecraft in low orbit is now more
likely to hit a piece of junk than a piece of natural material. In 1996, the
Figure 3-23. CERISE. The CERISE space- CERISE spacecraft, shown in Figure 3-23, became the first certified victim
craft lost its long boom when a piece of an of space junk when its 6 m gravity-gradient boom was clipped off during
Ariane rocket struck it at orbital speed. Without a collision with a left-over piece of an Ariane launch vehicle.
its boom, the spacecraft could not hold its
attitude and perform its mission. (Courtesy of Keeping track of all this junk is the job of the North American
Surrey Satellite Technologies, Ltd., U.K.) Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
NORAD uses radar and optical telescopes to track more than 8000
objects, baseball sized and larger, in Earth orbit. Some estimates say at
least 40,000 golf-ball-sized pieces (too small for NORAD to track) are also
in orbit [Wertz and Larson, 1999]. To make matters worse, there also may
be billions of much smaller pieces-paint flakes, slivers of metal, etc.
If you get hit by a paint flake no big deal, right? Wrong! In low-Earth
orbit, this tiny chunk is moving at fantastic speeds-7000 mis or greater
when it hits. This gives it a great amount of energy-much more than a
rifle bullet! The potential danger of all this space junk was brought home
during a Space Shuttle mission in 1983. During the mission, a paint flake
only 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) in diameter hit the Challenger window, making a
Figure 3-24. Shuttle Hit by Space Junk. At crater 4 mm (0.16 in.) wide. Luckily, it didn't go all the way through. The
orbital speeds, even a paint flake can cause crater, shown in Figure 3-24, cost more than $50,000 to repair. Analysis of
significant damage. The Space Shuttle was hit other spacecraft shows collisions with very small objects are common.
by a tiny paint flake, causing this crater in the
front windshield. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Russian engineers believe a piece of space debris may have incapacitated
Space Center) one of their spacecraft in a transfer orbit.
84
3.2 The Space Environment and Spacecraft
Because there are billions of very small objects and only thousands of
very large objects, spacecraft have a greater chance of getting hit by a very
small object. For a spacecraft with a cross-sectional area of 50-200 m2 at
an altitude of 300 km (186 mi.) (typical for Space Shuttle missions), the
chance of getting hit by an object larger than a baseball during one year in
orbit is about one in 100,000 or less [Wertz and Larson, 1999]. The chance
of getting hit by something only 1 mm or less in diameter, however, is
about one hundred times more likely, or about one in a thousand during
one year in orbit.
One frightening debris hazard is the collision of two spacecraft at
orbital velocity. A collision between two medium-sized spacecraft would
result in an enormous amount of high velocity debris. The resulting cloud
would expand as it orbited and greatly increase the likelihood of
impacting another spacecraft. The domino effect could min a band of
space for decades. Thus, there is a growing interest in the level of debris
at various altitudes.
Right now, there are no plans to clean up this space junk. Some
international agreements aim at decreasing the rate at which the junk
accumulates-for instance, by requiring operators to boost worn-out
spacecraft into "graveyard" orbits. Who knows? Maybe a lucrative 21st
century job will be "removing trash from orbit."
The Radiation Environment
As we saw in the previous section, one of the Sun's main outputs is
electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Most of this radiation is in the visible and
near-infrared parts of the EM spectrum. Of course, we see the light and
feel the heat of the Sun every day. However, a smaller but significant part
of the Sun's output is at other wavelengths of radiation, such as X-rays
and gamma rays.
Spacecraft and astronauts are well above the atmosphere, so they bear
the full brunt of the Sun's output. The effect on a spacecraft depends on
the wavelength of the radiation. In many cases, visible light hitting the
spacecraft solar panels generates electric power through solar cells (also
called photovoltaic cells). This is a cheap, abundant, and reliable source of
electricity for a spacecraft (Figure 3-25); we'll explore it in greater detail in
Chapter 13. This radiation can also lead to several problems for spacecraft
• Heating on exposed surfaces
• Degradation or damage to surfaces and electronic components
• Solar pressure Figure 3-25. Solar Cells. Solar radiation
provides electricity to spacecraft through solar
The infrared or thermal radiation a spacecraft endures leads to heating cells mounted on solar panels, but it also
on exposed surfaces that can be either helpful or harmful to the spacecraft, degrades the solar cells over time, reducing
their efficiency. Here the gold colored solar
depending on the overall thermal characteristics of its surfaces. Electronics array experiment extends from the Space
in a spacecraft need to operate at about normal room temperature (20° C or Shuttle Discovery. (Courtesy of NASNJohnson
68° F). In some cases, the Sun's thermal energy can help to warm electronic Space Cente,1
components. In other cases, this solar input-in addition to the heat
generated onboard from the operation of electronic components-can
85
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
make the spacecraft too hot. As we'll see in Chapter 13, we must design the
spacecraft's thermal control system to moderate its temperature.
Normally, the EM radiation in the other regions of the spectrum have
little effect on a spacecraft. However, prolonged exposure to ultraviolet
radiation can begin to degrade spacecraft coatings. This radiation is
especially harmful to solar cells, but it can also harm electronic components,
requiring them to be shielded, or hardened, to handle the environment. In
addition, during intense solar flares, bursts of radiation in the radio region
of the spectrum can interfere with communications equipment onboard.
When you hold your hand up to the Sun, all you feel is heat. However,
all that light hitting your hand is also exerting a very small amount of
pressure. Earlier, we said EM radiation could be thought of as waves, like
ripples on a pond. Another way to look at it is as tiny bundles of energy
called photons. P'1otons are massless bundles of energy that move at the
speed of light. These photons strike your hand, exerting pressure similar
in effect to atmospheric drag (Figure 3-26). But this soler pressure is much,
much smaller than drag. In fact, it's only about 5 N of force (about one
pound) for a square kilometer of surface (one-third square mile). While
that may not sound like much, over time this solar pressure can disturb
Figure 3-26. Solar Max Spacecraft.Space- the orientation of spacecraft, causing them to point in the wrong
craft with large surface areas, such as solar
panels, must correct for the pressure from
direction. We'll learn more about solar pressure effects in Chapter 12. In
solar radiation that may change their attitude. Chapter 14, we'll see how we may use this effect to sail around the solar
(Courtesy of NASNJo/mson Space Center) system.
ChargedParticles
Perhaps the most dangerous aspect of the space environment is the
pervasive influence of charged particles. Three primary sources for these
particles are
• The solar wind and flares
• Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs)
• The Van Allen radiation belts
As we saw in Section 3.1, the Sun puts out a stream of charged particles
(protons and electrons) as part of the solar wind-at a rate of 1 x 109 kg/ s
(2.2 x 109 lb Is). During intense solar flares (Figure 3-27), the number of
particles ejected can increase dramatically.
As if this source of charged particles wasn't enough, we must also
consider high-energy particles from gnlnctic cosmic rays (GCRs). GCRs are
particles similar to those found in the solar wind or in solar flares, but
they originate outside of the solar system. GCRs represent the solar wind
from distant stars, the remnants of exploded stars, or, perhaps, shrapnel
Figure 3-27. Solar Flares. Solar flares send from the "Big Bang" explosion that created the Universe. In many cases,
many more charged particles into space than however, GCRs are much more massive and energetic than particles of
usual, so spacecraft orbiting Earth receive solar origin. Ironically, the very thing that protects us on Earth from these
many times their normal dose, causing
electronic problems. (Courtesy of NASNJet charged particles creates a third hazard, potentially harmful to orbiting
Propulsion Laboratory) spacecraft and astronauts-the Van Allen radiation belts.
86
3.2 The Space Environment and Spacecraft
To understand the Van Allen belts, we must remember that Earth has a .north
strong magnetic field as a result of its liquid iron core. This magnetic field magnedc pole
behaves in much the same way as those toy magnets you used to play
with as a kid, but it's vastly more powerful. Although you can't feel this
field around you, it's always there. Pick up a compass and you'll see how
the field moves the needle to point north. Magnets always come with a
North Pole at one end and a South Pole at the other. If you've ever played
with magnets, you've discovered that the north pole attracts the south
pole (and vice versa), whereas two north poles (or south poles) repel each
other. These magnetic field lines wrap around Earth to form the
magnetosphere, as shown in Figure 3-28.
Remember, magnetic fields affect charged particles. This basic
principle allows us to "steer" electron beams with magnets inside
television sets. Similarly, the solar wind's charged particles and the GCRs
form streams which hit Earth's magnetic field like a hard rain hitting an Figure 3-28. Earth's Magnetosphere. Earth's
umbrella. Just as the umbrella deflects the raindrops over its curved liquid iron core creates a strong magnetic field.
This field is represented by field lines extending
surface, Earth's magnetic field wards off the charged particles, keeping us from the south magnetic pole to the north
safe. (For Sci-fi buffs, perhaps a more appropriate analogy is the fictional magnetic pole. The volume this field encloses
force field or "shields" from Star Trek, used to divert Romulan disrupter is the magnetosphere.
beams, protecting the ship.)
The point of contact between the solar wind and Earth's magnetic field is
the shock front or bow shock. As the solar wind bends around Earth's
magnetic field, it stretches out the field lines along with it, as you can see in
Figure 3-29. In the electromagnetic spectrum, Earth resembles a boat
traveling through the water with a wake behind it. Inside the shock front,
the point of contact between the charged particles of the solar wind and the
magnetic field lines is the magnetopause, and the area directly behind the
Earth is the inagnetotail. As we'll see, charged particles can affect spacecraft
orbiting well within Earth's protective magnetosphere.
Figure 3-29. Interaction Between Solar Wfnd and Earth's Magnetic Field. As the solar
wind and GCRs hit Earth's magnetosphere, they are deflected, keeping us sale.
87
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
As the solar wind interacts with Earth's magnetic field, some high-
energy particles get trapped and concentrated between field lines. These
areas of concentration are the Van Allen radiation belts, named after
Professor James Van Allen of the University of Iowa. Professor Van Allen
discovered them based on data collected by Explorer 1, America's first
satellite, launched in 1958.
Although we call them "radiation belts," space is not really
radioactive. Scientists often lump charged particles with EM radiation
and call them radiation because their effects are similar. Realize, however,
that we're really dealing with charged particles in this case. (Perhaps we
should call the radiation belts, "charged-particle suspenders," because
they're really full of charged particles and occupy a region from pole to
pole around Earth')
Whether charged particles come directly from the solar wind,
indirectly from the Van Allen belts, or from the other side of the galaxy,
they can harm spacecraft in three ways
• Charging
• Sputtering
• Single-event phenomenon
Spacecraft charging isn't something the government does to buy a
spacecraft! The effect of charged particles on spacecraft is similar to us
walking across a carpeted floor wearing socks. We build up a static
charge that discharges when we touch something metallic-resulting in a
nasty shock. Spacecraft charging results when charges build up on different
parts of a spacecraft as it moves through concentrated areas of charged
particles. Once this charge builds up, discharge can occur with disastrous
effects-damage to surface coatings, degrading of solar panels, loss of
power, or switching off or permanently damaging electronics.
Sometimes, these charged particles trapped by the magnetosphere
interact with Earth's atmosphere in a dazzling display called the
Northern Lights or Aurora Borealis, as shown in Figure 3-30. This light
show comes from charged particles streaming toward Earth along
magnetic field lines converging at the poles. As the particles interact with
the atmosphere, the result is similar to what happens in a neon light-
charged particles interact with a gas, exciting it, and making it glow. On
Earth we see an eerie curtain of light in the sky.
These particles can also damage a spacecraft's surface because of their
Figure 3·30. Lights in the Sky. As charged high speed. It's as if they were "sand blasting" the spacecraft. We refer to
particles from the solar wind interact with this as sputtering. Over a long time, sputtering can damage a spacecraft's
Earth's upper atmosphere, they create a thermal coatings and sensors.
spectacular sight known as the Northern (or
Southern) Lights. People living in high latitudes
Finally, a single charged particle can penetrate deep into the guts of the
can see this light show. Shuttle astronauts took spacecraft to disrupt electronics. Each disruption is known as a single event
this picture while in orbit. (Courtesy of NASA/ phenomenon (SEP). Solar flares and GCR can cause a SEP. One type of SEP
Johnson Space Center)
is a single event upset (SEW or "bitflip." This occurs when the impact of a
high-energy particle resets one part of a computer's memory from 1 to 0,
or vice versa. This can cause subtle but significant changes to spacecraft
functions. For example, setting a bit from 1 to O may cause the spacecraft to
88
3.2 The Space Environment and Spacecraft
tum off or forget which direction to point its antenna. Some scientists
believe an SEU was the cause of problems with the Magellan spacecraft
when it first went into orbit around Venus and acted erratically.
It's difficult for us to prevent these random impacts. Spacecraft
shielding offers some protection, but spacecraft operators must be aware
of the possibility of these events and know how to recover the spacecraft
should they occur.
Astra FunFact-----
1977 XF11-ls the End Near?
In December, 1997, a new asteroid, designated 1977 XF11, about one mile across, was discovered orbiting
the Sun. Astronomers discover many new asteroids each year, but this asteroid was special in that its orbit
was predicted to pass as close as 28,000 km from Earth on October 26, 2028. Speculation abounded as to
whether it might actually hit Earth. In order to get better predictions, old astronomical pictures were searched
and the asteroid was found in some of them. Fortunately, using that data showed that 1977 XF11 should pass
well beyond the Moon's orbit, with very little chance of hitting Earth.
Marsden, Brian G. "One-Mile-Wide Asteroid to Pass Close to the Earth in 2028." Harvard-Smithsonian
Center for Astrophysics. Press Release, March 12, 1998.
Contributed by Scott R. Dahlke, the U.S. Air Force Academy
89
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
~ Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
astrodynamics > Six major environmental factors affect spacecraft in Earth orbit.
atmospheric density • Gravity • Micrometeoroids and space junk
atmospheric pressure • Atmosphere • Radiation
atomic oxygen • Vacuum • Charged particles
bow shock
cold welding > Earth exerts a gravitational pull which keeps spacecraft in orbit.
conduction We best describe the condition of spacecraft and astronauts in
contact forces orbit as free fall, because they're falling around Earth.
convection > Earth's atmosphere isn't completely absent in low-Earth orbit. It
drag can cause
free fall • Drag-which shortens orbit lifetimes
galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) • Atomic oxygen-which can damage exposed surfaces
hardened
m agnetopa use
> In the vacuum of space, spacecraft can experience
magnetosphere • Out-gassing-a condition in which a material releases
magnetotail trapped ga particles when the atmo pheric pressure drops to
out-gassing near zero
oxidation • Cold welding-a condition that can cause metal parts to fuse
ozone together
photons • Heat transfer problems-a spacecraft can rid itself of heat
radiation only through radiation
shock front > Microrneteoroids and space junk can damage spacecraft during
single event phenomena (SEP) a high speed impact
single event upset (SEU)
solar cells
> Radiation, primarily from the Sun, can cause
solar pressure • Heating on exposed surfaces
spacecraft charging • Damage to electronic components and disruption in
sputtering communication
Van Allen radiation belts • Solar pressure, which can change a spacecraft's orientation
> Charged particles come from three source
• Solar wind and flares
• Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs)
• Van Allen radiation belts
> Earth's magnetic field (magnetosphere) protects it from charged
particles. The Van Allen radiation belts contain charged
particles, trapped and concentrated by this magnetosphere.
> Charged particles from all sources can cause
• Charging
• Sputtering
• Single event phenomena (SEP)
90
3.3 Living and Working in Space
3.3 Living and Workingin Space
111111111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
..- Describe the free-fall environment's three effects on the human
body
.- Discuss the hazards posed to humans from radiation and charged
particles
• Discuss the potential psychological challenges of spaceflight
Humans and other living things on Earth have evolved to deal with
Earth's unique environment. We have a strong backbone, along with
muscle and connective tissue, to support ourselves against the pull of
gravity. On Earth, the ozone layer and the magnetosphere protect us from
radiation and charged particles. We don't have any natural, biological
defenses against them. When we leave Earth to travel into space,
however, we must learn to adapt in an entirely different environment. In
this section, we'll discover how free fall, radiation, and charged particles
can harm humans in space. Then we'll see some of the psychological
challenges for astronauts venturing into the final frontier.
Free fall
Earlier, we learned that in space there is no such thing as "zero
gravity"; orbiting objects are actually in a free-fall environment. While Figure 3-31. The Free-fall Environment and
free fall can benefit engineering and materials processing, it poses a Humans. The free-fall environment offers many
significant hazard to humans. Free fall causes three potentially harmful hazards to humans living and working in space.
These include fluid shift, motion sickness, and
physiological changes to the human body, as summarized in Figure 3-31. reduced load on weight-bearing tissue.
• Decreased hydrostatic gradient-fluid shift
• Altered vestibular functions-motion sickness
• Reduced load on weight-bearing tissues
Hydrostatic gradient refers to the distribution of fluids in our body. On
Earth's surface, gravity acts on this fluid and pulls it into our legs. So,
blood pressure is normally higher in our feet than in our heads. Under
free fall conditions, the fluid no longer pools in our legs but distributes
equally. As a result, fluid pressure in the lower part of the body decreases
while pressure in the upper parts of the body increases. The shift of fluid
from our legs to our upper body is called a decreased l1ydrostntic gradient or
fluid shift (Figure 3-32). Each leg can lose as much as 1 liter of fluid and
about 10% of its volume. This effect leads to several changes. Figure 3-32. Lower Body Negative Pres-
To begin with, the kidneys start working overtime to eliminate what sure Device. To reverse the effects of fluid shift
while on orbit, astronauts "soak" In the Lower
they see as "extra" fluid in the upper part of the body. Urination Body Negative Pressure device, which draws
increases, and total body plasma volume can decrease by as much as 20%. fluid back to their legs and feet. (Courtesy of
One effect of this is a decrease in red blood cell production. NASA/JohnsonSpace Center)
91
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
The fluid shift also causes edema of the face (a red "puffiness"), so
astronauts in space appear to be blushing. In addition, the heart begins to
beat faster with greater irregularity and it loses mass because it doesn't
have to work as hard in free fall. Finally, astronauts experience a minor
"head rush" on return to Earth. We call this condition orthostatic
intolermzcc-that feeling we sometimes get when we stand up too fast after
sitting or lying down for a long time. For astronauts returning from space,
this condition is sometimes very pronounced and can cause blackouts.
vestibulur functions have to do with a human's built-in ability to sense
movement. If we close our eyes and move our head around, tiny sensors
in our inner ear detect this movement. Together, our eyes and inner ears
determine our body's orientation and sense acceleration. Our vestibular
system allows us to walk without falling down. Sometimes, what we feel
with our inner ear and what we see with our eyes gets out of synch (such
as on a high-speed roller coaster). When this happens, we can get
disoriented or even sick. That also explains why we tend to experience
more motion sickness riding in the back seat of a car than while driving-
we can feel the motion, but our eyes don't see it.
Because our vestibular system is calibrated to work under a constant
gravitational pull on Earth's surface (or 1 "g'), this calibration is thrown
off when we go into orbit and enter a free-fall environment. As a result,
nearly all astronauts experience some type of motion sickness during the
first few days in space until they can re-calibrate. Veteran astronauts
report that over repeated spaceflights this calibration time decreases.
Astra Fun Fact-----
The "Vomit Comet"
How do astronauts train for the free-fa/I environment of space? They
take a ride in a modified Air Force KC-135 aircraft owned and oper-
ated by NASA. Affectionately called the "Vomit Comet" by those
who've experienced the fun,
as well as the not-so fun,
aspects of free fall, this plane
flies a series of parabolas,
alternately climbing and diving
to achieve almost a minute of
free fall in each parabola. This
experience is similar to the
momentary lightness we feel
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center) when we go over a hill at a
high speed in a car. During
these precious few seconds of free fall, astronauts can practice getting (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space center)
into space suits or experiment with other equipment specifically
designed to function in space.
92
3.3 Living and Working in Space
Free fall results in a loss of cardiovascular conditioning and body fluid
volume, skeletal muscle atrophy, loss of lean body mass, and bone
degeneration accompanied by calcium loss from the body. These changes
may not be detrimental as long as an individual remains in free fall or
microgravity. However, they can be debilitating upon return to a higher-
gravity environment. Calcium loss and related bone weakening, in
particular, seem progressive, and we don't know what level of gravity or
exercise (providing stress on the weight-bearing bones) we need to counter
the degenerative effects of free fall. However, if unchecked, unacceptable
fragility of the bones could develop in a person living in microgravity for
1-2 years [Churchill, 1997]
1£ you're bedridden for a long time, your muscles will grow weak from
lack of use and begin to atrophy. Astronauts in free fall experience a
similar reduced load on weight bearing tissue such as on muscles
(including the heart) and bones. Muscles lose mass and weaken. Bones
lose calcium and weaken. Bone marrow, which produces blood, is also
affected, reducing the number of red blood cells.
Scientists are still working on ways to alleviate all these problems of free
fall. Vigorous exercise offers some promise in preventing long-term
atrophy of muscles (Figure 3-33), but no one has found a way to prevent
changes within the bones. Some scientists suggest astronauts should have
"artificial gravity" for very long missions, such as missions to Mars.
Spinning the spacecraft would produce this force, which would feel like
gravity pinning them to the wall. This is the same force we feel when we
take a corner very fast in a car and we're pushed to the outside of the curve. Figure 3-33. Shuttle Exercise. To maintain
This artificial gravity could maintain the load on all weight-bearing tissue fitness and control the negative effects of free fall,
and alleviate some of the other detrimental effects of free fall. However, astronauts workout everyday on one of several
aerobic devices on the Shuttle. Here, astronaut
building and operating such a system is an engineering challenge. Steven Hawley runs on the Shuttle's treadmill.
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Radiation and Charged Particles
As we've seen, the ozone layer and magnetosphere protect us from
charged particles and electromagnetic (EM) radiation down here on
Earth. In space, however, we're well above the ozone layer and may enter
the Van Allen radiation belts or even leave Earth's vicinity altogether,
thus exposing ourselves to the full force of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs).
Until now, we've been careful to delineate the differences between the
effects of EM radiation and charged particles. However, from the
standpoint of biological damage, we can treat exposure to EM radiation
and charged particles in much the same way. The overall severity of this
damage depends on the total dosage. Dosage is a measure of
accumulated radiation or charged particle exposure.
Quantifying the dosage depends on the energy contained in the
radiation or particles and the relative biological effective11ess (RBE), rating of
the exposure. We measure dosage energy in terms of RADs, with one
RAD representing 100 erg (10-5 J) of energy per gram of target material
(1.08 x 10-3 cal/lb.). (This is about as much energy as it takes to lift a
paper clip 1 mm [3.9 x 10-2 in.] off a desk). The RBE represents the
93
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
destructive power of the dosage on living tissue. This depends on
whether the exposure is EM radiation (photons) with an RBE of one, or
charged particles with an RBE of as much as ten, or more. An RBE of ten
is ten times more destructive to tissue than an RBE of one. The total
dosage is then quantified as the product of RAD and RBE to get a dosage
measurement in roentgen equivalent man (REM). The REM dosage is
cumulative over a person's entire lifetime.
The potential effects on humans exposed to radiation and charged
particles depend to some extent on the time over which a dosage occurs.
For example, a 50-REM dosage accumulated in one day will be much
more harmful than the same dosage spread over one year. Such short-
term dosages are called acute dosages. They tend to be more damaging,
primarily because of their effect on fast reproducing cells within our
bodies, specifically in the gastrointestinal tract, bone marrow, and testes.
Table 3-1 gives the effects of acute dosages on humans, including blood
count changes, vomiting, diarrhea, and death. The cumulative effects of
dosage spread over much longer periods include cataracts, and various
cancers, such as leukemia.
Table 3-1. Effects of Acute Radiation and Charged Particle Dosages on Humans.
(From Nicogossian, et al.) The higher the dosage and the faster it comes,
the worse the elfects on humans.
Effect Dosage (REM)
Blood count changes 15-50
Vomiting "effective threshold". 100
Mortality "effective threshold" 150
LD50 t with minimal supportive care 320-360
L050t with full supportive medical treatment required 480-540
Effective threshold is the lowest dosage causing these effects in at least one member of
the exposed population
t LD50 is the lethal dosage in 50% of the exposed population
Just living on Earth, we all accumulate dosage. For example, living one
year in Houston, Texas, (at sea level) gives us a dosage of 0.1 REM. As we
get closer to space there is less atmosphere protecting us, so living in
Denver, Colorado, (the "Mile-high City") gives us a dosage of twice that
amount. Certain medical procedures also contribute to our lifetime
dosage. One chest X-ray, for example, gives you 0.01 REM exposure.
Table 3-2 shows some typical dosages for various events.
Except for solar flares, which can cause very high short-term dosages
with the associated effects, astronauts concern themselves with dosage
spread over an entire mission or career. NASA sets dosage limits for astro-
nauts at 50 REM per year. Few astronauts will be in space for a full year,
so their dosages will be much less than 50 REM. By comparison, the
nuclear industry limits workers to one tenth that, or five REM per year.
94
3.3 Living and Working in Space
Table 3·2. Dosages for Some Common Events (from SICSA Outreach and
Nicogossian, et al.).
Event Dosage (REM)
Transcontinental round trip in a jet 0.004
Chest X-ray (lung dose) 0.01
Living one year in Houston, Texas (sea level) 0.1
Living one year in Denver, Colorado (elev. 1600 m) 0.2
Skylab 3 for 84 days (skin dose) 17.85
Space Shuttle Mission (STS-41 D) 0.65
A typical Shuttle mission exposes the crew to a dosage of less than one
REM. The main concern is for very long missions, such as in the space sta-
tion or on a trip to Mars.
For the most part, it is relatively easy to build shielding made of
aluminum or other light metals to protect astronauts from the solar EM
radiation and the protons from solar wind. In the case of solar flares, long
missions may require "storm shelters" -small areas deep within the ship
that would protect astronauts for a few days until the flare subsides.
However, GCRs cause our greatest concern. Because these particles are so
massive, it's impractical to provide enough shielding. To make matters
worse, as the GCRs interact with the shield material, they produce
secondary radiation (sometimes called "bremsstrahlung" radiation after a
German word for braking), which is also harmful.
Space-mission planners try to avoid areas of concentrated charged
particles such as those in the Van Allen belts. For example, because space
suits provide very little shielding, NASA plans extra vehicular activities
(EVA-or space walks) for when astronauts won't pass through the
"South Atlantic Anomaly." In this area between South America and
Africa, shown in Figure 3-34, the Van Allen belts "dip" toward Earth.
Long missions, however, such as those to Mars, will require special safety
measures, such as "storm shelters" and a radiation warning device when
solar flares erupt. As for GCRs, we need to do more research to better
quantify this hazard and to minimize trip times.
Psychological Effects
Because sending humans to space costs so much, we typically try to get
our money's worth by scheduling grueling days of activities for the crew.
This excessive workload can begin to exhaust even the best crews,
seriously degrading their performance, and even endangering the
mission. It can also lead to morale problems. For instance, during one
United States Skylab mission, the crew actually went on strike for a day
to protest the excessive demands on their time. Similar problems have
been reported aboard the Russian Mir space station.
95
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
Figure 3-34. The South Atlantic Anomaly. The South Atlantic Anomaly is an area over the
Earth where the Van Allen belts "dip" closer to the surface. Astronauts should avoid space
walks in this region because of the high concentration of charged particles.
The crew's extreme isolation also adds to their stress and may cause
loneliness and depression on long missions. Tight living conditions with
the same people day-after-day can also take its toll. Tempers can flare,
and team performance suffers. This problem is not unique to missions in
space. Scientists at remote Antarctic stations during the long, lonely
winters have reported similar episodes of extreme depression and friction
between team members.
We must take these human factors into account when planning and
designing missions. Crew schedules must include regular breaks or
"mini-vacations." On long missions, crews will need frequent contact
with loved ones at home to alleviate their isolation. Planners also must
select crew members who can work closely, in tight confines, for long
Figure 3-35. Shuttle Close Quarters. Living periods (Figure 3-35). Psychological diversions such as music, video
with seven crew members for ten days on the games, and movies will help on very long missions to relieve boredom.
Shuttle can put a strain on relationships. Careful
screening and busy schedules help prevent
friction. Here, the crew of STS 96 pose for their
traditional inflight portrait. (Courtesy of NASN
Johnson Space Center)
3.3 Living and Working in Space
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
acute dosages > Effects of the space environment on hLLI11ans come from
decreased hydrostatic gradient • Free fall
edema
fluid shift • Radiation and charged particles
hydrostatic gradient • Psychological effects
orthostatic intolerance
RADs > The free-fall environment can cause
relative biological effectiveness (RBE) • Decreased hydrostatic gradient-a condition where fluid
ro ntgen equivalent man (REM) in the body shifts to the head
vestibular functions • Altered vestibular functions-motion sickness
• Decreased load on weight bearing tissue-causing
weakness in bones and muscles
> Depending on the dosage, the radiation and charged particle
environment can cause short-term and long-term damage to
the human body, or even death
> Psychological stresses on astronauts include
• Excessive workload
• Isolation, loneliness, and depression
97
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
1111111111111 References
Air University Press. Space Handbook. AV-18. Maxwell King-Hele, Desmond. Observing Earth Satellites. New
AFB, AL: 1985. York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc.,
1983.
"Astronomy." August 1987.
Bate, Roger R., Donald D. Mueller, and Jerry E. White. NASA. 1994. Designing for Human Presence in Space:
Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York, NY: An Introduction to Environmental Control and Life
Dover Publications, Inc., 1971. Support Systems, NASA RP-1324. Prepared by Paul
0. Wieland, National Aeronautics and Space
Buedeler, Werner. Geschichte der Raumfahrt. Germany:
Administration, Marshall Space Flight Center, AL.
Sigloch Edition, 1982.
Bueche, Frederick J. Introduction to Physics for Scientists Nicogossian, Arnauld E., Carolyn Leach Huntoon,
and Engineers. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., Sam L. Pool. Space Physiology and Medicine. 2nd Ed.
1980. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger, 1989.
Chang, Prof. I. Dee (Stanford University), Dr. John Rycroft, Michael (ed.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
Billingham (NASA Ames), and Dr. Alan Hargen Space. New York, NY: Press Syndicate of the
(NASA Ames), Spring, 1990. "Colloquium on Life University of Cambridge, 1990.
in Space."
Churchill, S.E. ed. 1997. Fundamentals of Space Life Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture
Sciences. Vol 1. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing (SICSA) Outreach. July-September 1989. Special
Company. Information Topic Issue, "Space Radiation Health
Hazards: Assessing and Mitigating the Risks." Vol.
Concepts in Physics. Del Mar, CA: Communications 2, No.3.
Research Machines, Inc., 1973.
Concise Science Dictionary. Oxford, UK: Oxford Suzlman, F.M. and A.M. Genin, eds. 1994. Space Biology
University Press, 1984. and Medicine. Vol. II, Life Support and Habitability,
a joint U.S./Russian publication. Washington, D.C.
Clover, Thomas J. Pocket REF. Morrison, CO: Sequoia and Moscow, Russia. American Institute of
Publishing, Inc.. 1989. Aeronautics and Astronautics and Nauka Press.
Goldsmith, Donald. The Astronomers. New York, NY:
Tascione, Maj. T.F., Maj. R.H. Bloomer, Jr., and Lt. Col.
Community Television of Southern California, Inc.,
D.J. Evans. SRII, Introduction to Space Science: Short
1991.
Course. USAF Academy, Department of Physics.
Gonick, Larry and Art Huffman. The Cartoon Guide to
Physics. New York, NY: Harpee Perennial, 1990. Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht,
Hartman, William K. Moon and Planets. Belmont, CA: Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
Wadsworth, Inc.. 1983.
Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics. A New Introduction Woodcock, Gordon, Space Stations and Platforms.
to Your Environment. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Malabar, FL: Orbit Book Company, 1986.
Company, 1981.
The World Almanac and Book of Facts. 1991. New York,
[ursa, Adolph S. (ed.). Handbook of Geophysics and the NY: Pharos Books, 1990.
Space Environment. Air Force Geophysics
Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command USAF, "Weightlessness and the Human Body," Scientific
1985. American, Sept. 1998. pp. 58-63, Ronald J. White.
98
Mission Problems
!!!!!!! Mission Problems 8 How does the density and pressure of Earth's
atmosphere change with altitude?
3.1 Cosmic Perspective
1 Where does Space begin? 9 What is atmospheric drag?
2 What object most strongly affects the space 10 What is atomic oxygen? What effects can it have on
environment? spacecraft?
11 What are the major problems m the vacuum
3 What is the star closest to Earth? The second- environment of space?
closest star?
12 Describe the potential hazards to spacecraft from
4 List and describe the Sun's two forms of energy micrometeoroids and space junk.
output.
13 Describe the mechanism that protects the Earth
from the effects of solar and cosmic charged
5 What are solar flares? How do they differ from the
particles.
solar wind?
14 What are Galactic Cosmic Rays?
3.2 The Space Environment and Spacecraft
6 List the six major hazards to spacecraft in the space
environment. 15 What are the Van Allen radiation belts and what
do they contain?
7 Why are astronauts in space not in a "zero gravity"
environment? Why is free fall a better description 16 Describe the potential harmful effects on
of the gravity environment? spacecraft from charged particles.
99
Chapter 3 The Space Environment
3.3 Living and Working in Space For Discussion
17 List and describe the three physiological changes 21 Using a basketball to represent the size of the Sun,
to the human body during free fall. lay out a scale model of the solar system. How far
away would the nearest star have to be?
18 How are dosages of radiation and charged
particles quantified? 22 As a spacecraft designer for a human mission to
Mars, you must protect the crew from the space
environment. Compile a list of all the potential
hazards they may face during this multi-year
mission and discuss how you plan to deal with
19 What are the potential short-term and long-term them.
effects to humans of exposure to radiation and
charged particles?
20 How do long spaceflights affect astronauts
psychologically?
100
Mission Profi/..-c -SETI
In the fall of 1992, 500 years after Columbus discovered as well as upgrade our technological ability. This alone
America, NASA officially began an exciting ten-year will prove the mission worthy. Yet, if Project Phoenix
mission to search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) succeeds to find other life in the universe, it will
(SETI). In 1993, NASA passed operations to a private truly be a turning point in human history.
group, which calls it, Project Phoenix. Because they
can't send a spacecraft over interstellar distances, the
mission focuses on radio astronomy as the most
probable way to contact extraterrestrial life. As Seth
Shostak of the SETI Institute says, "our generation is
the first with the capability to address one of
mankind's most fundamental questions."-is there
other intelligent life in the universe?
Mission Overview
The mission tries to intercept radio signals from other
intelligent beings. Through a computer-linked network,
operators combine the efforts of two radio telescopes.
These telescopic dishes survey the stars and select
certain areas for more sensitive searches. The SETI project employs the 305-m (1000 ft.) Arecibo dish in Puerto
Rico, shown here, as well as the 76.2 m (250 ft.) Lovell Telescope at
the Jodrell Bank Observatory in England. (Courtesy of National
Astronomy and Ionosphere Center-Arecibo Observatory, a facility
MissionData of the National Science Foundation. Photo by David Parker.)
,/ The radio telescopes scan 57 million frequencies
every second with 300 times the sensitivity of any
For Discussion
previous system.
What is the next step once we find intelligent life?
,/ In the first minutes of the mission, the system auto-
matically searched more comprehensively for extra- • Given that radio astronomy is only a best guess for
terrestrial intelligence than in all previous attempts contacting extraterrestrial intelligence, how can
combined. operators be sure it is worth the effort and money?
Should they continue this mission?
./ The system listens for frequencies between 1 and 10
GHz. Below 1 GHz, natural radiation in our galaxy Is it simply an Earth bias to specifically look at stars
makes communication difficult to discern. Above similar to our Sun? Could life exist in other
10 GHz, radio noise from the atmosphere makes it scenarios?
impossible to hear a transmission. The area
between these frequencies offers the strongest
possible radio transmission. Contributor
,/ Using stationary dishes at Arecibo, Puerto Rico and Troy E. Kitch, the U.S. Air Force Academy
Lovell, England, they target only stars similar to
our own Sun (about 10% of all known stars).
References
MissionImpact
Blum, Howard. Out There. New York: Simon and
With the onset of the ten year NASA mission, SETI was Schuster, 1990.
given a substantial credibility boost. Whether or not
the new operators will find intelligent life, they will White, Frank. The SETI Factor. New York: Walker and
undoubtedly accrue new knowledge of our universe, Company, 1990.
101
The lunar module orbits above the Moon's stark landscape with the blue Earth rising above the horizon. (Courtesy of NASA/
Johnson Space Center)
Understanding
Orbits
1111!! In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... ~ Outline
.- Explain the basic concepts of orbital motion and describe how to
4.1 Orbital Motion
analyze them
Baseballs in Orbit
.- Explain and use the basic laws of motion Isaac Newton developed Analyzing Motion
.- Use Newton's laws of motion to develop a mathematical and
geometric representation of orbits 4.2 Newton's Laws
.- Use two constants of orbital motion-specific mechanical energy and Weight, Mass, and Inertia
specific angular momentum-to determine important orbital variables Momentum
Changing Momentum
== You Should Already Know ...
Action and Reaction
Gravity
O Elements of a space mission (Chapt r 1)
4.3 Laws of Conservation
Orbital concepts (Chapter 1)
Momentum
O Concept of vector mathematic (Appendix A.2) Energy
Calculus concepts (App ndix A.3)
4.4 The Restricted Two-body
O Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion (Chapter 2)
Problem
Coordinate Systems
Equation of Motion
Simplifying Assumptions
Orbital Geometry
Space is for everybody. It's not just for 11 few people i11 science or matt), or n select 4.5 Constants of OrbitaJ Motion
gro11p of astronauts. That's our new frontier out there and it's everybody's Specific Mechanical Energy
business to know abou! space.
Specific Angular Momentum
Christa McAultffe
teacher nud astronaut OJI the
ill~fnted Challenger Space Sliutt!e
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
S
pacecraft work in orbits. In Chapter 1, we described an orbit as a
"racetrack" that a spacecraft drives around, as seen in Figure 4-1.
Orbits and trajectories are two of the basic elements of any space
mission. Understanding this motion may at first seem rather intimidating.
After all, to fully describe orbital motion we need some basic physics along
with a healthy dose of calculus and geometry. However, as we'll see,
spacecraft orbits aren't all that different from the paths of baseballs pitched
across home plate. In fact, in most cases, both can be described in terms of
the single force pinning you to your chair right now-gravity.
Armed only with an understanding of this single pervasive force, we
can predict, explain, and understand the motion of nearly all objects in
space, from baseballs to spacecraft, to planets and even entire galaxies.
Chapter 4 is just the beginning. Here we'll explore the basic tools for
analyzing orbits. In the next several chapters we'll see that, in a way,
Space Mission Architecture . This chapter understanding orbits gives us a crystal ball to see into the future. Once we
deals with the Trajectories and Orbits segment know an object's position and velocity, as well as the nature of the local
of the Space Mission Architecture, introduced gravitational field, we can gaze into this crystal ball to predict where the
in Figure 1-20.
object will be minutes, hours, or even years from now.
We'll begin by taking a conceptual approach to understanding orbits.
Once we have a basic feel for how they work, we'll take a more rigorous
approach to describing spacecraft motion. We'll use tools provided by
Isaac Newton, who developed some fundamental laws more than 200
years ago that we can use to explain orbits today. Finally, we'll look at
some interesting implications of orbital motion that allow us to describe
their shape and determine which aspects remain constant when left
undisturbed by outside non-gravitational forces.
Figure 4· 1. Orbits as Racetracks. Orbits are like giant racetracks on which spacecraft
"drive" around Earth.
104
4.1 Orbital Motion
4.1 Orbital Motion
=== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,.. Explain, conceptually, how an object is put into orbit
..- Describe how to analyze the motion of any object
Baseballs in Orbit
What is an orbit? Sure, we said it was a type of "racetrack" in space
that an object drives around, but what makes these racetracks?
Throughout the rest of this chapter we'll explore the physical principles
that allow orbits to exist, as well as our mathematical representations of
them. But before diving into a complicated explanation, let's begin with a
simple experiment that illustrates, conceptually, how orbits work. To do
this, imagine that we gather a bunch of baseballs and travel to the top of a
tall mountain.
Visualize that we are standing on top of this mountain prepared to
pitch baseballs to the east. As the balls sail off the summit, what do we
see? Besides seeing unsuspecting hikers panting up the trail and running
for cover, we should see that the balls follow a curved path. Why is this?
The force of our throw is causing them to go outward, but the force of
gravity is pulling them down. Therefore, the "compromise" shape of the
baseball's path is a curve.
The faster we throw the balls, the farther they go before hitting the
ground, as you can see in Figure 4-2. This could lead you to conclude that
the faster we throw them the longer it takes before they hit the ground.
But is this really the case? Let's try another experiment to see.
As we watch, two baseball players, standing on flat ground, will
release baseballs. The first one simply drops a ball from a fixed height. At
exactly the same time, the second player throws an identical ball
horizontally at the same height as hard as possible. What will we see? If
the second player throws a fast ball, it'll travel out about 20 m (60 ft.) or so
before it hits the ground. But, the ball dropped by the first player will hit
the ground at exactly the same time as the pitched ball, as Figure 4-3
shows!
How can this be? To understand this seeming paradox, we must
recognize that, in this case, the motion in one direction is independent of
motion in another. Thus, while the second player's ball is moving Figure 4-2. Throwing Baseballs Off of a
horizontally at 30 km/hr (20 m.p.h.) or so, it's still falling at the same rate Mountain. When we throw the balls faster, they
travel farther before hitting the ground.
as the first ball. This rate is the constant gravitational acceleration of all
objects near Earth's surface, 9.798 m/ s2. Thus, they hit the ground at the
same time. The only difference is that the pitched ball, because it also has
horizontal velocity, will travel some horizontal distance before
intercepting the ground.
105
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
I skm
Figure 4-3. Both Balls Hit at the Same Time. A dropped ball and a ball thrown horizontally
from the same height will hit the ground al the same time. This is because horizontal and
vertical motion are independent. Gravity is acting on both balls equally, pulling them to the
ground with exactly the same acceleration of 9.798 m/s2.
Now let's return to the top ot our mountain and start throwing our
baseballs faster and faster to see what happens. No matter how fast we
throw them, the balls still fall at the same rate. However, as we increase
their horizontal velocity, they're able to travel farther and farther before
Figure 4-4. Earth's Curvature. Earth's
curvature means the suriace curves down they hit the ground. Because Earth is basically spherical in shape,
about 5 m for every 8 km. On the surface of a something interesting happens. Earth's spherical shape causes the surface
sphere with that curvature, an object moving at to drop approximately five meters vertically for every eight kilometers
7.9 km/s is in orbit (ignoring air drag).
horizontally, as shown in Figure 4-4. So, if we were able to throw a
baseball at 7.9 krn/s (assuming no air resistance), its path would exactly
match Earth's curvature. That is, gravity would pull it down about five
meters for every eight kilometers it travels, and it would continue around
-parabola Earth at a constant height. If we forget to duck, it may hit us in the back of
the head about 85 minutes later. (Actually, because Earth rotates, it would
miss us.) A ball thrown at a speed slower than 7.9 km/ s falls faster than
0 Earth curves away beneath it. Thus, it eventually hits the surface. The
results of our baseball throwing experiment are shown in Figure 4-5.
If we analyze our various baseball trajectories, we see a whole range of
different shapes. Only one velocity produces a perfectly circular
trajectory. Slower velocities cause the trajectory to hit the Earth at some
ellipse point. If we were to project this shape through the Earth, we'd find the
0 /circle trajectory is really a piece of an ellipse (it looks parabolic, but it's actually
0
elliptical). Throwing a ball with a speed slightly faster than the circular
velocity, also results in an ellipse. If we throw the ball too hard, it leaves
Figure 4-5. Baseballs in Orbit. As we throw
baseballs faster and faster, eventually we can Earth altogether on a parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory, never to return.
reach a speed at which Earth curves away as No matter how hard we throw, our trajectory resembles either a circle,
fast as the baseball falls, placing the ball in orbit. ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola. As we'll see in Section 4.4, these four
At exactly the right speed It will be in a circular
orbit. A little faster and it's in an elliptical orbit. shapes are conic sections.
Even faster and it can escape Earth altogether
on a parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory.
106
4.1 Orbital Motion
So an object in orbit is literally falling around Earth, but because of its
horizontal velocity it never quite hits the ground. Throughout this book
we'll see how important having the right velocity at the right place is in
determining the type of orbit we have.
Analyzing Motion
Now that we've looked at orbits conceptually, let's see how we can
analyze this motion more rigorously. Chances are, when you first learned
to play catch with a baseball, you had problems. Your poor partner had to
chase after your first tentative throws, which never seemed to go where
you wanted. But gradually, after a little bit of practice (and several
exhausted partners), you got better. Eventually, you could place the ball
right into your partner's glove, almost without conscious thought.
In fact, expert pitchers don't think about how to throw; they simply
concentrate on where to throw. Somehow, their brain calculates the
precise path needed to deliver the ball to the desired location. Then it
commands the arm to a predetermined release point and time with
exactly the right amount of force. All this happens in a matter of seconds,
without a thought given to the likes of Isaac Newton and the equations
that describe the baseball's motion. "So what?" you may wonder. Why
bother with all the equations that describe why it travels the way it does?
Unfortunately, to build a pitching machine for a batting cage or to
launch a spacecraft into orbit, we can't simply tell the machine or rocket
to "take aim and throw." In the case of the rocket especially, we must
carefully study its motion between the launch pad and space.
Now, we'll define a system for analyzing all types of motion. It's called
the Motion Analysis Process (MAP) check.list and is shown in Figure 4-6.
To put the MAP into action, imagine that you must describe the motion of
a baseball thrown by our two baseball players in Figure 4-7. How will you
go about it?
--------------0
Figure4-7. Baseball Motion. To analyze the motion of a baseball, or a spacecraft, we must Figure 4·6. Motion Analysis Process
step through the Motion Analysis Process (MAP) checklist. (MAP) Checklist. Apply these steps to learn
about moving objects and describe how they
First of all, you need to define some frame of reference or coordinate will move in the future.
system. For example, do you want to describe the motion with respect to a
nearby building or to the center of Earth? In either case, you must define a
reference point and a coordinate frame for the motion you're describing,
as shown in Figure 4-8.
"I07
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
Next you need some short-hand way of describing this motion and its
"'y
relation to the forces involved-a short-hand way we'll call an equation of
motion. Once you've determined what equation best describes the baseball's
motion, you need to simplify it so you can use it. After all, you don't want to
try to deal with how the motion of the baseball changes due to the
gravitational pull of Venus or every little gust of wind in the park. So you
must make some reasonable si111plifi;ing assumptions. For instance, you could
' easily assume that the gravitational attraction on the baseball from Venus, for
I '
'' example, is too small to worry about and the drag on the baseball due to air
resistance is insignificant. And, in fact, as a good approximation, you could
assume that the only force on the baseball comes from Earth's gravity.
Figure 4-8. Defining a Coordinate System. With these assumptions made, you can then turn your attention to the
To analyze a baseball's motion, we can define a
simple, two-dimensional coordinate system. finer details of the baseball problem. For example, you want to carefully
define where and how the motion of the baseball begins. We call these the
initial conditions of the problem. If you vary these initial conditions somehow
(e.g., you throw the baseball a little harder or in a slightly different
direction), the motion of the baseball will change. By assessing how these
variations in initial conditions affect where the baseball goes, you can find
out how sensitive the trajectory is to small changes or errors in them.
Finally, once you've completed all of these steps, you should verify the
entire process by testing the model of baseball motion you've developed.
Actually throw some baseballs, measure their trajectory deviations, and
analyze differences terror analysis) between the motion you predict for the
baseball and what you find from your tests. If you find significant
differences, you may have to change your coordinate system, equation of
motion, assumptions, initial conditions, or all of these. With the MAP in
mind, we'll begin our investigation of orbital motion in the next section by
considering some fundamental laws of motion Isaac Newton developed.
!!!!!!!!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
conic sections > From a conceptual standpoint, orbital motion involves giving
coordinate system something enough horizontal velocity so that, by the time gravity pulls
equation of motion it down, it has traveled far enough to have Earth's surface curve away
error analysis from it. As a result, it stays above the surface. An object in orbit is
initial conditions essentially falling around the Earth but going so fast it never hits it.
simplifying assumptions
testing the model
> The Motion Analysis Process is a general approach for understanding
the motion of any object through space. It consists of
• A coordinate system
• An equation of motion
• Simplifying assumptions
• Initial conditions
• Error analysis
• Testing the model
108
4.2 Newton's Laws
4.2 Newton's Laws
- In This Section You'll Learn to ...
..- Explain the concepts of weight, mass, and inertia
..- Explain ewton's laws of motion
• Use Newton's laws to analyze the simple motion of objects
Since the first caveman threw a rock at a sabre-toothed tiger, we've
been intrigued by the study of motion. In our quest to understand nature,
we've looked for simple, fundamental laws that all objects obey. These
Laws of Motion would apply universally for everything from gumdrops
to galaxies (Figure 4-9). They would be unbreakable and empower us to
explain the motion of the heavens, understand the paths of the stars, and
predict the future position of our Earth. In Chapter 2, we saw how the
Greek philosopher Aristotle defined concepts of orbital motion that held
favor until challenged by such critical thinkers as Galileo and Kepler.
Recall that Kepler gave us three laws to describe planetary motion, but
didn't explain their causes. That's where Isaac Newton comes in.
Reflecting on his lifetime of scientific accomplishments, Newton
rightly observed that he was able to do so much because he "stood on the
shoulders of giants." Armed with Galileo's two basic principles of
motion-inertia and relativity-and Kepler's laws of planetary motion,
Isaac Newton was poised to determine the basic laws of motion that
revolutionized our understanding of the world.
No single person has had as great an impact on science as Isaac Figure 4-9. Cartwheel Galaxy. Our laws of
Newton. His numerous discoveries and fundamental breakthroughs molion apply universally, including the stars
and planets of the Cartwheel Galaxy.
easily fill a volume the size of this book. Inventing calculus (math (Courtesy of the Association of Universities for
students still haven't forgiven him for thatl), inventing the reflecting tele- Research in Astronomy; lnc.!Space Telescope
scope, and defining gravity are just some of his many accomplishments. Science Institute)
For our purposes, we'll see that the study of orbits (astrodynamics) builds
on four of Newton's laws: three of motion and one describing gravity.
Weight, Mass, and Inertia
Before plunging into a discussion of Newton's many laws, let's take a
moment to complicate a topic that, until now, you probably thought you
understood very well-weig/,t. When we order a "Quarter Pounder with
Cheese'>" (Figure 4-10), we' re describing the weight of the hamburger
(before cooking). To measure this weight (say, to determine what it
weighs after cooking), we slap the burger on a scale and read the results.
If our scale gave weight in metric units, we'd see our quarter-pounder
weighs about one newton. This property we call weight is really the result Figure 4-10. Quarter Pounder with
Cheese™. When we order a Quarter Pounder
of another, more basic property of the hamburger called "mass" plus the with Cheese'", we get about 0.1 kg mass of
influence of gravity. A hamburger that weighs one newton (1 I 4 pound) meat.
109
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
has a mass of 1/9.798 kg or about 0.1 kg. Knowing the mass of our
1. hamburger, we automatically know three useful things about it, as
illustrated in Figure 4-11.
First, mass is a measure of how much matter or "stuff" the hamburger
contains. The more mass, the more stuff. If we have to haul 200 Quarter
Pounders™ to a family picnic, we can add the masses of individual burgers
to determine how much total mass we need to carry. Carrying these
hamburgers, which have a total mass of 22.5 kg (SO lbs.), will take some
planning. Thus, knowing how much stuff one object has is important
whenever we must combine it with others (as we do for space missions).
2. But that's not all. Knowing the mass of an object also tells us how
much inertia it has. Galileo first put forth the principle of inertia in terms
of an object's tendency to stay at rest or in motion unless acted on by an
outside influence. To visualize inertia, assume you're in "couch potato"
mode in front of the TV, with your work sitting on the desk, calling for
your attention. Somehow, you just can't motivate yourself to get up from
the couch and start working. You have too much "inertia," so it takes an
outside influence (another person or a deep-rooted fear of failure) to over-
come that "inertia."
For a given quantity of mass, inertia works in much the same way. An
object at rest has a certain amount of inertia, represented by its mass, that
must be overcome to get it in motion. Thus, to get the Quarter Pounder TM
from its package and into your mouth, you must overcome its inherent
inertia. You do that when you pick it up, if you can!
An object already in motion also has inertia by virtue of its mass. To
change its direction or speed, we must apply a force. For instance a car
skidding on ice slides in a straight line indefinitely (assuming no friction
force), or at least until it hits something.
Finally, knowing an object's mass reveals how it affects other objects
merely by its presence. There's an old, corny riddle which asks "Which
Figure 4-11. What is Mass? The amount of
weighs more-a pound of feathers or a pound of lead?" Of course, they
mass an object has tells us three things about weigh the same-one pound. Why is that? Weight is a result of two
it: (1) how much "stuff" it contains, (2) how things-the amount of mass, or "stuff," and gravity. So, assuming we
much it resists changes in motion-its inertia,
and (3) how much gravitational force ii exerts
measure the weight of feathers and lead at the same place, their masses
and is exerted on ii by other masses in the are the same. Gravity is the tendency for two (or more) chunks of stuff to
universe. attract each other. The more stuff (or mass) they have, the more they
attract. This natural attraction between chunks of stuff is always there.
Thus, our Quarter Pounder?" lying in its package causes a very slight
gravitational pull on our fries, milk shake, and all other mass in the uni-
verse. (You'd better eat fast!)
Now that you'll never be able to look at a Quarter Pounder™ the same
way again, let's see how Isaac Newton used these concepts of mass to
develop some basic Jaws of motion and gravity.
110
4.2 Newton's Laws
Momentum
Newton's First Law of Motion was actually a variation on Galileo's
concept of inertia. He discovered it and other principles of gravity and
motion in 1655, when a great plague ravaged England and caused
universities to close. At the time, he was a 23-year-old student at
Cambridge. Instead of hitting the beach for an extended "spring break,"
the more scholarly Newton hit the apple orchard for meditation (or so
legend has it). But his findings weren't published until 1687-in The
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. In this monumental work he
stated
Newton's First Law of Motion. A body continues in its state of rest, or
of uniform motion i11 a straight line, unless compelled to change that state
by forces impressed upon if.
Newton's First Law says that any object (or chunk of mass) that is at
rest will stay at rest forever, unless some force makes it move. Similarly,
any object in motion will stay in motion forever, with a constant speed
in the same straight-line direction, until some force makes it change
either its speed or direction of motion. Try to stop a speeding bullet like
the one in Figure 4-12 and you get a good idea how profound Newton's
first law is.
Figure 4-12. Newton's First Law. Any object
One very important aspect of the first law to keep in mind, especially in motion, such as a speeding bullet, will tend
when you study spacecraft motion, is that motion tends to stay in a to stay in motion, in a straight line, unless acted
straight line. Therefore, if you ever see something not moving in a on by some outside force (such as gravity or
hitting a brick wall.)
straight line, such as a spacecraft in orbit, some force must be acting on it.
We know that an object at rest is lazy; it doesn't want to start moving
and will resist movement to the fullest extent of its mass. We've also
discovered that, once it's in motion, it resists any change in its speed or
direction. But the amount of resistance for an object at rest and one in
motion are not the same! This seeming paradox is due to the concept of
momentum. Momentum is the amount of resistance an object in motion
has to changes in its speed or direction of motion. This momentum is the
result of combining an object's mass with its velocity. Because an object's
velocity can be either linear or angular, there are two types of momentum:
linear and angular.
Let's start with linear momentum. To see how it works, we consider
the difference between a bulldozer and a baby carriage moving along a
street, as shown in Figure 4-13. Bulldozers are massive machines
designed to savagely rip tons of dirt from Earth. Baby carriages are
delicate, four-wheeled carts designed to carry cute little babies around
the neighborhood. Obviously, a bulldozer has much more mass than a Figure 4-13. Bulldozer, Baby Carriage, and
baby carriage, but how does their momentum compare? Unlike inertia, Momentum. The momentum of any object is
which is a function only of an object's mass, linear momentum, p, is the the product of its mass and velocity. So, a
bulldozer moving at the same speed as a baby
product of an object's mass, m, and its velocity, V. [Note: because we carriage has much more momentum, due to its
describe velocity and momentum in terms of magnitude and direction, large mass.
111
Chapter 4 Under tanding Orbits
we treat them and other important concepts as vector quantities.
Appendix A.2 reviews vector notation and concepts.]
Note: W,"f/ co11sistrnt/y 1·s/~·r (4-1)
fo tlie wlvcity vrcft1r ,1i v,
where
1\lllid1.inwtes spel'il @.i p= linear momentum vector (kg · m Is)
dire:ction. rite 111agnitwfr m = mass (kg)
of. U1e velocit,v vcdL1r, Wt' cnfl V = velocity vector (m Is)
ijieed or si11g,ly 11cfo~uy, v. To compare the linear momentum of the bulldozer and the baby
carriage, we'd have to know how fast they were moving. For the two to
have the same linear momentum, the baby carriage, being much less
massive, would have to be going much, much faster! Example 4-1, at the
end of this section, shows this relationship.
angular
H Linear momentum is fairly basic because it involves motion in a
momentum straight line. Angular momentum, on the other hand, is slightly harder to
understand because it deals with angular motion. Let's consider a simple
toy top. If we set the top upright on a table, it will fall over, but if we spin
it fast enough, the top will seem to defy gravity. A spinning object tends
to resist changes in the direction and rate of spin, like the toy top shown
in Figure 4-14, just as an object moving in a straight lini resists changes to
its speed and direction of motion. Angutor momentum, H, is the amount of
resistance of a spinning object to change in spin rate or direction of spin.
Linear momentum is the product of the object's mass, m, (which
represents its inertia, or tendency to resist a change in speed and
direction), and its velocity, V. Similarly, angular momentum is the
Figure 4-14. Angular Momentum. A non- product of an object's resistance to change in spin rate or direction, and its
spinning top (left) falls right over, but a spinning rate of spin. An object's resistance to spin is its rnom~1t of inertia, I. We
top, because of its angular momentum, resists
the force applied by gravity and stays upright.
represent the angular velocity!..,.which is a vector, by Q . So we find the
angular momentum vector, H, using Equation ( 4-2).
(4-2)
where
H = angular momentum vector (kg· m2 Is)
I = moment of inertia (kg · m2) 1~ .; .
Q = angular velocity vector (rad/s)
To characterize the direction of angular momentum, we need to examine
the angular velocity, Q . Look at the spinning wheel in Figure 4-15 and
apply the right-hand rule. With our fingers curled in the direction it's
sginning, our thumb points in the directi~n of the angular velocity vector,
Q, and the angular momentum vector, H.
As Equation (4-2) ime!ies, H is always in the same direction as the
Figure 4·15. The Right-hand Rule. We fi_~d
the direction of the angular velocity v~ctor, Q ,
angular velocity vector, Q. In the next section we'll see that, because of
and the angular momentum vector, H , using angular momentum, a spinning object resists change to its spin direction
the right-hand rule. and spin rate.
112
4.2 Newton's Laws
We can describe angular momentum in another way. A mass spinning
on the end of a string also has angular momentum. In this case, we find__,.it
by using the instantaneous t~pgential velocity of the spinning mass, V,
and the length of the string, R, also called the moment arm. We combine
these two with the mass, m, using a cross product (see Appendix A.2)
relationship to get H .
H
(4--3)
where
H = angular momentum vector (kg · m2 Is)
R = position (m)
m = mass (kg)
V = velocity vector (m/s)
By the nature of the cross product operation, we can tell that H must
be perpendicular to both R and V. Once again, we can use the right--
hand rule to find H, as shown in Figure 4--16. Example 4--2 analyzes the
mass on the end of the string in more detail.
In Section 4.5, we'll see that angular momentum is a very important
property of spacecraft orbits. In Chapter 12, we'll find angular Figure 4-16. Describing Angular Momen-
tum. Th~ direction of the angu_!pr rnomsntum
momentum is also a useful property for gyroscopes and spacecraft in vector, H , is perpendicular to R and V , and
determining and maintaining their attitude. follows the right-hand rule.
-----Astro FunFact----------....
SpirallingFootball
Why does a spiralling football go farther than a tumbling one? The spiralling football resists
change to the spin (the angular momentum) direction, so it presents its streamlined profile to
the wind throughout its flight. This allows the ball to go farlher than a tumbling ball, which
encounters greater wind resistance. This same principle applies in a rifle barrel. "Rifling" refers to the spiral
grooves cut inside the barrel. They cause a bullet to spin as it's fired, giving it angular momentum. The spin
keeps the bullet from tumbling, thus making it less susceptible to wind resistance, so it can go farlher and
straighter.
113
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
Changing Momentum
Now that we've looked at momentum, let's go back to Newton's laws
of motion. As we saw, whether we're dealing with linear or angular
momentum, both represent the amount a moving object resists change in
its direction or speed. Now we can determine what it will take to
overcome this resistance using Newton's Second Law.
Newton's Second Law of Motion. TJ1e time raie of cuong« of an object's
momentum equals the appliediorce.
In other words, to change an object's momentum very quickly, such as
when we hit a fast ball with a bat, the force applied must be relatively
high. On the other hand, if we're in no hurry to change the momentum,
we can apply a much lower force over much more time.
Let's imagine we see a bulldozer creeping down the street at 1 m/s
(3.28 ft. Is), as in Figure 4-17. To stop the bulldozer dead in its tracks, we
must apply some force, usually by pressing on the brakes. How much
force depends on how fast we want to stop the bulldozer. If, for instance,
we want to stop it in one second, we'd have to overcome all of its
momentum quickly by applying a tremendous force. On the other hand,
if we want to bring the bulldozer to a halt over one hour, we could apply
a much smaller force. Thus, the larger the force applied to an object, the
faster its momentum changes.
Now let's summarize the relationship implied by Newton's §econd
Law. The shorthand symbol we'll use to represent a force is F. The
symbol p represents linear momentum. To represent how fast a quantity
is changing, we must introduce some notation from calculus. (See
Appendix A.3 for a complete review of these concepts.) We use the Greek
symbol "delta," t:,,., to represent a very small change in any quantity. Thus,
Figure 4-17. Newton's Second Law. The
force we must apply to stop a moving object
we represent the rate of change of a quantity, such as momentum, p, over
depends on how fast we want to change its some short length of time, t, as
momentum. If two bulldozers are moving at 1
mis (about the speed of a brisk walk), we must t:,, p _ change in momentum
apply a much, much larger force to stop a (4-4)
t:,, t - change in time
bulldozer in one second than to slop it In one
hour. This equation shows how fast momentum is changing. We now express
Newton's Second Law in symbolic shorthand as
_.,.
.,. t:,,.p t:,,.(mV)
F = - (4-5)
M M
which is true only if Mis very small.
We can expand this equation by applying the t:,, to each term in the
parentheses (another concept from calculus), to get
_.,.
.,. t:,,.V t:,,.m--"
F = m-+-V (4-6)
M M
So what can we do with this relationship? Let's begin with t:,,.m/ M in
the second term. This ratio represents how fast the mass of the object is
114
4.2 Newton's Laws
changing. For many cases, the mass of the object won't change, so this
term is zero for those cases. (In Chapter 14, we'll see this isn't the case for
rockets.) Now, for constant mass problems, we have only the first term in
the relationship 6 VI 6 t, which represents how fast velocity is changing.
But this is just the definition of acceleration, a.
If we substitute for a
/:J. VI /:J. t into Equation (4-6), we get the more familiar version
(4-7)
where
F = force vector (kg m I s2 = N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m I s2)
Equation (4-7) is arguably one of the most useful equations in all of
physics and engineering. It allows us to understand how forces affect the
motion of objects. Armed with this simple relationship, we can determine
everything from how much force we need to stop a bulldozer, to the
amount of acceleration Earth's gravity causes on the Moon. Example 4-3
shows this equation in action.
Action and Reaction
Newton's first two laws alone would have made him famous, but he
went on to discover a third law, which describes a very important
relationship between action and reaction.
A simple example of Newton's Third Law in action applies to ice
skating. Imagine two ice skaters, standing in the middle of the rink, as
shown in Figure 4-18. If one gives the other a push, what happens? They
both move backward! The first skater exerted a force on the second, but in
turn an equal but opposite force is exerted on him, thus sending him
backward! In fact, Newton found that the reaction is exactly equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the original action.
Newton's Third Law of Motion. Wilen body A exerts n force on body B,
body B will exert 1111 equal, but opposite, force 011 body A.
Figure 4-18. Two Ice Skaters Demonstrate Newton's Third Law. If they initially start at
rest and the first one pushes against the second, they'll both go backward. The first skater
applied an action-pushing-and received an equal but opposite reaction.
115
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
In the free-fall environment of space an astronaut must be very
conscious of this fact. Suppose an astronaut tries to use a power wrench
to turn a simple bolt without the force of gravity to anchor her in place.
Unless she braces herself somehow, she'll start to spin instead of the bolt!
Gravity
The image most people have of Newton is of a curly-haired man clad
in the tights and lace common to the 17th century, seated under an apple
tree with an apple about to land on his head. After being hit by one too
many apples, he suddenly jumped up and shouted "Eureka! (borrowing
a phrase from Archimedes) I've invented gravity!" While this image is
more the stuff of Hollywood than historical fact, it contains some truth.
Newton did observe falling objects, such as apples, and read extensively
Galileo's work on falling objects.
The breakthrough came when Newton reasoned that the force due to
gravity must decrease with the square of the distance from the attracting
body (Earth). In other words, an object twice as far away from Earth is
attracted only one fourth as much. Newton excitedly took observations of
the Moon to verify this model of gravity. Unfortunately, his
measurements consistently disagreed with his model by one-sixth.
Finally, in frustration, Newton abandoned his work on gravity. Years
later, however, he found that the value for Earth's mass he had been using
in his calculations was off by exactly one-sixth. Thus, his model of gravity
had been correct all along! We call it Newton's Law of Universal
Gravitation. "Universal" because we believe the same principle must
/A apply everywhere in the universe. In fact, much of modern cosmology-
all we know about the structure of the universe-depends on applying
/R~ this simple law. We can see it applied most simply in Figure 4-19.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation. The force of gravity between
~g s ~ two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their two masses and
i11versely proportional to the square of the distance betuieen them.
m, 2R/- We can express this in symbolic shorthand as
y / F /4
0
O
m2
(4-8)
e'Fg/4 where
Fg = force due to gravity (N)
m,
G = universal gravitational constant= 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 I kg2
Figure 4-19. Newton's Law of Universal
Gravitation. The force of attraction between mi, m2 = masses of two bodies (kg)
any two masses is directly proportional to the R = distance between the two bodies (m)
product of their masses and inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between So what does this tell us? If we have two bodies, say Earth and the
them. Thus, if we double the distance between
two objects, the gravitational force decreases Moon, the force of attraction equals the product of their two masses, times
to 1/4 the original amount. a constant divided by the square of the distance between them. Let's look
116
4.2 Newton's Laws
at some real numbers to see just how hard Earth tugs on the Moon and
vice versa, as shown in Figure 4-20. Earth's mass, mEarth, is 5.98 x 1024 kg
(give or take a couple of mountains!), and the Moon's mass, mMoon, is 7.35
x 1022 kg. The average distance between the Earth and Moon is about 3.84
x 108 m. We already know the gravitational constant, G. Using the
relationship for gravitational force we just described, we find
GmEarthmMoon
Fg = R2
( 6.67 x 10-11~) (5.98 x 1024 kg)(7.35 x 1022 kg)
8 2
(3.84 x 10 m) Figure 4-20. Earth and Moon in a Tug-of-
War. Because of gravity, the Earth and Moon
pull on each other with incredible force, which
F g = 1.98 x 1020 N (or about 4.46 x 1019 !bf) causes tides on Earth.
In other words, there's a huge force pulling the Earth and Moon
together. But do we experience the result of this age-old tug-of-war? You
bet we do! The biggest result we see is in ocean tides. The side of Earth
closest to the Moon is attracted more than the side away from the Moon
(gravity decreases as the square of the distance). Thus, all the ocean water
on the side closest to the Moon swells toward the Moon; on the other side,
the water swells away from the Moon due to the conservation of angular
momentum as Earth rotates. Depending on the height and shape of the
ocean floor, tides can raise and lower the sea level in some places more
than 5 m (16 ft.). If you think about how much force it would take you to
lift half the ocean this much, the incredibly large force we computed
above begins to make sense.
It's important to remember that the force of gravity decreases as the
square of the distance between masses increases. This means that if you
want to weigh less, you should take a trip to the mountains! If you
normally live in Houston, Texas, (elevation -0 ft.) and you take a trip to
Leadville, Colorado, (elevation 3048 m or 10,000 ft.), you won't weigh as
much. That's because you're a bit farther away from the attracting body
(Earth's center). But before you start packing your bags, look closely at
what is happening. Your weight will change because the force of gravity is
slightly less, but your mass won't change. Remember, weight measures
how much gravity is pulling you down. Mass measures how much stuff
you have. So even though the force pulling down on the scale will be
slightly less, you'll still have those unwanted bulges.
Because the gravitational force changes, the acceleration due to gravity
also changes. We can compute the acceleration due to gravity by
combining the relationships expressed in Newton's Second Law of
Motion and Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation. We know from
Newton's Second Law (dropping vector notation because we're
interested only in magnitudes) that
F=ma (4-9)
117
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
We can substitute this expression into Newton's relationship for gravity
(Equation (4-8)) to get an expression for the acceleration of any mass due
to Earth's gravity.
which simplifies to
ag =
For convenience, we typically combine G and the mass of the central body
(Earth in this case) to get a new value we call the grnuitationa! parameter, µ
(Greek, small mu), where µ = Gm. For Earth, we denote this with a
subscript, µEarth·
(4-10)
where
ag = acceleration due to gravity (m/ s2)
µEarth= G mEarth = 3.986 x 1014 m3 / 52
R = distance to Earth's center (m)
If we substitute the values for µEart~ and use Earth's mean radius
(6,378,137.0 m) we get ag = 9.798 ml s at Earth's surface, obviously
pulling toward Earth's center. Note: we usually use kilometers instead of
meters in this equation, because Earth's radius is so large.
~----Astra FunFact----~
GalileoWasCorrect
. -. "', Nearly 400 years later and more than 400, 000 km away, one of Galileo's ideas was
~ ""· finally put to the test. On the Moon during the Apollo 15 mission, in the summer of
1971, astronaut Dave Scott performed a simple experiment: "In my left hand I have
a feather. In my right hand, a hammer. I guess one of the reasons we got here today
was because of the gentleman named Galileo a long time ago who made a rather
significant discovery about falling objects in gravity fields, and we thought, 'where
would be a better place to confirm his findings than on the Moon?' And so we'll try
it here for you. The feather happens to be appropriately a falcon feather for our Falcon [the name of the lunar
lander] and I'll drop the two of them here and, hopefully, they'll hit the ground at the same time." With that, Scott
dropped the two objects which impacted the lunar surface simultaneously in the absence of any air resistance.
"How about that," Scott exclaimed, "this proves that Mr. Galileo was correct!"
David Baker, PhD, The History of Manned Space Flight. New York, NY: Crown Publishers Inc., 1981.
118
4.2 Newton's Laws
111111111111 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
angular momentum, H
_,,
> The mass of an obj ct denotes three things about it
angular velocity, Q • How much "stuff" it has
gravitational parameter, µ • How much it resists motion-its inertia
gravity • How much gravitational attraction it has
inertia
linear momentum, p > Newton's three law of motion are
mas • First Law. A body continues in its state of rest, or in uniform
moment arm motion in a straight line, unless compelled to change that state
moment of inertia, I by forces irnpr ssed upon it.
momentum
- The first law says that linear and angular momentum
vector
remain unchanged unless acted upon by an external force
weight
or torque, r sp ctively
Key Equations - Linear m~mentum, p,
equals an object's mass, m, times its
velocity, V
.:,. .....
p = mV - Angular momentum, H, is the product of an object's
_,, ....,. moment of inertia, I, (the amount it resists angular motion)
H =IQ and its angular velocity, Q
H RxmV - We express angular momentum as a vector cros1product of
an object's position from the center of rotation, R (called its
F = n1a moment arm), and the product of i.!_s mass, m, and its
instantaneous tangential velocity, V
• Second Law. Th time rate of change of an obj cr's
momentum equals the applied force.
~lEarth
ag 2
• Third Law. When body A exerts a force on body B, body B
R exerts an equal but opposite force on body A.
> Newton's Law of Univ rsal Gravitation. The force of gravity
b tween two bodies (m, and m2) is directly proportional to the
product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the
squar of the distance betwe n them (R).
• G = universal gravitational constant= 6.67 x 10-n Nm2/kg2
• We often use the gravitational parameter, ~l, to replace G and
mu e Gm
- The gravitational parameter of Earth, ~lEarth, is
µEarth= G mE~rth = 3.986 x 1014 m3 / s2, or, using kilometer
2
instead of meters, ~lEarth = 3.986 x 105 km3 /
119
Example 4-1
Problem Statement 2) Using the momentum of the bulldozer and the
mass of the baby carriage, solve for the required
How fast would a 25 kg baby carriage have to be going velocity of the baby carriage
to have the same linear momentum as a 25,000 kg
bulldozer moving at 1 ml s? V Pbulldozer
baby carriage = m
baby carriage
Problem Summary
Analytical Solution
Given: mbulldozer = 25,000 kg
vbulldozer = 1 mis 1) Determine linear momentum of bulldozer
mbaby carriage = 25 kg Pbulldozer = mbulldozer Vbulldozer
Find: Vbaby carriage to equal momentum of the = (25,000 kg) (1 mis)
bulldozer = 25,000 kg· ml s
2) Solve for required baby carriage velocity
V Pbulldozer
Problem Diagram baby carriage = m
baby carriage
_ 25,000 kg · ml s
- 25 kg
= 1000 mis
-----vbaby carriage -7- · Interpreting the Results
For a baby carriage to have the same linear
momentum as a massive bulldozer moving at only 1
mbaby carriage = 25 kg ml s (about the speed of a brisk walk), it would have
to go 1000 mis-almost three times the speed of
sound!
Conceptual Solution
1) Determine the magnitude of the linear
momentum of the bulldozer
Pbulldozer= mbulldozer Vbulldozer
120
Example 4-2
Problem Statement Analytical Solution
Imagine someone spinning a 0.1 kg ball at the end of a 1) Solve for tangential velocity of the ball
1.0 m string. The angular momentum of the spinning
Hball
system is known to be 10 kg m2 Is. If they let go of the vball =
Rballmball
string, how fast and in what direction will the ball go?
2
lOkg·m/s
(1.0 m)(0.1 kg)
Problem Summary = 100 m/s
Given: mball = 0.1 kg 2) By inspection-when the ball is released, the force
H = 10 kg m2/s of the string is no longer forcing it to go in a
R = 1.0 m circular path, so it will move off on a straight line
tangent to the initial path at the point of release.
Find: Vball direction when released
Interpretingthe Results
Problem Diagram
A 0.1 kg ball on a circular path with a radius of 1.0 m
A H = 10 kg m2/s and an angular momentum of 10 kg · m2 Is must be
moving at a tangential velocity of 100 ml s. When
released, it will fly tangent to the point of release.
Conceptual Solution
1) Solve the angular momentum equation for the
tangential velocity of the ball
----' ...,, ----'
Hba11 = Rba11 x mba11Vball
2) By inspection-determine which direction the ball
will travel when released.
121
Example 4-3
Problem Statement Analytical Solution
A placekicker is able to apply a 100 N force to a 1 kg 1) Solvefort:iV
football for a total of 0.1 seconds. Ignoring gravity, how
fast will the football be going? t:iV =FM
m
t:iV = (100 N)(O.ls) 10 m/s
lkg
Problem Summary
Given: mfootball = 1 kg
Fkicker = 100 N Interpreting the Results
M = 0.1 s
You can use Newton's Second Law of Motion to
Find: i::l Vfootball
analyze the results of applying a given force to an
object for some length of time. In this case, a kicker
applying 100 N of force will kick a football to a speed
of 10 m/ s (22 m.p.h.).
Problem Diagram
Conceptual Solution
1) Use Newton's Second Law of Motion to solve for
the change in velocity of an object in terms of a
force applied over some length of time
.> .,.
F = ma
F=ma
F = mt:iV
M
t:iV = FM
m
122
4.3 Laws of Conservation
4.3 Laws of Conservation
~ In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Describe the basic laws of conservation of momentum and energy
and apply them to simple problems
For any mechanical system, basic properties, such as momentum and
energy, remain constant. In physics we say that if a certain property or
quantity remains unchanged for a given system, that property or quantity
is conserved. So let's take a look at two basic properties-momentum and
energy-to see how they' re conserved.
Momentum
One very important implication of Newton's Third Law has to do with
the amount of momentum in a system. Newton's Third Law implies the
total momentum in a system remains unchanged, or is conserved. We call
this conservation of momentum.
To understand this concept let's go back to our ice skating example.
When the two skaters faced each other, neither of them was moving, so
the total momentum of the system was zero. Then the first one pushed on
the second, and he moved in one direction with some speed, while she
moved in the other. Their speeds won't be the same unless their masses
are equal. The first skater moves in one direction with a speed that
depends on his mass, while the other moves in the opposite direction
with a speed depending on her mass. Now, the second skater's momen-
tum (the product of her mass and velocity) is equal in magnitude, but
opposite in direction, to his.
Depending on how we define our frame of reference, the first skater's
momentum could be negative while the other's is positive. Adding the
momentums, gives us zero, so, the original momentum of the system (the
two skaters) hasn't changed. Thus, as Figure 4-21 shows, we say that the
system's total momentum is conserved. Example 4-4 also shows this prin-
ciple in action.
This conservation principle works equally well for angular momen-
tum. You've probably seen a good example of this with figure skaters,
who always include a spin in their routines. Remember, once an object (or initial momentum Pi= m1Y1 p2 = m2Y2
skater) begins to spin, it has angular momentum. is zero Pi + p2 = O
By watching these skaters closely, you may see them move their arms Figure 4-21. Conservation of Momentum.
Two people on ice skates demonstrate the
outward or inward to vary their spin rate. How does this change their
concept of conservation of linear momentum.
spin rate? We know from Equation (4-2) that angular momentum, H, Initially the two are at rest; thus, the momentum
equals the product of the moment of inertia, I, and the spin rate, Q . The of the system is zero. But as one skater pushes
on the other, they both start moving in opposite
moment of inertia of an object is proportional to its distance from the axis directions. Adding their two momentum vectors
of rotation. To change their moment of inertia, skaters move their arms together still gives us zero; thus, momentum of
outward or inward, which increases or decreases the radius, thereby the system is conserved.
123
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
changing I. Because momentum is conserved, it must stay constant as
moment of inertia changes. But the only way this can happen is for the
angular velocity, Q, to change. Thus, if skaters put their arms out, as in
Figure 4-22, they increase their moment of inertia and spin slower to
maintain the same angular momentum. If they bring their arms in, as in
Figure 4-23, they decrease their moment of inertia and increase the spin
rate to maintain the same angular momentum.
Energy
We've all had those days when somehow we just don't seem to have
any energy. But what exactly is energy? Energy can take many forms
including electrical, chemical, nuclear, and mechanical. For now, let's deal
Figure 4-22. Spinning Slowly. Skaters only with mechanical energy because it's the most important for
extend their arms to increase moment of
understanding motion. If you've jumped off a platform, climbed a ladder,
inertia-spinning more slowly.
or played with a spring, you've experienced mechanical energy. Total
mechanical e11ergiJ, E, comes from an object's position and motion. It's
composed of potential e!lergy, PE, which is due entirely to an object's
position and kinetic energy, KE, which is due entirely to the object's
motion. Total mechanical energy can be only potential, kinetic, or some
combination of both
E=KE + PE (4-11)
where
E = total mechanical energy (kg m2 / s2)
PE = potential energy (kg m2 I s2)
KE = kinetic energy (kg m2 / s2)
Figure 4-23. Spinning Quickly. Skaters bring
To better understand what the trade-off between potential and kinetic
in their arms to decrease moment of inertia- energy means, we need to understand where it takes place. We say that
spinning faster. Total angular momentum is the gravity is a couseroatioe field-a field in which total energy is conserved.
same in both cases.
Thus, the sum of PE and KE, or the total E, in a conservative field is
constant.
Potential energy is the energy an object in a conservative field has
entirely because of its position. We call it "potential" energy because we
don't really notice it until something changes. For example, if you pick up
a 1 kg (2.2 lb.) mass and raise it above your head, it's higher position
gives it more "potential" energy. This potential is realized when you drop
the mass and it lands on your foot! To quantify this form of energy, we
must derive an expression for the amount of work done by raising the
object above a reference point (usually Earth's surface) against the force
of gravity (see Appendix C.10). If we raise the object a small distance (a
few hundred meters or less), we can assume gravity is constant and we
get
PE (4-12)
124
4.3 Laws of Conservation
where
m = mass (kg)
ag = acceleration due to gravity (m/ s2)
h = height above a reference point (m)
Thus, to compute an object's potential energy after raising it a small
distance, we need to know three things: the amount of mass, m; its
position above a reference point, h: and the acceleration due to gravity, ag,
at that reference point. But, if we want to find a spacecraft's potential
energy in orbit high above Earth, we can't assume gravity is constant, and
we can't use Earth's surface as a convenient reference point anymore. Let's
see how we find potential energy in an orbit.
As we know from the last section, the gravitational acceleration varies
depending on an object's distance from Earth's center, R. To derive the
potential energy equation for this gravitational field (see Appendix C.10),
we must determine the amount of work it would take to move the
spacecraft from Earth's center to its orbital position, a distance of R. That
derivation yields
(4-13)
where
PE = spacecraft's potential energy (kg km2 I s2)
m = spacecraft's mass (kg)
~t = gravitational parameter (krrr' I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2
R = spacecraft's distance from Earth's center (km)
Notice the negative sign in Equation (4-13). This sign is due to the
convention we're using, which defines R to be positive outward from
Earth's center. We know potential energy should increase as we raise a
spacecraft to a higher orbit, so is this still consistent? Yes! As we raise our
spacecraft's orbit, R gets bigger, and PE gets less negative-which means
it gets bigger too. Remember, for potential energy, -3 is a bigger quantity
than --4 because it's less negative. (This approach is analogous to heat: an
ice cube at -3 degrees Celsius is "hotter" than one at --4 degrees Celsius.)
At the extreme, when R reaches infinity (or close enough), PE approaches
zero.
One way to visualize this strange situation is to think about Earth's
center being at the bottom of a deep, deep well (Figure 4-24). At the
bottom of the well, R is zero, so PE is at a minimum (its largest negative PE<O
value, PE= -oo). As we begin to climb out of the well, our PE begins to radius = Rsavtn
increase (gets less negative) until we reach the lip of the well at R near PEmin =-oo
infinity. At this point, our PE is effectively zero, and for all practical radius= 0
purposes, we have left Earth's gravitational influence. Of course, we
Figure 4-24. Potential Energy (PE). PE
never really reach an "infinite" distance from Earth, but as we'll see when increases as we get farther from Earth's center
we discuss interplanetary travel in Chapter 7, we essentially leave Earth's by becoming less negative. It's as ii we're
"gravity well" at a distance of about one million km (621,400 mi.). climbing out of a deep well.
125
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
If you have a 1 kg mass suspended above your head, how do you
realize the "potential" of its energy? You let go! Gravity will then cause
the mass to accelerate downward, so when it hits the ground (and
hopefully not your head or your foot, enroute), it's moving at
considerable speed and thus has energy of a different kind-energy of
motion, which we call kinetic energy. Similar to linear momentum, kinetic
energy is solely a function of an object's mass and its velocity.
maximum PE maximum PE
I KE= I (4-14)
7=0 KE=O ~mv'
\ where
KE = kinetic energy (kg km2 / s2)
m = mass (kg)
V = velocity (km/ s)
As we said, total mechanical energy in a conservative field (such as a
gravitation.al field) stays constant. But, a spacecraft in orbit may get close
to Earth during part of its orbit and be far away in another part. So, how
does it maintain a constant mechanical energy? It must trade the potential
PE + KE = constant energy it loses as it moves closer, for kinetic energy (increased velocity).
Figure 4-25. Mechanical Energy is Con- Then, as it goes farther away, it trades back-kinetic energy goes down,
served. The total mechanical energy, the sum as the potential energy goes up.
of kinetic and potential energy, is constant in a
conservative field. We can show this with a
The endless trade-off between PE and KE to make this happen goes on
simple swing. At the bottom of the arc, speed is all around us-but we often don't notice it. We've all played on a simple
greatest and height is lowest; hence, KE is at playground swing like the one in Figure 4-25. As we swing back and
the maximum and PE is at a minimum. As the
swing rises to the top of the arc, KE trades for
forth, we constantly trade between KE and PE. At the bottom of the arc,
PE until it stops momentarily at the top where we are moving the fastest, so our KE is at a maximum and PE is at a
PE is maximum and KE is zero. minimum. As we swing up, our speed diminishes until, at the top of the
arc, we actually stop briefly. At this point, our KE is zero because we're
not moving (velocity is zero), but our PE is at a maximum. The reverse
happens as we swing back, this time turning our PE back into energy of
motion. If it weren't for friction in the frame attachments and our own
wind resistance, once we started on a swing, we'd swing forever even
without "pumping." Another way to experience this trade-off between
KE and PE is to ride a roller coaster, such as the one illustrated in
Example 4-5 at the end of this section.
We can now combine KE and PE to get a new expression for the total
mechanical energy of our orbiting spacecraft
IE= ~m v'~'yf (4-15)
126
4.3 Laws of Con ervation
where
E = total mechanical energy (kg km2 I s2)
m = mass (kg)
V = velocity (km/ s)
µ = gravitational parameter (krrr' / s2)
R = position (km)
Later we'll use this expression to develop some useful tools for analyzing
orbital motion.
- Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
conservation of momentum > A properly is conserved if it stays constant in a system
conservative field
kinetic energy, KE
> In the absence of outside forces, linear and angular momentum
are conserved
potential energy, PE
total mechanical energy, E > A conservative field, sud, as gravity, is one in which total
mechanical en rgy is conserved
Key Equations
> Total mechanical energy, E, is the sum of potential and kinetic
E =KE+ PE energies
• Kinetic energy, KE, is energy of motion
PE = - mµ
R • Potential energy, PE, is energy of position
1 2
KE=
2mV
E = !m y2_mµ
2 R
127
Example 4-4
Problem Statement 2) Solve for the unknown, Vskaterfinal. The direction
A 50 kg roller skater is motionless holding a 0.5 kg ball. is found from Newton's Third Law. If the ball is
If the skater throws the ball eastward at a velocity of 10 thrown eastward (action) the skater must go
m/s what happens to the skater? westward (reaction).
Problem Summary
Analytical Solution
Given: mskater = 50 kg
V skater initial = 0 m / S
vball initial= 0 m/s
mball = 0.5 kg
Vball final= 10 m/s [(50 kg) (0 m/s)] + [0.5 kg) (0 m/s)]
Find: V skater final and direction of motion = [(50 kg) ( V skater final)] + [(0.5 kg) (10 m/ s)]
___,. kg·m
0 = (50 kg) V skater final +5 s
Problem Diagram
---'
2) Solve for V skater final
--- east
---' -5kg · m
V skater final 50kg · s
vball = 10 m/s
-east = -0.1 m/s
+ Negative sign indicates westward travel because
we choose eastward for positive.
initial final
Interpretingthe Results
Conceptual Solution
When a skater throws a ball in one direction, he or she
1) Apply the concept of conservation of momentum.
The total momentum of the roller skater plus the will go in the opposite direction according to Newton's
ball must be the same before and after the ball is Third Law. We find the velocity in the opposite direction
thrown. by using the principle of conservation of momentum.
..,. ..,. 111is same basic idea is used to propel rockets. They eject
Pinitial = Pfinal
mass at some high velocity in one direction and
therefore move in the opposite direction.
mskater v skater initial + mballv ball initial
= mskaterv skater final + mball v ball final
128
Example 4-5
Problem Statement Analytical Solution
A roller coaster car (on a frictionless track) begins from
1) Find Einitial
a dead stop at the top of the first hill at a height of 50
m, How fast will it be going at the top of the second hill 2
at a height of 40 m? Einitial = mag hinitial + 1/2 m Vin,t1a1
Problem Summary Einitial = (9.798 m/s2)(50 m) + 1/2(0 ni.ls/
m
Given: Vinitial = 0 ml s = 489.9 m2 I s2
hfinal = 40 m
hinitial = 50 m 2) Set Einitial = Efinal
Find: Vfinal
Einitial Efinal
m m
Problem Diagram
2
489.9 m Is 2 = ag hfinal 2
+ 112 vlinal
= (9.798 mls2) (40 m) + 112 v~nal
2
Vnnai = 196 m 21 s2
vfinal = 14 mis
Conceptual Solution
1) Find total mechanical energy at the beginning of the
problem [Hint: Use PE convention from Equation
(4-12).] Interpretingthe Results
Einitial = KE + PE
PEinitial = m ag hinitial Starting from the top of the 50 m hill on the roller
coaster, the car is at the point of maximum potential
KEin.itial = 1 I 2 m y2 energy. As it goes down that first hill, it trades potential
for kinetic energy and gains speed. As it starts up the
2) By conservation of energy, set this total equal to second hill, the trade-off turns around and it loses
the total mechanical energy at the end of the speed, but it's still going 14 mis at the top of that
problem and solve for V final second hill (over 30 m.p.h.). Notice we weren't given
Einitial = Efinal the mass of the car in this problem and didn't need it
to find the velocity. This implies the car would reach
2
m ag hinitial + 1/2 m vinitial the same velocity no matter what its mass is. We'll use
2 this same concept when we analyze spacecraft motion
=mag hfinal + 112 m vfinal and introduce specific mechanical energy.
[Assume ag = constant]
129
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
4.4 The Restricted Two-body Problem
== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Explain the approach used to develop the restricted two-body
equation of motion, including coordinate systems and assumptions
.- Explain how the solution to the two-body equation of motion
dictates orbital geometry
.- Define and use the terms that describe orbital geometry
Earlier, we outlined a general approach to analyzing the motion of an
object called the MAP, shown again in Figure 4-26. There we described
the motion of a baseball. Now we can use the first three steps of this same
method to understand the motion of any object in orbit. A special
application of the MAP is the restricted two-body problem. Why restricted?
As we'll see later in this section, we must restrict our analysis with
assumptions we need to make our lives easier. Why two bodies? That's
one of the assumptions. Why a problem? Finding an equation to
represent this motion has been a classic problem solved and refined by
students and mathematicians since Isaac Newton. In this section, we'll
rely on the work of the mathematicians who have come before us. So at
the end of this section you'll say, "The motion of two bodies? Hey, no
problem!"
Figure 4-26. Motion Analysis Process
Coordinate Systems
(MAP) Checklist. Originally described in
Section 4.1 (Figure 4-6), this process applies To be valid, Newton's laws must be expressed in an inertial reference
lo balls in flight or spacecraft in orbit. frame, meaning a frame that is not accelerating. To illustrate this, let's
suppose we want to describe the flight of a baseball we toss and catch
while we're driving in our car. We see the ball go up and down with
respect to us. But that's not the whole story. Our car may be accelerating
with respect to a police car behind us. Our car and the police car may be
accelerating with respect to Earth's surface. And of course we must
consider Earth's motion spinning on its axis, Earth's motion around the
Sun, the Sun's motion in the Galaxy, the Galaxy's motion through the
universe, and the expansion of the universe! These are all accelerating
frames of reference for the ball's motion, which complicate our attempt to
describe this motion using Newton's laws.
So we can see how this reference frame stuff can get complicated very
quickly. Indeed, from astronomical observations, it looks like everything
in the universe is accelerating. So how can we find any purely non-
accelerating reference? We can't. To apply Newton's laws to our ball, we
must select a reference frame that's close enough to, or "sufficiently,"
inertial for our problem.
130
4.4 The Restricted Two-body Problem
Any reference frame is just a collection of unit vectors at right angles to
each other that allows us to specify the magnitude and direction of other
vectors, such as a spacecraft's position and velocity. This collection of unit
vectors allows us to establish the components of vectors in 3-D space. By
rigidly defining these unit vectors, we define a coordinate system.
To create a coordinate system we need to specify four pieces of informa-
tion-an origin, a fundamental plane, a principal direction, and a third axis,
as shown in Figure 4-27. The origin defines a physically identifiable starting
point for the coordinate system. The other three parameters fix the
orientation of the frame. The fundamental plane contains two axes of the
system. Once we know the plane, we can establish the first axis by defining
a unit vector that starts at the origin and is perpendicular to this plane. The
unit vector in this direction at the origin is one axis. Next, we need a prin-
cipal direction within the plane, which we define by pointing a unit vector
toward some visible, distant object, such as a star. Now that we have two
directions (the principal direction and an axis perpendicular to the
fundamental plane), we can find the third axis using the right-hand rule.
(1) pick the origin: (2) pick the fundamental plane and
O
the perpendicular to it:
-.
origin origin / fundamental
plane
0/
(3) pick the principal direction:
origin ,,,,. fundamental
plane 07~-----; -:
(4) find the third axis:
· I
~~~ental
third axis
found using
right-hand
rule
principal direction principal direction
Figure 4-27. Defining a Coordinate System. We define coordinate systems by selecting a
convenient ( 1) origin; (2) fundamental plane containing the origin and an axis perpendicular to
the plane; (3) principal direction within the plane; and (4) third axis using the right-hand rule.
Remember-coordinate systems should make our lives easier. If we
choose the correct coordinate system, developing the equations of motion
can be simple. If we choose the wrong system, it can be nearly impossible.
For Earth-orbiting spacecraft, we'll choose a tried-and-true system that
we know makes solving the equations of motion relatively easy. This
geocentric-eouatoria! coordinate system has these characteristics
• Origin-Earth's center (hence the name geocentric)
• Fundamental plane-Earth's equator (hence geocentric-equatorial). Figure 4-28. Vernal Equinox Direction. The
Perpendicular to the plane-North Pole direction vernal equinox direction is the principal direc-
tion for the geocentric-equatorial coordinate
• Principal direction-vernal equinox direction found by drawing a line system. It's found by drawing a llne from Earth
from Earth to the Sun on the first day of Spring, as shown in Figure 4- through the Sun on the first day of Spring,
28. While this direction may not seem "convenient" to you, it's usually March 21.
131
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
significant to astronomers who originally defined the system. Plus it
beats any alternatives by a Jong way, mostly because they move.
• Third axis found using the right-hand rule
Figure 4-29 shows the entire coordinate system.
Equation of Motion
Using the geocentric-equatorial coordinate system, we can safely apply
Newton's Second Law to examine the external forces affecting the system,
or in this case, a spacecraft. So let's place ourselves on an imaginary
spaceship in orbit around Earth and see if we can list the forces on our ship.
Figure 4-29. Geocentric-equatorial Coor· • Earth's gravity (Newton wouldn't let us forget this one)
dlnate System. We define this system by
· Origin-Earth's center • Drng-if we're a little too close to the atmosphere
• Fundamental plane-equatorial plane • Thrust-if we fire rockets
• Perpendicular to plane-North Pole
• 3rd body-gravity from the Sun, Moon, or planets
· Principal direction-vernal equinox ('5')
We use this coordinate system for analyzing • Other-just in case we miss something
the orbits of Earth-orbiting spacecraft
~----Astra Fun Facf-----
Hold that Equinox!
Star gazers, several thousand years ago, first determined the vernal equinox direction. Later, when they
noted that it pointed at the first star in the Aries constellation, they called it the First Point of Aries, and used the
Aries astrological symbol, 'O' (a rams head), to identify it.
Because Earth's spin axis wobbles a little, the equatorial plane also wobbles, and so, the line of intersection
between the equatorial and ecliptic planes (the vernal equinox direction) shifts slightly (westward), about 9 milli-
arcseconds a day. Over several thousand years, the vernal equinox direction has shifted out of the Aries
constellation, through the Pisces constellation, and will soon enter the Aquarius constellation. During this
movement, astronomers and astronautical engineers continued to use the name, "First Point of Aries" for the
vernal equinox direction, even after it left the Aries constellation.
On January 1, 1998, to avoid the drifting reference problem, astronomers with the International Astronomical
Union adopted the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF), which pinpoints its principal direction by
referencing 608 extragalactic radio stars (mostly pulsars) that are so far away, no one will notice any movement.
The principal direction is as close as possible to the vernal equinox direction at noon on January 1, 2000, at the
Greenwich Meridian, so the ICRF matches the traditional J2000.0 reference frame. Unfortunately, the vernal
equinox will continue to wander, but exacting astronomers and engineers have a new, stationary (nearly inertial)
reference.
U.S. Naval Observatory (http://aa.usno.navy.mil)
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
Contributed by Doug Kirkpatrick, the U.S. Air Force Academy
132
4.4 The Restricted Two-body Problem
Summing all these forces, shown in Figure 4-30, we get with the following
equation of motion
2Fexterna1 = Fgravity + Fdrag + Fthrust + F3rd body+ Fother = ma (4-16)
If we substituted mathematical expressions for the various forces and
tried to devise a solution to the equation, we would create a difficult
problem-not to mention an enormous headache. So let's examine some Fgravity
reasonable assumptions we can make to simplify the problem.
Simplifying Assumptions
Luckily, we can assume some things about orbital motion that will Figure 4-30. Possible Forces on a Space-
simplify the problem, but they will "restrict" our solution to cases in craft. We can brainstorm all the possible forces
on a spacecraft to include Earth's gravity, drag,
which these assumptions apply. Fortunately, this includes most of the thrust, third-body gravity, and other forces.
situations we'll use. Let's consider the forces on a spacecraft in orbit and
assume
• The spacecraft travels high enough above Earth's atmosphere that
the drag force is small, F drag= 0
• The spacecraft won't maneuver or change its path, so we ignore the
thrust force, Fthrust s. 0
• We are considering the motion of the spacecraft close to Earth, so we
ignore the gravitational attraction of the Sun, the Moon, or any other
third body, F3rd body= 0. (That's why we call this the two-body
problem.)
• Compared to Earth's gravity, other forces such as those due to solar
radiation, electromagnetic fields, etc., are negligible, F others. 0
• Earth's mass is much, much larger than the mass of any spacecraft,
mEarth >> mspacecraft
• Earth is spherically symmetrical with uniform density, so we treat it
as a point mass. Thus, we mathematically describe Earth's gravity as
acting from its center.
• The spacecraft's mass is constant, Arn = 0, so Equation 4-7, applies
• The geocentric-equatorial coordinate system is sufficiently inertial, so
that Newton's laws apply
After all these assumptions, we're left with gravity as the only force, so
our equation of motion becomes
2 fexternal = Fgravity = ma, as shown in
···::'
-~·· ·
.-,:-. '
.>
Figure 4-31. Now we can apply Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation in
vector form
Figure 4·31. The Force of Gravity. In the
restricted two-body problem, we reduce the
f gravity (4-17) forces acting on a spacecraft to a single force-
Earth's gravity.
133
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
Substituting the force of gravity equation into the equation of motion,
we get
__,
Note: we Hse tl1, syacccmft's ~ µmR ~ __,
y()sitiol! vector, R, .iivided !~· Fgravity - R2 R= ma mR
its 1w1gnltudC', R; fo drnatc tlie and dividing both sides by m, we arrive at the restricted two-body eouatiou
direclio11 of tiie gmvity force. of motion
A1wl11rr w11y 11.1 slww this dtn:c-
titm is witl1 11 1111it WL'for, R. (4-18)
(Se~ AJ11t:Udix A _{cir tl1i:
defi11iti1.m L;f ,1 wilt 1·ector.) where
_:_;.
R = spacecraft's acceleration (km/s2)
µ = gravitational parameter (krrr'/ s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 / s2 for
Earth
__,
circle R = spacecraft's position vector (km)
R = magnitude of the spacecraft's position vector (km)
__,
[Note: we use the engineering convention for the second derivative of R
with respect to time, which is R,
better known as acceleration, a.]
What can the two-body equation of motion tell us about the movement
of a spacecraft around Earth? Unfortunately, in its present form-a
second-order, non-linear, vector differential equation-it doesn't help us
visualize anything about this movement. So what good is it? To
understand the significance of the two-body equation of motion, we must
first "solve" it, using a rather complex mathematical derivation (see
Appendix C.3). When the smoke clears, we're left with an expression for
the magnitude of the position vector (not the velocity) of an object in
space in terms of some odd, new variables.
k1
R = --,,---
1 + k2cosv
where __,
R = magnitude of the spacecraft's position vector, R
k1 = constant that depends on ~1, and R, V
k2 = constant that depends onµ, and R, V
v = (Greek letter "nu") polar angle measured from an orbit's
principal axis to R
This equation is the solution to the restricted, two-body equation of
motion and describes the spacecraft's location, R, in terms of two
constants and a polar angle, v, You may recognize that this equation also
Figure 4-32. Conic Sections. The solution
to the restricted, two-body equation of motion
represents a general relationship for any circle, ellipse, parabola, or
gives the polar equation for a conic section. hyperbola-commonly known as conic sections, shown in Figure 4-32. Now,
Conic sections are found by slicing right cones here's the really significant part of all this-we just proved Kepler's Laws
at various angles.
of Planetary Motion! Based on Brahe's data, Kepler showed that the
134
4.4 The Restricted Two-body Problem
planets' orbits were ellipses but couldn't say why. We've just shown why:
any object moving in a gravitational field must follow one of the conic
sections. In the case of planets or spacecraft in orbit, this path is an ellipse
or a circle (which is just a special case of an ellipse).
Now that we know orbits must follow conic section paths, we can look
at some ways to describe the size and shape of an orbit.
Orbital Geometry
Because we' re mainly interested in spacecraft orbits, which we know
are elliptical, let's look closer at elliptical geometry. Using Figure 4-33 as a
reference, let's define some important getnnetrical pnraineter« for an ellipse.
__,.
R = spacecraft's position vector, measured from
Earth's center
V = spacecraft's velocity vector
F and F' = primary and vacant foci of the ellipse
RP = radius of perigee (closest approach)
R~ = radius of apogee (farthest approach)
2a = major axis
2b = minor axis
2c = distance between the foci
a = sernimajor axis
b = semiminor axis
1-------- 2c --------.1
1----------- Ra --------.1·-R - v = true anomaly
----------- 2a P
cp = flight-path angle
Figure 4-33. Geometry of an EllipticalOrbit. With these parameters, we completely define the size and shape of the orbit.
• R is the radius from the focus of the ellipse (in this case, Earth's
center) to the spacecraft
• F and F' are the primnry (occupied) and vacant (unoccupied).foci.
Earth's center is at the occupied focus.
• RP is the radius of periapsis (radius of the closest approach of the
spacecraft to the occupied focus); it's called the radius of perigee when
the orbit is around Earth
• Ra is the radius of nponpsis (radius of the farthest approach of the
spacecraft to the occupied focus); it's called the radius of npogee when
the orbit is around Earth
135
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
• 2a is the major axis or the length of the ellipse. One-half of this is "a,"
or the semimajor axis (semi means one half).
(4-19)
• 2b is the minor axis or width of the ellipse. One-half of this is "b," or
the semi minor axis.
• 2c is the distance between the foci, Ra - RP
• v is the true a110111nly or polar lngle measured from perigee to the
spacecraft's position vector, R, in the direction of the spacecraft's
motion. It locates the spacecraft in the orbit. For example, if v = 180°
the spacecraft is 180° from perigee, putting it at apogee. The range for
true anomaly is 0° to 360°.
• cp is the flight-pntft angle, measured from the local horizontal to the
velocity vector, V. At the spacecraft the local horizontal is a line
perpendicular to the position vector, R. When the spacecraft travels
from perigee to apogee (outbound), its velocity vector is always
above the local horizon (gaining altitude), so <p > 0°. When it travels
from apogee to perigee (inbound), its velocity vector is always below
the local horizon (losing altitude), so cp < 0°. At exactly perigee and
apogee of an elliptical orbit, the velocity vector is parallel to the local
horizon, so cp = 0. The maximum value of the flight-path angle is 90°.
• e is the ecce11fricity, which is the ratio of the distance between the foci
(2c) to the length of the ellipse (2a)
2c
e = -
2a
• Eccentricity defines the shape or type of conic section. Eccentricity is a
medieval term representing a conic's degree of noncircularity
(meaning "out of center"). Because circular motion was once
considered perfect, any deviation was abnormal, or eccentric (maybe
you know someone like that). Because the distance between the foci in
an ellipse is always less than the length of the ellipse, its eccentricity is
between O and 1. A circle has e = 0. A very long, narrow ellipse has e
approaching 1. A parabola has e = 1 and a hyperbola has e > 1.
With all these geometrical parameters defined, let's look at our polar
equation of a conic and substitute for the constants k1 = a (1 - e2) and
k2 = e (see Appendix C.3). Thus, we have
2
R= a(l-e) (4-20)
1 + ecosv
where
R = magnitude of the spacecraft's position vector (km)
a = sernimajor axis (km)
e = eccentricity (unitless)
v = true anomaly (deg or rad)
136
4.4 The Restricted Two-body Problem
To determine the distances at closest approach, Rp, and farthest
approach, Ra, we can use this equation.
f~~~ a(l-e2) ) _,.
Atv=O,R=Rp=(l
_._ + e cos (0
0)) =a(l-e .1-.20- ~
----------- .,,,;-1r· \."- ~ ,
- ~')'r{l-•·
(\06~ a(l - e2) lfL,wfo
At v = 180, R = R11 = (1 + ecos(180a)) = ~e)
Looking at the geometry of an ellipse, we can see that the length of the
ellipse, 2a, equals (R3 + RP)' and the distance between the foci, 2c, is (R3 -
Rf). Now, if we want to compute the orbit's eccentricity based on the radii
o perigee and apogee, we can use the second part of Equation (4-21). See
Example 4-6.
e = 2c = Ra - RP (4-21) Figure 4-34. Circle. A circle is just a special
case of an ellipse.
2a Ra+ RP
Parameters for the ellipse also apply to circular orbits, parabolic
trajectories, and hyperbolic trajectories. Figure 4-34 shows a circular orbit,
where the radius from Earth's center is constant and equal to the
semimajor axis. Therefore, this orbit has no apogee or perigee, and its
eccentricity is zero. The flight path angle is always zero.
The parabola in Figure 4-35 represents a minimum escape trajectory or
a path that just barely takes a spacecraft away from Earth, never to return.
So there is no apogee and no empty focus. Thus, the semimajor axis and
the distance between the foci are infinite. We say the eccentricity, e = 1.
The true anomaly ranges from 0° to less than 180° on the outbound path.
The flight path angle is greater than zero. Of course, if a spacecraft is
inbound on a parabolic trajectory, its true anomaly is greater than 180°
until it passes perigee, then it resets to 0° and grows to almost 180°. And
its flight path angle is less than zero until it passes perigee.
Figure 4-35. Parabola. A parabolic trajectory
The hyperbola in Figure 4-36 also represents an escape trajectory, so it is a special case which leaves Earth altogether.
also has no apogee. It's an unusual shape with a different sign
convention. Because the length of the hyperbola (distance between the
"ends") bends back on itself, or is measured outside the conic, we define
this distance, 2a, as negative. The same convention also applies for the
distance between the foci, 2c, so 2c is also negative. But the magnitude of
2c is always larger than the magnitude of 2a, so the eccentricity is greater
than 1.0. The true anomaly ranges from 0° to less than 180° on the
outbound path and greater than 180° to 0° on the inbound path. The flight
path angle is greater than 0° on the outbound path and Jess than 0° on the
inbound path. Table 4-1 summarizes these parameters.
'
fZ ~ r--£'
'
1 -i K -z; CtJJ ._; Figure 4·36. Hyperbola. We use a hyperbolic
trajectory for interplanetary missions. Notice a
real trajectory is around the occupied focus and
an imaginary, mirror-image trajectory is around
the vacant focus.
Ct ( \~(?1-)
137
\/ ~ e
'"\ ~L
J
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
Table 4-1. A Summary of Parameters for Conic Sections.
a = Semimajor c = One-half the Distance
Conic Section Axis between Foci e = Eccentricity
circle a:>O C=O e=O
ellipse a>O O<C<a 0<e<1
parabola a= oo c = 00 e=1
hyperbola a<O lal <lei> o e>1
m! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
apogee >- Combining Newton's Second Law and his Law of Universal
circle Gravitation, we torm the restricted two-body equation of
conic sections motion
eccentrici ty, e • The coordinate system used to derive the two-body
ellipse equation 0£ motion is the geocentric-equatorial system
flight-path anglee
- Origin-Earth's center
foci
fundamental plane - Fundamental plane--equatorial plane
geocentric-equatorial coordinate system - Direction perp ndicular to the plane-North Pole
geometrical parameters direction
hyperbola - Principal direction-vernal equinox direction
origin
parabola • In deriving this equation, we assume
perigee - Drag force is negligible
primary focus, F - Spacecraft is not thrusting
principal direction, I
- Gravitational pull of third bodies and all other forces
radius of apoapsis, R"
are negligible
radius of periapsis, RP
- TI1Earth>> 111spacccr.ift
restricted two-body equation of motion
restricted two-body problem - Earth is spherically symmetrical and of uniform density
semimajor axis, 2a and we can treat it mathematically as a point mass
semiminor axis, 2b - Spacecraft mass is constant, so Am ""0
true anomaly, v - The geocentric-equatorial coordinate system is
vacant focus, F' sufficiently inertial for Newton's laws to apply
Key Equations >- Solving the restricted two-body equation of motion results
in the p lar equation for a conic section
...,.
..,.
R T--=0
, µ R >- Figure 4-33 shows p.1ram ters for orbital geometry, and
R2R Table 4-1 su mmarize, parameters for conic sections
a(l-e2)
R
l+ecosv
138
Example 4-6
Problem Statement 4) The altitude when v = 90° is the radius minus the
radius of the Earth, REarth
Suppose a new class of remote-sensing satellite is in an Alt,,= 90° = ~ = 90° - REarth
orbit with a perigee radius of 7000 km and an apogee
radius of 10,000 km. What is its altitude above Earth
when the true anomaly is 90°?
Analytical Solution
1) Find e
Problem Summary
e = Ra -RP 10,000 km- 7000 km = O 1765
Given: RP = 7000 km Ra+ RP 10 ,000 km + 7000 km .
Ra= 10,000 km
2) Find a
Find: Altitude, when v = 90°
a = Ra + RP = 10,000 km + 7000 km = 8500 km
2 2
3) Find R
Problem Diagram ')
R = a(l - e-) (8500 km)(l - (0.1765/)
1 + ecosv 1 + 0.1765cos90°
R= 8235.2 km
4) Find Ally= 90°
Ally= 90° = 8235.2 km- 6378.14 km
Ra= 10,000 km RP= 7000 km
= 1857.1 km
Interpretingthe Results
Conceptual Solution When this new remote-sensing spacecraft has
reached a point 90° past perigee, it's at an altitude of
1) Find the eccentricity for the orbit using 1857.1 km.
e = Ra-Rp
Ra+ RP
2) Find the semimajor axis for the orbit using
a = Ra+ RP
2
3) Solve for the radius when v = 90° using the polar
equation of a conic
2
R = a(l - e )
1 + ecosv
139
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
4.5 Constants of Orbital Motion
== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
..- Define the two constants of orbital motion-specific mechanical
energy and specific angular momentum
• Apply specific mechanical energy to determine orbital velocity and
period
• Apply the concept of conservation of specific angular momentum
to show an orbital plane remains fixed in space
By now you're probably convinced that, with all these flight-path
angles, true anomalies, and ellipses flying around, there is nothing
consistent about orbits. Well, take heart because we do have constants in
astrodynamics. We saw in our discussion of motion in a conservative field
that mechanical energy and momentum are conserved. Because orbital
motion occurs in a conservative gravitational field, spacecraft conserve
mechanical energy and angular momentum. So, now let's see how these
principles provide valuable tools for studying orbital motion.
Specific Mechanical Energy
In an earlier section, we referred to equations of motion being like
crystal balls, in that they allow us to gaze into the future to predict where
an object will be. Mechanical energy provides us with one such crystal
ball. Recall in defining mechanical energy, we add potential energy, PE, to
kinetic energy, KE. Together, they form a relationship between a
spacecraft's mass, m, its position, R, its velocity, V, and the local
gravitational parameter, ~t (3.986 x 105 km3 I s2 for Earth).
E = !m V2 - µ.m (4-22)
2 R
To generalize this equation, so we don't have to worry about mass, let's
divide both sides of the equation by m. Doing so defines a new flavor of
mechanical energy called specific mechanical energJ1, E, which doesn't
depend on mass. Thus, we can talk about the energy in a particular orbit,
whether the orbiting object is a golf ball or the International Space
Station. Specific mechanical energy, £, is simply the total mechanical
energy divided by a spacecraft's mass
E
£ ea- (4-23)
rn
where= means "defined as," or
1, ~ ~, ~~ I (4-24)
140
4.5 Constants of Orbital Motion
where
E = spacecraft's specific mechanical energy (km2 I s2)
V = spacecraft's velocity (km/s)
~1 = gravitational parameter (krrr' I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 / s2 for
Earth
R = spacecraft's distance from Earth's center (km)
Because the specific mechanical energy is conserved (see Appendix
C.2), it must be the same at any point along an orbit' As a spacecraft
approaches apogee, it is gaining altitude, meaning its R, or distance from
Earth's center, increases. This increase in R means it gains potential
energy-which actually means the potential energy (PE) gets less
negative (because of the way we define it). At the same time, the
spacecraft's speed is decreasing and hence it is losing kinetic energy (KE).
When it reaches the highest point, its PE is at a maximum. However,
because its speed is the slowest at apogee, KE is at a minimum. But the
sum of PE and KE-specific mechanical energy-remains constant.
As the spacecraft passes apogee and starts toward perigee, it begins to perigee~~---==--~-
trade its PE for KE. So, its speed steadily increases until it reaches perigee, PEniin
where its speed is fastest and its KE is maximum. Again, the sum of KEJnJX
potential and kinetic energy-specific mechanical energy-remains
constant. Figure 4-37 illustrates these relationships.
The fact that the specific mechanical energy is constant gives us a
tremendously powerful tool for analyzing orbits. Look again at the
relationship for specific mechanical energy, E. Notice that E depends only
on position, R, velocity, V, and the local gravitational parameter, ~l. This
means if we know a spacecraft's position and velocity at any point along its
orbit, we know its specific mechanical energy for every point on its orbit.
Another important concept to glean out of the constancy of orbital
energy is the relationship between Rand V. Assume we know the energy
for an orbit. Then, at any given position, R, on that orbit, there is only one
Figure 4-37. Trading Energy in an Orbit.
possible velocity, V! Thus, if we know the orbital energy and R, we can An orbit is similar to a swing. PE and KE trade-
easily find the velocity at that point. Simply rearranging the relationship otf throughout the orbit, so their sum is
for energy gives us an extremely useful expression for velocity. constant.
(4-25)
where Nllte: we ,i~fiw R /n1111
V = spacecraft's velocity (km/s)
Enrtks co1le1; 5(, w·/1rn
µ = gravitational parameter (kn? I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2 for
Earth =» ll)il~jt1rl1itnl
R = spacecraft's distance from Earth's center (km) s1ltitudt• n:-mrm/1a /(]
E = spacecraft's specific mechanical energy (km2 I s2) 11,M Ei1rll1·5 r,11fl1L,.
We often use this equation to determine velocities while analyzing
orbits. For example, during space missions we often have to move space-
craft from one orbit to another. We can use this relationship to determine
how much we must change the velocity to "drive" over to the new orbit.
141
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
Recall from our discussion of conic-section geometry, one parameter
represents a spacecraft's mean, or average, distance from the primary
focus. This parameter is the semimajor axis, a. We can develop a new
relationship for specific mechanical energy which depends only on a and
µ. (See Appendix C.4)
(4-26)
where
£ = spacecraft's specific mechanical energy (kni / s2)
µ = gravitational parameter (km' / s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 / s2 for
Earth
a = semimajor axis (km)
This means simply knowing the semimajor axis of a spacecraft's orbit tells
us its specific mechanical energy. We can also learn the type of trajectory
from the sign of the specific mechanical energy,£. For a circular or elliptical
orbite is negative (because a is positive). For a parabola,£= 0 (because a=
oo ). For a hyperbola, £ is positive (because a is negative). These are
important points to keep in mind as we work orbital problems. If the sign
for £ is wrong, the answer probably will be wrong.
Another benefit to knowing a value for energy is that we can
determine orbital period. The orbital period, P, is the time it takes for a
spacecraft to revolve once around its orbit. From Kepler's Third Law of
Planetary Motion, which we showed in Chapter 2, P2 is proportional to
a3, where "a," is the semimajor axis. Using this relationship, we can
derive an expression for the orbital period (see Appendix C.6)
(4-27)
where
P = period (seconds)
rt = 3.14159 ... (unitless)
a = semimajor axis (km)
µ = gravitational parameter (krrr' / s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 / s2 for
Earth
Notice that period only has meaning for "closed" conics (circles or
ellipses). Period is infinite for a parabola, whose semimajor axis is infinite,
and it's an imaginary number for a hyperbola, whose semimajor axis is
negative.
Specific mechanical energy, s. is a very valuable constant of spacecraft
motion. With a single observation of position and velocity, we learn much
about a spacecraft's orbit. Example 4-7 shows one application of specific
mechanical energy.
142
4.5 Constants of Orbital Motion
But s gives us only part of the story. It tells us the orbit's size but
doesn't tell us anything about where the orbit is in space. For insight into
that important bit of information we need to look at the angular
momentum.
Specific Angular Momentum
Recall from our discussion in Section 4.2 that we can find angular
momentum from Equation (4-3).
...,_
H =Rx mV
Once again, to uncomplicate our life, we divide both sides of the equati.on
by the mass, m, of the objec} we're investigating. Doing this, we define the
specific angular momentum, h , as
.., H
hsss-
m
where
- means "defined as," or
I h=RxV I (4-28)
where
h...,_ = spacecraft's specific angular momentum vector (km2 Is)
R = spacecraft's position vector (km)
...,_
V = spacecraft's velocity vector (km Is)
Notice that specific angular momentum is the result of the cross
product between two vectors: position and velocit~ Recall_!rom geometry
that any two lines define a plane. So in this case, R and V are two lines
(vectors having magnitude and direction) that define a plane. We call this
plane containing R and V, the orbital plane. Because the cross product of
any two vectors results in a third vec1or that is perpendicular to th__,_e first
two, the angular momentum vector h must be perpendicular to R and
V . Figure 4-38 shows R, V, and h .
Here's where we need to apply a little deductive reasoning and
consider the logical consequence of the facts we know to this point. First
of all, as we saw in Section 4.3, angular momentum and, hence, specific
angular momentum are s_onstan~in magnitude and direction (alscsee
Appendix C.2). Second, R and V define the orbital plal_le. Next, h is
Figure 4-38. Specific Angular Momentum.
perpendicular to the orbital plane . . ,. Therefore, if h is always The specific angular momentum vector, h , ls
perpendicular to the orbital plane, and h is constant, the orbital plane perpsnoicular to the orbital plane defined by R
must also be constant. This means that in our restricted, two-body and V.
problem the orbital plane is forever frozen in inertial space! However, in
reality, as we'll see in Chapter 8, slight disturbances cause the orbital
plane to change gradually over time.
143
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
~ Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
orbital period, P > In the absence of any force other than gravity, two quantitie
orbital plane remain constant for an orbit
specific angular momentum, h • Specific mechanical energy, E
specific mechanical energy, E
• Specific angular momentum, h
Key Equations > Specific mechanical energy, e, is defined as E aa E/m
2 • E < 0 for circular and elliptical orbits
E ~-~
2 R • E = 0 for parabolic trajectories
• E > 0 for hyperbolic trajectories
> Specific angular momentum, h is defined as h = ·Him
• It is constant for an orbit
E -~
2a • Because l~ i constant, orbital planes are fixed in space
(neglecting orbital perturbations-see Chapter 8)
144
Example 4-7
Problem Statement Analytical Solution
What is the velocity of the remote-sensing spacecraft 1) Find c
discussed in Example 4-6 when the true anomaly is 3
90°? How long before the spacecraft returns to this -3.986 x105k~
point in the orbit? s km2
£ = - J:l:_ = -23.45-2
2a 2(8500 km) s
2) Find V
Problem Summary
Given: a = 8500 km
R, = 900 = 8235.2 km
3
Find: v ; =9oo, p 3.986
1051<~
x
2
2 -8-2-35_.
_km
___2
s
- 23.45
km
7
Problem Diagram
km = 7.065 km
s
3) Find P
p = 2n,f; = 2n (8500
~3.986 x
k:~7:3
10
= 7799 seconds
period "' 130 minutes
Conceptual Solution Interpretingthe Results
1) Find the specific mechanical energy for the orbit
At a point in the orbit 90° from perigee, this
from spacecraft's velocity is 7.065 km/ s (15,807 m.p.h.). For
£ = - J:l:_
this orbit the period is about 130 minutes, or two hours
2a and ten minutes.
2) Knowing R at v = 90°, find the velocity there, using
, 3) Find the orbital period from
P = 2nf;
145
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
!!!!!! References 4 Explain how you could use the steps in the Motion
Analysis Process checklist to analyze the motion of
Bate, Roger R., Donald D. Mueller and Jerry E. White. a volleyball being served.
Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York, NY:
Dover Publications, Inc.. 1971.
Boorstin. Daniel J. The Discoverers. Random House,
1983.
Concepts in Physics. Del Mar, CA: Communications
4.2 Newton's Laws
Research Machines, Inc., 1973.
Feynman, Richard P., Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew 5 What three things does an object's mass tell you
Sands. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Reading, about the object?
MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1963.
Gonick, Larry and Art Huffman. The Cartoon Guide to
Physics. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers,
1990.
Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics ... A New Introduction
6 An astronaut on the Moon drops a hammer and a
to Your Environment. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and
Company, 1981. feather from the same height at the same time.
Describe what happens and why. Explain the
King-Hele, Desmond. Observing Earth Satellites. New difference if this experiment occurs on Earth.
York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc.,
1983.
Szebehely, Victor G. Adventures in Celestial Mechanics.
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1989.
Thiel, Rudolf. And There Was Light. New York: Alfred A 7 Describe how the recoil you feel when firing a rifle
Knopf, 1957.
is the result of Newton's Third Law of Motion.
Young, Louise B., Ed.. Exploring the Universe. Oxford,
MA: Oxford University Press, 1971.
!!!!!! Mission Problems
8 You are spinning a 0.25 kg weight over your head
4.1 Orbital Motion at the end of a 0.5 m string. If you let go of the
string, the weight will sail off on a tangent at 2 m/
s. What is the angular momentum of the spinning
1 Explain how an object's horizontal velocity allows
weight before release? Because angular momentum
it to achieve orbit.
is always conserved, where does the angular
momentum go after release?
2 An object in a circular orbit is given a bit of extra
velocity. What type of orbit will it now be in?
9 The new quarterback throws a football in a perfect
spiral with a moment of inertia of 0.001 kg· m2. If
3 What two types of trajectories completely escape the football is spinning at 60 r.p.m., what is its
Earth? angular momentum?
146
Mission Problems
10 Two asteroids pass by each other in the void of 14 For what mass does the gravitational parameter
interstellar space. Asteroid Zulu has a mass of 1 x equal 3.986 x 105 km3 / s2?
106 kg. Asteroid Echo has a mass of 8 x 106 kg. If
the two are separated by 100 m, what is the force of
gravitational attraction between them?
15 A rocket engine moves forward by expelling high-
11 While flying straight and level in your SR-71
velocity gas from the exhaust nozzle. Discuss the
airplane 25,000 m above the surface of Earth, you
physical law which explains why this occurrence
drop your pencil. What acceleration will the pencil
produces a force on the rocket.
have as it falls toward the cockpit floor?
12 Neglecting air resistance, how fast will a baseball 4.3 Laws of Conservation
(m = 0.1 kg) be travelling when it hits the ground,
if it's dropped from the Empire State Building 16 For an isolated system (one which has no
(about 300 m high)? How long will it take to hit the interaction with its surroundings), what quantities
ground? are constant according to the laws of physics?
13 Match the physical laws on the left with the best
term or description on the right. [Hint: You may
need to review Kepler's Laws from Chapter 2.]
17 You are floating in the cockpit of the Space Shuttle
Atlantis when you decide to do somersaults, thus
1) Newton's First a) Planetary orbits are ellipses
increasing your angular momentum. Why are you
Law
floating? If you push off and do forward
b) Gravity is the only force on a
2) Newton's Second somersaults, then tuck into as tight a ball as you
spacecraft
Law can, what happens to your angular momentum?
c) Inertia Why?
3) Newton's Third
Law d) Action I reaction
4) Newton's Law e) Relates orbital period to
of Universal orbital size
Gravitation 18 Describe the potential, kinetic, and total energy of
f) A net force causes an a baseball that's thrown into the air, reaches its
5) Kepler's First acceleration highest point, then falls to the ground.
Law
g) Equal areas in equal times
6) Kepler's Second
Law h) Spacecraft may be treated as
point masses 4.4 The RestrictedTwo-Body Problem
7) Kepler's Third
Law i) Force is inversely 19 What are the origin, principal direction, and
proportional to the square of fundamental plane for the geocentric-equatorial
the distance coordinate system?
147
Chapter 4 Understanding Orbits
20 What simplifying assumptions do we use to 23 A Russian satellite is in Earth orbit with an altitude
"restrict" the two-body equation of motion? at perigee of 375 km and an altitude at apogee of
2000 km.
a) What is the semimajor axis of the orbit?
21 In solving the restricted two-body equation of b) What is the eccentricity?
motion, we obtain the polar equation of a conic
section. Why is this significant?
c) If the true anomaly is 175°, what is the
satellite's altitude?
22 Match the following terms with their definitions. d) If the true anomaly is 290°, is the flight-path
...,_ angle positive or negative? Why?
1) R a) Closest point in an orbit
...,_
2) V b) Primary and vacant foci
of a conic section 4.5 Constants of Orbital Motion
3) F and F'
c) Position vector 24 Where is the potential energy of a spacecraft
greater, at perigee or apogee? Why?
4) Radius at perigee (Rp)
d) Angle between perigee
5) Radius at apogee (Ra) and the position vector
e) "Out of roundness" of
6) Major axis (2a) 25 While co-piloting a futuristic spacecraft, you
a conic section
receive a report of your position and velocity in the
7) True anomaly (v) geocentric-equatorial frame
f) Distance across the long
axis of an ellipse
8) Flight-path angle (<j>) R = 7000 i + 0 j + 0 K km
g) Angle between local
9) Eccentricity (e) horizontal and the v =of - 7.063 j + o K km/s
velocity vector
a) Sketch the spacecraft position and velocity
vectors relative to Earth. (Hint: Draw the
h) Velocity vector geocentric-equatorial coordinate system first.)
i) Furthest point in an
orbit
b) What is the specific angular momentum? Draw
this vector on the sketch.
c) What does this angular momentum vector tell
you about the orientation of your orbit?
148
Mission Problems
d) What is your specific mechanical energy? 29 We know that the velocity of a spacecraft in an
elliptical orbit is greatest at perigee due to
conservation of specific mechanical energy. Relate
this fact to Kepler's Second Law.
e) What is the shape of your trajectory? How can
you tell?
26 You are the engineer in charge of a top-secret spy 30 A Mars probe is in a circular orbit around Earth
satellite. The satellite will be placed in a circular, with a radius of 25,000 km. The next step on the
sun-synchronous orbit (see Chapter 8), with an way to Mars is to thrust so the probe can enter an
altitude of 759 km and a mass of 10,000 kg. A escape orbit. (a) Determine the probe's velocity in
politician who dislikes the project says the satellite this circular orbit. (b) Determine the minimum
poses a danger to the public because of its large velocity required to enter a parabolic trajectory at
kinetic energy so close to Earth. What is the kinetic that radius. (c) Determine the difference in the
energy of the satellite? Compare this to the kinetic specific kinetic energies of the two orbits. (d) Now
energy of a 2000 kg truck travelling down the compare this result to the specific mechanical
interstate at 65 m.p.h. Is the comparison realistic? energy of the original circular orbit. Which one has
Why or why not? (Hint: Are the two objects in the more specific kinetic energy? Are you surprised?
same reference frame?) Why or why not?
27 Calculate the altitude needed for a circular,
geosynchronous orbit (an orbit whose orbital
period matches Earth's rotation rate). For Discussion
31 Demonstrate that two-body motion is confined to
a plane fixed in space (Hint: What quantities are
conserved?)
28 Complete the following table with the possible
range of values of sernimajor axis, eccentricity, and 32 For the equations of motion to be correct the
specific mechanical energy. coordinate reference frames must be inertial. Is the
geocentric-equatorial frame, commonly used for
spacecraft, a truly inertial reference frame? Why or
a= e = specific
mechanical
why not? If not, why can we use it?
Conic semlmajor e=
Section axis eccentricity energy
circle 33 We based the equations of motion for spacecraft on
the two-body problem. If we wish to design a
ellipse trajectory for an interplanetary probe to Mars,
which two bodies would we consider at the
parabola
beginning of the flight, when the probe leaves
Earth? At the middle, when it's between Earth and
Mars? At the end, as it arrives at Mars? What
hyperbola
problems, if any, do you think this might produce?
149
Notes
150
Mission Profil....-Apollo
c
" ... I believe that this nation should commit itself to ./ Apollo 15, July 26, 1971 (Crew: Irwin, Scott,
achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man Worden): First use of Lunar Roving Vehicle.
on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth."
./ Apollo 16, April 16, 1972 (Crew: Duke, Mattingly,
President John F. Kennedy Young): Over 20 hours of extra-vehicular activity
May 25, 1961 on the Moon.
Less than three weeks after Alan Shepard's first ./ Apollo 17, December 7, 1972 (Crew: Ceman, Evans,
suborbital flight, President Kennedy's address to Schmidt): Last Apollo Moon landing.
Congress boldly established a Moon landing as a MissionImpact
national goal. Over the next eleven years, project
Apollo grew from a statement of national intent to a Apollo met President Kennedy's goal and captured the
project that successfully launched 11 spacecraft and imagination of the entire world. In addition, the Apollo
allowed 12 men to walk on the surface of the Moon. program provided scientists with invaluable inform-
ation about the Moon. Unfortunately, the public and
MissionOverview Congress soon lost interest in the Moon. NASA shifted
Apollo's mission was as simple as President Kennedy's its focus to developing the Space Shuttle, and the
quote-get a man to the Moon and back safely. After technological infrastructure to take humans to the
this initial goal was accomplished, Apollo astronauts Moon and back was laid to rest in museums.
were responsible for collecting scientific data about the
Moon and Earth.
MissionData
./ Apollo 7, October 11, 1968 (Crew: Cunningham,
Eisele, Schirra): First manned Apollo flight. System
checkout of command module. Earth orbit only .
./ Apollo 8, December 21, 1968 (Crew: Anders,
Borman, Lovell): First manned launch of Saturn V.
First lunar orbit .
./ Apollo 9, March 3, 1969 (Crew: McDivitt,
Schweickart, Scott): First flight, test, and docking. Jim Irwin salutes the flag on Apollo 15. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson
Earth orbit only . Space Center)
./ Apollo 10, May 18, 1969 (Crew: Ceman, Stafford,
Young): "Dress rehearsal" for lunar landing: For Discussion
included descent of lunar module to 50,000 ft. • Why did we go to the Moon?
above lunar surface.
• Some say we spent all that money on Apollo and all
./ Apollo 11, July 16, 1969 (Crew: Aldrin, Armstrong, we got was "a bunch of rocks." Is this really true?
Collins): First lunar landing. Armstrong first man
to walk on Moon . • What plans do we have to return to the Moon?
./ Apollo 12, November 14, 1969 (Crew: Bean, Contributor
Conrad, Gordon): Recovered parts from Surveyor
3. Conducted scientific experiments . Todd Lovell, the U.S. Air Force Academy
./ Apollo 13, April 11, 1970 (Crew: Haise, Lovell, References
Swigert): Mission aborted due to an explosion on
the service module on the way to the Moon. Baker, David. The History of Manned Spaceflight. New
York: Crown, 1981.
./ Apollo 14, January 31, 1971 (Crew: Mitchell, Roosa,
Shepard): First golf ball hit on the Moon. Yenne. Bill. The Encyclopedia of US Spacecraft. New
Conducted scientific experiments. York: Exeter, 1985.
151
Flight controllers in the Mission Control Center use this large ground track display to diligently monitor the Space Shuttle's path throughout a
mission. (Courtesy of NASAJJohnson Space Center)
Describing
Orbits
~ In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... !!11111111 Outline
..- Define the classic orbital elements (COEs) used to describe the size, 5.1 Orbital Elements
shape, and orientation of an orbit and the location of a spacecraft in
Defining the Classic Orbital
that orbit
Elements (COEs)
..- Determine the COEs given the position, R, and velocity, V, of a
Alternate Orbital Elements
spacecraft at one point in its orbit
,.... Explain and use orbital ground tracks 5.2 Computing Orbital Elements
Finding Semimajor Axis, a
Finding Eccentricity, e
!!11111111 You Should Already Know ...
Finding Inclination, i
The restricted two-body equation of motion and its assumptions Finding Right Ascension of the
(Cbapter4) Ascending Node, Q
O Orbit specific mechanical energy, E (Chapter 4) Finding Argument of Perigee, to
__,. Finding True Anomaly, v
O Orbit specific angular momentum, h (Chapter 4)
O Definition of vectors and vector operations including dot and cross 5.3 Spacecraft Ground Tracks
products (Appendix A.2)
O Inverse trigonometric functions cos-1 and sin-1 (Appendix A.1)
Space isn't remote at all. It's 011/y an hour's drive away 1f your car could go
straight upwards.
Sir Fred Hoyle, London Observer
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
n the last chapter we looked at the restricted two-body problem and
I developed an equation of motion to describe in strictly mathematical
terms, how spacecraft move through space. But many times it's not
enough to generate a list of numbers that give a spacecraft's position and
velocity in inertial space. Often, we want to visualize its orbit with respect
to points on Earth. For example, we may want to know when a remote-
sensing spacecraft will be over a flood-damaged area (Figure 5-1).
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter
deals with the Trajectories and Orbits segment
of the Space Mission Architecture introduced
in Figure 1-20.
Figure 5-1. Mississippi River Flooding. Here we show an Earth Observation System
view of the river flooding at St. Louis, Missouri, in 1993. (Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space
Flight Center)
In this chapter, we'll explore two important tools that help us "see"
spacecraft motion-the classic orbital elements (COEs) and ground
tracks. Once you get the hang of it, you'll be able to use these COEs to
visualize how the orbit looks in space. Ground tracks will allow you to
determine when certain parts of the Earth pass into a spacecraft's field of
view, and when an observer on Earth can see the spacecraft.
154
5.1 Orbital Elements
5.1 Orbital Elements
11111111! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- De6 ie the classic orbital elements (COEs)
.- Use the COEs to describe the size, shape, and orientation of an orbit
and the location of a spacecraft in that orbit
.- Explain when particular COEs are undefined and which alternate
elements we must use in their place
If you're flying an airplane and the ground controllers call you on the
radio to ask where you are and where you're going, you must tell them
six things: your airplane's
• Latitude
• Longitude
• Altitude
• Horizontal velocity
• Heading (i.e. north, south, etc.)
• Vertical velocity (ascending or descending)
Knowing these things, controllers can then predict your future position.
Space operators do something similar, except they don't ask where the
spacecraft is; instead, they use radar at tracking sites to measure it's
current position, R, and velocity, V. As we'll see in Chapter 8, this
information helps them predict the spacecra£t's future position and Reca[I tliat v is Ilic vdocitv
velocity. Notice that position, R, and velocity, V, are vectors with three vedt1r that dcscril1cs S]'eed '
components each. Unfortunately, unlike latitude and longitude used for
aircraft, R and V aren't very useful in visualizing a spacecraft's orbit.
mrd din·ctimr. \.W 1!5' v lll
For example, suppose you're given this current position and velocity .ie1wtr sriud
'
withtmt re1111rd
l
for a spacecraft tti direction.
__,_
R 10, 000 i + 8000 j - 7000 K km
V=4.4I+3.1J-2.7K km/s
What could you tell about the orbit's size and shape or the spacecraft's
position?
WiJh the !Pols you've learned, about the only thing you could do is
plot R and V in a 3-dimensional coordinate system and try to visualize
the orbit that way. Fortunately, there's an easier ·way. Hundreds of years
ago, Johannes Kepler developed a method for describing orbits that
allows us to visualize their size, shape, and orientation, as well as the
spacecraft's position within them. Because we still need six quantities to
describe an orbit and a spacecraft's place in it, Kepler defined six orbital
elements. We call these the classic orbital elements (COEs), and we'll use
155
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
them to tell us the four things we want to know, as summarized in the
COEs check.list on the left. In the rest of this section, we'll go through each
of the four things on the checklist and learn which COE describe the
Ollbi't~s si~e given properly. As a preview, we'll learn
Otlbift's shape • Orbital size, uses the semimajor axis, a
• Orbital shape, is defined by eccentricity, e
• Orbit's orielll!tation
• Orhi!~aJ IP~ane ~n spaoe • Orientation of the orbital plane in space, uses
• Or"biit wibhhl time plalile - inclination, i
- right ascension of the ascending node, Q
~paceetaft"s Iocation
• Orientation of the orbit within the plane is defined by argument of
perigee, wand finally
• Spacecraft's location in the orbit is represented by true anomaly, v
Let's go through these elements to see what each one contributes to our
understanding of orbits and check them off one at a time on our COE
checklist.
Defining the Classic Orbital Elements (COEs)
Let's start with orbital size. In Chapter 4 we related the size of an orbit
01.ibi't's siae to its specific mechanical energy using the relationship
Orbilt's sha,pe
OtW!t's oriemtatiron
1, a ~ i~ I (5-1)
• Orbi1tal pJa111.e in paoe where
• Oi1biit withim line plane £ = specific mechanical energy (km2 I s2)
S,pacecraft•s location µ = gravitational parameter of the central body (krrr' I s2)
a = semimajor axis (km)
The semimajor axis, a, describes half the distance across the orbit's major
(long) axis, as shown in Figure 5-2, and we use it as our first COE.
perigee~\
focus ~
-------2a = major axis-------
a = sernimajor axis -I
Figure 5-2. Semlmajor Axis. The semimajor axis, a, is one half the distance across the
long axis of an ellipse. The distance between the foci (F and F') of the ellipse is 2c.
156
5.1 Orbital Elements
With the orbit's size accounted for, the next thing we want to know is
its shape. In Chapter 4, we described the "out of roundness" of a conic Classic Cn'b1tal Blemen.ts (COEs)
section in terms of its eccentricity, e. Eccentricity specifies the shape of an Chec~ist
orbit by looking at the ratio of the distance between the two foci and the Ol1birts size
length of the major axis.
011btt's shape
2c
e = 2a (5-2) Or-bit's orientation
• Orbital plane in space
Table 5-1 summarizes the relationship between an orbit's shape and its
• Orbit wibhttiJil llhe plane
eccentricity and Figure 5-3 illustrates this relationship.
~acecma'ft's location
Table 5-1. Relationship Between Conic Section and Eccentricity.
Conic Section Eccentricity
Circle e=O
Ellipse 0<e<1
Parabola e=1 parabola
Hyperbola €>1 t:' = 1.0
Now we have two pieces of our orbital puzzle: its size, a, and its shape,
e. Next we tackle its orientation in space. In Chapter 4 we learned that ellipse
u-c e < 1.0
because specific angular momentum is constant, an orbital plane is
stationary in inertial space. To describe its orientation, we refer to an /
inertial coordinate system used in Chapter 4-the geocentric-equatorial
coordinate system, shown in Figure 5-4. (In the following discussion, we
describe angles between key vectors, so make sure you know how to
perform dot products [see Appendix A.2 for a review] and how to change Figure 5-3. Eccentricity. Eccentricity defines
from degrees to radians [Appendix Al].) an orbit's shape.
The first angle we use to describe the orientation of an orbit with
respect to our coordinate system is inclination, i. luclination describes the K
tilt of the orbital plane with respect to the fundamental plane (the
equatorial plane in this case). We could describe this tilt as the angle
between the two planes, but this is harder to do mathematically. Instead,
we define inclination as the_, angle between two vectors: one perpen-
dicular to the orbital plane, h (the specific angular momentum vector),
and one perpendicular to the fundamental plane, K , as shown in Figure
5-5. Inclination has a range of values from 0° to 180°.
We use inclination to define several different kinds of orbits. For
example, an Earth orbit with an inclination of 0° or 180° is an equatorial
orbit, because it always stays over the equator. If the orbit has i = 90°, we
call it a polnr orbit because it travels over the North and South Poles. We
Figure 5-4. The Geocentric-equatorial
also use the value of inclination to distinguish between two major classes Coordinate System. We use the geocentric-
of orbits. If 0° s i < 90°, the spacecraft is moving with Earth's rotation (in equatorial coordinate system to reference all
an easterly direction), and the spacecraft is in a direct orbit or prograde orbital elements. The fundamental plane is
E;arth's equatorial plane, the principal direction
orbit. If 90° <is 180°, the spacecraft is moving opposite from Earth's ( I ) points in the vernal equinox direction, 1i',
rotation (in a westerly direction), so it's in an indirect orbit or retrograde the K unit vector points to the North Pole, and
orbit. Table 5-2 summarizes these orbits. j completes the right-hand rule.
157
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
Thus, inclination is the third COE. It specifies the tilt of the orbital
K plane with respect to the fundamental plane and helps us understand an
orbit's orientation with respect to the equator.
The fourth COE is another angle, right ascension of tire ascending node, Q,
used to describe orbital orientation with respect to the principal direction,
i . Before you give up on this complex-sounding term, Jet's look at each of
its pieces. First of all, what is "right ascension?" It's similar to longitude
except its reference point is the vernal equinox and it doesn't rotate with
Earth. So, right ascension of the ascending node is an angle we measure
along the equator, starting at the f direction.
Now let's look at the other part of this new angle's name, "ascending
node" (or a node of any kind)? As we just described, the orbital plane
Figure 5-5. Inclination. Inclination, I, de- normally tilts (is inclined) with respect to the fundamental plane (unless
scribes the tilt of the orbital plane with respect i = 0° or 180°). From plane geometry, you may remember that the intersec-
to the equator. The angle between the two
tion of two planes forms a line. In our case, the intersection of the orbital
planes is the same as the angle between K
(which is perpendicular to the equator) and h plane and the fundamental plane is the line of nodes. The two points at
(which is perpendicular to the orbital plane). which the orbit crosses the equatorial plane are the nodes. The node where
the spacecraft goes from below the equator (Southern Hemisphere) to
above the equator (Northern Hemisphere) is the ascending node. Similarly,
when the spacecraft crosses the equator heading south, it passes through
the descending node. See Table 5-2.
Table 5-2. Types of Orbits and Their Inclination.
Inclination Orbital Type Diagram
0° or 1 so- Equatorial
90° Polar
0° s I< 90° Direct or Prograde
(moves in the direction of
Earth's rotation) ascending
node
90° <is 180° Indirect or Retrograde
(moves against the
direction of Earth's ascending
rotation) node
158
5.1 Orbital Elements
Now let's put "right ascension" and "ascending node" together. The
right ascension of the ascending node describes the orbital plane's
orientation with respect to the principal direction. That is, how is the
orbital plane rotated in space? We use the vernal equinox direction or I
(an inertial reference) as the starting point and measure eastward along
the equator to the ascending node. Thus, the right ascension of the
ascending node, Q, is the angle from the principal direction, I, to the
ascending node. It acts like a celestial map reference to give us the swivel
of the orbit, helping us to better understand its orientation in space.
Figure 5-6 illustrates the right ascension of the ascending node. Its range
of values is 0° s Q < 360°. That's now 4 out of 6 on our COE checklist.
Figure 5-6. Right Ascension of the Ascending Node, Q. This angle describes the swivel
of the orbital plane with respect, to the principal direction. It is the angle along the equator
between the principal direction, I . and the point where the orbital plane crosses the equator
from south to north (ascending node), measured eastward.
Let's recap where we are. We now know the orbit's size, a, its shape, e,
its tilt, i, and its swivel, Q. But we don't know how the orbit is oriented
within the plane. For example, for an elliptical orbit, we may want to Oasslc Wb' ral Elements ~ 0 s)
know whether perigee (point closest to Earth) is in the Northern or Oheddis
Southern Hemisphere. This is important if we want to take high- Wbiit•s size
resolution pictures of a particular point. So, for this fifth orbital element,
we measure the angle along the orbital path between the ascending node O ibit•s shape
and perigee and call it argument of perigee, (I). To remove any ambiguities, Orb-it's orientation
we always measure this angle in the direction of spacecraft motion.
Where does this unusual sounding term "argument of perigee" come
• Orbirtal iplue m pace
from? To begin with, perigee is an easily identifiable point on the orbit to - llrnolinat1011, i
reference. But why "argument"? Because we're "making clear" (from
- ffi~hit a censien of tihe
asceltlclirng mod , n
Latin) where perigee is. So our fifth COE, argument of perigee, w, is the
angle measured in the direction of the spacecraft's motion from the • Oi'bilt withiin the plane
ascending node to perigee. It gives us the orientation of the orbit within - , gwment of peiitge~, ro
the orbital plane, as shown in Figure 5-7. The range on argument of
• Spacecra£t•s location
perigee is 0° s w < 360°. That's 5 down and 1 to go on our COE checklist.
159
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
ascending
node
Figure 5·7. Argument of Perig~, eo, This angle describes the orientation of an orbit within
its orbital plane. It is the angle between the ascending node and perigee, measured in the
direction of the spacecraft's motion. .,
Atter specifying the size and shape of the orbit, along with its
orientation (tilt and swivel), we still need to find a spacecraft's location
within the orbit. As we've already seen in Chapter 4, we can find this
using the true anomaly. True anomaly, v, is the angle along the orbital path
from perigee to the spacecraft's position vector, R. Similar to the
argument of perigee, we measure true anomaly in the direction of the
spacecraft's motion. Figure 5-8 shows true anomaly. Its range of values is
Figure 5·8. True Anomaly.True anomaly, v,
specilies the location of a spacecraft within the
0° s v < 360°.
orbit. It is the angle between perigee and the True anomaly, v, tells us the location of the spacecraft in its orbit. Of all
spacecraft's position vector measured in the the COEs, only true anomaly changes with time (while our two-body
direction of the spacecratt's motion. Of all the
COEs, only true anomaly changes with time
assumptions hold) as the spacecraft moves in its orbit.
(as long as our two-body assumptions hold). Now that you've seen all six of the COEs, we can show four of them
together in Figure 5-9 (we can show size and shape only indirectly in the
assic O tiitail ements (COEs) way we draw the orbit). Table 5-3 summarizes all six. That completes our
Checklist COE checklist. We've shown all you need to know about describing an
orbit and locating a spacecraft within it.
O!bit's size
O bit's shape
Orbit's orientation
• Orbital plane in space
- lndtmation, i
- Right asceasien of tlrte
a "Cem:cling node, n
• OrbLt withm the plane
- A~gument of p1,1rige , co
Spaceoraft's location
160
5.1 Orbital Elements
ascending J
node
Figure 5-9. Classic Orbital Elements (COEs). Here we show lour o! the six COEs. We use
the COEs to visualize an orbit and locate a spacecraft in it. The other two COEs, semimajor
axis, a, and eccentricity, e, specify the size and shape of an orbit.
Table 5-3. Summary of Classic Orbital Elements.
Element Name Description Range of Values Undefined
a Semimajor axis Size Depends on the Never
conic section
e Eccentricity Shape e = O: circle Never
O < e < 1 : ellipse
Inclination Till, angle from K unit vector to O:si:s180° Never
specific.. angular momentum
vector h
Q Right ascension of Swivel, angle from vernal equinox 0 !, Q < 360° =
When i o or 180°
the ascending to ascending node (equatorial orbit)
node
LJ) Argument of Angle from ascending node to 0 s w < 360° =
When i 0 or 180° (equatorial
perigee perigee =
orbit) or e O (circular orbit)
v True anomaly Angle from perigee to the 0 s v < 360° When e = O (circular orbit)
spacecraft's position
161
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
By now you may wonder what all these COEs are good for! Let's look
2a = 100,000 km
at an example to see how they can help us visualize an orbit. Suppose a
communication satellite has the following COEs
• Semimajor axis, a = 50,000 km
• Eccentricity, e = 0.4
• Inclination, i = 45°
• Right ascension of the ascending node, Q = 50°
Figure 5-10. Orbital Size and Shape. Here
we show the approximate size and shape of an • Argument of perigee, co = 110°
orbit with a semimajor axis of 50,000 km and
an eccentricity of 0.4. • True anomaly, v = 170°
To begin with, as in Figure 5-10, we can sketch the size and shape of the
orbit given the semimajor axis and the eccentricity. The eccentricity of 0.4
indicates an elliptical orbit (it's between O and 1). The sernimajor axis of
50,000 km tells us how large to draw the orbit.
Now that we see the orbit in two dimensions, we can use the other
COEs to visualize how it's oriented in three dimensions. Because the
inclination angle is 45°, we know the orbital plane tilts 45° from the
equator. We can also describe inclination as the angle between the specific
angular momentum vector, h, and K in the geocentric-equatorial
coordinate system. So we can sketch the crossing of the two planes in
three dimensions as you see in Figure 5-11.
Next, to find the swivel of the orbital plane with respect to the principal
direction, we use the right ascension of the ascending node, Q. After
locating the principal direction in the equatorial plane, I, we swivel the
orbital plane by positioning the ascending node 50° east of the I vector.
Figure 5-11. Inclination. This orbit has an What we know so far gives us the picture of the orbit in Figure 5-12.
inclination of 45°.
\ ascen ct•mg
node
Figure 5·12. Our Orbit So Far. Here we show an orbit with an inclination, i, of 45° and a
right ascension of the ascending node, Q, of 50°.
162
5.1 Orbital Elements
So, we've completely specified the orbit's size and shape, as well as the
orientation of the orbital plane in space. But we still don't know how the
orbit is oriented within the plane. Argument of perigee, co, comes next. To
locate perigee within the orbital plane, we rotate perigee 110° from the
ascending node, in the direction of spacecraft motion. Figure 5-13 shows
how to orient the orbit in the orbital plane.
~
\
ascending
J
node
Figure 5-13. Argument of Perigee for the Example. We rotate perigee 110° from the
ascending node to determine the argument of perigee, r.u, is 110°.
Finally, we locate our communication satellite within the orbit. Using
the value of true anomaly, v, we measure 170° in the direction of space-
craft motion from perigee to the spacecraft's position. And there it is in
Figure 5-14!
!Lso 0 \
J
ascending
node
Figure 5-14. Finding the Satellite. Here we show the position of a satellite with the
following COEs: a= 50,000 km; i = 45°; e = 0.4; Q = 50°; w = 110°; v = 170°.
163
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
As we already know, various missions require different orbits, as
described by their COEs. Table 5-4 shows various types of missions and
their typical orbits. A geostationary orbit is a circular orbit with a period of
about 24 hours and inclination of 0°. Geostationary orbits are particularly
useful for communication satellites because a spacecraft in this orbit
appears motionless to an Earth-based observer, such as a fixed ground
station for a cable TV company. Ceosunchvonous orbits are inclined orbits
with a period of about 24 hours. A semi-svnchronous orbit has a period of
12 hours. Sun-sunchtonous orbits are retrograde, low-Earth orbits (LEO)
typically inclined 95° to 105° and often used for remote-sensing missions
because they pass over nearly every point on Earth's surface. A Molniya
orbit is a semi-synchronous, eccentric orbit used for some specific
communication missions.
Table 5-4. Orbital Elements for Various Missions.
Semimajor Axis
Mission Orbital Type (Altitude) Period Inclination Other
• Communication Geostationary 42,158 km -24 hr -o• esO
• Early warning (35,780 km)
• Nuclear detection
• Remote sensing Sun-synchronous -6500 - 7300 km -90 min -95° e 5! O
(-150-900 km)
• Navigation Semi-synchronous 26,610 km 12 hr 55° e=<O
-GPS (20,232 km)
• Space Shuttle Low-Earth orbit -6700 km (-300 km) --90min 28.5°, 39°, eeO
51 °, or 57°
• Communication/ Molniya =
26,571 km (Rp 7971 km; 12 hr 63.4° w = 270°
intelligence Ra= 45,170 km) =
e 0.7
Alternate Orbital Elements
Now that we've shown how to find all the classic orbital elements
(COEs), we're ready to share some bad news-they're not always
defined! For example, a circulnr orbit has no perigee. In this case, we have
no argument of perigee, co, or true anomaly, v, because both use perigee as
a reference. To correct this deficiency, we bring in an alternate orbital
element to replace these two missing angles. In general, whenever we
face a peculiar orbit with one or more of the COEs undefined, we work
backward from the spacecraft's position vector (the one thing that's
always defined) to the next quantity that is defined. For our circular-orbit
example, instead of using true anomaly to define position, we use the first
alternate element-the argument of latitude, u. We measure argument of
latitude, 11, along the orbital path from the ascending node to the
spacecraft's position in the direction of the spacecraft's motion.
164
5.1 Orbital Elements
Another special situation that requires an alternate element is an ~
equatorial orbit (i = 0° or 180°). In this case, the line of intersection R
between the equator and the orbital plane is missing (the line of nodes),
so the ascending node doesn't exist. This time the right ascension of the l
ascending node, Q, and the argument of perigee, co, are undefined. We
replace them with another alternate element, the longitude of perigee, II-
the angle measured from the principal direction, l. to perigee in the
direction of the spacecraft's motion.
Finally, a circular equatorial orbit has neither perigee nor ascending node,
so the right ascension of the ascending node, Q, the argument of perigee,
co, and true anomaly, v, are all undefined! Instead, we use a final alternate
r
Figure 5-15. Alternate Orbital Elements.
element to replace all of them-the true longitude, l We measure this We use the alternate orbital elements when
angle from the principal direction, i, to the spacecraft's position vector, one or more of the classic orbital elements are
undefined. u is the argument of latitude. n is
R, in the direction of the spacecraft's motion. Figure 5-15 and Table 5-5 the longitude of perigee. 1 is the true longitude.
summarize these alternate orbital elements.
Table 5-5. Alternate Orbital Elements.
Element Name Description Range of Values When to Use
u Argument of Angle from ascending node 0° s u < 360° Use when there is no perigee (e = 0)
latitude to the spacecraft's position
II Longitude of Angle from the principal o O
-s n < 360° Use when equatorial (i = o or 180°)
perigee direction to perigee because there is no ascending node
1 True longitude Angle from the principal 0° s I < 360° Use when there is no perigee and
direction to the spacecraft's ascending node (e = O and i = O or
position 180°)
------Astra
Fun
Fact----~
The Number 2
The number 2 plays an exceedingly critical role in our universe. As you have learned, the force of gravity is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between two bodies. But what if the distance were not
squared? The answer is disturbing. If the exponent were larger than 2, the orbits
of the Earth and Moon would spiral into the Sun. Yet, if the exponent were any
less than 2, the orbits would expand away from the Sun into infinity. This holds ~ µD
true for all bodies in the known universe. Geometrically, the number 2 dictates
R+-R 0
that all orbits must be shaped as closed curves or ellipses. But don't worry about
the number 2 suddenly changing! The inverse square law, as applied to the law R2
of universal gravitation, is simply our mathematical way of describing what
universally exists in nature.
Contributed by Dr. Jackson R. Ferguson and Michael Banks, the U.S. Air Force Academy
165
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
argument of latitude, u > To specify a spacecraft's orbit in space, you need to know
argument of perigee, co four things about it
ascending node • Orbit's Size
circular equatorial orbit
circular orbit • Orbit's Shape
classic orbital elements (COEs) • Orbit's Orientation
descending node • Spacecraft's Location
direct orbit
eccentricity
> The six classic orbital elements (COEs) specify these four
pieces of information
equatorial orbit
geostationary orbit • Semi major axis, a-one-ha If the distance aero s the long
geosynclu·onous orbit axis of an ellipse. Lt specifies the orbit's size and relates
i.nclina hon to an orbit's energy.
indirect orbit • Eccentricity, e-speci.fies the shape of an orbit by telling
line of nodes what type of conic section it is
longitude of perigee, TI
• Inclination, i-speci.fies the orientation or tilt of an
Molniya orbit
orbital plane with respect to a fundamental plane, such
polar orbit
as the equator
prograde orbit
retrograde orbit • Right ascension of the ascending node, Q-specifies the
right ascension of the ascending node, Q orientation or swivel of an orbital plane with re pect to
semi-synchronous orbit the principal direction, f
sun-synchronous orbits • Argument of perigee, w-speci.fies the orientation of an
true anomaly, v orbit within the plane
true longitude, 1
• True anomaly, v-speci.fies a spacecraft's location
Key Equations within its orbital plane
> Whenever one or more COEs are undefined, you must use
E = -~
the alternate orbital elements
2a
166
5.2 Computing Orbital Elements
5.2 Computing Orbital Elements
11111111111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,.- D terrnine all six orbital elements, given only the position, R, and
velocity, V, of a spacecraft at one particular time
Now let's put these classic orbital elements (CO Es) to work for us. In real
life, we can't measure COEs directly, but we can determine a spacecraft's
inertial position and velocity, R and V, using ground-tracking sites. Still,
we need some way to convert the R and V vectors to COEs, so we can
make sense of an orbit. As we'll see, armed with just a position vector, R,
and a velocity vector, V, at a single point in time, we can find all of the
orbital elements. This shouldn't be too surprising. We already know we
need six pieces of information to define an orbit: the three components of
R; and the three components of V . If we know R and V, we can compute
six different quantities-the COEs-to better visualize the orbit. So, let's go
through computing all of the COEs, given just R and V.
Finding Semimajor Axis, a
Recall the semimajor axis, a, tells us the orbit's size and depends on
the orbit's specific mechanical energy, E. Thus, if we know the energy of
the orbit, we can determine the semimajor axis. In Chapter 4, we
sho...,.wed se,.ecific mechanical energy depended only on the magnitudes
of R and V, and the gravitational constant
I • ~ ~, - ~ I (5-3)
where
V = magnitude of the spacecraft's velocity vector (km/s)
µ = gravitational parameter (krrr' I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2 for
Earth
R = magnitude of the spacecraft's position vector (km)
But we also know that e relates t~,semimaj<?,r axis through Equation (5-1).
So if we know the magnitude of R and of V, we can solve for the energy
and thus the sernimajor axis.
~l
a=-- (5-4)
2£
Example 5-1 (Part 1) shows this.
Whenever we solve for sernimajor axis (or any other parameter for that
matter), it's a good idea to do a "reality check" on our result. For example,
an orbiting spacecraft should have a semimajor axis greater than the
radius of the planet it's orbiting; otherwise, it would hit the planet! Also
be careful with parabolic trajectories where a = co and E = 0, because Eis in
the denominator of Equation (5-4).
167
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
Finding Eccentricity, e
To determine the eccentricity, we need to define an eccentricity uecior, e,
that points from Earth's center to perigee and whose magnitude equals
e
the eccentricity, e. relates to position, R, and velocity, V, by
(5-5)
where
e = eccentricity vector (unitless, points at perigee)
µ = gravitational parameter (km3 I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 / s2 for
Earth
e
V = magnitude of V (km/s)
R = magnitude of R (km)
Figure 5-16. Eccentricity Vector, e. We
R = position vector (km)
find the eccentricity vector,e,uaj_ng !l an11 the V = velocity vector (km Is)
position and velocity vectors ( R and V ). It
points at perigee and its magnitude equals the Figure 5-16 shows the eccentricity vector for an orbit. Thus, all we need is
orbit's eccentricity. ~l, R, and V to solve for eccentricity, and we find where perigee is as a
~
bonus. We find the value for e by computing the magnitude of e. This
vector will be useful later for computing other COE's that relate to perigee.
J e
Because points through perigee, we sometimes call it the perigee vector.
Note that it does not exist for circular orbits.
Finding Inclination, i
The other four orbital elements are all angles. To find them, we need to
use the definition of the dot product, which allows us to find an angle if
we know two appropriate r':[erenc~ vectors. Let's briefly review how this
e works. For any two vectors A and B, as shown in Figure 5-17, we can say
-
B ~
I A· B = ABcos8 (5-6)
Acos9 where A and B are the magnitudes of the vectors, and 8 is the angle
between them. Solving for 8 gives us
Figure 5-17. Dot Product to Find Angles.
_, -'
The dot product gives us the angle between
two vectors.
8 = cos
-1(AAB· B) (5-7)
But be careful! When you take an inverse cosine to find 8, as shown in
case Figure 5-18, two angles are possible: 8 and (360 - 8).
Let's see how we can use this dot product idea to find the inclination
e angle, i. Recall we defined i as the angle between K and h , as shown in
Figure 5-19. We can then apply our dot product relationship to these two
vectors to arrive at the following expression for inclination
Figure 5-18. Inverse Cosine. An inverse
cosine gives two possible answers: El and (360
.
I = cos -1(K·h)
Kh (5-8)
-0).
168
5.2 Computing Orbital Elements
where
i = inclination (deg or rad)
K = unit vector through the North Pole
h = specific angular momentum vector (krn2 Is)
K = magnitude of K = 1
h = magnitude of h (km2/s)
Figure 5-19. Inclination. Recall inclination, i, is the angle between the K unit vector and
the specific angular momentum vector, h.
Because K, the magnitude of I<'.> is one (it's a un.it vector), the denominator
reduces to h (the magnitude of h ). Recall from Equation (4-28) that h is the
cross product of R and V . The quantity K · h is simply the K component of
h because K is a unit vector. Do we have to worry about a quadrant check
in this case? No, because the value of inclination is always less than or equal
to 180°, so the smaller number will always be the right one.
Finding Right Ascension of the Ascending Node, Q
We can find the right ascension of the ascending node, Q, using the
same basic approach we used to find inclination. From the definition of Q,
we know it's the angle between the principal direction, t. and the
ascending node. Now we need some vectors. Can we define a vector that
points at the ascending node? You bet! If we draw a vector from Earth's
center, pointing at the ascending node, we'll notice it lies along the
intersection of two planes-the orbital plane and the equatorial plane.
Thus, this new vector, which we caJl the ascending node vector, ii, must be
perpendicular to K and h, as shown in Figure..,.5-20. (That's because K is
perpendicular to the equatorial plane, and h is perpendicular to the
orbital plane.) Using the definition of cross product (and the right hand
rule), we get
I-' n = K. xh. ,. (5-9)
169
Chapter 5 Describing Orbit
where
n = ascending node vector (km2 Is, points at the ascending node)
K = unit vector through the North Pole
h = specific angular momentum vector (km2 Is)
K
ascending
node vector
Figure 5-20. Finding the Ascending Node. We qan find the ascending node~ vector, n, by
using the right-hand rule. Point your index finger at Kand your middle finger at h , Your thumb
n.
will point in the direction of
While n inherits the units of h, km2 Is, these units are physically
irrelevant to the problem.
Because Q is the angle between I and n,
we can use the dot product
relationship again to find the right ascension of the ascending node
Q = cos -r(I ~· n) (5-10)
where
Q = right ascension of the ascending node (deg or rad)
i = unit vector in the principal direction
n = ascending node vector (km2 Is, points at the ascending node)
I = magnitude off = 1
n = magnitude of n (km2 Is)
The right ascension of the ascending node can range between 0° and
360°, so a quadrant check is necessary. How do we decide which quadrant
Q belongs in? Looking at Figure 5-21, we see the equatorial plane and the
location of the ascendingpode vector, n. Notice the f compo~1ent of fi , nJ,
tells us which side of the I axis n is on. If n is on the positive J side, t!1en nJ
is positive and Q lies between 0° and 180°. If n is on the negative J side,
then n1 is negative and Q lies ,between 180° and 360°. Note that if n aligns
with the positive or negative I axis, then Q is either 0° or 180°, respectively.
Thus, we can write a logic statement for this quadrant check
If n1 ~ 0 then O :s: Q s; 180°
If n1 < 0 then 180° < Q < 360°
170
5.2 Computing Orbital Elements
/
/
/
.... /
Figure 5·21. Quadrant Check for Q. We can find the quadrant for the right ascension of
the ascending node, Q, by looking at the sign of the J component of n,
OJ· If OJ is greater
than zero, Q is between O and 180°. If nJ is less than zero, Q is between 180° and 360°.
Finding Argument of Perigee, w
The argument of perigee, co, locates perigee in the orbital plane.
Remember, we defined it as the angle between the ascending node and
perigee, as shown in Figure 5-22. We already know where the ascending
node is from the ascending node vector, n. We also know the eccentricity
vector, e,points at perigee. Using our dot product relationship once
again, we can solve for the argument of perigee, co.
-equatorial plane
"' ascending
node
.
Figure 5·22. Finding the Argument of Perigee, w. We can find the argument of perigee,
co, as the angle between the ascending node vector, n.
and the eccentricity vector, e.
171
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
co cos -1(n·--nee) (5-11)
where
co = argument of perigee (deg or rad)
n = ascending node vector (km2 Is, points at the ascending node)
€ = eccentricity vector (unitless, points at perigee)
n = magnitude of :n. (km2 Is)
e = magnitude of e (unitless)
Once more, we have two possible answers that satisfy the equation, so we
have another quadrant-identity crisis. How do we know which quadrant co
belongs in? In Figure 5-23, we can see that if co is between 0° and 180°,
perigee is north of the equator; and if co is between 180° and 360°, perigee is
south of the equator. Luckily, we have the trusty e
vector to tell us exactly
where perigee is. If we look at just the K component of e (eK), we can tell if
perigee is in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere (positive eK for
Northern, negative eK for Southern). We can write this as a logic statement
If eK ~ 0 then 0° :5 co :5 180°
If eK < 0 then 180° < co < 360°
Figure 5-23. Quadrant Check tor the Argument of Perigee, tu, We check the quadrant for
the argument of perigee, co, by looking at the K component of the eccentricity vector, e. If eK
is greater than zero, perigee lies above the equator; thus, o> is between 0° and 180°. If eK Is
less than zero, perigee lies in the Southern Hemisphere; and, rn is between 180° and 360°.
Finding True Anomaly, v
Finally, it's time to find out "what's nu." That is, we must find true
anomaly, v, to locate the spacecraft's position in its orbit:.. We define v as
the angle between perigee, e,
and the position vector, R, as shown in
Figure 5-24.
172
5.2 Computing Orbital Elements
Figure 5-24. Finding True Anomaly, v, We find the true anomaly, v, as the angle between
the eccentricity vector, e,
and the spacecratt's position vector, R .
We can start from our last point of reference, the perigee direction
(using the eccentricity vector again), and measure to the position vector,
R. Applying our dot product relationship one last time, we arrive at
v = cos -1(e eR· R) (5-12)
where
v = true anomaly (deg or rad)
e
--'
= eccentricity vector (unitless, points at perigee)
R = position vector (km)
e = magnitude of e (unitless)
R = magnitude of R (km)
To sort out the quadrant for this angle, we want to tell whether the
spacecraft is heading away from or toward perigee. Recall from Chapter 4
our discussion of the flight-path angle, cp. If cp is positive, it's gaining
altitude and heading away from perigee ("the houses are getting
smaller"). If cp is negative, it's losing altitude and heading toward perigee
("the houses are getting bigger"), as seen in Figure 5-25.
So all we have to do is find the sign on cp. No problem. Remember that
cp is the angle between the local horizontal and the spacecraft's velocity
vector. By applying a little bit of trigonometry, we can show that the sign
of the quantity (R · V) is the same as the sign of cp! Thus, if we know Figure 5-25. Quadrant Check for True
(R · V), we know what's nu, v. Written as a logic statement, this idea boils Anomaly, v, To resolve the quadrant for true
anomaly, v, check the sign on the flight-path
down to angle, ·~- If ,p is positive, the spacecraft is
moving away from perigee, so true anomaly is
If (R · V) ;:, 0 (cp;:,, O) then 0°,; v :d80° between O and 180°. It ,ti is negative, the
spacecratt is moving toward perigee, so true
If (R · V) < 0 (<I> < O) then 180° < v < 360° anomaly is between 180° and 360°.
173
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
Note that, if (R · V) = 0 (<)> = 0), then we don't know if v = 0° or 180°. In
this case, we have to compare the magnitude 0£ R to the perigee and
apogee r~dii, RP and Ra. RP = a (1 - e) and Ra = a (1 + e). If IRI = RP' then v
= 0°. l£ IRI = Ra, then v = 180°. Now we've been through all the steps
needed to convert an obscure set of R and V vectors into the extremely
useful COEs. Example 5-1 (parts 1, 2, and 3) goes through the entire
== Section Review
process with some real numbers.
Key Terms Key Concepts
ascending node vector, n > You can compute all six classic orbital elements (COEs) for an
eccentricity vector, e orbit using just one position vector, R, and velocity vector, V -a
"snap shot" of the spacecraft's location at any point in time
Key Equations
> You can find semimajor axis, a, using the magnitudes of R and V
to determine the orbit's specific mechanical energy, e, which i a
£ function of its sem.imajor axis
> You can find ccentricity computing the magnitude of the
eccentricity vector,e, which points at perigee
> Because all the remaining COEs are angles, you can find them
using simple vector dot products. In general, for any two vectors
.
1 =
· h)
cos -1(1<Kh
A and 8, the angle between them, e, is
__,_ ..,.
..>.
e = cos -i ( :·BB)
n Kxh
> Because inclination, i, is the angle betwe~n the unit vector, K, and
the specific angular momentum vector, h , you find it using the
Q = cos -1(i In· n) dot product relationship.
• Remember: 0 sis 180°
w cos-1(n.
..>. ,.
e)
> Because right ascension of the ascending node, Q, is the angle
ne between the principal dir ction, i, and the ascending node (n ),
you can find Q using the dot product relationship.
v = cos
-1(e eR· R) • Remember: 1£ n1 ~ 0, then 0° s Q s 180°
If nJ < 0, then 180° < Q < 360°
>-- Because the argument of perigee, ro, is the angle between the
ascending node, n, and perigee (represented by the eccentricity
vector,e ),
you can find it using the dot product relationship.
• Remember: If eK ;;.: 0, then 0° s co s 180°
If eK < 0, then 180° < to < 360°
> Because true anomaly, v, is the angle between perigee
(represented by the eccentricity vector, e) and the spacecraft's
position vector, R, you can find it using the dot product
relationship.
• Remember: If (R · V) ~ O(cp ~ 0), then 0° s vs 180°
If (R · V) < O(<j> < 0), then 180° < v < 360°
174
Example 5-1 (Part 1)
Problem Statement (6.664 km/s/ 3.986 x 105 km3 /s2
Space Operations Officers at Air Forie Space Comrn~d s = 2 - 10,738 km
have given you th.is set of position (R) and velocity (V)
= -14.916 km2 ;s2
vectors for a new European Space Agency (ESA) satellite.
LL
£=--"-
R = 8228 i+ 389.o j + 6888 K km 2a
V = - 0.7000 I+ 6.600 j - 0.6000 K km/s
a = - ~ =
-3.986 x 105 km3 /s2
= 1.336 x 104 km
Determine the size (semimajor axis) and shape 2£ 2(-14.916km2/s2)
(eccentricity) for this satellite's orbit. 3) Solve for the eccentricity vector, e, and its
magnitude, e.
Problem Summary
e H(v -~)R-(R·V)v]
= 2
Given: R = 8228 I + 389 j + 6888 K km
.....::.. ,.. ,.. " We can start by finding the dot product between R and V .
V = - 0.7000 I+ 6.600 J- 0.6000 K km/s ...,, ....>.
Find: a and e
R·V = (8228)(-0.7000) + (389.0)(6.600) +
(6888) (-0.6000) = -7325 km2 /s
Conceptual Solution -' 1
e = s 3 2 x
1) Determine magnitudes of the vectors, R and V 3.986 x 10 km Is
2) Solve for the semimajor axis, a 3
l
Determine the orbit's size using the relationships 3.986 x 105 k~
s)
km 2
s
shown in Equation (5-3) and Equation (5-1). (
6·664
- 10,738 km
. ., km2
R-(-7325-s )v_.,.1
E = V
__2 LL
..!......
2 R
e = (2.so88x10-6)[ (7.288 )R - (-7325)VJ
£=-J:..
2a e = (1.8284xto-5)[82281+389.o J+68881<.]-
3) Solve for the eccentricity vector, e, and its
(-0.018377) [-o.7000 r + 6.600 j - 0.6000 K J
magnitude, e.
e = 0.15044 r + o.0071125 j + 0.12594 K
_,. 1 [(
e = µ 2
V -R)R-(R·V)V
~,...,, ...,, ....,, --']
- [ 0.012864 r - 0.12129 j + 0.011026 K]
e = 0.1376 r + 0.1284 j + 0.1149 K
Analytical Solution Now that we have the eccentricity vector, we can solve
for the magnitude, which tells us the shape of the orbit.
1) Determine magnitudes of the vectors, R and V
e = J(0.1376)2 + (0.1284)2 + (0.1149)2 = 0.2205
R = )(8228)2 + (389)2 + (6888)2 = 10,738 km
V = J(-0.7000/ + (6.600)2 + (-0.6000)2 Interpretingthe Results
= 6.664 km/s We can see that the sernimajor axis of this orbit is
2) Solve for the semimajor axis 13,360 km (8302 mi.). Because e = 0.2205 (0 < e < 1), we
also know the orbit is an ellipse (not a circle, parabola,
v2 ~l or hyperbola).
c = 2-R
175
Example 5-1 (Part2)
Problem Statement 2
[ (8228)( 6.600) - (-o.7000)(389.0)JK km
s
Using the same position and velocity vectors as in
Example 5-1 (Part 1), determine the inclination of the h = [ (-233.4) - ( 45,460.8) Ji -
orbit.
[(-4936.8) + (4821.6)]I +
2
[(54,304.8) + (272.3)]:K km
Problem Summary s
_;. A • A km2
h = - 45,694.2 I+ 115.2 J + 54,577.1 K -
Given: R = 8228 i + 389.0 j + 6888 K km s
v = - o.7000 i + 6.600 J - 0.6000 K km
s
h = )(45,694.2/ + (115.2/ + (54,577.1)2
Find: 2
= 71,180.3 km
s
2) Solve for the inclination angle, i.
Conceptual Solution
1) ~olve for the specific angular momentum vector,
.
1 = cos ~(K·h)
Kh = cos ~(K·h) ---i;-
h, and its magnitude, h.
K · h = hK = 54,577.1
h = R xv
.
2) Solve for the inclination angle, i. l = cos-1 (hK)
h = cos
-1 ( 54,577.1)
71, 180.3
= cos-1(0.76674)
.
1 = cos-1(1<Kh
· h) = cos -1(1< ·
---i;-h) At this point you need to pull out your calculator and
take the inverse cosine of 0.76674 (unless you can
figure things like that in your head!). But be careful!
When you take inverse trigonometric functions your
calculator gives you only one of the possible correct
angles. For an inverse cosine you must subtract this
Analytical Solution result from 360° to get the second possible answer. For
our result from above we get two possible answers for
1) ~olve for the specific angular momentum vector, inclination
h, and its magnitude, h. i = 39.94° or (360°-39.94°) = 320.1°
h = Rxv To resolve this ambiguity, we must return to the
definition of inclination. Because i must be between 0°
and 180°, our answer must be i = 39.94°.
...,_
RxV
...,_
=
I J K km2
8228 389.0 6888 s
-0.7000 6.600 -0.6000
Interpreting the Results
h = [(389.0)(-0.6000)- (6.600)(6888)]1 - The inclination of this orbit is 39.94°.
[ (8228)(-0.6000) - (-0.7000)( 6888) Jj +
176
Example 5-1 (Part 3)
Problem Statement f j K
-', A r'
n=Kxn=
Using the same position and velocity information from 0.0 0.0 1.0
Example 5-1 (Part 1), determine the right ascension of -45,694.2 115.2 54,577.1
the ascending node, argument of perigee, and true
anomaly. = - 115.2 r - 45,694.2 j+oK
Solving for the magnitude of n, we get n = 45,694.3
km2/s
Problem Summary 2) Solve for the right ascension of the ascending node
angle, Q. Do a quadrant check.
Given: R = 8228 f + 389.0 J + 6888 K km
v = - o.7000 i + 6.600 j - 0.6000 K km Q = cos -1 -
In
(i . n) = cos -1 (i- n. n)
s
Find: Q, w, and v
I· 11 = Hr = -115.2
Conceptual Solution
Q = cos-1 (4 ;~Jgf 3) = cos-1(-0.0025211)
Q = 90.14° or (360°-90.14°) = 269.9°
1) Solve for the ascending node vector, n, and its
Once again we must decide which of the two possible
magnitude, n. answers is correct. Using the logic we developed
n = I< xh earlier, we check nJ-
If n1 <'= 0 then 0° :5 Q s 180°
2) Solve for the right ascension of the ascending If n1 < 0 then 180° < Q < 360°
node, Q. Do a quadrant check.
Because n1 = -45,694.2, n1 < 0, which means 180° < Q <
Q = cos -1 (irn. n) = cos -1 (in. n) 360°. Thus, we can conclude that Q = 269.9°.
3) Solve for the argument of perigee angle, co, Do a
3) Solve for the argument of perigee, co. Do a quadrant check.
quadrant check.
..,, .,, w = cos
-1 (nne. e)
co = cos
-1 (nne· e)
n. e = (-115.2)(0.1376) + <-45,694.2)(0.12s4)
4) Solve for the true anomaly angle, v. Do a quadrant + (0.0)(0.1149) = -5882.99
check.
= cos
-1 [ -5882.99
(45,694.3)(0.2205)
J -1
= cos (-0.58389)
v = cos
-1 (eeR· R) (J)
125.7° or (360° - 125.7°) = 234.3°
To resolve which co is right, we use the logic developed
earlier and check the value of eK-
Analytical Solution If eK ;2, 0 then 0° s w :5 180°
If eK < 0 then 180°< co < 360°
1) Solve for the ascending node vector, n, and its Because eK = +0.1149, eK > 0, which means 0° s co :5
magnitude, n. 180°. Thus, we can conclude that co = 125.7°
177
Example 5-1 (Part 3) Continued
4) Solve for the true anomaly angle, v . Do a quadrant Interpreting the Results
check.
We started with
-1(eeR· R)
v = cos R = 8228 r + 389.o j + 6888 I< km
e. R = (0.1376)(8228) + (0.1284)(389.o) + v = - o.7000 i + 6.600 j - 0.6000 Kkm
s
(0.1149)(6888) = 1974.05
We found the following COEs
v
-1[ 1974.05 J
= cos (0.2205)(10,738) = cos
-1 (0 83373)
. a = 13,360 km Q = 269.9°
v = 33.52° or (360° - 33.52°) = 326.48° e = 0.2205 co = 125.7°
= 39.94° v = 326.5°
Finally, we resolve one last ambiguity between
possible answers. Using our logic developed earlier,
we check the sign on (R · V).
If (R · V)-= 0 (qi> 0) then 0° :5 vs: 180°
If (R · V) < 0 (qi< O) then 180°< v < 360°
The value for (R · V) we found earlier was -7325.
Because (R · V) < 0, 180°< v < 360°. Therefore, we can
conclude that v = 326.5°
178
5.3 Spacecraft Ground Tracks
5.3 SpacecraftGround Tracks
== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Explain why spacecraft ground tracks look the way they do
..- Use ground tracks to describe why certain types of missions use
specific types of orbits
,,... Use ground tracks to determine the inclination and period for direct
orbits
The six classic orbital elements (COEs) allow us to visualize an orbit
from space. Now let's beam back to Earth to see orbits from our
perspective on the ground.
Many spacecraft users need to know what part of Earth their spacecraft
is passing over at any given time. For instance, remote-sensing satellites
must be over precise locations to get the coverage they need. As we'll see, Figure 5-26. Car and Airplane Ground
we can learn a lot about a spacecraft's orbit and mission by examining the Tracks. Ground tracks for a trip by car and air
from San Francisco to Omaha.
track it makes along Earth.
To understand ground tracks, imagine you're driving from San Earth's rotation
Francisco to Omaha. To get there, you go east out of San Francisco on
Interstate 80 for a couple thousand miles. If you have a road map of the
western United States, you can trace your route on the map by drawing a
meandering line along I-80, as shown in Figure 5-26. This is your ground
track from San Francisco to Omaha.
Now imagine you're taking the same trip in an airplane.You can trace
your air route on the same map, but because you don't need roads, this
ground track is nearly a straight line.
A spacecraft's ground track is similar to these examples. It's a trace of the
spacecraft's path over Earth's surface. But it's more complicated because
Figure 5-27. Earth and Spacecraft Motion.
the spacecraft goes all the way around (more than 40,000 km or 25,000 mi.) The Earth spins on its axis at nearly 1600 km/hr
during each orbit and Earth spins on its axis at more than 1600 km/hr (1000 (1000 m.p.h.) at the equator, while a spacecraft
m.p.h.) at the equator at the same time, as we show in Figure 5-27. orbits above it.
So what does a ground track look like? To make things easy, let's start
by pretending Earth doesn't rotate. (Try not to get dizzy-we'll turn the
rotation back on soon.) Picture an orbit above this non-rotating Earth. The
line of
ground track follows a great circle route around Earth. A great circle is any
latitude
circle that "slices through" the center of a sphere. For example, lines of
longitude, as shown in Figure 5-28, are great circles, because they slice
through Earth's center, but lines of latitude are not great circles (except for line of
0° latitude at the equator), because they don't. An orbital trace must be a longitude
great circle because the spacecraft is in orbit around Earth's center; thus, (great circle)
the orbital plane also passes through Earth's center. Figure 5-28. Great Circles. A great circle is
When we stretch Earth onto a flat-map projection (called a Mercator any circle around a sphere which bisects it
(cuts it exactly in half). Lines of longitude are
projection), the ground track looks a little different. To visualize how this great circles whereas lines of latitude (except
flattening affects the ground-track shape, imagine Earth as a soda can. A for the equator) are not.
179
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
trace of the orbit on the soda can is shown in Figure 5-29. It looks like a
circle slicing through the center of the can. But what if we were to flatten
the can and look at the orbital trace, as shown in Figure 5-29? It looks like
a sine wave!
Now imagine yourself on the ground watching the spacecraft pass
overhead. Because we stopped Earth from rotating, the ground track will
always stay the same, and the spacecraft will continue to pass overhead
orbit after orbit, as shown in Figure 5-30. Even if we change the size and
shape of the orbit, the ground track will look the same.
Figure 5-30. An Orbit's Ground Track for a Non-Rotating Earth. For a non-rotating
Earth, the ground track of an orbit will continuously repeat.
But suppose we start Earth rotating again. What happens? The space-
craft passes overhead on one orbit but appears to pass to the west of you
on the next orbit. How can this be? Because the orbital plane is immovable
in inertial space, the spacecraft stays in the same orbit. But you're fixed to
Earth and as it rotates to the east, you move away from the orbit, making it
look as if the spacecraft moved, as seen in Figure 5-31. Each ground track
Figure 5-29. Orbiting around a Soda Can. traces a path on Earth farther to the west than the previous one.
Imagine an orbit around a soda can. It draws a
circle around the can. When we flatten the can,
the line looks like a sine wave.
Figure 5-31. A Normal Spacecraft Ground Track. As Earth rotates, successive ground
tracks appear to shift to the west from an Earth-based observer's viewpoint.
Can we learn something about the orbit from all of this? Sure! Because
Earth rotates at a fixed rate of about 15° per hr (360° in 24 hrs= 15° /hr) or
0.25° per minute, we can use this rotation as a "clock" to tell us the orbit's
period. By measuring how much the orbit's ground track moves to the
west from one orbit to the next, and we can establish a new parameter,
node displacement, t:,.N. We measure t:,.N along the equator from one
ascending node to the next and define it to be positive in the direction of
the spacecraft's motion. Thus, the nodal displacement to the west during
one orbit is the difference between 360° and 8N.
180
5.3 Spacecraft Ground Tracks
We can put this ground track shift to work in finding the orbital period
because the nodal displacement is simply Earth's rotation rate times the
period of the orbit. For example, suppose the period of an orbit were two
hours. Earth would rotate 30° (2 hr x 15° /hr) during one orbital
___
revolution, producing a nodal displacement of 330° (360° - 30°). In terms
of 6N, we find the period from
DN :::
(5-13)
tS'o /V\ r
[Note: As is, this equation applies only to direct orbits with a period less
than 24 hours. For other orbits, the same concept applies but the equation
changes. We'll only consider direct orbit ground tracks with periods less
than 24 hours, so this equation will suffice.] If we can determine the
period, we can also determine the orbit's sernimajor axis using the
equation for orbital period from Chapter 4.
(5-14)
where
P = period (s)
C\ ~ U
J.A (_P /oL"TI y:i:
rt_':fGU:7
JC = 3.14159 ... (unitless)
a = sernimajor axis (km)
~l = gravitational parameter (krrr' I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km ' I s2 for
Earth
So, by finding 6N from the ground track, we can find the period and then
the semimajor axis. For example, in the ground track in Figure 5-32, 6N is
330°. We find the orbital period using Equation (5-13) and the semimajor
axis using Equation (5-14). But we must be careful to watch the units when
using these equations.
Figure 5-32. Ascending Node Shift Due to the Rotating Earth. We measure t.N along
the equator from one ascending node to the next. It is positive in the direction of spacecraft
motion. Thus, 360° - t.N represents the amount Earth rotates during one orbit.
181
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
As the orbit's size increases, the semirnajor axis gets bigger, so D-N gets
smaller. This happens because the spacecraft takes longer to make one
revolution as Earth rotates beneath it (the bigger the semirnajor axis, a, the
longer the period). As the orbit gets bigger, the D-N gets smaller, so the
ground track appears to compress or "scrunch" together. Recall, we define
a geosynchronous orbit as one with a period of approximately 24 hours.
For such an orbit, the D-N is O". This means the spacecraft's period matches
Earth's rotational period. Thus, the orbit appears to retrace itself and form a
figure 8, as shown in Figure 5-33, orbit D. If the orbit lies in the equatorial
plane (has an inclination of oc), the ground track will be just a dot on the
equator, similar to orbit E, in Figure 5-33. A spacecraft with a period of 24
hours and an inclination of O? is in a geostationary orbit. This name
means the spacecraft appears stationary to Earth-based observers,
making these orbits very useful for communication satellites. Once we
point the receiving antenna at the satellite, we don't have to move the
antenna as Earth rotates.
Figure 5-33. Orbital Ground Tracks. Orbit A has a period of 2.67 hours. Orbit B has a
period of 8 hours. Orbit C has a period of 18 hours. Orbit D has a period of 24 hours. Orbit E
has a period of 24 hours.
Besides using the ground track to determine an orbit's semimajor axis,
L we can also find its inclination. Imagine a spacecraft in a soc inclined
orbit. From our definition of inclination, we know in this case the angle
between the equatorial plane and the orbital plane is soc. What's the
highest latitude the spacecraft will pass over directly? soc! The highest
latitude any spacecraft passes over equals its inclination. Let's see why.
Remember that latitude is the Earth-centered angle measured from the
equator north or south to the point in question. But the orbital plane also
Figure 5-34. Inclination Equals Highest
passes through Earth's center, and the angle it forms with the equatorial
Latitude, L. Because inclination relates the plane is its inclination, as we show in Figure 5-34. Thus, for direct
angle between the orbital plane and the (prograde) orbits, when a spacecraft reaches its northernmost point, the
equatorial plane, the highest latitude reached
by a spacecraft equals its inclination (for direct
point on Earth directly below it lies on the latitude line equal to the orbit's
orbits). inclination.
182
5.3 Spacecraft Ground Tracks
In this way, we can use the ground track to tell us the orbit's inclination.
• For a direct orbit (O < i < 90°), we find the northernmost or
southernmost point on the ground track and read its latitude. This
"maximum latitude" equals the orbit's inclination.
• For a retrograde orbit (90 < i < 180°), we subtract the maximum
latitude from 180° to get the inclination
The Earth coverage a spacecraft's mission requires affects how we
select the orbit's inclination. For example, if a remote-sensing spacecraft
needs to view the entire surface during the mission, it needs a near polar
inclination of about 90°. In Figure 5-35 we see several spacecraft ground
tracks with the same period but with varying inclinations.
Figure 5-35. Changing Inclination. All four ground tracks represent orbits with a period of
4 hours. We can find the inclination of these orbits by looking at lhe highest latitude reached.
Orbit A has an inclination of 10°. Orbit B has an inclination of 30°. Orbit Chas an inclination
of 50°. Orbit D has an Inclination of 85°. (Note that Orbit D appears distorted, because ground
distances elongate near the poles on a Mercator projection map.)
So far we've looked only at circular orbits. Now let's look at how
eccentricity and the location of perigee affect the shape of the ground
track. If an orbit is circular, its ground track is symmetrical. If an orbit is
elliptical, its ground track is lopsided. That is, it will not look the same
above and below the equator. Remember, a spacecraft moves fastest at
perigee, so it travels farthest along its path near perigee, making the
ground track look spread out. But, near apogee it's going slower, so the
ground track is more scrunched. We show this effect in the two ground
tracks in Figure 5-36. Orbit A has perigee in the Northern Hemisphere;
Orbit B has perigee in the Southern Hemisphere.
183
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
Figure 5-36. Changing Perigee Location. Both ground tracks represent orbits with
periods of 9.3 hours and inclinations of 50°. Both orbits are highly eccentric. Orbit A has
perigee over the Northern Hemisphere. Orbit B has perigee over the Southern Hemisphere.
If the mission objective Is to get high-resolution photographs of locations in the United States,
then orbit A has perigee properly positioned.
~ Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
great circle > A ground track is the path a spacecraft traces on Earth's surface
node displacement, llN as it orbits. Because a spacecraft orbits around Earth's center, the
orbital plane slices through the center, so the ground track is a
Key Equations great circle.
. 360°-1.iN >- When the spherically-shaped Earth is spread out on a two-
P nod (hours) = 150 /hr dirnensional, Mercator-projection map, the orbital ground track
(for direct orbits) resembles a sine wave for orbits with periods less than 24 hours
>- Because orbital planes are fixed in inertial space and Earth rotates
P 2ni
=
beneath them, ground tracks appear to shift westward during
successive orbits
>- From a ground track, you can find several orbitaJ parameters
• Orbital period-by measuring the westward shift of the
ground track
• Inclination of a spacecraft's orbit-by looking at the highest
latitude reached on the ground track (for direct orbits)
• Approximate eccentricity of the orbit-nearly circular orbits
appear symmetrical, whereas eccentric orbits appear lopsided
• Location of perigee-by looking at the point where the ground
track is spread out the most
184
References
References 7 What are the two major categories of inclination
relative to the Earth's motion?
Bate, Roger R., Donald D. Mueller, and Jerry E. White.
Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York, NY:
Dover Publications, 1971.
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission 8 R
How can we look only at the and V vectors and
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht, tell if i = 0. What about i = 90° or 180°?
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
== Mission Problems
9 A Titan IV launches a spacecraft due south from
Vandenburg AFB (34.6° N latitude, 120.6° W
5.1 Orbital Elements longitude). What's the most northerly point
(latitude) the spacecraft can view directly below it
on any orbit?
1 Why do we prefer classic orbital elements over a
set of R and V vectors for describing an orbit?
5.2 Computing Orbital Elements
10 After maneuvering, the spacecraft from the
2 How many initial conditions (ICs) do we need for previous question has these orbital elements
solving the two-body equation of motion? Give an
semimajor axis = 8930 km
example of one set of ICs.
eccentricity = 0.3
inclination= 53°
right ascension of the ascending node= 165°
argument of perigee = 90°
3" If a spacecraft has a high specific mechanical true anomaly= 90°
energy, what does this tell us about the size of the
orbit? Why? a) Sketch a picture of the orbit
b) Is this a direct or retrograde orbit?
4 What is the specific mechanical energy, E, of an c) Where is the spacecraft located in its orbit?
orbit with a sernimajor axis of 42,160 km?
d) Is perigee in the Northern or Southern
Hemisphere?
5 What four things do classic orbital elements e) Is this a circular, elliptical, parabolic, or
(COEs) tell us about a spacecraft's orbit and the hyperbolic orbit?
spacecraft's position in the orbit?
11 Discuss the use of inclination for different
6 What are the six COEs? spacecraft missions.
185
Chapter 5 Describing Orbits
12 Why don't we use vectors in the orbital and b) What is the spacecraft's inclination?
equatorial planes to measure inclination?
c) Calculate the ascending node vector.
d) What is the spacecraft's right ascension of the
ascending node?
13 In general, how do we measure the alternate
orbital elements when some of the reference
vectors are undefined?
17 The above spacecraft was supposedly put into a
Molniya type orbit.
14 As a program manager for a major corporation, a) Compute the eccentricity vector.
determine which alternate classic orbital elements
(COEs) describe these orbits b) What is the spacecraft's argument of perigee? Is
this the value needed for a Molniya orbit? See
a) Circular, i > 0° Table 5-4.
b) Equatorial, 0 < e < 1 c) Where is the spacecraft? In other words, what is
its true anomaly?
c) Circular-equatorial
5.3 Spacecraft Ground Tracks
15 A spacecraft has these orbital elements 18 Given a non-rotating Earth, if the inclination stays
the same but the orbital size increases or decreases,
semimajor axis= 5740 km does the ground track change? Why or why not?
eccentricity= 0.1 Describe what, if anything, happens to the ground
inclination= 53° track.
right ascension of the ascending node = 345°
argument of perigee = 270°
true anomaly= 183°
19 Given a rotating Earth, if the inclination stays the
same but the orbital size increases or decreases,
What is peculiar about this orbit? does the ground track change? Why or why not?
Describe what, if anything, happens to the ground
track.
16 A ground-based tracking station observes that a
new Russian spacecraft has the following R and
V vectors 20 What type of ground track does a geostationary
spacecraft have? How about a geosynchronous
R = 7016 i + 5740 j + 638 I< km spacecraft with a 30° inclination?
V = 0.24 i-0.79 J-7.11 I< km/s
a) What is the specific angular momentum of the 21 Can we "hang" a reconnaissance satellite over
spacecraft? Baghdad? Why or why not?
186
Mission Problems
22 Sketch the grow1d track of a spacecraft with the 23 Given the ground track below of a direct-orbit,
following elements low-attitude spacecraft,
period = 480 min a) Identify the inclination
eccentricity = 0.0
inclination = 25°
b) Determine the longitude shift and then
a) What is the longitude shift of the ground track?
compute the period of the orbit
b) What is the highest and lowest latitude that the
c) Suggest a possible mission(s) for the spacecraft
spacecraft's ground track reaches?
c) What shape does the ground track have? Is it
symmetrical?
187
Notes,
{.
I
188
With the launch of IKON OS, the world's first one-meter ./ The camera's Focal Plane Unit contains separate
resolution, commercial, imaging satellite, on September sensor arrays for simultaneous panchromatic (black
24, 1999, Space Imaging is set to deliver unprecedented and white) and multispectral (color) imaging. The
images of Earth's surface from low-Earth orbit. With im- panchromatic sensor array consists of 13,500, 12-
ages from this system, farmers can precisely monitor the micron-sized pixels-each about one-quarter the
health of crops and estimate yields, scientists can look at width of a human hair.
environmentally sensitive areas and predict trends, and
./ The Digital Processing Unit compresses the digital
city planners can develop new housing communities.
image files from 11 bits per pixel (bpp) data to an
Mission Overview average value of 2.6 bpp, at a speed of 115 million
pixels per second. That's equivalent to capturing
The mission of the IKON OS platform is to provide accu- imagery simultaneously with 115 megapixel cam-
rate and timely information to serve a variety of global eras, or enough to fill a photo CD every 17 seconds.
needs, including environmental monitoring, mapping,
infrastructure management, oceanographic and atmo- Mission Impact
spheric research, agricultural monitoring, and others. The first IKON OS images show phenomenal detail. The
Kodak camera is so powerful it can see objects less than
1 m square on the ground-enough to distinguish be-
tween a car and a truck. Th.is capability from an orbital
altitude of 680 km (400 mi.) represents a significant in-
crease in image resolution over any other commercial,
remote-sensing satellite system. With this new standard
in place, our view of the world changes, and many in-
dustries can improve their productivity as a result.
IKONOS Satellite. (Courtesy of Space Imaging)
Mission Data
./ IKONOS was placed into orbit by a Lock.heed
Martin Athena II, a four-stage launch vehicle, with
a lift-off weight of 121,000 kg (266,000 lb.)
./ The IKON OS telescope has the equivalent resolving
power of a 10,000 mm telephoto lens. Designed and
built by Kodak, the telescope features three curved
mirrors, each precisely configured to capture and IKONOS Image. This photo is of McNichols Arena and Mile High
focus high-resolution Earth imagery onto the imag- Stadium in Denver, Colorado. (Courtesy of Space Imaging)
ing sensors at the focal plane. Two additional flat
mirrors 'fold' the imagery across the inside of the For Discussion
telescope, thereby significantly reducing the tele-
• What industries may grow to rely on IKONOS high
scope's length (from 10 m to about 2 m) and weight.
resolution images?
./ To ensure the sharpest imagery possible, the sur- How should governments encourage such innova-
faces of the three curved mirrors were polished to tion, yet control national security impact
atomic-level accuracy. The primary mirror surface is
so smooth, if it were enlarged to 160 km (100 mi.) in Contributor
diameter, a car driven across its surface would not
Douglas Kirkpatrick, the U.S. Air Force Academy
hit bumps any higher than 2 mm (0.08 in.)
./ Each mirror was aligned in the telescope so precisely References
that the error is equivalent to placing a human hair Space Imaging website prepared by their Public
under one end of a 6-m-long (20-ft.) wooden plank. Relations office.
189
The plme from the Space Shuttle's powerful orbital maneuvering engines brightens the space at the back of the vehicle. (Courtesy of NASAi
Johnson Space Center)
Maneuvering
In Space
- In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... - Outline
,... Explain the most energy-efficient means of transferring between two
6.1 Hohmann Transfers
orbits-the Hohmann Transfer
• Determine the velocity change (t,,. V) needed to perform a Hohmann 6.2 Plane Changes
Transfer between two orbits Simple Plane Changes
.- Explain plane changes and how to determine the required t'l V to Combined Plane Changes
accomplish them
6.3 Rendezvous
,,.. Explain orbital rendezvous and how to determine the required t,,. V and
wait time needed to start one Coplanar Rendezvous
Co-orbital Rendezvous
- You Should Already Know ...
Basic orbital concepts (Chapter 4)
O Cla sic orbital elements (Chapter 5)
Space ... is big. Really big. You just won't believe how vastly, hugely, mind-
boggli11g big it is. T mean, you may think it': a long way down tue rand to the
chemist's [druggist's], but that's just peanuts to space.
Douglas Adn111s
The Hitch-hiker's Guide to the Galaxy
1979
Chapter 6 Maneuvering Tn Space
spacecraft seldom stays very long in its assigned orbit. On nearly
A every space mission, there's a need to change one or more of the
classic orbital elements at least once. Communication satellites,
for instance, never directly assume their geostationary positions. They first
go into a low-perigee (300 km or so) "parking orbit" before transferring to
geosynchronous altitude (about 35,780 km). While this large change in
semimajor axis occurs, another maneuver reduces the satellite's
inclination from that of the parking orbit to 0°. Even after they arrive at
their mission orbit, they regularly have to adjust it to stay in place. On
other missions, spacecraft perform maneuvers to rendezvous with
another spacecraft, as when the Space Shuttle rendezvoused with the
Hubble Space Telescope to repair it (Figure 6-1).
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter
deals with the Trajectories and Orbits segment
of the Space Mission Architecture, introduced
in Figure 1-20.
Figure 6-1. Shuttle Rendezvous with Hubble Space Telescope. In 1995 and again in
1999, the Space Shuttle launched into the same orbital plane as the Hubble Space
Telescope. After some maneuvering, the Shuttle rendezvoused with and captured the
telescope to make repairs. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
As we'll see in this chapter, these orbital maneuvers aren't as simple as
"motor boating" from one point to another. Because a spacecraft is always
in the gravitational field of some central body (such as Earth or the Sun),
it has to follow orbital-motion laws in getting from one place to another.
In this chapter we'll use our understanding of the two-body problem to
learn about maneuvering in space. We'll explain the most economical
way to move from one orbit to another, find how and when to change a
spacecraft's orbital plane, and finally, describe the intricate ballet needed
to bring two spacecraft together safely in an orbit.
192
6.1 Hohmann Transfers
6.1 Hohmann Transfers
!!!!!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
11r Describe the steps in the Hohmann Transfer, the most fuel- fficient
way to get from one orbit to another in the same plane
.,... Determine the velocity change (~V) needed to complete a
Hohmann Transfer
One of the first problems faced by space-mission designers was
figuring how to go from one orbit to another. Refining this process for
eventual missions to the Moon was one of the objectives of the Gemini
program in the 1960s, shown in Figure 6-2. Let's say we're in one orbit
and we want to go to another. We'll assume for the moment that the
initial and final orbits are in the same plane to keep things simple. We
often use such coplanar maneuvers to move spacecraft from their initial
parking orbits to their final mission orbits. Because fuel is critical for all
orbital maneuvers, let's look at the most fuel-efficient way to do this,
known as the Hohmann Transfer.
Figure 6-2. The Gemini Program. During the Gemini program in the 1960s, NASA
engineers and astronauts developed the procedures for all of the orbital maneuvers needed
for the complex Lunar missions. Here the Gemini 6A command module rendezvous with the
Gemini 7 command module. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
193
Chapter 6 Maneuvering ln Space
In 1925 a German engineer, Walter Hohmann, theorized a fuel-efficient
way to transfer between orbits. (It's amazing someone was thinking
about this, considering artificial satellites didn't exist at the time.) This
method, called the Ho/11nn1111 Transier, uses an elliptical transfer orbit
tangent to the initial and final orbits.
To better understand this idea, let's imagine you're driving a fast car
around a racetrack, as shown in Figure 6-3. The effort needed to exit the
track depends on the off-ramp's location and orientation. For instance, if
the off-ramp is tangent to the track, your exit is easy-you just straighten
the wheel. But if the off-ramp is perpendicular to the track, you have to
slow down a lot, and maybe even stop, to negotiate the turn: Why the
difference? With the tangential exit you have to change only the
magnitude of your velocity, so you just hit the brakes. With the
perpendicular exit, you quickly must change the magnitude and direction
of your velocity. This is hard to do at high speed without rolling your car!
Figure 6-3. Maneuvering. One way to think about maneuvering in space is to imagine
driving around a racetrack. It takes more effort to exit at a sharp turn than to exit tangentially.
The Hohmann Transfer applies this simple racetrack example to orbits.
By using "on/ off-ramps" tangent to our initial and final orbits, we
change orbits using as little energy as possible. For rocket scientists,
saving energy means saving fuel, which is precious for space missions. By
definition, we limit Hohmann Transfers to
• Orbits in the same plane (coplanar orbits)
• Orbits with their major axes (line of apsides) aligned (co-apsidnl orbits)
or circular orbits
• Instantaneous velocity changes (deltn-Vs or t,,. Vs) tangent to the initial
and final orbits
We'll deal with the problem of changing between orbital planes later.
Co-apsidal orbits take this name because two elliptical orbits have their
major axes (line of apsis) aligned with one another. Also, velocity changes
are "instantaneous" because we assume that the time the engine fires is
very short compared to the Hohmann Transfer time of flight. Tangential
velocity changes mean the spacecraft changes its velocity vector
194
6.1 Hohmann Transfers
magnitude but not direction to begin the Hohmann Transfer. Again at the
end of the transfer the spacecraft changes its velocity vector magnitude
but not its direction. To satisfy this tangential condition, the spacecraft
must fire its thrusters or "burn" in a direction parallel to its velocity
vector. These tangential !:,.Vs are the real secret to the Hohmann Transfer's
energy savings.
Now let's look at what these velocity changes are doing to the orbit. By
assuming all !:,. Vs occur nearly instantaneously (sometimes called an
"impulsive burn"), we can continue to use the results from the two-body
problem we developed in Chapter 4 to help us here. (Otherwise, we'd
have to integrate the thrust over time and that would be too complex for
this discussion.) Whenever we add or subtract velocity, we change the
orbit's specific mechanical energy,£, and hence its size, or semimajor axis,
a. Remember these quantities are related by
(6-1)
where
E = specific mechanical energy (km2 I s2)
~l = gravitational parameter= 3.986 x 105 (km3 /s2) for Earth
a = sernimajor axis (km)
If we want to move a spacecraft to a higher orbit, we have to increase
the sernimajor axis (adding energy to the orbit) by increasing velocity. On
the other hand, to move the spacecraft to a lower orbit, we decrease the
semi major axis (and the energy) by decreasing the velocity.
During a space mission, we sometimes must transfer a spacecraft from
one orbit (orbit 1) to another (orbit 2). It has to go into a trnnsfer orbit,
shown in Figure 6-4, on its way to orbit 2. To get from orbit 1 to the
transfer orbit, we change the orbit's energy (by changing the spacecraft's
velocity by an amount 1:,. V1). Then, when the spacecraft gets to orbit 2, we
must change its energy again (by changing its velocity by an amount
!:,. V 2). If we don't, the spacecraft will remain in the transfer orbit,
indefinitely, returning to where it started in orbit 1, then back to orbit 2,
etc. Thus, the complete maneuver requires two separate energy changes,
accomplished by changing the orbital velocities (using 1:,.V1 and 1:,.V2).
Any 1:,. V represents a change from the present velocity to a selected
velocity. For a tangential burn, we can write this as
!:,. V = IV.selected - V present!
Figure 6-4. Getting From One Orbit to
Notice we normally take the absolute value of this difference because we Another. The problem in orbital maneuvering is
want to know the amount of velocity change, so we can calculate the energy getting from orbit 1 to orbit 2. Here we see a
and thus, the fuel needed. We're not concerned with the sign of the !:,. V spacecraft moving from a lower orbit lo a higher
one in a transfer orbit. If it doesn't perform the
because we must burn fuel whether the spacecraft accelerates to reach a second ti V when ii reaches orbit 2, it will remain
higher orbit or decelerates to drop into a lower orbit. If!:,. V1 is the change in in the transfer orbit.
velocity that takes the spacecraft from orbit 1 into the transfer orbit, then,
195
Chapter 6 Maneuvering ln Space
sv, IVtransferatorbitl -Vorbitll
= velocity change to go from orbit 1 into the
transfer orbit (km Is)
V transfer at orbit 1 = velocity in the transfer orbit at orbit 1 radius
(km/s)
V orbit 1 = velocity in orbit 1 (km/ s)
t:i. V2 is the change to get the spacecraft from the transfer orbit into orbit 2.
Both of these t:i.Vs are shown in Figure 6-5.
11 V 2 = IV orbit 2 - V transfer at orbit 21
where
t:i. V 2 = velocity change to move from the transfer orbit into orbit
2 (km/ s)
We add the t:i. V from each burn to find the total t:i. V needed for the trip from
orbit 1 to orbit 2.
t:i.Vtotal (6-2)
where
t:i. V total = total velocity change needed for the transfer (km/ s)
When we cover the rocket equation in Chapter 14, we'll see how to convert
this number into the amount of fuel required.
v transfer at orbit 1
-.
transfer orbit
vorbit2
step one step two
Figure6·5. Hohmann Transfer. Step 1 : The first burn or t:i. V of a Hohmann Transfer takes
the spacecraft out of its initial, circular orbit and puts it in an elliptical, transfer orbit. Step 2:
The second burn lakes ii from the transfer orbit and puts it in the final, circular orbit.
196
6.1 Hohmann Tran fers
To compute ~ V total, we use the energy equations from orbital
mechanics. Everything we need to know to solve an orbital-maneuvering
problem comes from these two valuable relationships, as you can see in
Example 6-1. First, we need the specific mechanical energy,£
1, = ~, -~ I (6-3)
where
E = spacecraft's specific mechanical energy (km2 I s2)
V = magnitude of the spacecraft's velocity vector (km/s)
~t = gravitational parameter (km3 I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2 for
Earth
R = magnitude of the spacecraft's position vector (km)
Then, we need the alternate form of the specific mechanical energy
equation
E = - ~ (6-4)
2a
where
E =spacecraft's specific mechanical energy (km2 I s2)
~t = gravitational parameter (krn' I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2 for
Earth
a = semimajor axis (km)
Let's review the steps in the transfer process to see how all this fits
together. Referring to Figure 6-5,
• Step 1: ~ V 1 takes a spacecraft from orbit 1 and puts it in to the transfer
orbit
• Step 2: ~ V 2 puts the spacecraft in to orbit 2 from the transfer orbit
To solve for these A Vs, we need to find the energy in each orbit. If we know
the sizes of orbits 1 and 2, then we know their semimajor axes (aorbit 1 and
aorbit 2). The transfer orbit's major axis equals the sum of the two orbital
radii, as shown in Figure 6-6.
2 a transfer = Rorbit l + Rorbit 2 (6-5)
Using the alternate equation for specific mechanical energy, we determine
the energy for each orbit
~l
---- (6-6)
2aorbit 1
Figure 6-6. Size of the Transfer Orbit. The
___ µ_ (6-7) major axis of the transfer orbit equals the sum
2aorbit 2 of the radii of the initial and final orbits.
197
Chapter 6 Maneuvering In Space
E - µ (6-8)
transfer - - 2a
transfer
With the energies in hand, we use the main equation for specific
mechanical energy, rearranged to calculate the orbits' velocities
V orbit 1 = 2(~ orbit 1
+ Eorbit 1)
Vorbit2 = 2(~ orbit 2
+ Eorbit2)
vtransferatorbitl 2(-R orbit
µ + Etransfer)
1
Vtransferatorbit2 = 2(~ orbit 2
+ Etransfer)
Finally, we take the velocity differences to find AV1 and AV2, then add
these values to get A Vtotal
AV 1 = IV transfer at orbit 1 - V orbit 11
AV 2 = IV orbit 2 - V transfer at orbit 21
AV total = AV 1 + AV 2
The Hohmann Transfer is energy efficient, but it can take a long time. To
find the time of flight, look at the diagram of the maneuver. The transfer
covers exactly one half of an ellipse. Recall that we find the total period for
any closed orbit by
p - 2Jtf; (6-9)
So, the transfer orbit's time of flight (TOF) is half of the period
3
p a transfer
TOF 2 = rt µ (6-10)
where
TOF = spacecraft's time of flight (s)
P = orbital period (s)
a = semimajor axis of the transfer orbit (km)
µ = gravitational parameter (krrr' I s2) = 3.986 x 105 krrr' I s2 for
Earth
Example 6-1 shows how to find time of flight for a Hohmann Transfer.
198
6.1 Iohmann Transfers
Now that we've gone through the Hohmann Transfer, let's step back to
see what went on here. In the example, the spacecraft went from a low
orbit to a higher orbit. To do this, it had to accelerate twice: flV1 and flV2.
But notice the velocity in the higher circular orbit is less than in the lower
circular orbit. Thus, the spacecraft accelerated twice, yet ended up in a
slower orbit! Does this make sense?
fl V 1 increases the spacecraft's velocity, taking the spacecraft out of
orbit 1 and putting it into the transfer orbit. In the transfer orbit, its
velocity gradually decreases as its radius increases, trading kinetic energy
for potential energy, just as a baseball thrown into the air loses vertical
velocity as it gets higher. When the spacecraft reaches the radius of orbit
2, it accelerates again, with fl V 2 putting it into the final orbit. Even though
the velocity in orbit 2 is lower than in orbit 1, the total energy is higher
because it's at a larger radius. Remember, energy is the sum of kinetic
plus potential energy. Thus, we use the spacecraft's rockets to add kinetic
energy making it gain potential energy. Once it reaches orbit 2, it has
higher total energy.
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
co-apsidal orbit > The Hohmann Transfer moves a spacecraft from one orbit to
coplanar orbit another in the same plane. It' the simplest kind of orbital
de! ta-V, fl V maneuv r because it focuses only on changing the spacecraft's
Hohmann Transfer specific mechanical en rgy, E.
impulsive burn
> The Hohmann Transfer is the cheapest way (least amount of fuel)
total energy
to get from one orbit to another. It's based on these assumptions
transfer orbit
• Initial and final orbits are in the same plane (coplanar)
Key Equations • Major axes of the initial and final orbits are align d (co-apsidal)
E=-.H._ • Velocity changes (fl Vs) are tangent to the initial and final orbits.
2a Thus, the spacecraft's velocity changes magnitude but not
y2 direction
s = --~ • 6 Vs occur instantaneously-impulsive burns
2 R
2atransfer = Rorbit 1 + Rorbit 2
> The Hohmann Transfer consists of two separate 8 Vs
• The first, 8. V1, accelerates the spacecraft from its initial orbit into
µ
Etrarnsfer = - -~- an elliptical transfer orbit
2atrnnsfer
• The second, flV2, accelerates the spacecraft from the elliptical
transfer orbit into the final orbit
TOF = !'2. = re
199
Example 6-1
Problem Statement
Imagine NASA wants to place a communications
satellite into a geosynchronous orbit from a low-Earth,
parking orbit.
Rorbit 1 = 6570 km
Rorbit 2 = 42,160 km
What is the t'1. V total for this transfer and how long will it
take?
V orbit 2
Problem Summary
Given: Rorbit 1 = 6570 km
Rorbit 2 = 42,160 km Conceptual Solution
Find: t'1. Vtotal and TOF
1) Compute the semimajor axis of the transfer orbit
Rorbit 1 + Rorbit 2
Problem Diagram a transfer 2
2) Solve for the specific mechanical energy of the
transfer orbit
µ
£transfer = - 2
a transfer
3) Solve for the energy and velocity in orbit 1
- µ
torbitl - -~
orbit l
aorbit 1 = Rorbit 1 (circular orbit)
E = ---
v' µ
2 R
""' ------
transfer orbit
V transfer at orbit 1 .'. V orbit 1 = 2(~
orbit 1
+ £orbit 1)
vorbitl 4) Solve for Vtransfer at orbit 1
I
\ V transfer at orbit 1
\
''
' ' ..... ______ ..,. 5) Find t'1.V1
1'1.Vl = IVtransferatorbitl-Vorbitll
200
Example 6-1 (Continued)
6) Solve for Vtransfer at orbit 2 3) Solve for energy and velocity of orbit 1
__ µ_
Eorbit 1 = 2
Vtransferatorbit2 = 2(r + Etransfer) aOJbit 1
orbit 2
3
7) Solve for the energy and velocity in orbit 2 3.986 x 105k~ 2
s
=-30.33k~
~t 2(6570 km) s
Eorbit2 = -~
orbit 2
aorbit 2 = Rorbit 2 (circular orbit) V orbitl 2(r
orbit 1
+ Eorbit 1)
y2
E --~
2 R skm3
3.986 x 10 -2 2
:. V orbit 2 2 _____ s_ - 30.33 km2 7.789km
6570 km s s
8) Find /',,.V2
4) Solve for V transfer at orbit 1
/',,. V2 = \V or b'it 2 - V transfer at orbit 2 I
9) Solve for ;,.,,ytotal V transfer at orbit 1 = 2(r + Etransfer)
orbit 1
/',,. V total = /',,. V 1 + /',,. V 2
skm3
3.986 x 10 -2 2
10) Compute TOF s km
2 --6-57-0,....,.k_m__ - 8.17987
3
a transfer
TOF µ
km
V transfer at orbit 1 = 10.246 -
s
5) Find ;,.,,v1
Analytical Solution
/',,.VI =
I V transfer at orbit 1 - V orbit 1 I
1) Compute the semimajor axis of the transfer orbit
J10.246k~ _ 7.789k~I
Rorbit l + Rorbit 2 6570 km+ 42,160 km
atransfer =
2 2 /', . vl = 2.457km
s
atransfer = 24,365 km
6) Solve for Vtransfer at orbit 2
2) Solve for the specific mechanical energy of the
transfer orbit
l
Vtransferatorbit2 = 2(r + Etransfer)
3 orbit Z
3.986 105k~
x
s
Etransfer 3.986 x10 skm
-2 2
2atransfer 2(24,365 km) s 3 km
2 42,160 km - 8.17987
2
Etransfer =
-81798km
· 2
s
(Note the energy is negative, which implies the l.597km
V transfer at orbit 2
transfer orbit is an ellipse; as we'd expect.) s
201
Example 6-1 (Continued)
7) Solve for energy and velocity in orbit 2 9) Solve for ~Vtotal
LL
Eorbit2 = -~ ~vtotal = ~vl + ~v2 = 2.457km + 1.478km
orbit 2 s s
3
3.986 x 105k~ = 3.935km
2 s
_____ s_ =-4.727km2
2(42,160km) s 10) Compute TOF
3
V orbit2 a transfer
skm3 (24,365 km/
3.986 x 10 -2 2 = ]t 3
s km
2 _4_2_,1_6_0_km
__ - 4·727 7 = 3.075km
s
3.986 x 105k~
s
TOF = 18,925 s ""315 min= 5 hrs 15 min
8) Find~V2
~ V 2 = IV orbit 2 - V transfer at orbit 21
Interpreting the Results
13.075k~ -1.597k:'I
To move the communication satellite from its low-
altitude (192 km) parking orbit to geosynchronous
~V2 = l.478km
s altitude, the engines must provide a total velocity
change of about 3.9 km/ s (about 8720 m.p.h.). The
transfer will take five and a quarter hours to complete.
202
6.2 Plane Changes
6.2 Plane Changes
!!!!!!!!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
..- Explain when to use a simple plane change and how a simple plane
change can modify an orbital plane
,.. Explain how to use a plane change combined with a Hohmann
Transfer to efficiently change an orbit's size and ori ntation
..- Determine the !::. V needed for simple and combined plane changes
So far we've seen how to change the size of an orbit using a Hohmann
Transfer. However, we restricted this transfer to coplanar orbits. As you'd
expect, to change its orbital plane, a spacecraft must point its velocity
change(!::. V) out of its current plane. By changing the orbital plane, it also
alters the orbit's tilt (inclination, i) or its swivel (right ascension of the
ascending node, Q), depending on where in the orbit it does the zs V burn.
For plane changes, we must consider the direction and magnitude of the
spacecraft's initial and final velocities.
To understand plane changes, imagine you're on a racetrack with 0££-
ramps such as those on a freeway. If you want to exit from the track, you
not only must mange your velocity within its plane but also must go above
or below the level of the track? This "out of plane" maneuver causes you
to use even more energy than a level exit because you now have to
accelerate to make it up the ramp or brake as you go down. Thus, out-of-
plane maneuvers typically require much more energy than in-plane
maneuvers.
Let's look at two types of plane changes-simple and combined. The
difference between the two depends on how the orbital velocity vector
changes. With a simple plane clinnge only its direction changes, but to do a
combined plane change we alter its direction and magnitude. We'll take on
the simple plane change first.
Simple Plane Changes
Let's imagine we have a spacecraft in an orbit with an inclination, i, of
28.5°. (the inclination we'd get if we launched it due east from the
Kennedy Space Center, as the Shuttle often does.) Assume we want to
change it into an equatorial orbit (i = 0°). We must change the spacecraft's
velocity to do this, but we want to change only the orbit's orientation, not
its size. This means the velocity vector's magnitude stays the same, that is
/vinitiall = /v final/, but its direction changes.
How do we change just the direction of the velocity vector? Look at the
situation i1:,_Figure 6-7. You can see we initially have an inclined orbit with Figure 6-7. Simple Plane Change. A simple
a velocity Vini~J, and we want to rotate the orbit by an angle 8 to reach a plane change affects only the direction and not
final velocity, Vfinal. The vector triangle shown in Figure 6-7 summarizes the magnitude of the original velocity vector.
203
Chapter 6 Maneuvering In Space
this problem. It's an isosceles triangle (meaning it has two sides of equal
length). Using plane geometry, we get a relationship for ,i\. V simple-the
change in velocity needed to rotate the plane
(6-11)
where
t-.Vsimple = velocity change for a simple plane change
(km/s)
Vinitial = Vfinal = velocities in the initial and final orbits (km/s)
8 = plane-change angle (deg or rad)
If we want to change only the orbit's inclination, we must change the
velocity at either the ascending node or the descending node. When the
t-. V occurs at one of these nodes, the orbit will pivot about a line
connecting the two nodes, thus changing only the inclination.
We can also use a plane change to change the right ascension of the
ascending node, Q. This might be useful if we want a remote-sensing
satellite to pass over a certain point on Earth at a certain time of day.
When we consider a polar orbit (i = 90°), we see that a ,i\. V simple at the
North or South Pole changes just the right ascension of the ascending
node, as illustrated in Figure 6-8. We can also change Q alone for
inclinations other than 90°. The trick is to perform the t-.Vsimple where the
initial and final orbits intersect. (Think of this maneuver as pivoting
around a line connecting the burn point to Earth's center.) We won't go
into the details of these cases because the spherical trigonometry gets a bit
complicated for our discussion here.
The amount of velocity change a spacecraft needs to re-orient its orbital
plane depends on two things-the angle it's turning through and its
initial velocity. As the angle it's turning through increases, so does
t-.Vsimple· For example, when this angle is 60°, the vector triangle becomes
equilateral (all sides equal). In this case, t-.Vsimple equals the initial
velocity, which is the amount of velocity it needed to get into the orbit in
the first place! That's why we'd like the initial parking orbit to have an
inclination as close as possible to the final mission orbit.
Also notice that t-. Vsimple increases as the initial velocity increases.
Therefore, we can lower t-.Vsimple by reducing the initial velocity. For a
circular orbit the velocity is constant throughout the orbit, but we know a
spacecraft in an elliptical orbit slows down as it approaches apogee. Thus,
if we can choose where to do a simple plane change in an elliptical orbit,
Figure 6-8. Changing Q. A simple plane we should do it at apogee, where the spacecraft's velocity is slowest.
change as a spacecraft crosses the pole in a
Remember our earlier analogy about changing speeds and directions on a
polar orbit (I = 90°) will change only the right
ascension of the ascending node, Q. Imagine racetrack. It's easier to change direction when we're going slower (even
the orbital plane pivoting about Earth's poles. for a stunt driver). Example 6-2 demonstrates a simple plane change.
204
6.2 Plane Changes
Combined Plane Changes
Suppose our spacecraft is in a low-altitude parking orbit with i = 28.5°
and it needs to transfer to a geostationary orbit (R = 42,160 km, i = 0°).
This transfer presents us with two separate problems: changing the size
of the orbit and changing the orientation of the orbital plane. We might be
tempted to tackle this problem in two parts-a Hohmann Transfer
followed by a simple plane change. This two-part problem gets the job
done in three separate D.V burns. But we can do the job in two bums
rather than three and save fuel. How? By combining the plane-change
burn with one Hohmann Transfer burn to get a maneuver we call a
combined plane change.
Jf we draw a diagram of this problem, as in Figure 6-9, we 5an see that
/). v combined is the vector sum of a Jimple plane change (D. vsimple) and vinitinl
changing the orbit's size where !). Vincrease is one of the _,_two Holunann
Transfer bums. These three !). Vs form a triangle with !). V combined as the
third side. You may recall from plane geometry that the sum of any two
sides of a triangle is greater than the third side. That is:
1/). v simplel + b vincreasel > 1/). v combined I
This means it's always cheaper (in terms of D.V) to do a combined plane
change than to do a simple plane change followed by one of the Hohmann
Transfer burns.
Figure 6-9. Vector Diagram of the
To solve for the needed velocity change let's apply the ever-popular
Combined Plane Change. For a combined
law of cosines to get plane change, /'i. V combined is always less than
a simple plane change, /'i. V simp!§• followed by
a tangential velocity increase, V Increase·
(6-12)
where
!). V combined= velocity change for a combined plane change (km/ s)
lvinitia\1 = magnitude of the velocity in the initial orbit (km/s)
lvfITTail = magnitude of the velocity in the final orbit (km/s)
8 = plane-change angle (deg or rad)
By working through this equation, we find that it's cheaper to do a
combined plane change at slower velocities (when farther from Earth) just
as we found for the simple plane change. So what's the cheapest way to do
a Hohmann Transfer with a plane change? For the case of going from a
smaller to a larger orbit, we should begin the Hohmann Transfer (D.V1) at the
lower altitude while keeping the same inclination. Then we should perform
the combined plane change at apogee of the transfer orbit, completing the
Hohmann Transfer and the plane change in one, combined AV burn.
Table 6-1 summarizes the four options for a transfer from a low-Earth
orbit with an inclination of 28° to a geostationary orbit. It shows that
starting the Hohmann Transfer closest to Earth and finishing with the
combined plane change at apogee (Case 4) is the most economical in
terms of A V. We base the results in Table 6-1 on the following example
205
Chapter 6 Maneuvering In Space
Given: Rorbit 1 = 6570 km
Rorbit 2 = 42,160 km
iorbit 1 = 28°
iorbit 2 = 0°
Find: /',. V total
Table 6-1. Plane Change and Hohmann Transfer Options. Case 4 requires the least amount of tJ.V.
Case 1 Case 2 Case3 Case4
Do a 28" inclination change using Do the Hohmann Transfer, tJ. V 1 and Do a combined plane change Do tJ. V, of Hohmann Transfer.
a simple plane change. Then do t..V2• Then do the 28" inclination at perigee of the transfer Do combined plane change at
the Hohmann Transfer, tJ. V, and change using a simple plane orbit. Do t..V2 of Hohmann. apogee of transfer orbit.
t>V2. change.
!> V simple = 3. 77 km/s (in orbit 1) t..VHohmann = 3.94 km/s t..Vcambined = 4.98 km/s t..V, = 2.46 km/s
(at perigee)
tJ.VHahmann = 3.94 km/s t.. V simple = 1.49 km/s (in orbit 2) tJ.V2 = 1.47 km/s t,Vcombined= 1.82 km/s
(at apogee)
!J.V10131 = 7.70 km/s t..V10101 = 5.43 km/s Vtotal = 6.46 km/s t..V101ar = 4.29 km/s
~ Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
combined plane change >- We need plan change maneuvers to move a spacecraft
simple plane change from one orbital plane to another
Key Equations
• Simple plane changes alter only the direction, not the
magnitude, of the velocity vector for the original orbit
/J. V implc = 2 v,nilialsin (~) lviniliAI = Iv Finall
- A simple plane change at either the ascending or
/',. V combined = descending node changes only the orbit's inclination.
On a polar orbit a simple plane change made over the
North or South Pole changes only the right ascension
of the ascending node. A simple plane change made
anywhere else changes inclination and right ascension
of the ascending node.
• A combined plane change alters the magnitude and
direction of the original velocity vector
- rt' a lways cheaper (in terms of /J. V) to do a combined
plane change than to do a imple plane change
followed by a Hohmann Transfer burn
>- It's always cheaper (in terms of /J. V) to change planes
when the orbital velocity is slowest, which is at apogee for
elliptical transfer orbits
206
Example 6-2
Problem Statement Analytical Solution
Suppose a satellite is in a circular orbit at an altitude of 1) Solve for the energy and velocity of the orbit
250 km. It needs to move from its current inclination of
3
28° to an inclination of 57°. What t,.,.V does this transfer
3.986 x 105k~
require? Lt S
E = - --'---- = - ------
2R 2(6378 + 250 km)
2
= -30.069 k~
Problem Summary s
Given: Altitude= 250 km Vinitial = J2rn + E)
iinitial = 28.oo
ifinal = 57.0o skm3
3.986 x 10 -2 2
Find: t,.,.Vsimple V initial 2 s - 30.069km2
6628 km s
= 7.755km
Conceptual Solution s
1) Solve for the orbit's energy and velocity 2) Solve for the inclination change
e = 1 lfinal
· - !initial
· I = 157° - 28 °1
E = -- ~t
2a
e = 29°
- iR (circular orbit) Find t,.,.V for the simple plane change
2
E ~-1:!:
2 R
t,.,.Vsirnple = 2 Vinitia1sin~ = 2(7.755k:n)sin2 ;°
t,.,. vsimple = 3.88 km/ s
2) Solve for the inclination change
Interpretingthe Results
3) Find the change in velocity for a simple plane To change the inclination of the satellite by 29°, we
change must apply a t,.,.V of 3.88 km/s. This is 50% of the
velocity we needed to get the satellite into space in the
first place. Plane changes are very expensive (in terms of
t,.,. V simple = 2 V initial sin~
t,.,.V.)
207
Chapter 6 Maneuvering In Space
6.3 Rendezvous
- In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- De cribe orbital r ndczvous
,... Determine the t.V and wait time to execute a rendezvous
For the Hohmann Transfer and plane change maneuvers we described
earlier in this chapter, we focused on how to move a spacecraft without
considering where it is in relation to other spacecraft. However, several
types of missions require a spacecraft to meet or reudezoous with another
one, meaning one spacecraft must arrive at the same place at the same
time as a second one. The Gemini program perfected this maneuver in the
1960s, as a prelude to the Apollo missions to the Moon, which depended
on a Lunar-orbit rendezvous. Two astronauts returning from the Lunar
surface had to rendezvous with their companion in the command module
in Lunar orbit for the trip back to Earth. As another example, the Space
Shuttle needs to rendezvous with the International Space Station
routinely to transfer people and equipment. In this section, we'll examine
two simple rendezvous scenarios between co-planar and co-orbital
spacecraft.
Astra Fun Fact------------
Docking Drama on Gemini 8
The first man to walk on the Moon almost didn't survive his first flight into space! On March 16, 1966, NASA
launched Gemini 8 from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The mission was to rendezvous and perform the first-ever
docking with another spacecraft. A modified Agena upperstage (shown in the photo) had been launched 100
minutes before. Following a smooth rendezvous, astronauts
Neil Armstrong and Dave Scott started the docking sequence
and, for the first time, two spacecraft were joined together in
orbit. Thirty minutes later, the two spacecraft began to spin
uncontrollably. Thinking the problem was with the Agena,
Armstrong undocked. Unfortunately, this made the spinning
worse as the Gemini reached rates of 360° per second (60
r.p.m.). Nearing blackout, the two astronauts finally regained
control by shutting down power to the primary thrusters and
firing the re-entry thrusters. The mission was aborted early to
a safe splashdown, but Neil Armstrong would fly again-next
time to the Moon.
David Baker, PhD, The History of Manned Space
Flight. New York, NY: Crown Publishers Inc., 1981. (Courtesy of NASNJohnson Space Center)
208
6.3 Rendezvous
CoplanarRendezvous
The simplest type of rendezvous uses a Hohmann Transfer between
coplanar orbits. The key to this maneuver is timing. Deciding when to fire
the engines, we must calculate how much to lead the target spacecraft, just
as a quarterback leads a receiver in a football game. At the snap of the ball,
the receiver starts rwming straight down the field toward the goal line, as
Figure 6-10 shows. The quarterback mentally calculates how fast the
receiver is running and how long it will take the ball to get to a certain spot
on the field. When the quarterback releases the ball, it will take some time
to reach that spot. Over this same period, the receiver goes from where he
was when the ball was released to the "rendezvous" point with the ball.
Figure 6-10. Orbital Rendezvous and Football. The spacecraft-rendezvous problem is
similar to the problem a quarterback faces when passing to a running receiver. The
quarterback must time the pass Just right so the ball and the receiver arrive at the same place
at the same time.
Let's look closer at this football analogy to see how the quarterback
decides when to throw the ball so it will "rendezvous" with the receiver.
Assume we have a quarterback who throws a 20-yard pass traveling at 10
yd/sand a wide receiver who runs at 4 yd/s. (Ironically, we use English
units to describe American football.) How long must the quarterback wait
from the snap (assuming the receiver starts running immediately) before
throwing the ball? To analyze this problem, let's define the following
symbols
Vreceiver = velocity of the receiver running down the field
= 4 yd/s
V ball = velocity of the ball
=lOyd/s
We know the quarterback must "lead" the receiver; that is, the receiver
will travel some distance while the ball is in the air. But how long will the
ball take to travel the 20 yards from the quarterback to the receiver? Let's
define
TOFball = time of flight of the ball
= distance the ball travels/Vball
= 20 yd/(10 yd/s)
=2s
209
Chapter 6 Maneuvering In Space
The lead distance is then the receiver's velocity times the ball's time of
flight.
a = lead distance
= V receiver x TOFball
=(4yd/s)x2s
= 8 yd
This means the receiver runs an additional 8 yards down the field, while
the ball is in the air. From this we can figure out how much of a head start
the receiver needs before the quarterback throws the ball. If the receiver
runs 8 yards while the ball is in the air, and the ball is being thrown 20
yards, the receiver then needs a head start of
<Ph ea d start = head start distance needed by the receiver
= 20 yd-a
= 20 yd-8 yd
= 12 yd
So before the quarterback throws the ball, the receiver should be 12 yards
down the field. We can now determine how long it will take the receiver
to go 12 yards down field.
W.T. = wait time
= cjihead start / V receiver
= 12 yd/(4 yd/s)
=3s
This is the time the quarterback must wait before throwing the ball to
ensure the receiver will be at the rendezvous point when the ball arrives.
That's all well and good for footballs, but what about spacecraft trying
to rendezvous in space? It turns out that the approach is the same as in
the football problem. Let's look at the geometry of the rendezvous
problem shown in Figure 6-11. We have a target spacecraft (say a disabled
communication satellite that the crew of the Shuttle plans to fix) and an
interceptor (the Space Shuttle). In this example, the target spacecraft is in
a higher orbit than the Shuttle, but we'd take a similar approach if it were
in a lower orbit. To rendezvous, the Shuttle crew must initiate a !'!. V to
transfer to the rendezvous point. But they must do this zs Vat just the right
moment to ensure the target spacecraft arrives at the same point at the
I
same time.
Rtarget
To see how to solve this problem, remember that the quarterback first
Figure 6-11. The Rendezvous Problem. The had to know the velocities of the interceptor (the ball) and the target (the
Space Shuttle commander must do a Hohmann receiver). Because footballs move in nearly straight lines, their velocities
Transfer al precisely the right moment to are easy to see. However, for spacecraft in orbits, velocities aren't so
rendezvous with another spacecraft.
straightforward. Instead of using a straight-line velocity (in meters per
second or miles per hour), we use rotational velocity measured in radians
per second or degrees per hour. We call this rotational velocity "angular
velocity" and use the Greek letter small omega, t», to represent it (not to
be confused with the COE argument of perigee, co). Because spacecraft
210
6.3 Rendezvous
move through 360° (or 2rt radians) in one orbital period, we find their
angular velocity from
2rt(radians)
co
2rtf:
(6-13)
where
co = spacecraft's angular velocity (rad/s)
µ = gravitational parameter (km' I s2) = 3.986 x 105 krrr' I s2 for
Earth
a = semimajor axis (km)
For circular orbits, a= R (radius), so this angular velocity is constant.
To solve the football problem, we had to find the ball's time of flight.
For rendezvous in orbit, the time of flight is the same as the Hohmann
Transfer's time of flight, which we found earlier
3
a transfer
TOF = rt (6-14)
where
TOF = interceptor spacecraft's time of flight (s)
rt = 3.14159 ... (unitless)
atransfer = semimajor axis of the transfer orbit (km)
µ = gravitational parameter (km3 I s2) = 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2
for Earth
Finally, we need to get the timing right. In football, the quarterback
must lead a receiver by a certain amount to get a pass to the right point
for a completion. In rendezvous, the interceptor must lead the target by
an amount called the lead angle, a/Nrrl, when the interceptor starts its
Hohmann Transfer. This lead angle, shown in Figure 6-12, represents the
angular distance covered by the target during the interceptor's time of
flight. We find it by multiplying the target's angular velocity by the
interceptor's time of flight.
(6-15)
where
a.lead = amount by which the interceptor must lead the target
(rad) Figure 6-12. AV at the Right Time. The first
V of the rendezvous Hohmann Transfer starts
wtarget = target's angular velocity (rad Is) when the interceptor is at an angle, 4ir,nal• from
TOF = time of flight (s) the target.
211
Chapter 6 Maneuvering In Space
We can now determine how big of a head start to give the target, just as
a quarterback must give a receiver a head start before releasing the ball to
complete a pass. For spacecraft, we call this the phnse nngle, <P, (Greek
letter, small phi) measured from the interceptor's radius vector to the
target's radius vector in the direction of the interceptor's motion. The
interceptor travels 180° (n radians) during a Hohmann Transfer, so we can
easily compute the needed phase angle, Q>final, if we know the lead angle.
I <Prinal (6-16)
where
<Pfinal = phase angle between the interceptor and target as the
transfer begins (rad)
a1eact = angle by which the interceptor must lead the target (rad)
Chances are, when the interceptor is ready to start the rendezvous, the
target won't be in the correct position, as seen in Figure 6-13. So what do
we do? Just as a quarterback must wait a few seconds before releasing a
pass to a receiver, the interceptor must wait until its position relative to
the target is correct, as in Figure 6-12. But how long does it wait? To
answer this we have to relate where the target is initially (relative to the
interceptor), <Pinitial, to where the interceptor needs to be, <Pfinal, in time to
begin the t:,,. V burn. Because the interceptor and target are moving in
circular orbits at constant velocities, <Pinitial and <Pfinal are related by
Q>final = <)>initial + ( (!)target - (!)interceptor) X wait time (6-17)
Solving for wait time gives us a
'
<Pfinal - <Pinitial
wait time (6-18)
Figure 6-13. Rendezvous Initial Condition. (!)target - (!)interceptor
At the start of the rendezvous problem, the
target is some angle, ·~inllieh away from the where
interceptor.
wait time = time until the interceptor initiates the
rendezvous (s)
Q>final, <l>initial = initial and final phase angles (rad)
(utarget, Winterceptor = target and interceptor angular velocities
(rad/s)
So far, so good. But if we look at the wait time equation, we see that
wait time can be less than zero. Does this mean we have to go back in
time? Luckily, no. Because the interceptor and the target are going around
in circles, the correct angular relationship repeats itself periodically.
When the difference between <l>final and <Pinitial changes by 2n radians
(360°), the correct initial conditions are repeated. To calculate the next
available opportunity to start a rendezvous, we either add 2n to, or
subtract it from, the numerator in Equation (6-18), whichever it takes to
make the resulting wait time positive. In fact, we can determine future
rendezvous opportunities by adding or subtracting multiples of 2n.
212
6.3 Rendezvous
Co-orbital Rendezvous
Another twist to the rendezvous problem occurs when the spacecraft
are co-orbital, meaning the target and interceptor are in the same orbit,
with one ahead of the other. Whenever the target is ahead, as shown in
Figure 6-14, the interceptor must somehow catch the target. To do so, the
interceptor needs to move into a waiting or phasing orbit that will return it
to the same spot one orbit later, in the time it takes the target to move
around to that same spot. Notice the target travels less than 360°, while
the interceptor travels exactly 360°.
How can one spacecraft catch another one that's ahead of it in the same
orbit? By slowing down! What?! Does this make sense? Yes, from specific
mechanical energy, we know that if an interceptor slows down (decreases
energy), it enters a smaller orbit. A smaller orbit has a shorter period, so it
completes one full orbit (360°) in less time. If it slows down the correct
amount, it will get back to where it started just as the target gets there.
To determine the right amount for an interceptor to slow down, first Figure 6-14. Slow Down to Speed Up. To
we find how far the target must travel to get to the interceptor's current catch another spacecraft ahead of it in the
position. If the target is ahead of the interceptor by an amount <Jiinitial, it same orbit, an interceptor slows down,
entering a smaller phasing orbit with a shorter
must travel through an angle, <JitraveJ, to reach the rendezvous spot, found period. This allows it to catch the target.
from
<Jitravel = 2n - <Jiinitial (6-19)
where
<Jitravel = angle through which the target travels to reach the
rendezvous location (rad)
<Jiinitial = initial angle between the interceptor and target (rad)
Now, if we know the angular velocity of the target, we can find the time it
will take to cover this angle, <Jitrave!, by using
TOF = <Jitravel (6-20)
())target
Remember we found the target's angular velocity from Equation (6-13)
())target = ~
~ a;«rget
Because the time of flight equals the period of the phasing orbit, we equate
this to our trusty equation for the period of an orbit, producing
3
TOF = <Jitr«vel = Zrr aph~sing
())target
We can now solve for the required size of the phasing orbit
2
<Jitravel )
aphasing = { ~l ( 2nw
, target
213
Chapter 6 Maneuvering In Space
where
a phasing = semimajor axis of the phasing orbit (km)
~t = gravitational parameter (km3 I s2) = 3.986 x 105 lun3 / s2
for Earth
cj>travel = angular distance the target must travel to get to the
rendezvous location (rad)
Wtarget = target's angular velocity (rad Is)
Knowing the size of the phasing orbit, we can compute the necessary
t Vs for the rendezvous. The first t V slows the interceptor and puts it into
the phasing orbit. The second t V returns it to the original orbit, right next
to the target. These tVs have the same magnitude, so we don't need to
calculate the second one.
We must also know how to rendezvous whenever the target is behind
Figure 6-15. Speed Up to Slow Down. If the
target is behind the interceptor in the same the interceptor in the same orbit. In this case, the angular distance the
orbit, the interceptor must speed up to enter a target must cover to get to the rendezvous spot is greater than 360°. Thus,
higher, slower orbit, thereby allowing the target the interceptor's phasing orbit for the interceptor will have a period
to catch up.
greater than that of its current circular orbit. To get into this phasing orbit,
the interceptor speeds up. It then enters a higher, slower orbit, allowing the
target to catch up, as Figure 6-15 illustrates.
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
lead angle, a1ead >- Rendezvous is the problem of arranging for two or more spacecraft
phase angle, <l> to arrive at the same point in an orbit at the same lime
phasing orbit >- The rendezvous problem is very similar to the problem quarterbacks
rendezvous face when they must "lead" a receiver with a pass. But because the
interceptor and target spacecraft travel in circular orbits, the proper
Key Equations
relative positions for rendezvous repeat periodically.
>- We assume spacecraft rendezvous uses a Hohmann Transfer
>- The lead angle, aleact, is the angular distance the target spacecraft
travels during the interceptor's time of flight, TOF
>- The final phase angle, <llfoial, is the "heads tart" the target spacecraft
<l>rinal = it - Otead needs
>- The wait time is the time between some initial starting time and the
cj>final - <~initi~l lime when the geometry is right to begin the Hohmann Transfer for
wait rim =
Cll 1a rgc l - (l}intcrceptor a rendezvous
• Remember, for negative wait times, we must modify the
numerator in the wait time equation by adding or subtracting
multiples of 2n radian
2"14
Example 6-3
Problem Statement 2) Find the time of flight (TOF) of the transfer orbit
3
Imagine that an automated repair spacecraft in low- at,ansfer
Earth orbit needs to rendezvous with a disabled target TOF = n~ µ
spacecraft in a geosynchronous orbit. I£ the initial
angle between the two spacecraft is 180°, how long 3) Find the angular velocities of the interceptor and
must the interceptor wait before starting the target
rendezvous?
Rinterceptor = 6570 km
(()interceptor = R3
Rtarget = 42,160 km interceptor
Problem Summary 4) Compute the lead angle
Given: Rinterceptor = 6570 km Ct1ead = (wtarget)(TOF)
Rtarget = 42,160 km
5) Solve for the final phase angle
<Pinitial = 180° = n radians
<Pfinal = Jt - CtJead
Find: wait time
6) Find the wait time
'Pfinal - <Pinitial
Wait Time =
Problem Diagram (()target - (()interceptor
Analytical Solution
1) Compute the sernimajor axis of the transfer orbit
Rinterceptor + Rtarget
atransfer = 2
6570 km+ 42,160 km
2
atransfer = 24,365 km
2) Find the TOF of the transfer orbit
Conceptual Solution 3
atransfer (24,365 km/
1) Compute the semimajor axis of the transfer orbit TOF Jt Jt 3
3.986 x 105k1~
Rinterceptor + Rtarget s
atransfer = 2 TOF = 18,925 s = 315 min 25 s
215
Example 6-3 Continued
3) Find the angular velocities of the interceptor and 6) Find the wait time
target
wait time = __ <P_fi1_1a_1-_<P_in_ih_·a_l
_
3 (!)target - ())interceptor
3.986 x 105k~
s 1.76 rad-Jt
wait time
(!)interceptor R3 = (6570 km/
interceptor 0.000073rad - 0.0012rad
s s
Winterceptor = 0.0012 rad/ S
wait time= 1225.9 s = 20.4 min
3
3.986 x 105k~
-~-l_ s
(!)target = R:arget ( 42,160 km/ Interpreting the Results
Wtarget = 0.000073 rad/ s
From the initial separation of 180°, the interceptor
4) Compute the lead angle must wait 20.4 minutes before starting the Hohmann
alead (wtarget)(TOF) Transfer to rendezvous with the target.
( 0.000073r:d) (18,925 s)
alead = 1.38 rad
5) Solve for the final phase angle
<)>final = rt - a,ead = Jt - 1.38 rad
<Pfinal = 1.76 rad
216
References
!!m References 5 Suppose NASA wants to move a malfunctioning
spacecraft from a circular orbit at 500 km altitude
to one at 150 km altitude, so a Shuttle crew can
Bate, Roger R., Donald D. Mueller, Jerry E. White. repair it.
Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York, NY:
Dover Publications, Inc., 1971.
a) What is the energy of the transfer orbit?
Escobal, Pedro R. Methods of Orbit Determination.
Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company, Inc.,
b) What is the velocity change IcV 1) needed to go
1976.
from the initial circular orbit into the transfer
orbit?
Kaplan, Marshall H. Modern Spacecraft Dynamics and
Control. New York, NY: Wiley & Sons. 1976.
c) What is the velocity change (t:,, V2) needed to go
Vallado, David A. Fundamentals of Astrodynamics and from the transfer orbit to the final circular
Applications. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
orbit?
Companies, Inc. 1997.
!!!!! Mission Problems d) What is the time (TOF) required for the
transfer?
6.1 Hohmann Transfers
6.2 Plane Changes
1 What assumptions allow us to use a Hohmann
Transfer? 6 What orbital elements can a simple plane change
alter?
7 For changing inclination only, where do we do the
2 What makes a Hohmann Transfer the most energy- t:,,V? Why?
efficient maneuver between coplanar orbits?
8 Why do we prefer to use a combined plane change
when going from a low-Earth parking orbit to a
3 When going from a smaller circular orbit to a geostationary orbit rather than a Hohmann
larger one, why do we speed up twice but end up Transfer followed by a simple plane change?
with a slower velocity in the final orbit?
9 Why does Case 3 in Table 6-1 (doing a combined
plane change at perigee followed by !::,. V2 of the
4 Why do we t\_ke the absolute value of the Hohmann Transfer) have a higher total t:,,V than
difference between the two orbital velocities when Case 2 (doing a Hohmann Transfer and then a
we compute total !::,. V? simple plane change)?
217
hapter 6 Maneuvering In Space
10 A spacecraft deployed into a circular orbit, a) What is the TOF of the Shuttle's transfer orbit to
inclined 57° at 130 km altitude, needs to change to rendezvous with the target spacecraft?
a polar orbit at the same altitude. What ;,.,. V does
this maneuver require?
b) What is the Shuttle's angular velocity? The
target spacecraft's?
11 Now that the spacecraft from Problem 10 is in a
polar orbit, what ;,.,. V will change the right c) What is the lead angle?
ascension of the ascending node by 35°?
d) What is the final phase angle?
12 Suppose NASA wants to send a newly repaired
spacecraft from its circular orbit at 150 km altitude
e) How long must the Shuttle wait before starting
(28° inclination) to a circular orbit at 20,000 km
the rendezvous maneuver?
altitude (inclination of 45°).
a) What is the energy of the transfer orbit?
15 In the above rescue mission, the Shuttle engines
misfired, placing it in the same 240 km circular
orbit as the target spacecraft, but 35° ahead of the
b) What is the velocity change (t-,. V 1) needed to go target.
from the initial circular orbit to the transfer
orbit?
a) What is the TOF (and, therefore, the period) of
the rendezvous phasing orbit?
c) What is the combined plane change !'-,. V to go
from the transfer orbit to the final circular orbit
b) What is the sernimajor axis of the phasing
and change the inclination?
orbit?
6.3 Rendezvous
c) Compute the ;,.,. V necessary for the Shuttle to
move into the phasing orbit.
13 Describe a rendezvous for an interceptor in a high
orbit to a target spacecraft in a lower orbit. (Hint:
draw a diagram and label the radii and angles) For Discussion
16 What extra steps must you add for a rendezvous
between non-coplanar spacecrafts?
14 Imagine you are in charge of a rescue mission. The
spacecraft in distress is in a circular orbit at 240 km
altitude. The Shuttle (rescue vehicle) is in a coplanar
circular orbit at 120 km altitude. The Shuttle is 135°
behind the target spacecraft. 17 What types of space missions use rendezvous?
21
Mission Protile- -Gemini
In December 1961, NASA let a contract to the ./ Gemini 10 (Collins, Young): Rendezvoused and
McDonnell Corporation to build a "two-man space- docked but used twice as much fuel as planned
craft." This contract was the beginning of Project .! Gemini 11 (Conrad, Gordon): Docking achieved on
Gemini, the second U.S. human space program. NASA first orbit
planners conceived it as an extension of the Mercury
program to find solutions for many of the technical ./ Gemini 12 (Aldrin, Lovell): Conducted the first
problems in a lunar mission. President Kennedy's goal visual docking (due to a radar failure). More than
of putting a human on the Moon by the end of the five hours of EVA by Aldrin.
decade was a step closer to reality.
Mission Overview
The Gemini spacecraft carried two astronauts
launched by a Titan 2 booster. Between April 1964 and
November 1966, the program completed 10 launches
with crews and two launches without crews. Major
goals for the program included proving rendezvous
and docking capabilities, extending the endurance of
U.S. astronauts in space, and proving the ability to do
extravehicular activity (EVA) or "spacewalking."
Mission Data
./ Gemini 1 and 2 were missions without crews to test
the performance of the launch vehicle and
spacecraft
./ Gemini 3 (Grissom, Young): First manual control of
Astronaut Ed White makes the first U.S. space walk
space maneuver and first manual re-entry during the Gemini 4 mission in June, 1965. (Courtesy
./ Gemini 4 (McDivitt, White): First U.S. citizen of NASA/JohnsonSpace Center)
(White) to spacewalk. Eleven scientific experiments
Mission Impact
completed.
Gemini accomplished many "firsts" and showed
./ Gemini 5 (Conrad, Cooper): Seventeen scientific
human space-flight missions could overcome major
experiments completed
problems. Despite some set-backs, the program
.! Gemini 6 (No crew): Failed at launch succeeded beyond anyone's expectations and moved
./ Gemini 6A (Schirra, Stafford): Performed the first NASA toward more flexible operations .
successful orbital rendezvous with Gemini 7
For Discussion
./ Gemini 7 (Borman, Lovell): Established an
• Do the lessons learned from Project Gemini affect
endurance record of 206 orbits in 330 hrs 36 mins,
how we work in space today?
which was longer than any of the Apollo missions
• How might our current operations in space be
.! Gemini 8 (Armstrong, Scott): Completed the first
different if we had not learned to walk in space or
successful docking in space with an Atlas Agena rendezvous and dock?
upperstage. Failure of the spacecraft's attitude
maneuvering system caused wild gyrations of the Contributor
spacecraft-one of the worst emergencies of the
Todd Lovell, the U.S. Air Force Academy
program.
./ Gemini 9/9A (Ceman, Stafford): Failure of the References
target vehicle resulted in a delay and its
redesignation as Gemini 9A two weeks later. Baker, David. The Histon; of Manned Spaceflight. New
Completed rendezvous with a new target but York: Crown, 1981.
aborted docking because the docking apparatus Yenne, Bill. The Encyclopedia of US Spacecraft. New York,
had mechanical problems. NY: Exeter, 1985.
219
Earth rise over the lunar horizon. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Interplanetary
Travel
- In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... - Outline
..- Describe the basic steps involved in getting from one planet in the solar
7.1 Planning for Interplanetary
system to another
Travel
.- Determine the required velocity change, l'1 V, needed for interplanetary Coordinate Systems
transfer
Equation of Motion
.- Explain how we can use the gravitational pull of planets to get "free" Simplifying Assumptions
velocity changes, making interplanetary transfer faster and cheaper
7.2 The Patched-conic
Approximation
~ You Should Already Know ...
Elliptical Hohmann Transfer
Definition and use of coordinate systems (Chapter 4) between Planets-Problem 1
O Limits on the restricted two-body problem and its solution Hyperbolic Earth Departure-
(Chapter 4) Problern 2
O Definition of specific mechanical energy for various conic sections Hyperbolic Planetary Arrival-
(Chapter 4) Problern 3
O How to use the Hohmann Transfer to get from one orbit to another Transfer Time of Flight
(Chapter 6) Phasing of Planets for
O Phasing for the rendezvous problem (Chapter 6) Rendezvous
7.3 Gravity-assist Trajectories
Greetings from the children of the planet Earth.
Anonymous greeting
placed 011 the Voyager spacecraft
in case it encounters aliens
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
he wealth of information from interplanetary missions such as
T Pioneer, Voyager, and Magellan has given us insight into the history
of the solar system and a better understanding of the basic
mechanisms at work in Earth's atmosphere and geology. Our quest for
knowledge throughout our solar system continues (Figure 7-1). Perhaps in
the not-too-distant future, we'll undertake human missions back to the
Moon, to Mars, and beyond.
How do we get from Earth to these exciting new worlds? That's the
problem of interplanetary transfer. In Chapter 4 we laid the foundation
for understanding orbits. In Chapter 6 we developed the Hohmann
Transfer. Using this as a tool, we saw how to transfer between two orbits
around the same body, such as Earth. The interplanetary transfer problem
is really just an extension of the Hohmann Transfer. Only now, the central
body is the Sun. In addition, as we'll see, we must be concerned with
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter orbits around our departure and destination planets.
deals with the Trajectories and Orbits segment We'll begin by looking at the basic equation of motion for interplane-
of the Space Mission Architecture, introduced tary transfer and then learn how we can greatly simplify the problem
In Figure 1-20.
using a technique called the "patched-conic approximation." We'll see an
example of how to use this simple method to plot a course from Earth to
Mars. Finally, we'll look at gravity-assist or "slingshot" trajectories to see
how we can use them for "free" /",. V, making interplanetary missions
faster and cheaper.
Figure 7-1. Voyager Trajectory. Here we show an artist's concept of the Voyager
spacecraft and their trajectories during their grand tours of the outer planets. (Courtesy of
NASA/Ames Research Center)
222
7.1 Planning for Interplanetary Travel
7.1 Planning for InterplanetaryTravel
- In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.r Describe the coordinate systems and equation of motion for
interplanetary transfer
• Describe the basic concept of the patched-conic approximation and
why we need it
0
To develop an understanding of interplanetary transfer, we start by ~~IL"lt~ll~ IP11:"\01£IB~
dusting off our trusty Motion Analysis Process Checklist introduced in ~E~ll"))
Chapter 4 and shown again in Figure 7-2. For our analysis, we'll deal with
only the first three items on the checklist because looking at initial
conditions, error analysis, and model testing would get far too involved
for our simplified approach.
Coordinate Systems
Our first step in the Motion Analysis Process is to establish a
coordinate system. When we developed the two-body equation of motion
to analyze spacecraft motion around Earth in Chapter 4, two of our
assumptions were
• There are only two bodies-the spacecraft and Earth
Figure 7-2. Motion Analysis Process
• Earth's gravitational pull is the only force acting on the spacecraft Checklist (MAP). Apply the first three steps to
learn about interplanetary travel.
So, for Earth-based problems, the Geocentric-equatorial frame is
suitable. Once our spacecraft crosses a boundary into interplanetary space,
however, Earth's gravitational pull becomes less significant and the Sun's
pull becomes the dominant force. Therefore, because the Sun is central to
interplanetary transfer, we must develop a sun-centered, or heliocentric
coordinate system. By definition, heliocentric means the origin is the center
of the Sun. In choosing a fundamental plane, we use the plane of Earth's
orbit around the Sun, also known as the ecliptic plane. Next, because we
need a principal direction, I, fixed with respect to the universe, we bring
the vernal equinox direction ('3') back for an encore performance. With the ~
fundamental plane and principal direction chosen, we set the j axis in the J
ecliptic plane, 90° from the I axis in the direction of Earth's motion. Finally,
the K axis is perpendicular to the ecliptic plane and it completes our right-
handed system. Now we can relate any trajectory from Earth to another
planet, or even to the edge of the solar system, to this heiiocenmc-eciiptic
coordinate system defined in Figure 7-3.
Figure 7-3. Hellocentrlc-ecllptic Coordinate
System for Interplanetary Transfer. Origin-
center of the Sun: fundamental plane-ecliptic
plane (Earth's orbital plane around the Sun);
principal direction-vernal equinox direction.
223
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
Equation of Motion
Now that we have a useful coordinate frame, the next step in the MAP
checklist is to derive an equation to describe the motion of spacecraft
around the Sun. We do this by returning to Newton's Second Law. First
we must identify the forces a spacecraft will encounter while flying from
Earth to another planet. As always, a spacecraft begins its mission under
the influence of Earth's gravity, so that's the first force in our equation.
When it gets far enough away from Earth, however, the Sun's
gravitational pull begins to dominate. The Sun's gravity holds the
spacecraft until it reaches the target planet, so we include that force in the
equation. Finally, at journey's end, we must consider the gravitational
attraction of the target planet. This attraction could range from Mercury's
slight tug to Jupiter's immense pull, and we add it to the equation. As
before, we can throw in "other" forces to cover anything we might have
forgotten, such as solar pressure or pull from asteroids. When we
consider all these forces, our equation of motion becomes pretty
cumbersome
2F external = mft = F gravity Sun + F gravity Earth + F gravity target + F other (7-1)
Because this equation is so unwieldy, we have to make some
simplifying assumptions to make our calculations more manageable.
Simplifying Assumptions
Thankfully, we can assume that the forces of gravity are much greater
than all "other" forces acting on the spacecraft. This assumption leaves us
with only the force of gravity, but gravity from three different sources!
'\'..,. --" ..,. ..:,. ..,.
L.J F external = mR = F gravity Sun + F gravity Earth + F gravity target (7-2)
Thus, as Figure 7-4, shows, we have a four-body problem-spacecraft,
Earth, Sun, and target planet. Trying to solve for the spacecraft's motion
under the influence of all these bodies could give us nightmares!
Remember that gravity depends inversely on the distance (squared) from
the central body to the spacecraft. To calculate all of these gravitational
forces at once, we'd have to know the spacecraft's position and the
positions of the planets as they orbit the Sun. This may not sound too
tough, but the equation of motion becomes a highly non-linear, vector,
differential equation that is very hard to solve. In fact, there's no closed-
form solution to even a three-body problem, let alone one for four bodies.
So how do we solve it? We use the old "divide and conquer" approach,
taking one big problem and splitting it into three little ones. What kind of
little problems can we solve? Two-body problems. For interplanetary
transfers we call this approach the patched-conic approximation. The
patched-conic approximation breaks the interplanetary trajectory into three
separate regions and considers only the gravitational attraction on the
spacecraft from one body in each region.
224
7.1 Planning for Interplanetary Travel
parking
orbit
\
~ F gravity Sun
F gravity Earth
Figure 7-4. Gravitational Forces on an Interplanetary Spacecraft. Consider the forces
on an interplanetary spacecraft as ii makes its way from Earth lo the target planet. We have
Iha gravitational forces due to Earth, the Sun, and the target planet making it a four-body
problem-Earth, Sun, target planet, and spacecraft.
By looking at the problem with respect to one attracting body at a time,
we're back to our good-ol' two-body problem. Its equation of motion is
~+~R
R2
= o (7-3)
where
~ = spacecraft's acceleration vector (km I s2)
µ = gravitational parameter of the central body (krrr' / s2)
R = magnitude of the spacecraft's position vector (km)
R = unit vector in the R direction
As you may remember from Chapter 4, the solution to this equation
describes a conic section (circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola). Thus, the
individual pieces of the spacecraft's trajectory are conic sections. By
solving one two-body problem at a time, we "patch" one conic trajectory
onto another, arriving at the patched-conic approximation. In the next
section we'll see how all these pieces fit together.
225
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
!!1111111 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
ecliptic plane > The coordinate system for Sun-centered or interplanetary transfers is
h liocentric the heliocentric-ecliptic system
heliocentric-ecliptic • The origin is the Sun's center
coordinate system
patched-conic approximation • The fundamental plane is the ecliptic plane (Earth's orbital plane)
• The principal direction (i) is the vernal egui.nox direction
> Taken together, the interplanetary transfer problem involves four
separate bodies
• The spacecraft
• Earth (or departure planet)
• The Sun
• The target or destination planet
> Because the four-body problem is difficult to solve, we split it into
three, two-body problems using a method called the patched-conic
approximation
226
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
7.2 The Patched-conicApproximation
!I!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,,.. Describe how to solve interplanetary transfers with the patched-
conic approximation
• Determine the velocity change (6 V) needed to go from one planet
to another
,.. Determine the time of flight for interplanetary transfer and discuss
the problem of planetary alignment
As we introduced in the last section, the patched-conic approximation
is a way of breaking the interplanetary trajectory into pieces (regions) we
can handle, using methods we already know. By working within only one
region at a time, we have to deal with the gravity from only one body at a
time. In Figure 7-5 we see the three regions of the interplanetary transfer
• Region 1 (solved first)-Sun-centered transfer from Earth to the target
planet. In this region, the Sun's gravitational pull dominates.
• Region 2 (solved second)-Earth departure. In this region, Earth's
gravitational pull dominates.
• Region 3 (solved third)-Arrival at the target planet. In this region, the
target planet's gravitational pull dominates.
region 2
Earth
departure
,,.
.,.
.,. ;
' ....
I ' \\
, I
I
I j
I
I
I I
.,. I
., .,,
region 1
Sun-centered region 3
transfer target
planet
arrival
Figure 7-5. Three Regions of the Patched-conic Approximatio n. We break the trajectory
for interplanetary transfer into three distinct regions in which the gravitational pull of only one
body dominates the spacecraft's motion.
227
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
To deal with gravity from only one body at a time, we need to know
how gravity operates in space. Any mass in space exerts a gravitational
pull on other bodies. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation describes
this force as varying inversely with the square of the distance from the
central body. Theoretically, a body's gravitational attraction reaches out to
infinity, but practically, it's effective only within a certain volume of space
called the body's sphere of influence (SOI), as shown in Figure 7-6. For
instance, within Earth's SOI, Earth's gravity dominates a spacecraft's
motion. But at some point Earth's gravitational pull becomes insignificant
and the pull of other bodies, such as the Moon and Sun, begins to
dominate. The size of the SOI depends on the planet's mass (a more
massive planet has a longer "gravitational reach") and how close the
planet is to the Sun (the Sun's gravity overpowers the gravity of closer
planets). To find the size of a planet's SOI, we use
Figure 7-6. Sphere of Influence (SOI). A
planet's SOI is the volume of space within which ~
5
the planet's gravitational force dominates. R _ (mplanet)
501 - aplanet m (7-4)
Sun
where
R501 = radius of a planet's SOI (km)
aplanet = semimajor axis of the planet's orbit around the Sun (km)
mplanet = planet's mass (kg)
msun = Sun's mass= 1.989 x 1030 kg
Earth's SOI is approximately 1,000,000 km in radius, well beyond the
10.16 cm (4 in.) SOI
Moon's orbit but only a small fraction of the distance from Earth to the Sun
~Il__ ___,M()-r-on .\ (149.6 million km). To put this into perspective, imagine Earth being the
size of a baseball, as in Figure 7-7. Its SOI would extend out 78 times its
----7.9 m (26ft.)---7 radius or 7.9 m (26 ft.). Appendix D.5 lists the sizes of the spheres of
influence for other planets in the solar system.
l---3.2 m--...1
(10.5 ft.) (not to scale) To simplify the complex interactions between a spacecraft and the
spheres of influence for the Earth, Sun, and target planet, we use the
Figure 7-7. Earth's Sphere of Influence patched-conic approximation. By separately considering each of the
(SOI) Extends Well beyond the Orbit of the
Moon. To put this in perspective, imagine if regions, we set up three distinct two-body problems, solve them
Earth were the size of a baseball; then the individually, and then "patch" them together to get a final solution. Our
Moon would be 3.2 m (10.5 ft.) away and the
SOI 7.9 m (26 ft.).
ultimate goal is to determine the total velocity change, !:,. VtotaJ, a
spacecraft needs to leave Earth orbit and get into orbit around another
planet. (In Chapter 14, we'll learn how to use this total !:,. V requirement to
determine the amount of rocket propellant needed for the trip.)
Let's use the patched-conic approach to analyze a down-to-Earth
problem. Imagine you're driving along a straight section of highway at 45
m.p.h. Your friend is chasing you in another car going 55 m.p.h. A
stationary observer on the side of the road sees the two cars moving at 45
m.p.h. and 55 m.p.h., respectively. But your friend's velocity with respect
to you is only 10 m.p.h. (she's gaining on you at 10 m.p.h.) as illustrated
in Figure 7-8.
228
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
V friend (relative to you)= 10 m.p.h.
vfrielld = 55 rn.p.h. v)'Oll = 45 m.p.h.
Figure 7-8. Relative Velocity. From your perspective at 45 m.p.h., you see your friend at a
speed of 55 m.p.h. gaining on you at a relative speed of 1 O rn.p.h.
Now suppose your friend throws a water balloon toward your car at
20 m.p.h. How fast is the balloon going? Well, that depends on the
perspective. From your friend's perspective, it appears to move ahead of
her car at 20 m.p.h. (ignoring air drag). From the viewpoint of the
stationary observer on the side of the highway, your friend's car is going
55 m.p.h., and the balloon leaves her car going 75 m.p.h. What do you
see? The balloon is moving toward you with a closing speed of 30 m.p.h.
(10 m.p.h. closing speed for your friend's car plus 20 m.p.h. closing speed
for the balloon, as shown in Figure 7-9.)
V balloon= 30 rn.p.h.
-----"G>~ (relative to you)
V friend= 55 m.p.h, V balloon (relative) to friend= 20 rn.p.h. V you= 45 m.p.h.
------
Figure 7-9. Transfer from Car to Car. If your friend throws a water balloon at you at 20
m.p.h. (ignoring air drag) relative to your friend, it will be going 75 rn.p.h. relative to a fixed
observer and will appear to you to be gaining on you at 30 m.p.h.
By analyzing the balloon's motion, we see the three problems we use in
a patched-conic approximation
• Problem 1: A stationary observer watches your friend throw a water
balloon. The observer sees your friend's car going 55 m.p.h., your car
going 45 m.p.h., and a balloon traveling from one car to the other at
75 m. p.h. The reference frame is a stationary frame at the side of the
road. This problem is similar to Problem 1 of the patched-conic
approximation (in region 1), where the Sun is similar to the observer
and the balloon is similar to the spacecraft.
229
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
• Problem 2: The water balloon departs your friend's car with a
relative speed of 20 m.p.h., as shown in Figure 7-9. The reference
frame in this case is your friend's car. This problem relates to the
patched-conic's Problem 2 (in region 2), where Earth is like your
friend's car and the balloon is like the spacecraft.
• Problem 3: The water balloon lands in your car! It catches up to your
car at a relative speed of 30 m.p.h. The reference frame is your car.
This problem resembles the patched-conic's Problem 3 (in region 3),
where the target planet is similar to your car and the balloon is still
like the spacecraft.
Dividing interplanetary transfers into three problems requires us to
keep track of velocities relative to a reference frame, which is different for
each problem. In other words, the reference frame changes from one
problem to the next. Thus, the spacecraft's velocity with respect to Earth
isn't the same as its velocity with respect to the Sun. This is a very
important distinction to understand. We find only one velocity that is
common to Problems 1 and 2, and only one velocity that is common to
Problems 1 and 3. This commonality allows us to "patch" the trajectories
from the three regions together.
Elliptical Hohmann Transfer between Planets-
Problem 1
The patched-conic approximation requires us to solve the Sun-centered
problem first because the information from this solution allows us to
solve the other two problems. We start by ignoring the Earth and target
planet; then, we examine the interplanetary trajectory as though the
spacecraft travels from Earth's orbit around the Sun to the target planet's
orbit around the Sun. This part of an interplanetary trajectory is a
Hohmann-transfer ellipse around the Sun (heliocentric). Because the
Sun's gravity is the only force on the spacecraft, we use the heliocentric-
ecliptic coordinate system for this part of the problem. Also, we assume
the spacecraft starts and ends in a circular orbit. For most planets, this
assumption is fine, because their orbital eccentricities are small.
For an interplanetary transfer, we follow nearly the same steps as for
an Earth-centered Hohmann Transfer. For this problem, we assume the
spacecraft has left Earth's sphere of influence (SOI) and is going off on its
own independent orbit around the Sun, as shown in Figure 7-10. First, we
Figure 7-10. Problem 1. To enter the helio- find the spacecraft's initial velocity around the Sun. Because the
centric-elliptical transfer orbit, a spacecraft spacecraft starts at Earth's radius from the Sun, its initial velocity with
must have a velocity of V1ransler al Earth relative
to the Sun. To achieve this, lt must change its
respect to the Sun is essentially the same as Earth's. (This isn't strictly true
current heliocentric velocity, VEarth• by an but it's close enough for a good approximation.) To find the spacecraft's
amount, V"" Earth· initial velocity with respect to the Sun, we use the specific mechanical
energy equation
(7-5)
230
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
where
E = spacecraft's specific mechanical energy (km2 I s2)
V = spacecraft's velocity (km/ s)
µ = gravitational parameter of the central body (krrr' / s2)
= 1.327 x 1011 km3 I s2 for our Sun
R = magnitude of the spacecraft's position vector (km)
and, in its alternate form (which we'll use soon), we have
ls=-!al (7-6)
where
a = orbit's semimajor axis (km)
To find the specific mechanical energy the spacecraft would have if it
stayed in the same orbit as Earth, just outside Earth's SOI, we use Equation
(7-6) and Earth's major axis distance. Then we use this specific mechanical
energy to determine its velocity at Earth's radius from the Sun, again,
before it enters the Hohmann Transfer. We rearrange Equation (7-5) to get
the relationship for orbital velocity
(7-7)
We find the spacecraft's velocity around the Sun using Equation (7-7),
being careful to use the correct quantity for each variable
V Earth = 2 (R µSun + EEarth) (7-8)
to Earth
where
VEarth = Earth's orbital velocity with respect to the Sun (km/ s)
µSun = Sun's gravitational parameter = 1.327 x 1011 km3 I s2
Rto Earth = distance from the Sun to Earth (km)
= 1 astronomical unit (AU) (see Appendix B)
= 1.496 x 108 km (about 93 million statute miles)
EEarth = specific mechanical energy of Earth's orbit (km2I s2)
Notice we use µ of the Sun because we're referencing the spacecraft's
motion to the Sun. VEarth is not only Earth's velocity around the Sun, it's
also a spacecraft's velocity with respect to the Sun while it's in orbit
around Earth.
Next we find the velocity the spacecraft needs to enter the transfer
ellipse. As before, we start with its specific mechanical energy
µSun
Etransfer = - 2a (7-9)
transfer
231
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
where
Etransfer =spacecraft's specific mechanical energy in its
heliocentric transfer orbit (krrr' / s2)
a transfer = sernimajor axis of the transfer orbit (km)
We determine the semimajor axis (atrnnsfer) of the transfer orbit from
Rto Earth+ Rto target
a transfer (7-10)
2
where
Rto Earth = radius from the Sun to Earth (km)
Rto target = radius from the Sun to the target planet (km)
We use Rto Earth and Rto target because those radii mark the ends of the
Hohmann Transfer ellipse, as shown in Figure 7-10. Then, we find the
spacecraft's velocity on the transfer orbit at Earth's radius from the Sun by
using
~Lsun )
V transfer at Earth 2( R--- + £ transfer (7-11)
to Earth
where
V transfer at Earth = velocity the spacecraft needs at Earth's radius
from the Sun to transfer to the target planet
(km/s)
The difference between these two velocities, V Earth and V transfer at Earth,
is the velocity relative to Earth which the spacecraft must have as it leaves
Earth's SOI. For the patched-conic approximation, this velocity difference
is the Earth-departure velocity, V 00 Earth or "V infinity at Earth." (Why "V
infinity"? As we'll see in a bit, this is the spacecraft's velocity at an
"infinite" distance from Earth.)
V co Earth = IV transfer at Earth - V Earth I (7-12)
where
V ca Earth= spacecraft's velocity "at infinity" with respect to Earth
(km/s)
transfer
ellipse. Let's review what all this means. The spacecraft, as it orbits Earth, goes
Rto Earth / __./'/ around the Sun at VEarth (the same as Earth's velocity with respect to the
Sun). To enter a heliocentric transfer orbit to the target planet, the
. ~ I spacecraft needs to get from its orbit around Earth to a point beyond the
VEarth vooEarth
I Vtransfer at Earth
I SOI with enough velocity (Vtrnnsfer at Earth) with respect to the Sun. If the
spacecraft leaves the SOI with V00 Earth, as calculated in Equation (7-12), it
will have the correct velocity, as shown in Figure 7-11. We can relate this
Figure 7-11. Starting the Transfer. To enter to the Hohmann Transfer by thin.king of V 00 Earth as the /: :,. V 1 for the
the heliocentric transfer orbit, the spacecraft heliocentric transfer discussed in Chapter 6, even though no actual /: :,. V
must change its velocity by an amount V., Earth· burn occurs here.
232
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
Now that we have V Earth, and we know it must add to VEarth to equal
00
we need to decide what direction our spacecraft must
V transfer at Earth,
leave Earth's SOL In Figure 7-11, V oo Earth aligns nicely with VEarth, so the
vector addition creates V transfer at Earth, which takes the spacecraft to an
outer planet (further from the Sun than Earth is). To get the velocities to
align so well, planners must ensure the spacecraft departs Earth's SOI
ahead of Earth (aligned with Earth's velocity vector). If the V oo Earth is not
aligned with Earth's velocity vector, the Vtransfer at Earth won't be large
enough, nor in the correct direction, to complete the Hohmann Transfer to
the target planet.
Continuing with our heliocentric transfer, let's see what happens at the
other end of the Sun-centered transfer, when the spacecraft approaches
the target planet. Remember from the "big picture" of the Sun-centered
Hohmann Transfer, the spacecraft coasts 180° around the Sun from
Earth's SOI to the target planet's SOL We can compute the spacecraft's
velocity when it arrives in the target planet's region (region 3) from
V transfer at target = 2 ( R µSun +
)
E transfer (7-13)
to target
where
V transfer at target = spacecraft's velocity on the transfer orbit just
outside the target planet's SOI (km Is)
= Sun's gravitational parameter (krrr' I s2)
= 1.327 x 1011 km3 I s2
Rto target = distance from the Sun to the target planet (km)
Etransfer = specific mechanical energy of the transfer orbit
(km2/s2)
Notice here that the specific mechanical energy of the transfer ellipse
remains constant from the first time we calculated it.
At the end of the Hohmann Transfer, the interplanetary spacecraft
arrives at the target-planet's orbital radius with a velocity that is different
from the target planet's circular velocity around the Sun. (The spacecraft
is in an elliptical orbit that has a smaller semimajor axis than the target
planet's.) Assuming the target planet arrives at the same time, a
rendezvous, of sorts, occurs, where the spacecraft enters the target
planet's SOI and is captured by the target planet's gravity. If the target
planet isn't there at the same time, then the spacecraft misses the
rendezvous, stays in its elliptical transfer orbit, and continues to orbit
around the Sun. We'll assume we timed the transfer correctly, so the
rendezvous occurs. To understand how the spacecraft arrives at the target
planet, we must consider the velocities of the target planet and the
spacecraft.
233
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
Let's look at the velocities first, then consider where on the SOI the
spacecraft must arrive. We start with the target planet's specific
mechanical energy
Etarget (7-14)
2atarget
where
Etarget = target planet's sfecific mechanical energy with respect to
the Sun (km/ / s )
µSun = Sun's gravitational parameter (krrr' / s2)
= 1.327 x 1011 km3 I s2
atarget = target planet's semimajor axis (km)
Armed with the target planet's specific mechanical energy, we calculate its
velocity with respect to the Sun, using
µSun ) (7-15)
vtarget 2( R + Etarget
to target
where
Vtarget = target planet's velocity around the Sun (km/s)
µSun = Sun's gravitational parameter (km ' / s2)
Rto target = distance from the Sun to the target planet (km)
Etarget = target planet's specific mechanical energy (km2 / s2)
We now know the heliocentric velocity the spacecraft has and the
target planet's velocity. All that remains is to determine the difference
between the two, which we call "V infinity target", V target· 00
V co target = IV transfer at target - V target I (7-16)
where
Voo target =spacecraft's velocity "at infinity" with respect to
the target planet (km Is)
V transfer at target = spacecraft's velocity on the transfer orbit just
outside the target planet's SOI (km Is)
Vtarget = target planet's velocity around the Sun (km/s)
Using our Hohmann Transfer experience again, we can think of V 00
target as t,,, V2. Keep in mind, however, no rocket engine bum actually takes
place here. If we take the perspective of an observer standing on the Sun,
Figure 7-12.. Arrivingat the Target Planet. we see the spacecraft arriving at the target planet's radius with Vtransfer at
From the Sun-centered perspective, the planet target and the target planet moving with V target with respect to the Sun.
is traveling at V1arget and the spacecraft at
Viransfer at target· The difference, V"" target• is the
The difference, V target, is the spacecraft's velocity as it enters the target
00
speed with which the spacecraft enters the SOI. planet's SOI, as shown in Figure 7-12.
234
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
Similar to the Earth-departure situation, the Vtransfer at target must align
with the Vtarget, so that the V target moves the spacecraft correctly into
00
the target planet's SOI and ultimately to a safe parking orbit. To do this
for an outer-planet arrival, planners must ensure the spacecraft arrives
ahead of the target planet's SOI, so the target planet can catch up to it and
capture it. If the V target, isn't aligned correctly, the spacecraft may travel
00
directly toward the planet's surface (which some impacting probes do on
purpose), or enter a hyperbolic arrival trajectory that misses its planned
parking orbit.
For the other case (target planet is closer to the Sun than Earth is), the
spacecraft must arrive behind the target planet's SOI, because it's velocity
is higher than the planet's. The spacecraft then overtakes the planet and
enters the SOI with V target, and the planet's gravity pulls it in.
00
How and when do we actually fire our rockets to achieve V Earth and
00
Voo target7 To find out, we need to examine the other two problems in the
patched-conic approximation.
~----Astra FunFact----~
Pluto:A Planetor Not?
When Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto in 1930, it became the ninth known planet
in our solar system. Admittedly, from February 7, 1979, to February 11, 1999, it
was actually closer to the Sun than Neptune, but it is again further from the Sun
than Neptune and wifl be until around 2219.
However, members of the International Astronomical Union (/AU) in January of
1999 considered assigning a minor planet number to Pluto. Due to the eccentric
orbit, high inclination, and small size, the proposal considered classifying it as a
Trans-Neptunian Object. Many people felt that this meant Pluto would be demoted
to a lesser status. Fof/owing much debate and a barrage of e-mail, the /AU decided
not to assign Pluto a minor planet number. (Courtesy of the Association
of Universities for Research
CNN Interactive. "It's Official: No 'Demotion' for Planet Pluto." 3 February 1999. in Astronomy, lnc.!Space
Telescope Science Institute)
Contributed by Scott R. Dahlke, the U.S. Air Force Academy
235
Example 7-1 (Part 1)
Problem Statement Conceptual Solution
The Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) wants to send a probe Elliptical Hohmann Transfer-Problem 1
from Earth (R80 Earth = 1.496 x 108 km) to Mars (Rto Mars
= 2.278 x 10 km) to map landing sites for future 1) Find the sernimajor axis of the transfer orbit,
manned missions. The probe will leave Earth from a a transfer
parking orbit of 6697 km and arrive at Mars in another
parking orbit of 3580 km. 2) Find the energy of the transfer orbit, Etransfer
• Part 1: What is the "extra" velocity the spacecraft
3) Find the velocity of Earth around the Sun, VEarth
needs to leave Earth (V Earth) and that it has at
00
Mars (Voo Mars)? 4) Find the velocity in transfer orbit at Earth,
• Part 2: What t:,. V does it need in a parking orbit Vtransfer at Earth
around Earth to begin the transfer?
5) Find the velocity at infinity near Earth, Voo Earth
• Part 3: What t:,. V does it need to inject into a Mars
parking orbit and what is the total mission t:,. V?
6) Find the velocity of Mars around the Sun, VMars
7) Find the velocity in transfer orbit at Mars,
Vtransfer at Mars
Problem Summary-Part 1
8) Find the velocity at infinity near Mars, Voo Mars
Given: Rto Earth = 1.496 x 108 km
Rto Mars = 2.278 x 108 km
Rpark at Earth = 6697 km
Rpark at Mars = 3580 km Analytical Solution
Find: V Earth, V Mars (Part 1)
oo 00
1) Find atransfer
Rto Earth+ Rto Mars
atransfer = 2
Problem Diagram
1.496 x 108 km+ 2.278 x 108 km
2
atransfer = 1.887 x 108 km
2) Find Etransfer
3
1.327 x 1011 k~
µSun s
Etransfer 8
2atransfer 2(1.887 x 10 km)
km2
£transfer = - 351.6-2-
S
(Note: negative energy because the transfer orbit
is elliptical)
236
Example 7-1 (Part 1) Continued
3) Find the velocity of Earth around the Sun, VEilrth = -291.3 km2 I s2
~l5w, ~lsun (Note: Negative energy)
EEarth = - --= -
2aEarth 2Rto Earth
µSun )
VMars = 2 ( --- + EMars
3
Rto Mars
1.327 x 1011 kn;
s
3
2(1.496 x 108 km) 1.327 x 1011kn; 2
5
= - 443.5 km2 I s2 2 - 291.3 kl~
(Note: Negative energy because Earth is in a 2.278 x 108 km s
circular orbit around the Sun)
= 24.14 km/s
V Earth = 2(RµSun + EEarth)
to Earth
7) Find V transfer at Mars
3
1.327 x 1011kn; 2 ~tsun )
5 V transfer at Mars = 2 ( R--- + Etransfer
2 - 443.skn; to Mars
1.496 x 108 km s
3
1.327 x 1011k~ 2
= 29.78 km/s 5
2 - 351.6 kn;
4) Find V transfer at Earth
2.278 x 108km s
µSun )
V transfer at Earth 2(R + Etransfer = 21.49 km/ s
to Earth
3
8) Find V oo Mars
l.327 x 1011kn;
2
5
- 351.6 kn;
3
V co Mars = IV Ma rs - V transfer at Mars I
8
[ 1.496 x 10 km s
= 124.14 k~ _ 21.49k~I
= 32.72 km/s
= 2.65 km/s
5) Find Voo Earth
V oo Earth = IV transfer at Earth - V Earth I
= 132.72 km/ s - 29.78 km/ s I Interpretingthe Results
= 2.94 km/s
To leave Earth and enter an interplanetary trajectory to
6) Find the velocity of Mars around the Sun, VMars
Mars, our probe needs to gain 2.94 km/ s with respect
µSun to the Sun. The probe arrives at Mars' orbit going 2.65
EM = ---~tsun = ---- km/ s slower than Mars, so it enters the Mars SOI with
ars 2aMars 2Rto Mars
a speed of 2.65 km/ s. We'll see how to achieve these
3 velocities in Parts 2 and 3.
1.327 x lOJlk~
s
8
2(2.278 x 10 km)
237
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
Hyperbolic Earth Departure-Problem 2
Remember, we broke the interplanetary problem into three problems
based on which attracting body (Sun, Earth, or target planet) was the
major player in the spacecraft's trajectory. Problem 1 shows how to get a
spacecraft from Earth's orbit to the target planet's orbit on a Sun-centered
transfer ellipse. In Problem 2, we now back up to see how it gets from the
Earth-centered trajectory to the Sun-centered one.
For this part of an interplanetary transfer, we assume Earth's gravity is
the only force on the spacecraft and use the geocentric-equatorial
coordinate system to describe its motion. From Problem 1, we know we
want our spacecraft to leave Earth's sphere of influence (SOI) with some
velocity we called V Earth· To escape Earth's gravity, our spacecraft must
00
be on a parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory (circular and elliptical orbits
don't escape). But the parabolic trajectory wouldn't take it out of Earth's
gravity; just to the SOI boundary (where R is almost 1,000,000 km), where
it would have zero velocity relative to Earth when it got there.
V relative to Earth = /2 ( R
A,
µ
"at infinity"
+ £) = 0 (for a parabola)
This parabolic trajectory would place our spacecraft in an orbit around
.,. --SOI---
... .... .... the Sun exactly like Earth's (traveling 29.78 km/ s), right on the SOI
' boundary. Relative to Earth, it would be stationary, so it wouldn't actually
go anywhere. To illustrate th.is, imagine you're driving along the
interstate at 55 m.p.h. If your friend pulls in front of you and sets his
speed at 55 m.p.h., the relative velocity between the two cars is zero. This
would be the case of the spacecraft's velocity relative to Earth at the SOI
on a parabolic trajectory. Realize, of course, that a parabolic trajectory is a
"special" case that we can't really achieve because of all the other forces
(which we assumed away for the two-body problem) acting on our
spacecraft. However, by understanding this special case, we should better
understand the trajectory we really need-a hyperbolic trajectory.
If we put our spacecraft on the proper hyperbolic-departure trajectory
when it leaves its low-Earth parking orbit, it will coast to the SOI
boundary, arriving with the correct velocity, V Earth· This is the velocity
00
Figure 7-13. Escaping Earth. To escape we computed in Problem 1 that takes the spacecraft on the heliocentric
Earth on a hyperbolic trajectory and arrive at
the SOI with the required velocity to enter into transfer to the target planet's orbital radius. We call V oo Earth the hyperbolic
the heliocentric transfer orbit, V"' Earth• a excess velocihj, because our spacecraft leaves Earth's SOI with some
spacecraft needs to increase its velocity in the "extra" velocity, as shown in Figure 7-13, the extra amount it needs to
parking orbit, Vpark 81 Earlh• by an amount
start its trip to the target planet.
t,Vbaosl·
Now that we know the spacecraft's velocity at the end of the Earth-
centered hyperbolic-departure trajectory, we can work our way back to its
velocity as it leaves the initial low-Earth parking orbit. For technical, as
well as operational reasons, an interplanetary probe seldom launches
directly into its transfer orbit from the launch pad. Instead, the launch
vehicle first puts it into a circular, parking orbit close to Earth. This allows
ground controllers time to check all the systems and wait for the right
moment to ignite the upperstage rocket.
238
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
To determine our spacecraft's velocity on the hyperbolic-departure
trajectory at the parking-orbit's radius, we must realize it has the same
specific mechanical energy, E, that it does at the SOI boundary.
Remember, specific mechanical energy is a constant in the two-body
problem. Knowing the excess velocity, Voo Earth, we calculate E, using
2
V oo Earth µEarth
Eoo Earth = 2 - --- (7-17)
R; Earth
where
Eoo Earth = specific mechanical energy on the hyperbolic-departure
trajectory (km2 / s2)
V oo Earth = spacecraft's velocity at the SOI relative to Earth (km/ s)
µEarth = Earth's gravitational parameter= 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2
R, Earth = "infinite" distance to the SOI from Earth's center (km)
Because the distance to the SOI is so big (R; Earth =oo ), the term for potential
energy effectively is zero. Thus, the spacecraft's energy at the SOI becomes
2
V co Earth
Eoo Earth = (7-18)
2
(Note: This energy is positive, which, as we learned in Chapter 4,
means the trajectory is hyperbolic).
We can now use this relationship to find the velocity the spacecraft must
achieve at the parking-orbit's radius, Rpark, to enter the hyperbolic-
departure trajectory. Rearranging the specific mechanical energy equation
for velocity we get
2( µEarth + Earth) (7-19)
V hyperbolic at Earth = Eoo
Rpark at Earth
where
Vhyperbolic at Earth = spacecraft's velocity on the hyperbolic-
departure trajectory at the parking-orbit's
radius (km/ s)
µEarth = Earth's gravitational parameter
= 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2
Rpark at Earth = parking orbit's radius (km)
Now we have the spacecraft's velocities at both ends of the hyperbolic-
departure trajectory (at the SOI and at the parking orbit's radius). Next,
we must find its velocity in the parking orbit before it accelerates onto the
hyperbolic-departure trajectory, so that we know how much velocity
change it needs. In its circular parking orbit, the spacecraft's velocity with
respect to Earth is
239
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
V park at Earth (7-20)
Rpark at Earth
where
V park at Earth = spacecraft's velocity in its parking orbit near Earth
(km/s)
Finally, we have the spacecraft's velocity in its parking orbit and the
velocity it needs at the parking orbit's radius to enter the hyperbolic-
departure trajectory. The difference gives us the velocity change.A Vboost,
that the upperstage rocket must provide to the spacecraft
/j, V boost = IV hyperbolic at Earth - V park at Earth! (7-21)
I
SOI
I
, .,,
,,.
,,.=
. . . v.
'\
\
where
t,,,,Vboost = spacecraft's velocity change to go from its
parking orbit around Earth onto its
hyperbolic-departure trajectory (km/ s)
I
I
I
V hyperbolic at Earth = spacecraft's velocity on its hyperbolic-
I
I
departure trajectory at the parking-orbit's
\ radius (km/ s)
' I
parking hyperbolic = spacecraft's velocity in its parking orbit
orbit departure V park at Earth
- - - - - <trajectory around Earth (km/ s)
;,.,,, V boost is the velocity change the spacecraft must generate to start its
interplanetary journey. An attached upperstage---with a rocket engine,
fuel tanks, and guidance system-normally provides thls A Vboost· Once it
applies the cVboost, the spacecraft is on its way to the target planet!
Figure 7-13 shows the hyperbolic departure trajectory that the
spacecraft must follow to depart Earth's SOI properly aligned with
Earth's velocity vector. To get onto that trajectory, the spacecraft must do
its t,,,,Vboost where the hyperbolic departure trajectory is tangent to the
parking orbit. Doing the t,,,,Vboost at any other point in the parking orbit
puts it on a hyperbolic trajectory that won't align with Earth's velocity
vector, when it gets to the edge of the SOL Any misalignment at the edge
of Earth's SOI means a large error in the elliptical Hohmann Transfer, and
probably a large miss distance at the target planet.
Let's recap how we "patch" Problems 1 and 2 together. We start the
spacecraft in a circular parking orbit around Earth at a radius Rpark at Earth
and a velocity V park at Earth· We then fire the upperstage's rocket engines
to increase the spacecraft's velocity by an amount, ;,., , Vboost, to give it a
velocity, V hyperbolic at Earth· This velocity puts it on a hyperbolic-departure
trajectory away from Earth. Upon arrival at the SOI, the spacecraft has the
necessary velocity, V<XJ Earth, to escape Earth's gravity and enter a
Figure 7-14. HyperbolicDeparture Trajec- heliocentric-elliptical, transfer orbit. By design, our geocentric, hyperbolic
tory. This sequence shows how a spacecraft
departs the "front" edge of Earth's SOI to travel trajectory blends smoothly into the heliocentric, elliptical orbit, so the two
to a planet further from the Sun than Earth. are now "patched" together. Notice that only one rocket-engine firing
240
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
puts the spacecraft out of Earth's SOI and onto the Sun-centered transfer
ellipse. Example 7-1 (Part 2) shows how to determine the 6Vboost·
The last problem in the interplanetary transfer is the target-planet
arrival, which looks a lot like the Earth-departure problem in reverse
order.
-----Astro
Fun
Fact-----
Lagrange Points XLl
Five points (L 1-L5) near the Earth and Moon are within both bodies' influence 442,060 km
and revolve around Earth at the same rate as the Moon. French scientist Joseph
Lagrange discovered these curious points in 1764 while attempting to solve the ;'
complex three-body problem. In his honor these points of equilibrium are now L4'
known as Lagrange Libration Points (LLP). LLPs exist for any multi-body system.
The LLPs for the Earth-Moon system are shown at the right. These points would
be an ideal location for future space stations or Lunar docking platforms,
because they always keep the same relative position with respect to the Earth
and Moon. In fact, in the Earth-Sun system, the Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory launched in December, 1995, remains at the L2 libration point
between the Earth and Sun.
Cousins, Frank W. The Solar System. New York, NY: Pica Press, 1972.
Szebehe/y, Victor. Theory of Orbits: The Restricted Problem of Three Bodies.
Yale University, New Haven, CT: Academic Press, lnc., 1967.
241
Example 7-1 (Part2)
Problem Summary-Part 2 Analytical Solution
Given: Rto Earth = 1.496 x 108 km 1) Find the spacecraft's energy on the hyperbolic-
escape trajectory. Energy is the same everywhere
Rto Mars= 2.278 x 108 km on the trajectory, so we find it at the SOI, using
Rpark at Earth = 6697 km information from Part l.
Rpark at Mars= 3580 km 2
V co Earth = 2. 94 km/ s (from Part 1)
2 (2.94~) 2
V ooEarth
Eoo Earth = = 4 . 323km2
2 2 s
Find: !:!,. Vboost (Part 2)
(Note: positive energy on a hyperbolic trajectory)
2) Find V park at Earth
Problem Diagram
V park at Earth = Rpark at Earth
., 3
SOI ' 3.986 x 105kri;
I
s
I 6697 km
I
I =7.71krn/s
hyperbolic
1---- departure 3) Find Vhyperbolic at Earth
trajectory
~LEarth )
V hyperbolic at Earth 2( + £"' Earth
Rpark at Earth
' I
vparkat Earth !:!,. vboost I s km3
' - - - - v.hyperbolic at Earth 3.986 x 10 -2
s
2
2 __ 6_6_9_7_k_m
__ + 4·323 7km
Conceptual Solution = 11.30 km/s
4) Find !:!,. V boost
Hyperbolic Earth Departure-Problem 2
1) Find the spacecraft's energy on its hyperbolic- !:!,. V boost = IV hyperbolic al Earth - V park at Earth!
escape trajectory, Eco Earth
= 111.30k~n _ 7.71k~I
2) Find the spacecraft's velocity in the circular = 3.59 krn/s
parking orbit around Earth, V park M Earth
3) Find the spacecraft's velocity, VhyperbolicatEarth, on
Interpreting the Results
the hyperbolic-escape trajectory at the parking
orbit radius From the spacecraft's circular parking orbit around
Earth, we must fire its upperstage engines to increase
4) Find the velocity change the spacecraft needs to
its velocity by 3.59 km Is, so it can enter a hyperbolic-
enter the hyperbolic-escape trajectory, 1:!,.Vboost
departure trajectory, which starts it on its way to Mars.
242
7.2 The Patched-c nic Approximation
Hyperbolic PlanetaryArrival-Problem 3
At the other end of the spacecraft's heliocentric transfer ellipse, it
arrives at the target planet's radius from the Sun. If we time the transfer
ellipse correctly, the target planet is there to capture our spacecraft. If the
target planet is farther from the Sun than Earth is, then the spacecraft
arrives at apogee of its transfer ellipse ahead of, and moving slower than,
the target planet. So, the target planet overtakes the spacecraft and the
spacecraft enters the target planet's sphere of influence (SOI) in front of
the planet. If the target planet is closer to the Sun than Earth is, then the
spacecraft arrives at perigee of its transfer ellipse, behind, and moving
faster than, the target planet. The spacecraft overtakes the planet in this
case and enters the SOI from behind the planet.
To solve this third and final problem of the patched-conic
approximation, we assume the target-planet's gravity is the only force on
the spacecraft and use a coordinate frame similar to the geocentric-
equatorial system (but centered at the target planet) to describe the
spacecraft's motion. For this arrival problem, we need to find the
spacecraft's velocity with respect to the planet, as it enters the SOI. The
spacecraft's velocity on the heliocentric transfer ellipse is V transfer at target,
and the target planet's velocity with respect to the Sun is Vtarget· The
difference is V target, which is the spacecraft's velocity as it enters the SOI
00
V oo target = IV transfer at target - V target I (7-22)
where
V oo target = spacecraft's velocity at the SOI with respect to 'SOI
the target planet (km/ s) \
\
V transfer at target =spacecraft's velocity in its heliocentric transfer \
orbit with respect to the Sun at the target planet I
I
(km/s) I
I
Vtarget = target-planet's velocity with respect to the Sun
(km/ s)
The spacecraft's velocity, V"' target, occurs at another boundary in the
patched conic and represents its excess hyperbolic velocity at the target
planet's SOI. Just as it left Earth on a hyperbolic trajectory, it arrives at the
target planet on a hyperbolic trajectory, as shown in Figure 7-15. Applying
the same energy technique, we can find the spacecraft's energy at an
Figure 7-15. Arriving at the Target Planet.
"infinite" radius from the target planet If the spacecraft does nothing as it approaches
the target planet, it will swing by on a hyperbolic
2 trajectory and depart the SOI on the other side.
V oo target To slow down enough to be captured into orbit
£00 target (7-23)
2 at a radius Rpark• it must change its velocity by
an amount t:.Vretro·
243
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
where
Eoo target = spacecraft's specific mechanical energy on its
hyperbolic-arrival trajectory (km2 / s2)
V oo target = spacecraft's velocity at the SOI with respect to the
target planet (km Is)
In a reflection of the way it left Earth, the spacecraft coasts on the
hyperbolic-arrival trajectory and then performs a AV or "burn" at an
assigned radius from the target planet (Rpark at target)· This maneuver
moves it into a circular parking orbit around the target planet. Solving for
this velocity
2( µtarget ) (7-24)
V hyperbolic at target = + Eoo target
Rpark at target
where
Vhyperbolic at target= spacecraft's velocity when it reaches the
parking orbit altitude (km/s)
µtarget = target-planet's gravitational parameter (km3 I s2)
Rpark at target = radius of the parking orbit from the target
planet (km)
Eoo target = spacecraft's specific mechanical energy on its
hyperbolic-arrival trajectory (km2 / s2)
If we didn't change the spacecraft's velocity, it'd speed around the
planet and out into space on the other leg of the hyperbolic trajectory. To
avoid this, it does a AV retro to enter a circular parking orbit at the assigned
radius. To compute how large the velocity change must be, we find the
parking orbit velocity and subtract it from the spacecraft's hyperbolic
arrival velocity at the parking orbit's radius.
V park at target = (7-25)
Rpark at target
where
Vpark at target =spacecraft's velocity in its parking orbit around the
target planet (km Is)
The velocity change, AV retro- to enter the parking orbit is
AV retro = IV park at target - V hyperbolic at target! (7-26)
where
AV retro = spacecraft's velocity change required to go
from its hyperbolic-arrival trajectory to its
parking orbit around the target planet (km/ s)
Vhyperbolic at target= spacecraft's velocity on its hyperbolic-arrival
trajectory at the parking-orbit's radius (km/ s)
244
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
Figure 7-16 shows the hyperbolic arrival trajectory that the spacecraft
must follow to enter the target planet's SOI properly aligned to finally -~ - hyper'.belic
arrival
descend to the circular, parking orbit (the mission orbit). As it follows the trafectory
trajectory to the parking orbit altitude, gravity makes it gain speed, which I
-/ \
it must lose by doing its ~Vretro at the point where the hyperbolic I \
\
' I
trajectory is tangent to the parking orbit. Doing the ~Vretro at any other I
I I
I I
point on the hyperbolic arrival trajectory will leave it in an unplanned I
I I
orbit around the target planet, probably not ideal for the mission. ' SOI
\ I I
Now we have two spacecraft velocity changes, ~Vboost, to accelerate ,,qjv,Jlllcecraft=
our spacecraft away from its parking orbit around Earth, and ~Vretro, to ' - ~,.,. vootngct
decelerate it to enter its parking orbit around the target planet. The total
----
velocity change the spacecraft's rockets must provide for the mission is
then
I ~ V mission = ~ V boost + ~ V retro I (7-27)
where
~ Vmission = total velocity change required for the mission (km/ s)
= spacecraft's velocity change required to go from its
~ Vboost
parking orbit around Earth onto a hyperbolic-
departure trajectory (km/ s)
-- - --~
~ Vretro = spacecraft's velocity change required to go from its ,. I' '
I ' \
hyperbolic-arrival trajectory to its parking orbit parking hyperbolic
around the target planet (km/ s) orbit arrival
I trajectory
I
The propulsion system on the spacecraft must provide AV mission to leave I /;
the circular parking orbit around Earth and arrive into a circular parking I
I
orbit around the target planet. Example 7-1 (Part 3) shows how to calculate I
~vretro·
To review, interplanetary flight involves connecting or "patching"
three conic sections to approximate a spacecraft's path. We fire its rocket
Figure 7-16. Hyperbolic ArrivalTrajectory.
engines once to produce AVboost, which makes it depart from its circular This sequence shows how a spacecraft enters
parking orbit around Earth on a hyperbolic trajectory, arriving at Earth's the target planet's SOI and descends to its final
SOI with some excess velocity, V Earth· This excess velocity is enough to
00
parking orbit.
put it on a heliocentric, elliptical transfer orbit from Earth to the target
planet. After traveling half of the ellipse, it enters the target planet's SOI,
arriving at the target planet on a hyperbolic trajectory. We then fire its
engines a second time to produce ~ Vretro, which captures it into its
circular parking orbit. Table 7-1 summarizes the three regions of the
problem and the necessary equations.
245
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
Table 7·1. Summary of Interplanetary Transfer Problem.
Reference
Region Frame Energy Velocities
1 : From Earth to the target Heliocentric-
µSun )
planet (elliptical trajectory) ecliptic VEanh 2 ( R--- + EEarth
to Earth
Etransfer
2 ( _R!'sun + Etargel
)
lo target
Alo Eartl1 + Rta target
8transfer = 2
V lransler al Earth 2 ( _RµSun + E1ransler )
10 Earth
µSun
=----
2a,arge1
V transter al largel = 2 ( _Af1sun + E1,ansfer
)
101arge1
V"' target = IV largel - vtmnsfer al targa1I
2: Departure from Earth Geocentric- 2 V., Earth = from above
(hyperbolic trajectory) equatorial V., Earth
2 f1Earth )
Vhyperbcllc at Ear1h 2 ( Rpark at Earth+ r.., Eanh
V park at Eartl, = A park al Earth
s V boost = IV hyperbolic al Earth - V park al Earth I
3: Arrival at the target planet Planet-centered 2 Voo arge = from above
(hyperbolic trajectory) equatorial v; ,a,gel 1 1
E"' largel -2-
µtarget )
V hyperbotlc al target 2( + 0« target
A park at 1arget
µ,arget
V park al la rgel = A park al large I
!!>V,elro JV park al target - V hyperbolic al 1arge1[
246
Example 7-1 (Part 3)
Problem Summary-Part 3 Analytical Solution
1) Find the spacecraft's specific mechanical energy at
Given: Rto Earth= 1.496 x 108 km
Mar's SOI, using information from Part 1
Rto Mars = 2.278 x 108 km
2
Rpark at Earth = 6697 km (2.65~) 2
Rpark at Mars= 3580 km E"' Mars = 3.51 k~
2 2 s
~LMars = 43,050 km3 / s2
V"' Mars = 2.65 km/ s (from Part 1) 2) Find Vhyperbolic at Mars
t.V boost = 3 .59 km Is (from Part 2)
µ.Mars )
V hyperbolic at Mars = 2( + Eoo Mars
Find: t, Vm.ission (Part 3) Rpark at Mars
km3
43,050-2 2
Problem Diagram s
2
3580 km +
351 7km
'SOI
\ = 5.57 km/s
\
\
\
3) Find V park at Mars
V park at Mars Rpark at Mars
43,050 km3 /s2
\ I I
hyperbolic
. l v.hyperbolic. -at Mars 3580 km
arnva I I I =3.47 km/s
traj ectory -c, - - _ V tN
park at Mars retro
4) Find t.V retro
t, V retro = IV park at Mars - V hyperbolic at Mars\
Conceptual Solution
= 13.47k; - 5.57k;1
Hyperbolic Planetary Arrival-Problem 3
= 2.10 km/s
1) Find the spacecraft's specific mechanical energy
on its hyperbolic-arrival trajectory, fooMars 5) Find t, V mission
2) Find its velocity on the hyperbolic-arrival trajectory t, V mission = t, V boost + t, V retro
at its parking-orbit's altitude, Vhyperbolicat Mars = 3.59 km/s + 2.10 km/s
= 5.69 km/s
3) Find its velocity in the circular, parking orbit,
V park at Mars Interpretingthe Results
4) Find its velocity change, t.V retro, needed to enter To enter a circular parking orbit around Mars, our
its circular parking orbit, spacecraft needs to slow down by 2.10 km Is. Thus, to
go from a parking orbit of 6697 km radius at Earth to a
5) Find its total velocity change for the mission, parking orbit of 3580 km radius at Mars requires a total
t, V mission velocity change from its rockets of 5.69 km/ s.
247
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
Transfer Time of Flight
So far we've spent all our time figuring how much /',.. V our spacecraft
needs to get between planets. But before we launch it, we'd like to know
how long the trip will take. The heliocentric, Hohmann Transfer ellipse
approximates the time for our interplanetary journey, so, we use one-half
the period of the transfer orbit to determine the time of flight
3
a transfer
TOF = rr (7-28)
where
TOF = spacecraft's time of flight (s)
Jt = 3.14159 . . (un.itless)
atransfer = semimajor axis of the transfer ellipse (km)
µSun = Sun's gravitational parameter (km3 / s2)
= 1.327 x 1011 km3 I s2
(This does neglect the hyperbolic departure and arrival trajectories, but
those times are insignificant compared to the long journey around the
Sun.) Using information on a trip to Mars presented in Example 7-1 (Part
1, 2, and 3), we can determine the time of flight.
8
atransfer = 1.887 x 10 km
3 8 3
atransfer (1.887 x 10 km)
TOF = rr µSun = Jt 3
1.327 x lOuk~
s
= 2.235 x 107 s
= 6208 hours
TOF = 258.7 days or about 8.5 months
That's a long time to be stuck in a tiny spaceship. Very long missions, such
as a trip to Mars, would put significant demands on mission planners to sus-
tain the crew by protecting them from the space environment and providing
life support. Unfortunately, with current propulsion technology, these are
the challenges we face when planning manned, planetary missions.
Phasing of Planets for Rendezvous
Another problem for an interplanetary transfer is finding the proper
phasing of the planets for the transfer. Recall from Chapter 6 how we
related the rendezvous problem to the way a quarterback synchronizes the
flight of a football to a receiver's future position down field. Similarly, a
spacecraft going to Mars must find the planet there when it arrives! The
way we solve this problem is the same as the rendezvous of two spacecraft
in Earth orbit. We need to find the lead angle, a1ead, and then the final
phase angle, cj>finaJ· For our Mars example, the angular velocity, co, is
248
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
(7-29)
3
1.327 x 1011 k~
_____ s_s_3 = 1.06 x 10-nad
(2.278 x 10 km) s
We then use the TOF from Equation (7-28) to calculate the lead angle:
a1ead = co TOF (7-30)
-nad) 7
alead (wMars)(:OF) = ( 1.06 x 10 -S- (2.235 x 10 s)
a1ead = 2.37 rad= 135.8°
So the final phase angle is
<PfinaJ = 180° - alead (7-31)
<Ptinal = 1800 -135.80 = 44.20
A final phase angle of 44.2° means that, when we start the spacecraft
on its interplanetary Hohmann Transfer, Mars needs to be 44.2° (0.7714
rads) ahead of Earth, as shown in Figure 7-17. If, for example, Earth were
50° (0.8727 rads) behind Mars, the phase angle, <Pinitial, is 50° (0.8727 rad),
not 44.2° (0.7714 rad). Using the wait time equation we developed in
Chapter 6, we solve for the amount of time to wait before we need to have
our spacecraft ready to go.
W atit ti" me= ( <Pfinal - <Pinitial) (7-32)
())Mars - ())Earth
0.7714 rad - 0.8727 rad
Wait time
Figure 7-17. Interplanetary Rendezvous.
( 1.060 x 10-n:d) -( 1.994 x 10-n:d) A spacecraft launched from Earth to
rendezvous with Mars should be 44.2° behind
= 1.088 x 106 s Mars at launch.
= 302.1 hrs
= 12.59 days
So, for this example, we would have to wait more than 12 days before
the planets were phased properly for the spacecraft to launch.
If this were a manned mission, we'd have to worry not only about
getting to Mars but also getting back. We know from Chapter 6 that the
proper configuration for rendezvous recurs periodically, but we'd like to
know how long we need to wait between opportunities. Th.is wait time
between successive opportunities is called the synodic period. Using the 2Jt
relationship we discussed in Chapter 6, we can develop a relationship for
synodic period as
249
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
2:n:
Synodic Period = (7-33)
l(J)Earth - ())target planet!
For a trip to Mars using a Hohmann Transfer, the proper alignment
between the two planets repeats itself about every two years. This means
if we have a spacecraft sitting on the launch pad ready to go and we
somehow miss our chance to launch, we must wait two more years before
we get another chance! Appendix D.5 gives the synodic periods between
Earth and the other planets.
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
hyperbolic excess velocity > The patched-conic approximation breaks interplanetary transfer into
sphere of influence (SOI) three regions and their associated problems
synodic period • Problem 1: From Earth to the target planet. This is a heliocentric
transfer on an elliptical trajectory from Earth to the target planet
Key Equations
- The velocity needed to change from Earth's orbit around the Sun
y2 _.!: ': to the elliptical transfer orbit is V oc Earth
E
2 R - The velocity needed to change from the elliptical transfer orbit to
the target planet's orbit around the Sun is V"" target
E = -~
2a • Problem 2: Earth departure. The spacecraft leaves Earth's vicinity
on a hyperbolic trajectory
/':!. V mission = 11 V boost + 11 V reLro - Earth's sphere of influence (SOI) defines an imaginary boundary in
space within which Earth's gravitational pull dominates. When a
spacecraft goes beyond the SOI, it has effectively left Earth. Earth's
TOF SOI extends to about 1,000,000 km.
- To begin interplanetary transfer, a spacecraft needs a velocity
Wait time = ( cjlfinal -cjlinitial) relative to Earth of V"' target at the SOI. It achieves this velocity
WMars - (])Earth with AVboost, which accelerates it from its circular, parking-orbit's
velocity to its hyperbolic, departure-trajectory velocity
See Table 7-1 for other Key
Equations • Problem 3: Arrival at the target planet. The spacecraft arrives at the
target planet on a hyperbolic trajectory
- The spacecraft's velocity at the SOI, relative to the planet, is
Va: target
- The spacecraft coasts on its hyperbolic-arrival trajectory from the
SOI to its circular, parking orbit radius
- To enter its circular, parking orbit around the target planet, the
spacecraft performs a 11V retro burn
> Table 7-l summarize all equations for the interplanetary transfer
Continued on next page
250
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation
== Section Review (Continued)
Key Concepts (Continued)
> Practically speaking, a spacecraft begins the interplanetary transfer in a parking orbit around Earth and
ends in a final mis ion orbit around the target planet. To transfer between these two orbits, we must fire
the spacecraft's engines twice to get two separate velocity changes
• First burn: t:,.Vboost transfers the spacecraft from a circular parking orbit around Earth to a hyperboJic-
departure trajectory with respect to Earth. Th.is trajectory "patches" to an elliptical orbit around the
Sun, taking the spacecraft to the target planet.
• Second burn: t:,.V retro slows the spacecraft from its hyperbolic-arrival trajectory with r spect to the
target planet to a final mission orbit around the target planet
> The total change .in velocity the rocket must provide for the mission is the sum oft:,. Vboost and t:,. V retro
> The time of flight (TOF) for an interplanetary transfer is approximately one-half th period of the
transfer ellipse
> To ensure the target plan t is there when the spacecraft arrives, we must consider the planets' phasing
• The phasing problem for interplanetary transfer is identical to the r ndezvous problem from Chapter 6
> The synodic period of two planets is the time between successive launch opportunities
251
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
7.3 Gravity-assistTrajectories
!!!!!!!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
~ Explain the concept of gravity-assist trajectories and how they can
help spacecraft travel between the planets
In the previous sections we saw how to get to other planets using an
interplanetary Hohmann Transfer. Even this fuel-efficient maneuver
requires a tremendous amount of rocket propellant, significantly driving
up a mission's cost. Often, we can't justify a mission that relies solely on
rockets to get the required /::;, V. For example, if the Voyager missions,
which took a "grand tour" of the solar system, had relied totally on
rockets to steer between the planets, they would never have gotten off the
ground.
Fortunately, spacecraft can sometimes get "free" velocity changes
using gravity assist trajectories as they travel through the solar system.
This gravity assist technique uses a planet's gravitational field and orbital
velocity to "sling shot" a spacecraft, changing its velocity (in magnitude
and direction) with respect to the Sun.
Of course, gravity-assisted velocity changes aren't totally free.
Actually, the spacecraft "steals" velocity from the planet, causing the
planet to speed up or slow down ever so slightly in its orbit around the
Sun. Gravity assist can also bend the spacecraft's trajectory to allow it to
travel closer to some other point of interest. The Ulysses spacecraft used a
gravity assist from Jupiter to change planes, sending it out of the ecliptic
into a polar orbit around the Sun.
How does gravity assist work? As a spacecraft enters a planet's sphere
of influence (SOI), it coasts on a hyperbolic trajectory around the planet
and the planet pulls it in the direction of the planet's motion, thus
Ewith respect to Sunincreases
increasing (or decreasing) its velocity relative to the Sun. As it leaves the
SOI at the far end of the hyperbolic trajectory, the spacecraft has a new
velocity and direction to take it to another planet.
Of course, as Isaac Newton said, for every action there is an equal but
opposite reaction. So, the spacecraft also pulls the planet a small amount.
But, because the spacecraft is insignificantly small compared to the planet,
planet the same force that can radically change the spacecraft's trajectory has no
vplanet
pulls on significant affect on the planet. (Imagine a mosquito landing on a dinosaur;
spacecraft the dinosaur would never notice the landing, but the mosquito wouldl)
As we saw in the previous sections, a spacecraft's velocity depends on
the perspective of the beholder. During a gravity assist, we want to
change the spacecraft's velocity with respect to the Sun, putting it on a
different heliocentric orbit, so it can go where we want it to.
Figure 7-18. Spacecraft Passing behind a Let's consider what's going on from the planet's perspective. As a
Planet. During a gravity-assist maneuver, a
spacecraft's energy will Increase with respect spacecraft flies by on a hyperbolic trajectory, the planet pulls on it. If the
to the Sun ii it passes behind the planet. spacecraft passes behind the planet, as shown in Figure 7-18, it's pulled in
252
7.3 Gravity-assist Trajectories
the direction of the planet's motion and thus gains velocity (and hence
energy) with respect to the Sun. This alters the spacecraft's original orbit
around the Sun, as shown in Figure 7-19, sending it off to a different part
of the solar system to rendezvous with another planet.
original orbit
before gravity
assist
new orbit
after gravity
assist
Figure 7-19. Gravity Assist. During a gravity assist, a planet pulls a spacecrart. changing
its velocity with respect to the Sun and thus altering its orbit around the Sun. The planet's orbit
also changes, but very little.
When a spacecraft passes in front of a planet as in Figure 7-20, it's
pulled in the opposite direction, slowing the spacecraft and lowering its
orbit with respect to the Sun. Vwith respect to Sun decreases
Gravity-assist trajectories often make the difference between possible
and impossible missions. After the Challenger accident, the Galileo
spacecraft's mission was in trouble. NASA officials banned liquid-fueled
upperstages from the shuttle's payload bay, and solid-fuel upper stages
simply weren't powerful enough to send it directly to Jupiter. Wisely, planet
mission designers hit on the idea of going to Jupiter by way of Venus and
pulls on
spacecraft
Earth. They used one gravitational assist from Venus and two from Earth
to speed the spacecraft on its way; hence, the name VEEGA (Venus, Earth,
Earth Gravity Assist) for its new trajectory.
A gravity assist that changes the magnitude of a spacecraft's velocity is
called orbit pumping. Using a planet's gravity to change the direction of Figure 7-20. Spacecraft Passing in Front of
travel is called orbit cranking. The gravity of Jupiter "cranked" the Ulysses a Planet. During a gravity-assist maneuver, a
solar-polar satellite out of the ecliptic plane into an orbit around the Sun's spacecraft's energy will decrease with respect
to the Sun if It passes in front of the planet.
poles.
Realistically, mission requirements will constrain which planets we can
use for gravity assist or whether it's even possible. For example, NASA
used gravity assist for Voyager II's flights past Jupiter, Saturn, and
Uranus (saving 20 years of trip time to Neptune), but couldn't use its
flyby past Neptune to send it to Pluto. Doing so would have required a
trip beneath Neptune's surface, which would have been a bit hard on the
spacecraft! Instead, they used this last flyby to send Voyager II out of the
253
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
solar system, where it travels today. In 1999, scientists received healthy
transmissions from both Voyager spacecraft at distances of more than 11.2
billion km (6.9 billion mi.) and 8.7 billion km (5.4 billion mi.) for Voyager I
and II, respectively. The messages take over 20 hrs, 40 min for Voyager I
and 15 hrs, 40 min for Voyager II to travel to the spacecraft and return, at
light speed.
-----Astra FunFact------
SlowingDownEarth
Feeling a little slow today? Maybe you should. Following the
Challenger accident, mission designers for the Galileo
spacecraft had a problem. The high-energy Centaur
upperstage they'd planned to use to boost the spacecraft to
Jupiter wasn't available due to safety concerns. Instead,
they had to use the safer, but less powerful, Inertial Upper
Stage (/US). Unfortunately, the /US couldn't provide the
necessary !'!.. Vboost to begin the transfer to Jupiter. Faced
with this dilemma, they decided on a unique solution-not
one, not two, but three gravity assists! To achieve the
necessary !'!.. V, they planned to "steal" energy from Venus
once and Earth twice, hence the name VEEGA-Venus,
Earth, Earth Gravity Assist. The entire trajectory is in the Jupiw
1,... ,.....,
~-~
_,, :• =:=:
Jup6IM
....
ct.rs
100
figure on the right. Launched on October 18, 1989, Galileo L__ =0ec.::..:. =-----------~
7·:..:.:'005
began its journey to Jupiter by going to Venus, flying by on February 10, 1990, and gaining 2.2 kmls. On
December 8, 1990, Galileo returned to Earth on a hyperbolic trajectory that increased its velocity by another
5. 2 km/s. Exactly two years later, it made a second pass by Earth, gaining the additional 3. 7 kmls needed to
take it to Jupiter, where it arrived in December 1995. But this extre ts V from the gravity assists was not totally
"free." Energy must be conserved, so for Galileo to speed up, Earth had to slow down. But don't worry, the
result of both assists slowed Earth by a grand total of 4.3 x 10·21 km/s. That's about 13 cm (5 in.) in one billion
years I
Information and diagram courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
gravity assist > Gravity-assist trajectories allow a spacecraft to get "free"
orbit cranking velocity changes by using a planet's gravity to change a
orbit pumping spacecraft's trajectory. This changes the spacecraft's velocity
with respect to the Sw1 and slows the planet (but by a very
small amount).
254
References
!!!!! References 5 What are the three regions used in the patched-
conic approximation of an interplanetary trajectory
and what coordinate frame does each use?
Bate, Roger R., Donald D. Miller, and Jerry E. White.
Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York, NY:
Dover Publications, Inc., 1971.
G.A. Flandro. Fast Reconnaissance Missions to the Outer
Solar System Utilizing EnergiJ Derived from the 6 What "head start" does a spacecraft have in
Gravitational Field of Jupiter. Astronautica Acta, Vol. achieving the large velocities needed to travel
12 No. 4, 1966. around the Sun?
Jet Propulsion Laboratory Web Page, Voyager Home
Page, 1998.
Wilson, Andrew. Space Directory. Alexandria, VA: 7 Why do we escape from Earth (or any planet) on a
Jane's Information Group Inc., 1990. hyperbolic trajectory versus a parabolic trajectory?
~ Mission Problems
8 A new research spacecraft is designed to measure
7.1 Planning for InterplanetaryTravel
the environment in the tail of Earth's magnetic
1 How do we define the heliocentric-ecliptic coordi- field. It's in a circular parking orbit with a radius of
nate frame? 12,756 km. What t:. V will take the spacecraft to the
boundary of Earth's SOI such that it arrives there
with zero velocity with respect to Earth?
2 Why can't we include all the appropriate gravita-
tional forces for an interplanetary trajectory in a 9 To continue the studies of Venus begun by the
single equation of motion and solve it directly? Magellan probe, NASA is sending a remote-
sensing spacecraft to that planet.
Given:
Rto Earth= 1.496 X 108 km
7.2 The Patched-conic Approximation Rto Venus= 1.081 x 108 km
3 What does a planet's sphere of influence (SOI) Rpark at Earth = 6600 km
represent? Rpark at Venus = 6400 km
µEarth= 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2
µVenus = 3.257 x 105 km3 / s2
4 What does the size of the SOI depend on? µSun = 1.327 x 1011 km3 / s2
255
Chapter 7 Interplanetary Travel
a) Find the sernimajor axis and specific 7.3 Gravity-assist Trajectories
mechanical energy of the transfer orbit.
13 Explain how we can use gravity assist to get "free
b) Find Voo Earth fl V" for interplanetary transfers.
c) Find V Venus
00
d) Find flVboost
e) Find fl V retro 14 Is fl V from a gravity assist really "free?"
f) Find flVmission
15 Can a flyby of the Sun help us change a
spacecraft's interplanetary trajectory?
10 Find the time of flight (TOF) for the above mission
to Venus.
Projects
16 Write a computer program or spreadsheet to
11 Adjust Equation (7-4) and compute the radius of compute fl V mission for trips to all of the other eight
the moon's SOI relative to Earth. planets in the solar system.
Assume:
1
aMoon= 3.844 x 105 km and (massMoon)
massEarth 81.3
12 What is the needed phase angle for the rendezvous
of a flight from Earth to Saturn?
Given:
Rto Earth 1.496 x 108 km
9
Rto Saturn = 1.426 x 10 km
256
Mission Protile- -Magellan
On May 4, 1989, the Magellan Space Probe launched ./ The high-gain antenna provided communications
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis-the first interplanetary and data gathering. Deep Space Network antennas
spacecraft launched from a Space Shuttle and the first on Earth received scientific data from the payload.
U.S. interplanetary mission since 1978. Magellan was This data then went to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
designed to produce the first high-resolution images of for interpretation. The Deep Space Network was also
the surface of Venus using a synthetic aperture radar used to send commands to Magellan from Earth.
(SAR). The project's manager was NASA, with coordi-
,I Because Magellan used the high-gain antenna for
nators at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the primary
radar mapping and data transmission to Earth, the
builders at Martin Marietta and Hughes Aircraft
spacecraft had to rotate four times in each orbit. A
Company. By studying our neighboring planet with a
combination of reaction wheels, sun-sensors, and
spacecraft equipped with radar, researchers hope to
learn more about how the solar system and Earth were thrusters provided enough pointing accuracy for
formed. these maneuvers.
MissionOverview
The primary objectives for Magellan were
,I Map at least 70% of the surface of Venus using the
SAR
,I Take altitude readings of its surface, take its
"temperature" (radiometry), and chart changes in
its gravity field
MissionData
,I Launched by the Space Shuttle and placed into an
Magellan Mapper. Here's an artists' concept of the Magellan
interplanetary transfer orbit by the inertial upper- spacecraft mapping the Venus surface. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet
stage Propulsion Laboratory)
,I The interplanetary transfer orbit took Magellan
around the Sun and placed it into a highly elliptical
MissionImpact
mapping orbit around Venus. The mapping orbit Magellan performed better than rrussion planners
was elliptical to allow Magellan to map when at expected, mapping more than 95% of Venus's surface
perigee and to transmit data to Earth near apogee. with images better than any of Earth. This single mission
,I Magellan was built from left-over and back-up gathered more data than in all other NASA exploratory
parts of previous satellites such as Voyager, missions combined. Magellan's funding was cut for fiscal
Galileo, and Ulysses. Its configuration included year 1993, the mission ended in May 1993.
• Antennas with high, medium, and low gain plus For Discussion
a radar altimeter • What information can we learn from studying
• A forward equipment module, housing the Venus?
communications and radar electronics and • How might the lessons learned from Magellan
reaction wheels for attitude control affect future unmanned space probes?
• A ten-sided spacecraft bus
Contributors
• Two solar panels
Luciano Amutan and Scott Bell, the U.S. Air Force
• A propulsion module Academy
,I The main payload included the synthetic aperture
radar and the radar altimeter References
Wilson, Andrew. lnteravia Space Directory. Alexandria,
,I To withstand harsh conditions close to the Sun,
Magellan was covered in thermal blankets and VA: Jane's Information Group, 1990.
heat-reflecting inorganic paint. It also used louvers Young, Carolynn (ed.). The Magellan Venus Explorer's
to dissipate heat created by the SAR and other Guide. Pasadena, CA: Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
electronic components. 1990.
257
Predicting
Orbits
RobertB. Giffen
ProfessorEmeritus, the U.S. Air Force Academy
111111111 In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... 111111111 Outline
.- Determine the time of flight between two spacecraft positions within a
8.1 Predicting an Orbit (Kepler's
given orbit
Problem)
.- Determine a spacecraft's future position using Kepler's Equation Kepler's Equation and Time of
,... Describe the effects of perturbations on orbits and explain their Flight
practical applications
,... Describe the overall problem of hacking spacecraft and predicting 8.2 Orbital Perturbations
orbits Atmospheric Drag
Earth's Oblateness
Other Perturbations
111111111 You Should Already Know ...
The assumptions of the restricted two-body problem (Chapter 4) 8.3 Predicting Orbits in the Real
World
O The two-body equation of motion and its solution (Chapter 4)
O The definition and use of the classic orbital elements, including
argument of latitude, u (Chapter 5)
What goes around comes around.
Anonymous
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
y now you should have a pretty good feel for orbits: how they look,
B how they're defined, and how they're used. So far, everything
we've done with orbits has been the result of a few basic equations
developed in Chapter 4. Now it's time to take the next step. In this chapter
we'll turn our attention to predicting orbits. To track spacecraft through
space, we need to know where they are now and where they'll be later, so
we can point our antennas at them to perform key functions. Although we
can easily predict this motion when the orbit is a circle, the problem
becomes more complicated when the orbit is an ellipse, and most orbits are
at least slightly elliptical.
In this chapter we'll begin by looking at the orbital-prediction problem
solved by [ohannes Kepler over 300 years ago. We'll see how Kepler
developed a method to-analyze. the motion of a spacecraft on an elliptical
orbit. Next, we'll reexamine what we assumed about orbital motion in
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter Chapter 4. We'll see that, in the "real world," our assumptions break
deals with the Trajectories and Orbits segment down for low-Earth-orbiting spacecraft (Figure 8-1). We'll find that
of the Space Mission Architecture, introduced
Earth's atmosphere and its non-spherical shape disturb or "perturb"
in Figure 1-20.
orbits from the path we explained in Chapter 4. Finally, we'll combine
Kepler's method with an understanding of how orbits are perturbed to
predict orbits in the real world.
Figure 8-1. Drag Affects Low-Earth Orbiting Spacecraft. Any objects in low-Earth orbit
run into air molecules that slowly affect their orbits. (Courtesy of NASNJohnsonSpace Center)
260
8.1 Predicting an Orbit (Kepler's Problem)
8.1 Predicting an Orbit
(Kepler's Problem)
~ In This Section You'll Learn to ...
~ Use Kepler's Equation to calculate a spacecraft's time of flight
,.. Use Kepler's Equation to predict a spacecraft's position at some
future time
Let's look at the "big picture" of tracking and predicting orbits, shown
in Figure 8-2. Imagine the Space Shuttle is in orbit and we've just received
a position update on it from our tracking site located on an island in the
Indian Ocean. The site provides us with the Shuttle's m11ge (the distance
from the tracking site), azimuth (the angle from true north), and eteuation
(the angle between the local horizon and the Shuttle). We then convert
these observations into a position vector, Rinitial, and, with at least one
more set of observations, we also find a velocity vector'...YirutiaJ· Using the
techniques developed in Chapter 5, we then convert Rinitial and V initial
into a set of classic orbital elements (COEs).
predict
range range
azimuth COEinittaJ azimuth
elevation elevation
.....
~nitial
vinitial
Figure 8-2. The Tracking Problem. To track and predict a spacecraft's orbit, we take
tracking data, convert it first to l'i,nitlal and \/initial and then to COEs, and move these COEs
to a future time (Including perturbations). We then reconvert the COEs to l'i1uture and llruture
vectors, and, finally, to range, azimuth, and elevation angles.
261
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
For this example, we can assume the astronauts aboard the Shuttle are
going to deploy a large mirror and we're going to bounce a low-power
laser off the mirror's surface and back to the ground. To aim our laser, we
have to know precisely when the Shuttle will pass over the test site and
where it will be at that time. If all we know is the Shuttle's position and
velocity some time in the past, we'll have to predict when it will be
overhead. To predict or propagate any orbit into the future (COEfuture), we
have to develop a prediction method and understand how environmental
factors such as drag and Earth's oblate shape affect this prediction. Once
we know COEfuture, we can then re-convert these updated orbital
elements into Rfuture and V future, and then into range, elevation, and
azimuth. These data will tell us how to point our laser.
In this section we'll determine the time of flight between two orbital
positions. Then we'll predict a spacecraft's position within its orbit at
some future time. We'll tackle the effects of drag and the oblate Earth in
the next section.
Kepler's Equation and Time of Flight
In circular orbits, determining how long a spacecraft takes to get from
an initial position to a future position is simple, because the spacecraft
moves at a constant speed. Using Figure 8-3, let's define this angular
speed as the mean motion, 11, which tells us the mean, or aw rage, speed on
the orbit. We find the mean motion in terms of the period, P, and the
radius, which, in the case of circular orbits, is the same as the semimajor
axis, a. The mean motion is
n = angle = 2rc = ~ (8-1)
TOF time P ~a3
where
n = spacecraft's mean motion (rad Is)
Ufuture P = orbital period (s)
µ = central body's gravitational parameter (km ' I s2)
Uinitial = 3.986 x 105 k.m3 / s2 for Earth
a = semimajor axis (km)
ascending/
node Remember from Chapter 5, for a circular orbit we define a spacecraft's
position within the orbit using the argument of latitude, u, the angular
distance along the orbital path from the ascending node to the spacecraft.
So, as Figure 8-3 shows, the time of flight in a circular orbit is
Ufuture - Uinitial
Figure 8-3. Time of Flight on a Circular Time of flight = TOF = ----- (8-2)
Orbit. To find the time of flight between two n
spacecraft positions In a circular orbit, divide
the angle between these two positions by the where
orbital mean motion, n. Conversely, to find the Ufuture = spacecraft's future argument of latitude (rad)
spacecraft's location some time in the future,
just multiply the time of flight by the mean uinitial = spacecraft's initial argument of latitude (rad)
motion and add lhe result to the initial position. n = spacecraft's mean motion (rad Is)
262
8.1 Precticling an Orbit (Kepler's Problem)
And the spacecraft's position at some future time equals its initial position
plus the angle it travels through during the time of flight
ufuture = Uinitial + n(TOF) (8-3)
where
angle .
n (TOF) = . x time = ang 1 e
time
In an elliptical orbit, however, the spacecraft motion is not uniform. We
don't know how the true anomaly, v, changes with time because it
doesn't change uniformly. Here's where Johannes Kepler came to the
rescue. Remember from Chapter 2, he was trying to make his theories of
planetary motion match Tycho Brahe's meticulous observations of the
planet Mars. To solve this problem, he figured out how to move v to a
time in the future and, conversely, given a future v, how to find how long
Mars would take to get there.
Kepler's approach was purely geometrical-he related motion on a
circle to motion on an ellipse. He also defined a planet's mean motion, n,
to be the average angular rate it travels in one orbital period
n = ~ (8-4)
He then defined a new angle called the 111ea11 n11011wly, M
M=nT (8-5)
where
M = mean anomaly (rad)
n = mean motion (rad Is)
T = the time since last perigee passage (s)
Mean anomaly is an angle that has no physical meaning and can't be
drawn in a picture. We have to express it mathematically. The change in M
between two points in the same orbit is
Mfuture - Minitial = n( tfuture - tinitial) - Zkn (8-6)
where
Mfuture = mean anomaly when the spacecraft is in the
future position (rad)
= mean anomaly when the spacecraft is in the initial
position (rad)
tfuture - tinitial = time of flight (TOF) between two points in the
orbit
= time when the spacecraft is in the final position
(e.g., 3:47 A.M.)
tinitial = time when the spacecraft is in the initial position
(e.g., 3:30 A.M.)
k = the number of times the spacecraft passes perigee
during the TOF
263
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
Note that Mfuture - Minitial must be greater than zero and is usually less
initial
position than 2rr, for convenience in working with angles. It's important to keep
track of time when working these problems. Figure 8-4 shows the
~----ti:.:.::nitiay relationship between the time since last perigee passage, T, and the time of
the clock, t.
initial
To relate elliptical motion to circular motion, Kepler defined another
new angle called the eccentric a,zomaiy, E, so he could relate M to E and
then E to v geometrically, as seen in Figure 8-5. With all these things '
defined, Kepler was able to develop his now-famous equation, commonly
called Kepler's Equation. (For this equation to work, all angles must be in
radians.)
Figure 8-4. Keeping Track of Time in
Kepler's Equation. We use T as the lime since IM= E-e sinE (8-7)
a spacecraft passed perigee (e.g., 30 min).
Lower case "I" is the actual time (shown on a where
watch) that the spacecraft is at a particular
location (e.g. 3:30 A.M.). Thus, Trnmar is the time M = mean anomaly (rad)
elapsed since a spacecraft, located at an initial
position, was at perigee (e.g., 20 min). And,
E = eccentric anomaly (rad)
l;nitiar is the actual time when the spacecraft was e = eccentricity (unitless)
at the initial position (e.g. 2:10 P.M.).
He then related E to v using
e + cosv
cosE (8-8)
1 + e cosv
where
v = true anomaly (rad)
And v to E through
cosE -e
cosv = (8-9)
1-e cosE
Now we have the equations needed to solve two problems. The first
problem, and the easier, is finding the time 0£ flight between two points in
an orbit. Given Yiruttal and Vfuture, we simply go through the following
steps
Figure 8-5. Eccentric Anomaly. We define
the eccentric anomaly, E, geometrically by • Use Equation (8-8) to solve for Einitial and Efuture
circumscribing an elliptical orbit with a circle
and relating E to M, using the true anomaly, v
• Use Equation (8-7) to solve for Minitial and Mfuture
and the eccentricity, e. • Use Equation (8-6) to solve for the time 0£ flight (tfuture - tinitial)
Remember in Chapter 5, when we solved for the orbital elements, we had
to check the quadrant when taking the inverse cosine? We have to do that
here, too, but it's easier. Look at Figure 8-5 and you can see v and E are
always in the same half plane. It turns out that mean anomaly follows the
same rule. This means if v is between 0° and 180°, so are E and M.
264
8.1 Predicting an Orbit (Kepler's Problem)
Kepler's Equation and Future Position
The second problem we can solve using Kepler's method is far more
practical. This involves determining a spacecraft's position at some future TOF
time, tfuture, as shown in Figure 8-6. This second problem is trickier. We
assume we know where the spacecraft is at time tinitiat, so we also know
Yinitial We start by finding Einitial, using Equation (8-8). Then we find
Minitial using Kepler's Equation (8-7).
MinitiaJ = Einitial - e sinEinitial
Now, because we know tfuture (or we pick a future time), using Equation
(8-6), we can find Mfuture·
Figure 8-6. Time of Flight on an Elliptical
Mfuture - Minitial = n( tfuture - tinitial) - 2kn Orbit. Predicting a spacecraft's future position
at some time, tfuiu,e, is the second application of
Great. We're now on our way to finding Yfuture, which tells us where the Kepler's Equation.
spacecraft will be. So we go to Kepler's Equation again to find Efuture· Let's
rearrange this equation and put Eon the left side
Efuture = Mfuture + e sinEfuture (8-10)
OOPS! We can't isolate Efuture in this equation. Why? Because it's a
variable in the sine function, which is a transcendental function (so are
cosine and log). So, we call this a transcendenrai equation. In fact, almost
every notable mathematician over the past 300 years has tried to find a
direct solution to this form of Kepler's Equation without success. So we
must resort to indirect methods to solve for Efuture· The indirect approach
we'll use is called iteration. To see how iteration works, think about the
kids' game Twenty Questions. In this game, your partner thinks of a
person, place, or thing and you must guess what he's thinking of. You get
20 questions (guesses) to which your partner can answer only "yes" or
"no." In seeking the right answer, a good player will systematically
eliminate all other possibilities until only the correct answer remains.
To demonstrate the power of iteration, let's look at an application of
this process using another equation with a transcendental function
y = cosy
Because we can't solve for y using algebra (we can't get they out of the
cosine function to put all the y's on the left side), we must iterate. We begin
by taking a guess at the value for yin radians, and then we take the cosine
to see how close we were. Then take this as the new value of y and use it
for the next guess, and keep doing this iteration until the new y equals the
old y (or is close enough, say, within 0.000001 radians of the old value).
Let's try it to see what the answer for y really is. Get out your calculator
and use re] 4 radians as your first guess for y. (Remember to set your
calculator to use radians, not degrees.) Keep punching the cosine function
button and you'll see the value slowly converges to 0.739085 radians
(about 42.3°). Presto-you've now solved the transcendental equation y =
cosy using iteration!
265
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
We can use this same iterative technique to solve Equation (8-10) for
Efuture· It turns out the values for M and E are always pretty close
together, even for the most eccentric orbits, so let's use Mfuture for our first
guess at Efuture· Here's the algorithm
• Use Mfuture in radians for the first guess of Efuture
• Solve Equation (8-10) for a new Efuture
• Use this new Efuture for the next guess for Equation (8-10)
• Keep doing the previous step until Efuture doesn't change by much
(less than about 0.0001 rad). At this point we say the solution has
converged.
This brute force iteration method will solve Equation (8-10), but there are
better methods. The most notable is Newton's Iteration Method.
Let's quickly summarize what we've learned. If we know where our
spacecraft is in orbit at some point in time and we're interested in when it
will reach some other point in the orbit, we can use Kepler's Equation to
solve for the time of flight it takes to get there. The solution is very straight-
forward. If, however, we know where it is and want to know where it'll be
at some future time, we can use Kepler's Equation to find that location,
only by iterating a transcendental equation for eccentric anomaly.
~----Astro FunFact----~
Astronomyvs. Astrology
Johannes Kepler was also a dabbler in astrology. From an early age, Kepler was
interested in the study of how movements of the heavenly bodies affected
people's lives. The beginnings of astrology go back to around 2000 B.C. in
Babylonia. It purports to tell how people are affected by the positions of Earth,
the planets (including the Sun and Moon), the zodiac, and the "houses" (similar
to the zodiac except located on Earlh}. At first, Kepler told iortunes for family
members, but later he made calendars of predictions to make more money.
Into his third and final year of seminary, Kepler was appointed to become a
math instructor at a Lutheran school in Graz, Austria, after the death of the
professor. After arriving in Graz, his successful prediction of cold weather,
peasant uprisings, and invasion by the Turks made Kepler's calendars a hot
item. Kepler was split on his feelings about astrology. He referred to it as the
"foolish little daughter of respectable astronomy" and stated "if astrologers
sometimes do tell the truth, it ought to be attributed to luck." However,
Kepler's firm belief in the harmony and sense of order in the universe kept him
involved in astrology. He was also able to provide food for his family and pay the bills doing prediction calendars.
Kepler was a bridge between the mysticism of astrology and the realism of astronomy.
Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York, NY: Scribner's Sons, 1992.
Contributed by Steve Crumpton, the U.S. Air Force Academy
266
8.1 Predicting an Orbit (Kepler's Problem)
'ml Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
argument of latitude, u > Kepler's Equation gives us the solution to two problems
azimuth • Finding the time of flight between two known orbital
eccentric anomaly, E position
elevation
iteralion • Finding a future orbital position, given the time of flight
mean motion, n > Mean motion, n, is the average angular speed of a
mean anomaly, M spacecraft in orbit
range
transcendental equation > Mean anomaly, M, relates to mean motion through the time,
T, since passing perigee
Key Equations > Eccentric anomaly relates motion on an ellipse to motion on
a circumscribed circle
n( tfuture - tinlllal) - 2kn
> Spacecraft position defined by true anomaly, Y, relates to
M = E-esinE eccentric anomaly
cosE = e + cosy > Given a new spacecraft position, Y, we can find E, M, and
1 + e co Y finally T. Or given T (or some future time, tfuture), we can
find M, solve for E using substitution and iteration, and
cosE-e then find v.
COSY
1- e cosE
267
Example 8-1
Problem Statement 4) Find time of flight
The Space Shuttle is conducting Spacelab experiments Mfuture - Minitial = n( tfuture - tinitial) - Zkn
in a slightly elliptical orbit (e = 0.05) with a semimajor
Mfuture - Min.itial + 2kJt
axis of 7000 km. Data from the Tracking and Data tfuture - tin.itial = n
Relay Satellite tell us the Shuttle's current true
anomaly is 270°. How long until it reaches a true Note from the diagram we must pass perigee
anomaly of 50°? once to get from Yinitinl to Yfinal
Analytical Solution
Problem Summary
1) Find mean motion, n
Given: a = 7000 km
e = 0.05 5 km3
3.986 x 10 -2
vinitial = 2700 s
Find: Time of flight from Yinitia! = 270° to Yfurure = 50° (7000 km)3
= 0.001078 rad/ s = 14.82 rev/ day
2) Find Ein.itial, Efuture
Problem Diagram e + cosvinitial
cos E. 'ti 1= ------
mi a 1 + e COS V initial
0.05 + cos270° =
0_05
1.0 + 0.05 cos270°
Einitial= 87.13° or 272.87°
Remember, v, M, and E must all lie in the same
half plane. Therefore, because Yinitial = 270°,
Einitial = 272.87° = 4.762 rad
e + COS V future
COS Efuture = 1
+ e COS V future
Conceptual Solution 0.05 + cos50°
0.6712
1.0 + 0.05 cos50°
1) Find mean motion, n Efuture = 47.84° or 312.16°
Efuture = 47.84° (same half-plane as Yfuture) = 0.835
n = 2Jt
- = ~ll
3
p a rad
2) Find Einitialand Efuture 3) Find Mi.nitial, MfutUie
e + COSY Minitial = Einitial- e sin Einitial
cos E =
1 + e cosv
Note: Here Einitial must be in radians
3) Find Minitial and Mfuture Minitial = 4.762-0.05 sin 4.762 = 275.727° = 4.812
M =E-e sinE rad
268
Example 8-1 (Continued)
Mfuture = Efuture - e sin Efuture Interpretingthe Results
Mfuture = 0.835 - 0.05sin0.835 = 45.716° = 0.798rad
Using Kepler's equation, we found it takes about 35
4) Find Time of Flight minutes for the Space Shuttle to travel from vinitial =
270° to Yfuture = 50°. It passes perigee one time so we
Mfuture - Minitial + 2krc: must add in the factor 2rc: to the equation for time of
tfu tu.re - t,irun
. "a] = -------- n flight. This answer makes sense because the period of
a low-Earth orbit is about 90 minutes, and we're
Because we must pass perigee once, k = 1
travelling 140°, or a little more than a third of the way
(0.798 - 4.812 + 2rc:)rad around the orbit.
0.001078rad
s
= 2104.58 s = 35.08 min
269
Example 8-2
Problem Statement 4) Move mean anomaly to the desired time
Mfuhire = Minitial + n( tfuture - tinitial) - 2krt
An Earth-observation satellite is in a slightly eccentric
orbit (e = 0.05) with a semimajor axis of 7000 km and 5) Solve for Efuture usi g Kepler's equation (iterative
an inclination of 50°. If its current true anomaly is 270°,
solution required)
what will be the true anomaly six hours from now?
E = M + esinE
6) Find Vfuture
cosE - e
Problem Summary cosv = ----
1-e cosE
Given: a = 7000 km
e = 0.05
i = 50° Analytical Solution
vinitial = 2700
1) Find mean motion, n
Find: The satellite's true anomaly six hours from
now
~
t
3.986 10' kn;'
s
n = ~~ = (7odo km/
Problem Diagram
I
= 0.001078 rad/ s 14.82 rev/ day
2) Find Einitial
e + cos1vinitial
COS Einitial =
1 + e colsvinitial
0.05 + cos270°
= 0.05
1.0 + 0.0 cos270°
Einitial = 87.13°, 272.8• 0 = 272.87° = 4.762 rad
Remember, v, M, an E must all lie in the same
half plane.
3) Find Minitial
Conceptual Solution
Minitial = Einitial - e si Einitial
1) Find mean motion, n Note: Here Einitial must be in Radians
Minitial = 4.762 - 0.05 sin 4.762 = 4.812 rad
2rt ~,l
n = -p = a 3 = 275.727°
4) Move mean anomaly to the desired time
2) Find Einitial
Mfuture = Minitial + n(tfuture - tinitial) - 2kJt
e + cosv
cos E = Mruture=4.812 + (0.001078rad/ s)(6hr· 3600 s/hr)-0
1 + e cosv
= 28.097 rad
3) Find Minitial Because this value is greater than 2n, we need to
M = E-e sinE subtract 2Jt until Mruture is less than 2Jt.
270
Example 8-2 (Continued)
Mfuture = 28.097 - 4(2n) = 2.964 rad 6) Find "future
Physically, this means our satellite passes perigee cosEfuture - e cos(2.972) - 0.05
four times in the next six hours cosvfuture = E 1 - 0.05 cos(2.972)
1 - e COS future
5) Solve for Efuture using Kepler's equation (iterative
"future= 170.75° or 189.25° = 170.75°
solution required)
(since Efuture = 170.3°)
First, guess Efuture = Mfuture = 2.964 rad
Efuture = Mfuture + e sin Efuture
= 2.964 + 0.05 sin 2.964 = 2.973 rad Interpretingthe Results
Now, use Efuture =2.973 rad for the next guess In six hours our satellite will pass perigee four times
and end up at v = 170.75°, which is about 100° behind
Efuture = Mfuture + e sin Efuture where it is now. The period of our orbit is about 97
= 2.964 + 0.05 sin 2.973 = 2.972 rad minutes, so in six hours we should go around the orbit
about four times.
Again, use Efuture = 2.972 rad next
Efuture = Mfuture + e sin Efuture
= 2.964 + 0.05 sin 2.972 =2.972 rad
= 170.3°
Okay, within the accuracy we've chosen here, our
solution has converged.
271
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
8.2 Orbital Perturbations
== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Explain and determine how Earth's atmosphere changes a
spacecraft's orbit
.- Explain and determine how Earth's non-spherical shape changes a
spacecraft's orbit
..- Explain how sun-synchronous and Molniya orbits take advantage
of Earth's non-spherical shape
..- Describe other sources of orbital perturbations
In Chapter 4 we developed a general equation of motion for a
spacecraft in orbit that looked like this
I fextemal = Fgravity + Fdrag + Fthrust + F3rd body+ Pother (8-11)
We then assumed
• Gravity is the only force
• Earth's mass is much greater than the spacecraft's mass
• Earth is spherically symmetric with uniform density, so it could be
treated as a point mass
• The spacecraft's mass is constant, so Arn = 0
These assumptions led us to the restricted two-body equation of motion
R+l:_R=O (8-12)
R2
The solution to this equation gave us the six classic orbital elements
(COEs)
a-semimajor axis
e-eccentricity
i-inclination
Q-right ascension of the ascending node
()}--argument of perigee
v-true anomaly
Under our assumptions, the first five of these elements remain constant for
a given orbit. Only the true anomaly, v, varies with time as a spacecraft
travels around its fixed orbit. What happens if we now change some of our
original assumptions? Other COEs besides v will begin to change as well.
Any changes to these COEs due to other forces we call perturbations. To see
which CO Es change and by how much, let's look at our first assumption-
gravity is the only force.
272
8.2 Orbital Perturbations
Atmospheric Drag
Gravity really isn't the only force acting on a spacecraft. In Chapter 3
we talked about the space environment and the effect Earth's atmosphere
has on a spacecraft's lifetime. Recall that Earth's atmosphere gets thinner
with altitude but still has some effect as high as 600 km (375 mi.). Because
many important space missions are conducted in orbit with altitudes
lower than 600 km, this very thin air causes drag on these spacecraft. Let's
look at how drag affects their orbital elements.
Drag is a non-conservative force-it takes energy away from the orbit successive orbits
in the form of friction on the spacecraft. Because orbital energy is a
function of semimajoraxis, we expect the semimajor axis, a, to get smaller
over time, due to drag. The eccentricity also decreases, since the orbit
becomes more circular. Let's see why this is so. Imagine a spacecraft is in
a highly elliptical orbit, as shown in Figure 8-7. The effect of drag will be
most noticeable when the spacecraft goes through perigee. Each time,
drag will slow the spacecraft slightly, like applying a small, negative A V.
Recall from Chapter 6 that a negative !),,,V applied at perigee will lower
apogee. Thus, apogee for the orbit will gradually lower, making the orbit
more circular, thus less eccentric.
Earth's atmosphere
\
original orbit
Drag is very difficult to model because of the many factors affecting
Earth's upper atmosphere and the spacecraft's attitude. Earth's day-night Figure 8-7. The Effects of Drag on an
cycle, seasonal tilt, variable solar distance, and fluctuating magnetic field, Eccentric Low-Earth Orbit. As the spacecraft
passes through the atmosphere at perigee, the
as well as the Sun's 27-day rotation and Tl-year cycle for Sun spots, make effect is like a series of small 6 Vs, which lower
the modeling task nearly impossible. The force of drag, which we'll see in apogee altitude, circularizing the orbit, until it
greater detail in Chapter 10, also depends on the spacecraft's coefficient of decays and the spacecraft re-enters.
drag and frontal area, which can also vary widely, further complicating
the modeling problem.
The uncertainty in these variables is the main reason Skylab decayed
and burned in the atmosphere several years earlier than first predicted.
For a given orbit, however, we can approximate how the semimajor axis
and the eccentricity change with time, at least in the short term.
Spacecraft-tracking organizations use complex techniques to determine
these values and make them available on request for each spacecraft.
Earth's Oblateness
Our second assumption about a spacecraft's mass being much less
than Earth's mass is still true, but what about the third assumption? Earth
isn't really spherical. From space, it looks like a big, blue spherical
marble, but when we look closer at the actual mass distribution, we find
that Earth is actually kind of squashed. Thus, we can't really treat it as a
pure point mass when we do very precise orbital modeling. We call this
squashed shape oblateness. What does an oblate Earth look like? Imagine
spinning a ball of gelatin and you can visualize how the middle (or
equator) of the spinning gelatin would bulge out-Earth is fatter at the
equator than at the poles. This bulge is often modeled by complex
mathematics (which we won't do here) and is frequently referred to as the
273
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
/2 effect. J2 is a constant describing the size of the bulge in the
mathematical formulas used to model the oblate Earth.
What effect does this have on an orbit? Let's look at Figure 8-8. Here
the oblateness is shown very exaggerated; actually the bulge is only about
22 km thick. That is, Earth's radius is about 22 km larger along the
equator than through the poles.
Let's reason what this bulge will do to the orbital elements. The force
caused by the equatorial bulge is still gravity. Recall from Chapter 4 that
gravity is a conservative force-the total mechanical energy of an orbit
must be conserved. So, one of the constants of orbital motion we
defined-the specific mechanical energy, E-will not change. That means
I the semimajor axis, a, remains constant over the long term due to
22km oblateness. It turns out the eccentricity, e, also doesn't change, although
the explanation for this is beyond the scope of our discussion here. The
Figure 8-8. Earth's Oblateness. Earth's bulge does pull on a spacecraft, so we expect the inclination to change
equatorial bulge, shown here greatly exagger- due to oblateness, but it doesn't! Because the spacecraft is in orbit, the
ated, causes a slight shift in the direction that
gravity pulls a spacecraft. The effect is a twist-
effect changes the right ascension of the ascending node, Q, and moves
ing force on the spacecraft's orbit. the argument of perigee, to, within the orbital plane. That's not very
intuitive, but it's like a force acting on a spinning gyroscope, which we'll
discuss in detail in Chapter 12. A similar analogy is a toy top. If you stand
a non-spinning top on its point, gravity will cause it to fall over. But if you
spin axis spin the top first, gravity still tries to make it fall over, but because of its
angular momentum, it begins to swivel-this motion is called precession,
as shown in Figure 8-9. Let's examine this effect on Q and co more closely.
How J2 Affects the Right Ascension of the Ascending Node, Q
The effect of this equatorial bulge slightly perturbs the spacecraft
because the gravitational force is no longer coming from Earth's exact
center. This causes the plane of the orbit to precess (like the spinning top),
resulting in a movement of the ascending node, t.Q. This motion is
westward for direct orbits (inclination < 90°), eastward for retrograde
Figure 8-9. Precession of a Top. A non- orbits (inclination > 90°), and zero for polar orbits (inclination = 90°).
spinning top will fall over If placed upright. Bui Figure 8-10 shows this nodal regression rate, Q, as a function of
a spinning top wobbles about its spin axis due
to lhe pull of gravity,Fg. This rnolion is called
inclination and orbital altitude. Let's look more closely at this figure.
precession. What it says is that the higher the spacecraft is, the less effect the bulge
has on the orbit. This makes sense because the gravitational pull of the
bulge decreases according to the inverse square law (~t/R2). It also says
that if the spacecraft is in a polar orbit (center of the graph), the bulge will
have no effect. The greatest effect occurs at low altitudes with low
inclinations. This makes sense, too, because the spacecraft is traveling
much closer to the bulge during its orbit, and thus is pulled more by it.
For low-altitude and low-inclination orbits, the ascending node can move
as much as 9° per day (lower left corner and upper right corner of the
graph).
274
8.2 Orbital Perturbations
Q 111-2.00474 x 1014
a·712 (cosi)(l - e2)-2
150 180
inclination, deg
Figure 8-10. Nodal Regression Rate, Q. The nodal regression rate, Q, caused by Earth's
equatorial bulge, reaches zero at an inclination of 90°. Positive numbers represent eastward
movement; negative numbers represent westward movement. The less inclined an orbit is to
the equator, the greater the effect of the bulge. The higher the orbit, the smaller the el'fect.
An equation is given for finding Q, where a = semimajor axis, i = inclination, and e =
eccentricity.
How J2 Affects the Argument of Perigee, co
Figure 8-11 shows how perigee location rotates for an orbit with a
perigee altitude of 100 km, depending on the inclination, for various
apogee altitudes. This perigee rotation mte, i», is difficult to explain
physically, but we can derive it mathematically from the equation for J2
effects on perigee location. With this perturbation, the major axis, or line
of apsides, rotates in the direction of the spacecraft's motion, if the
inclination is less than 63.4° or greater than 116.6°. It rotates opposite to
the spacecraft's motion for inclinations between 63.4° and 116.6°.
Sun-synchronous and Molniya Orbits
The effects of Earth's oblateness on the node and perigee positions give
Figure 8-12. Sun-synchronous Orbits.
rise to two unique orbits that have very practical applications. The first of
Sun-synchronous orbits take advantage of the
these, the sun-synchronous orbit, takes advantage of eastward nodal rate of change in right ascension of the
progression at inclinations greater than 90°. Looking at Figure 8-10, we ascending node, Q, caused by Earth's
oblateness. By carefully selecting the proper
see at an inclination of about 98° (depending on the spacecraft's altitude), inclination and altitude, we can match the
the ascending node moves eastward about 1 ° per day. Coincidentally, rotation of Q with the movement of Earth
Earth also moves around the Sun about 1 ° per day (360° in 365 days), so around the Sun. In this case, the same angle
between the orbital plane and the Sun will be
at this sun-synchronous inclination, the spacecraft's orbital plane will maintained. Such orbits are useful for remote-
always maintain the same orientation to the Sun, as shown in Figure 8-12. sensing applications because shadows cast
This means the spacecraft will always see the same Sun angle when it by targets on Earth stay the same.
275
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
]
.§
:s
0
I-<
QJ
QJ
-~
I-<
(!)
0...
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
inclination, deg
Figure 8-11. w,
Perigee Rotation Rate, ii>. The perigee rotation rate, caused by Earth's
equatorial bulge depends on inclination and altitude at apogee. An approximate equation for
finding w = =
is given, where a semimajor axis, i = inclination, and e eccentricity.
passes over a particular point on Earth's surface. As a result, the Sun
shadows cast by features on Earth's surface will not change when
pictures are taken days or even weeks apart. This is important for remote-
sensing missions such as reconnaissance, weather, and monitoring of
Earth's resources, because they use shadows to measure an object's
height and track other ones. By maintaining the same Sun angle day after
day, observers can better track long-term changes in weather, terrain, and
man-made features.
The second unique orbit is the Molniyn orbit, named after the Russian
word for lightning (as in "quick-as-lightning"). This is usually a 12-hour
orbit with high eccentricity (about e = 0.7) and a perigee location in the
Southern Hemisphere. The inclination is 63.4°-why? Because at this
inclination the perigee doesn't rotate, as Figure 8-11 shows, so the
spacecraft "hangs" over the Northern Hemisphere for nearly 11 hours of
its 12-hour period before it whips "quick as lightning" through perigee in
the Southern Hemisphere. Figure 8-13 shows the ground track for a
Molniya orbit. The Russians used this orbit for their communication
satellites because they didn't have launch vehicles large enough to put
them into geosynchronous orbits from their far northern launch sites.
Remember from Chapter 6, plane changes require large !:,.Vs and, as we'll
see in Chapter 9, far northern launch sites don't get much extra kick from
Earth's rotation. These Molniya orbits also better covered the polar and
high latitudes above 80° north.
276
8.2 Orbital Perturbations
-40,--,---
1
-60 -
I
-80
Figure 8-13. Molniya Orbit. Molniya orbits take advantage of the fact that oi due to Earth's
oblateness is zero at an inclination of 63.4°. Thus, apogee stays over the Northern
Hemisphere, covering high latitudes 11 hours out of the orbit's tz-nour period.
Other Perturbations
Other perturbative forces can affect a spacecraft's orbit and its
orientation within that orbit. These forces usually are much smaller than
the J2 (oblate Earth) and drag forces, but depending on the required
accuracy, spacecraft planners may have to anticipate their effects. These
forces include
• Solar radiation pressure-can cause long-term orbital perturbations
and unwanted spacecraft rotation (as we'll discuss in Chapter 12)
• Third-body gravitational effects (Moon, Sun, planets, etc.)-can
perturb orbits at high altitudes and on interplanetary trajectories
• Unexpected thrusting-caused by either outgassing or
malfunctioning thrusters; can perturb orbits or cause spacecraft
rotation
~----Astra FunFact----~
RussianMirror
Russia has attempted a couple of new satellite experiments that could potentially improve the way of life on
Earth. These experiments used the space-based mirror named Znamya, the Russian word for banner. The 25-
meter mirror, made from Mylar™, reflects sunlight to locations on the night side of Earth. The light that reflects
is 5-1 O times brighter than the full Moon and illuminates an area on the ground roughly 4 km in diameter.
Potential uses of this could be to provide illumination for night construction, night time disaster relief, and
extended daylight in areas that have very little sunlight during the winter.
Beatty, J. Kelly. ''Up in the Sky! It's a Bird, It's a Plane, It's Znamya!" Sky & Telescope Online.
www.skypub.com, 1999.
Contributed by Scott R. Dahlke, the U.S. Air Force Academy
277
Chapter 8 Predicti.ng Orbits
- Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
J2 effect > Perturbations resulting from small disturbing forces cause our
Molniya orbit two-body orbit to vary
nodal regression rate, Q
oblateness
> Atmospheric drag causes orbital decay by decreasing the
semimajor axis, a, and the eccentricity, e
perigee rotation rate, w
perturbations > Equatorial bulge of the oblate Earth G2) causes the right ascension
precession of the ascending node, Q, and the argument of perigee, co, to
sun-synchronous orbit change in a predictable way
> We use oblateness perturbations to practical advantage in sun-
synchronous and Molniya orbits
> Other perturbations may also have long-term effects on a
spacecraft's orbit and orientation
• Solar wind
• Third body
• Unexpected thrust
278
Example 8~3
Problem Statement Conceptual Solution
A remote-sensing satellite has the following orbital 1) The orbit is essentially circular so you can use
elements Figure 8-10 to find Q, then
ainitial = 7303 km . . t,Q
wait time = -.-
einitial = 0.001 Q
iinitial = 50° 2) Find decay time
Qinitial = 90° current a - minimum a for decay
decay time = ------=--------~-
winitial = 450 decay rate
Yinitial = 0°
U. S. Space Command has told you the sernimajor axis
is decreasing by 2 km/ day. You would like nature to Analytical Solution
move the ascending node to a Q = 30° before you
command a spacecraft maneuver. You would also like 1) Using Figure 8-10, find Q, then
to estimate your spacecraft's lifetime in case your
. . t.Q 30° - 90°
orbital-correction thrusters stop operating. Assume wait time = -.- 12 days
Q -5°/day
your spacecraft will re-enter almost immediately if
your sernimajor axis drops below 6500 km. How long 2) Find decay time
will it take for the ascending node to move to a
position of 30°? How long can you expect your _ current a - minimum a for decay
decay time -
spacecraft to remain in orbit without further thrusting? - decay rate
7303 km - 6500 km = 401 5 d
2 km/ day · ays
Problem Summary
Given: ainitial = 7303 km a = 2 km/day Interpretingthe Results
einitial = 0.001 Re-enter when
Earth's equatorial bulge will move the ascending node
iinitial = 50° a= 6500 km naturally to 30° in 12 days, thus saving precious fuel.
Qinitial = 90° The spacecraft will re-enter Earth's atmosphere in
about 400 days if it can't thrust into a higher orbit.
Wjnitial = 450
vinitial = 0°
Find: Time until Q = 30°
Time until a = 6500 km
279
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
8.3 Predicting Orbits in
the Real World
- In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,.. Combine what you've learned about Kepler's Problem and orbital
perturbations to predict a spacecraft's future position
Let's put what we've learned about orbital perturbations together with the
solution to Kepler's Problem and discuss in more detail how to predict a
spacecraft's position in the real world. Assume we're tracking a spacecraft
and have determined its orbital elements, COEinitial, at time tinitial·
Now let's step through the process of predicting the orbital elements,
COEfuture, at some time in the future, tfuture· First, we need to find how
these elements change with time due to the perturbations caused by
atmospheric drag and the oblate Earth. We learned earlier that the oblate
Earth (J2) affects Q and co, so we can use Figures 8-10 and 8-11 in Section
8.2 to find Q and uJ. Inclination, i, isn't affected by either the oblate Earth
or drag, so iinitial = ifuture· We'll need to find out from our tracking
organization (Figure 8-14) how drag affects our orbit's semimajor axis
and eccentricity. They'll give us the time rate of change of the semimajor
axis, a, and the time rate of change in the eccentricity, e .
Figure 8·14. Tracking Site. We use data
collected at radar tracking sites, such as this Now we know how the first five elements change with time, so let's
one at Millstone Hill, Massachusetts, to update them by multiplying the rate of change by the time interval and
determine orbital perturbations due to drag.
(Reprinted with permission of MIT Lincoln
adding this to the initial value of the orbital element.
Laboratory, Lexington, Massachusetts)
a initial+ a( tfuture - tin.itial)
efuture einitial + e( tfuture - tinitial)
. .
lfuture = 1initial (8-13)
I
Qfuture = Qinitial + Q( tfuture - tinitial)
(()future = 0\nitial + W ( tfuture - tinitial)
where
ainitial, afuture = initial and future values of semimajor axis (km)
a = time rate of change of semimajor axis (km I day)
tinitial, tfuture = initial and future time (days)
einitial, efuture = initial and future values of eccentricity
e = time rate of change of eccentricity (l / day)
iinitiaJ, ifuture = initial and future values of inclination (deg)
QinitiaJ, Qfuture = initial and future values of the right ascension of
the ascending node (deg)
280
8.3 Predicting Orbits in the Real World
= time rate of change of the right ascension of the
ascending node ( deg I day)
coinitial, COfuture = initial and future values of the argument of
perigee ( deg)
= time rate of change of the argument of perigee
(deg/ day)
We have only the true anomaly, v, left to update. We know true
anomaly, v, changes with time, even without perturbations, but
atmospheric drag also affects it, because drag decreases the semimajor
axis, a, and therefore shortens the period. This means the spacecraft
speeds up and so does the rate of change of v. As we learned in the last
section, we need to use Kepler's equation to update v by using the mean
anomaly, M, and the eccentric anomaly, E. Let's update the mean
anomaly first, (using Equation (8-6)).
Mfuture - Minitial = n (tfuture - tinitial) - 2k.rt
or
Mfuture = Minitial + n (tfuture - tinitial) - 2k.rt (8-14)
where
Mfuture, Minitial = future and initial values of the mean anomaly
(rad)
n = mean motion (rad/ s)
k = number of orbits from the initial position
We know this equation works when there are no perturbations, but what
happens when we add drag? What changes? Remember from Equation (8-
1), we can find the mean motion
n=2;=J5
where
P = period (s)
µ = gravitational parameter (krrr'/ s2)
a = semimajor axis (km)
Recall the semimajor axis, a, changes due to drag ( a). This means the mean
motion, n, also changes, so we need to find n, What value for n should we
use in Equation (8-14) to solve for Mfuture? Let's look at how the mean
motion changes. At tinitial, the mean motion is ninitial· At tfuture, the mean
motion is ninitial + n (tfuture - tinitial), SO the average mean motion, n is
I
(8-15)
281
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
where
n = average mean motion (rad Is)
n = time rate of change of mean motion (rad/s2)
We just added the initial and future values for mean motion and divided
by 2. If we now substitute this value of n for n into Equation (8-14), we get
Mfuture based on the average mean motion for the time interval
Mfuture = MinitiaJ + n( tfuture - tinitial) - 2kn (8-16)
We use the 2kJt to subtract 2Jt from Mfuture until Mfuture is less than 2Jt,
for convenience. Now we use Kepler's Equation (8-10) to find Efuture
Efuture = Mfuture + efuture sin Efuture
Remember, this is a transcendental equation, so we have to iterate to solve
for Efuture· Finally, we can use Equation (8-9) to solve for the true anomaly
at tfuture
COS Efuture - efuture
cosvfuture = (8-17)
1- efuturecosEfuture
We now have all the orbital elements (afuture, efuture, ifuture, Qfuture,
Wfuture, and Vfuture) for the future time, tfuture· In real life we would then
convert these elements back to position and velocity vectors, R and V,
and then back to range, azimuth, and elevation for our tracking site
(Figure 8-15) to know where to point. Look at Figure 8-2 and you'll see
we've just completed the entire tracking and prediction process.
Figure 8-15. Eglin Phased Array Radar Site. Modern tracking sites don't have radar
dishes, but instead, they electronically steer the radar beam from the face of a large concrete
structure. (Courtesy of tile U.S. Air Force)
In summary, we've looked at how our original restricted two-body
problem changes by adding in the real-world effects of a non-spherical
Earth and atmospheric drag. Then, using Kepler's Equation, we've
learned to update our orbit to some future time, so we can use its position
for our mission planning.
282
8.3 Predicting Orbits in the Real World
m== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
average mean motion, n >- Using our knowledge of perturbations, we can update the
orbital elements from time tinilia!, to time tfuture
Key Equations
>- Drag causes the semimajor axis, and hence mean motion, to
change with time
:>- To find Vfuture, we
• Determine average mean motion, fi
i future = iinitinl
• Determine Mfuture
Mfuture = Minitial + fi ( tfuture - tinitial)
• Compute Efuture using iteration
n initial + [1\nitfal + ri( tfuture - tinitial) J Efuture = Mfuture + €future Si.nEfuture
2 • Check the Efuture quadrant is the same as the Mfuture
ri quadrant
= 11irritial + 2 ( truture - tinitial)
• Solve for Yfuture
Mruture = Minitinl + fi( tfuturc - tinitial) - Zkn
cosEruture - e1uture
COS V future ==
1-efuture cosEfuture
• Check the Yfut-ure quadrant is the same as the Efuture and
Mfuture quadrants
283
Example 8-4
Problem Statement Conceptual Solution
A remote-sensing satellite has the following COEs and 1) Update the orbital elements to the new time, tfuture
perturbations. Determine the COEs ten days from
now. afuture = ainitial + a (tfuture - tinitial)
ainitial = 7000 km a = -0.7 km/ day
efurure = einitial + e (tfuture - tinitial)
ri = 0.00003 rad/ day2
ifuture = iinitial
einitial = 0.05 e = -0.00003 I day
Qfuture = Qinitial + Q (tfuture - tinitial)
iinitial = 50°
Wfuture = Winitial + OJ (tfuture - tinitial)
Qinitial = 90° Q = -5.0° I day
2) Find ninitial
Winitial= 45o co = 4.0° I day
"initial = 270° 2Jt
p
3) Find Einitial
Problem Summary
einitial + cosvinitial
COS E initial = 1
+ einitial cosvinitial
Given: a initial = 7000 km a = -0.7 km/ day
4) Find Minitial
einitial = 0.05 n = 0.00003 rad/ day2
1initial = 50° e = -0.00003 I day Minitial = Einitial - einitiatSin Einitial
Qinitial =90° n = -5.0° I day
5) Find average mean motion, n
Winitial = 45° co = 4.0° I day
vinitial = 270° 11 = 1\nitial + ; ( tfuture - tinitial)
Find: The satellite's COEs and position ten days
from now 6) Move mean anomaly to the desired time
Mfuture = Minitial + n( truture - t;nitial)
7) Solve for Efuture using Kepler's Equation and
Problem Diagram iteration
Efuture = Mfuture + efuture sin Efuture,
Check quadrant.
8) Find v future
cosEfuture - efuture
cosvfuture = -------- I
1 - e future COSE future
Check quadrant.
284
Example 8-4 ( Continued)
Analytical Solution 6) Move the mean anomaly to the desired time
1) Update the orbital elements Mfuture = Minitial + fi (tfuture - tinitiiil) - 2krc
Mruture = 4.812 rad+ 93.1394 rad/ day x (10 day)
a
afuture = ainitii1I + (tfuture - tinitial) = 7000 km - = 936.206 rad
(0.7 km/ day) (10 days)= 6993 km
Because this value is greater than 2rc, we need to
e
efuture = einitial + (tfuture - tinitiaJ) = 0.05 - subtract 2rc, repeatedly, until Mfuture is less than 2rc.
(0.00003 I day) (10 days)= 0.0497
Mfuture = 0.01141 rad = 0.6537°
iruture = iinitial = 50°
Physically, this means our satellite passes perigee
Qfuture = Qin.ilia! + Q (tfuture - tinitial) 149 times in the next ten days
= 90° - (5° I day) (10 days)= 40°
Wfuture = Win.itial + W (tfuture - tin.itial) 7) Solve for Efuture using Kepler's Equation (iterative
= 45° + (4° I day) (10 days)= 85° solution required)
First, guess Efuture = Mfuture
2) Find ninitiaJ
Eruture = Mfuture + efuture sin Efuture = 0.01141 +
5 km3 0.0497 sin0.01141 = 0.01198 rad
3.986 x 10 -2
s Now, use this value of Efuture for your next guess
ninitial (7000 km/ Efuture = Mfuture + efuture sin Efuture = 0.01141 +
0.0497 sin 0.01255 = 0.01201 rad
= 0.001078 rad Is = 14.82 rev/ day
Again, use this new value of Eruture next
3) Find Einitial Eruture = Mfuture + efuture sin Efuture = 0.01141 +
einitial + cosvinitial 0.0497 sin 0.01201 = 0.01201 rad
COS Einitial = 1 Okay, within the accuracy we've chosen, our
+ einitial COSY initial
solution has converged.
0.05 + cos270°
0.05
1.0 + 0.05cos270°
8) Find Yfuture
Einjtial= 87.13°, or 272.87°
Remember, v, E, and M must all lie in the same COS Efuture - efuture
cosvfuture =
half plane. So, we choose Einitial= 272.87°, because 1- eruturecosEfuture
vin.itial = 270°. In radians, Einitial = 4.762 rad cos0.01201 - 0.0497
1 - 0.0497 cos 0.01201
4) Find Minitial
COSVfuture = 0.99992, Vfuture = 0.01262 rad =
Min.itial = Einitial - einitial sinEinitial 0.7230°
Note: Here Einitial must be in radians
Minitial = 4.762-0.05 sin4.762=4.812rad = 275.73°
Interpretin
g the Results
Here, Minitial is in the same half plane with vinitial
and Einitial· In ten days, our satellite will make 149 trips around its
orbit, which has been perturbed by drag and Earth's
5) Find the average mean motion, n. oblateness. The eccentricity and sernimajor axis will
ri. decrease during this period. Inclination will remain
n = ninitial + tfuture - tinitial) unchanged while right ascension of the ascending
2(
node will regress 50° and argument of perigee will
fi = 0.001078 rad Is( ( 86,400 s I day) +
advance to 85°. True anomaly will be 0.7230°.
2
0.00003 rad I day x (10 day) = 93.1394 rad I day
2
285
Chapter 8 Predicting Orbits
mm References 8 List three other sources of orbital perturbations,
besides atmospheric drag and the oblate Earth.
Bate, Roger R., Mueller, Donald D., and White, Jerry E.,
Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1971. 9 How long will a spacecraft in an elliptical orbit
with a perigee altitude of 650 km take to decay to
an altitude of 160 km, if the average decay rate is
mm Mission Problems 0.6 km/day?
8.1 Predicting an Orbit (Kepler's Problem) 10 A spacecraft is in a circular orbit at an altitude of
200 km and an inclination of 28°. How far will the
ascending node move in one day? In which
1 Describe how to track and predict an orbit.
direction will it move?
2 For a spacecraft in a circular, polar orbit with an
8.3 Predicting Orbits in the Real World
altitude of 400 km, find its time of flight between
the equator and the North Pole.
11 An Earth-resource satellite has the following
orbital parameters
3 A spacecraft in an elliptical, polar orbit, with a
semimajor axis of 6778 km and an eccentricity of
0.04, is at perigee as it passes the ascending node. ainitial = 6900 km a = --0.8 km/ day
How long will the spacecraft take to reach the
North Pole? einitial = 0.03 e = --0.00004/ day
4 For a spacecraft in a circular, polar orbit with an iinitial = 75° = 0.0
altitude of 400 km, find the spacecraft's location,
argument of latitude, u, in 40 minutes if the Qinitial = 90° Q = -3.0° /day
spacecraft is at the ascending node.
Winitial = 45° 0) =-1.5°/day
5 A spacecraft in an elliptical, polar orbit, with a
semimajor axis of 6778 km and an eccentricity of vinitial = 90° n = 0.00003 rad I day2
0.04, is at perigee as it passes the ascending node.
Find the true anomaly 40 minutes later.
Find the COEs of the satellite in 30 days.
8.2 Orbital Perturbations
Projects
6 Describe the effects of atmospheric drag on the
orbits of spacecraft in low-Earth orbit. 12 Pick a clear night and try to observe spacecraft in
low-Earth orbit right after sunset or right before
sunrise (this is the only time they are illuminated
by the Sun and not yet in Earth's shadow). Time
their passage and approximate position in the sky
7 Describe the effects of an oblate Earth on the orbits and see if you can estimate their inclinations and
of spacecraft in low-Earth orbit. right ascensions of ascending node.
286
Mission Profil---c -Skylab
Soon after the first successful lunar landing, NASA Mission Impact
realized that without clear goals for its human space
program, Congress and the public would quickly lose Skylab was valuable because it was the United
interest in funding future spaceflights. NASA States' first space station. It helped scientists discover
proposed the Apollo Applications Program (AAP), the effects of long spaceflights on astronauts, as well
which would use surplus Apollo hardware to bridge as valuable scientific data about the Earth and Sun.
the gap between Apollo, and the proposed shuttle (Ironically, sunspot activity contributed to Skylab's
program, and a permanent space station. After cuts to orbital decay before it could be rescued).
Apollo (from ten lunar landings to six), the AAP
became Skylab.
Mission Overview
Skylab was a prefabricated space station launched on
a Saturn V. Three crews conducted long-duration
human missions to the station that included solar and
Earth science experiments. Future shuttle missions
were to use it until a permanent station was built.
Unfortunately, Skylab's orbit was so low that air drag
reduced its velocity below minimum orbital speed,
and the spacecraft was destroyed when it re-entered
the atmosphere on July 11, 1979-two years before the
Space Shuttle's first flight. Skylab in Orbit. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Mission Data
For Discussion
./ Skylab 1, May 14, 1973: Launch of Skylab station
atop a Saturn V. Damaged during launch. • What did we learn from Skylab?
• How will current proposals for a space station
./ Skylab 2, May 25, 1973 (Crew: Conrad, Kerwin, differ from Skylab?
Weitz): Mission lasted for 28 days and included
extensive extra-vehicular activity to repair damage
to the station, most notably to install a new heat Contributor
shield.
Todd Lovell, the U.S. Air Force Academy
./ Skylab 3, July 29, 1973 (Crew: Bean, Garriott,
Lousma): Mission lasted for 59 days. Emphasis was
on solar, Earth, and life sciences. References
Baker, David. The History of Manned Spaceflight. New
./ Skylab 4, November 16, 1973 (Crew: Carr, Gibson,
York: Crown, 1981.
Pogue): Mission lasted for 84 days (U.S. record).
Observations of comet Kahoutek were a notable Yenne, Bill. The Encyclopedia of U.S. Spacecraft. New
addition to the mission. York: Exeter, 1985.
287
It's launch lime for the Shuttle, Discovery, for STS-95, in October, 1998. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Getting To
Orbit
with contributions from
Dr. Scott Dahlke, the U.S. Air Force Academy
1111111111 In This Chapter You'll Learn to ...
..- Describe launch windows and how they constrain when we can launch
·= Outline
9.1 Launch Windows and Times
into a particular orbit
Launch Windows
,.- Determine when and where to launch, as well as the required velocity, Launch Time
to reach a specific orbit
,.- Demonstrate how mission planners determine when, where, and with 9.2 When and Where to Launch
what velocity to launch spacecraft into their desired orbits
9.3 Launch Velocity
- You Should Already Know ...
O Constants of orbital motion (Chapter 4)
O Definition of the Geocentric-equatorial Coordinate System
(Chapter 4)
O Definitions of the classic orbital elements (Chapter 5)
O The difference between direct and retrograde orbits (Chapter 5)
How to determine orbital inclination from the orbital ground track
(Chapter 5)
If you don't knot» where you're going, you'll probably end up somewhere else.
Yogi Berra
Janner New York Yankees catcher
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
ew scenes are as spectacular as the launch of a Space Shuttle. The
F three main engines ignite, followed a few seconds later by the
powerful solid-rocket motors. Then, the 20-story vehicle arcs into
the clear Florida skies on a plume of gray exhaust. But how do we know
when to light the engines, when to shut them off, and perhaps most
important (at least for the people who live down range), where to point the
thing? In this chapter we'll answer these questions. We'll first examine
when the time is right to start the rockets for a journey into space. Then
we'll dig into what velocity a spacecraft needs and in what direction we
must launch it to get it into the desired mission orbit.
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter
deals with the Trajectories and Orbits segment
of the Space Mission Architecture, Introduced
in Figure 1-20.
Figure 9-1. NASA Views of Shuttle Launches. Upper let!: The Shuttle, Endeavour, awaits
launch time for STS-86, in September, 1997. Upper right: Endeavour clears the tower on
STS-47, in September, 1992. Lower lett:The Shuttle Columbia rises majestically off the pad
for STS-90, in April, 1998. Lower right: Columbia climbs above the billowy smoke as it
accelerates into orbit on STS-87, in November, 1997.
290
9.1 Launch Windows and Times
9.1 Launch Windows and Times
111111111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
• Define a launch window
.- Calculate time using Earth's rotation
,... Explain the difference between the sidereal time we use to compute
launch windows and the solar time we keep on our watches
For most space missions, the spacecraft must be placed into a particular
orbit-polar orbits for remote-sensing, geostationary orbits for conununi-
cation, and so on. To meet these requirements, launch team members need
to launch it from a specific place at a particular time and in a particular
direction. Let's see how we go about meeting these requirements.
Launch Windows
As part of mission planning we must select the exact orbit we want.
The most common way to specify that orbit is to define a set of classic
orbital elements that satisfy mission objectives. This may sound like no
big deal, but trying to achieve a specific set of orbital elements along with
other mission constraints can severely limit when and in what direction
to launch. In some cases, certain orbital conditions may be impossible to
achieve because of the launch-site location or launch vehicle capability.
We define the lauucn window to be the period of time when .we can
launch a spacecraft directly into a specified orbit from a given launch site.
Notice we said "directly." We can alw~~launch it into a parking orbit
and then do a Hohmann Transfer and a plane change to put it in the
desired orbit, but this is much more complicated and requires more fuel.
One way to understand launch windows is to think about bus
schedules. Suppose you've made a date to meet a friend in a particular
time and place and you need to catch a bus to get there. Only certain buses
will get you to your meeting on time. If the schedule shows the bus you
need leaves the bus stop at 11:13 A.M., you'd better be there at 11:13 A.M.-
or close to it. If you miss this bus, you may have to wait quite a while until
the next bus going your way comes along. The time and place specified for
your meeting are similar to the desired orbital elements. The time the bus
is scheduled to leave is similar to the launch window.
In our discussion, we define a launch window at an exact time-e.g.,
11:13 A.M. In practice however, a launch window normally covers a period
of time during which we can launch-usually several minutes or even
hours around this exact time-just as a bus scheduled to leave at 11:13
A.M. could leave anytime between 11:10 A.M. and 11:15 A.M. and still arrive
at its destination on time by adjusting its speed slightly. Mission planners
have some flexibility in the orbital elements they can accept, and launch
vehicles usually can steer enough to expand the length of the window.
291
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
Because a rocket must follow a trajectory governed by Newton's laws
of motion, a launch window restricts a space launch much more than a
bus schedule restricts passengers. Let's begin our investigation of launch
windows by looking at the problem we face in relating what goes on in an
orbit to what goes on at a launch site. As we learned in Chapter 4, orbital
planes are fixed in inertial space, while Earth (and the launch site along
with it) rotates underneath this orbital plane. As a result, a launch site at a
particular point on Earth will intersect the orbital plane only periodically
as Earth rotates. (In some cases, it may not intersect the orbital plane at
all.) When a launch site and an orbital plane intersect, we have a launch window
and can launch directly into that orbit.
LaunchTime
In addition, we'll deal with only one major constraint on launch time-
the physical alignment of the launch site and desired orbit. In practice,
constraints on launch time include availability of the launch-site, tracking
stations, weather, lighting conditions at runways in case of an abort (for
human launches), and political considerations.
How do we know what time we can launch into an orbit? Because
Earth's rotation under the spacecraft's intended orbit is periodic, by
knowing this period, we can determine the launch window. To see why,
it's helpful to think about a car driving around a two-mile, circular
racetrack. Let's assume the car is one mile past the starting line, and the
turnoff for the pit is 1 /2 mile before the starting line, as seen in Figure 9-2.
Using simple subtraction, we can see the car is 1 / 2 mile from the pit
turnoff. If we also know the car's speed, we can easily determine how
long before the car reaches the pit. If the car stays at a constant speed, we
can also predict several laps in advance when it will reach the pit tum-off.
Figure 9-2. Orbital Racetrack. To visualize how we relate periodic events for launch
windows, we imagine a car going around a two-mile, circular racetrack. If the car is 1 mile past
the starting line, and the pit turnoff is 112 mile before the starting line, then the car must be
112 mile from the pit. Given the car's speed, we can determine how long before the car
reaches the pit.
292
9.1 Launch Windows and Times
What does all this have to do with launch windows? Well, launch win-
dows also repeat periodically, so we can use almost the same approach to
find when they occur. First, we must establish a reference direction, from
which to measure the locations of the orbital plane and the launch site.
Just as we used the starting line on the racetrack to reference the car's
location, we can use the vernal equinox direction for our launch problem.
Recall, the vernal equinox direction is the principal direction in the geo-
centric-equatorial coordinate system, which we use to describe the
motion of Earth-orbiting spacecraft. Thus, it's a convenient reference from
which to measure the angular distance between the orbital plane and our
launch site, as Earth and the launch site rotate. (This distance is analogous
to the distance between the race car and the pit in Figure 9-2.) By knowing
this angular distance and Earth's rotation rate, we can determine oppor-
tunities to launch. In effect, we're using Earth as a big clock.
Establishing a launch window means we choose a particular clock
(solar) time for launch. Mission planners reference the international clock
time in Greenwich, England when establishing a launch time, so we need
to understand how to measure solar time. People initially marked time in
days because they didn't have a more refined measure. By observing
shadows on a sundial, they could mark the time between the Sun's suc-
cessive passages above a certain point, which we call an npparent solar dny.
Because Earth's orbit around the Sun is slightly elliptical (e = 0.017),
the apparent solar day's length varies a bit throughout the year. To
compensate for this variation, we take the average of the lengths for one
year to get a mean solur day. This is the time we see on our watches. There
are 24 mean solar hours in a mean solar day.
Astra Fun Fact----~
Mean Solar Time
We calculate mean solar time by taking the annual average of the times between the Sun's successive passes
over a point on Earth. This period of time must be averaged because Earth's orbit is slightly elliptical (which
makes Earth's speed vary with its distance from the Sun.) As this method correlates with Earth's rotation it has
some inherent inaccuracy. As you can imagine, many scientists and engineers want extreme accuracy
regardless of the movement of the Earth and Sun. In response to this need, they developed a nearly perfect
time-keeping device. This clock uses hydrogen atoms to produce a frequency which vibrates with amazing
consistency. If this clock operated for a tiumen's average life span, its error would be less than one
microsecond. If it began operating when the solar system began, it would now be less than two minutes off the
actual time!
Goudsmit, Samuel A. and Robert Claiborne, ed. Time. New York: Time Incorporated, 1966.
Cowan, Harrison J. Time and It's Measurement. Cleveland, OH: The World Publishing Company, 1958.
Contributed by Troy Kitch, the U.S. Air Force Academy
293
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
Because people around the world like to keep their time synchronized
with the Sun, Earth has 24 time zones. To avoid confusion across time
zones, we choose the Greenwich or 0° longitude line (Prime Meridian) as
an international reference point. The local mean solar time at the Prime
Meridian is the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), used by mission planners.
Un.fortunately, when it comes to actually calculating when a particular
launch site rotates under a specific orbit, solar time has a problem. We
define our desired orbital elements with respect to the geocentric-
equatorial coordinate system. Because this is an Earth-centered system, the
Sun (and our solar time references) appear to move with respect to the
system as Earth orbits around it. Instead of using solar time, then, we must
define a new kind of time, sidereal time, which we measure as the angle
between a longitude line and the vernal equinox. Sidereal means "related
to the stars" and, as we're referencing a point way out in space, this is a
good description. Just as we say that successive passages of the Sun over a
given longitude is a solar day, so successive passages of the vernal equinox
over a specific longitude is defined as a sidereal day. If the longitude we're
using is the local longitude (say of our home town or a launch site), the
time since the vernal equinox last passed over the local longitude is the local
sidereal time (LST).
-----Astra
Fun
Fact-----
Prime Meridian
The Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England, was constructed
in the late seventeenth century to track the movement of the
Moon and location of the stars. This information (published in the
Nautical Almanac of 1767) was essential for mariners and
seamen who had no other way to locate their east-west position
(longitude). They discovered their latitude by using this data
coupled with an onboard device called a sextant. With the intro-
duction of the railroads in
the nineteenth century, a
universal time standard
became necessary. In
(Courtesy of National Maritime Museum Greenwich, U.K.) England, local time had to
be adjusted almost every
time the train entered another town! The Greenwich site, with it's accurate
time measurement and famous observatory, became the natural choice for
a universal standard time. In time, the world accepted the Greenwich locale
as 0° longitude, employing this Meridian as a timekeeping and navigation
standard for land, air, space, and sea. (Courtesy of Alan Palmer)
The Old Raval Observatory: The Story of Astronomy & Time. Courtesy British Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, England.
Contributed by Troy Kitch, the U.S. Air Force Academy
294
9.1 Launch Windows and Times
To understand how this new way of measuring time works, imagine a
polar orbit around Earth, as shown in Figure 9-3. As Earth rotates, the
launch site comes under the orbital plane twice a day, twelve sidereal
hours apart, at which times we can launch our spacecraft (our launch
windows occur). So, at any given time, we can measure the angle from
the launch site longitude to the orbital plane, we'll know how many
sidereal hours until we can push the launch button.
equatorial view polar view
Figure 9-3. Defining Local Sidereal Time (LST). LST is the time since the vernal equinox
passed over a particular longitude line. For the launch site shown in the diagram, it's the time
since the vernal equinox passed over lhe launch site longitude line.
We're used to telling clock time (related to the Sun) in hours, minutes,
and seconds. For sidereal time, does it make sense to define "time" as an
angle, since we're dealing with Earth's rotation? Why not? We can tell time
just as easily in degrees as in hours, if we use Earth as a giant clock. Because
Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours, it rotates 15° /hr (360° + 24 hr). (Later we'll see
it's actually a little more than 15° /hr) This explains why time zones around
the world span about 15° of longitude. For example, we could say 1:00 A.M.
is the same thing as 15° (Earth rotates 1 hour or 15° since midnight, which is
O o'clock or 0°). 1:00 P.M., which is 1300 using a 24-hour clock, is 195° (15° I hr
x 13 hr). A standard 12-hour clock face and the corresponding angles are in
Figure 9-4. The relationship between time measured in hours and time
measured in degrees is
Time (degrees)= Time (hours) x WEarth
where
Figure 9-4. Telling Time. We can tell time in
WEarth = Earth's rotation rate= 15° /hr degrees as easily as in hours. 3:00 A.M. (0300)
or 3 hours past midnight is 45° of Ear1h rotation.
Time in degrees may seem strange at first, but it allows us to find the Similarly, noon (1200) is 180°, and 6:00 P.M.
launch time using the angle between the launch-site longitude and the (1800), is 270°.
orbital plane. As we'll see, to calculate launch time we also need another
angle, the right ascension of the ascending node.
So, if our launch window is based on sidereal time, and we have only
solar watches, how do we know when to punch the button to launch? We
295
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
must understand the difference between solar and sidereal time. To
visualize this difference, assume you want to track the position of the
constellation Aquarius in the night sky (it will be the "age of Aquarius" in
about 400 years). If, each night, we note on our watch when Aquarius
rises in the sky, we'll see something strange: it appears about four
minutes earlier than the previous night, and, eventually, it no longer
appears in the night sky at all.
What's going on? Is our watch broken? No! The difference between
solar time (on our watch) and sidereal time (referenced to the stars)
causes this change in position relative to clock time. Eventually, Aquarius
begins rising in the daytime, when we can't see it. To view it again, we
have to wait through enough four-minute cycles for it to rise in the night
sky once more (about six months).
Why doesn't this shift affect where we see the Sun at the same time
each day? As Earth rotates, it also moves around the Sun in its orbit,
II Note: Emill's mt11tim1 mte, causing an apparent shift in the Sun's position. Because Earth revolves
w,:irrt!,, is 360° II! 24 sidcrt:11I 360° around the Sun in about 365 days, it moves slightly less than 1 ° per
day along its orbit. Thus, it must rotate on its axis slightly more than 360°
hours or 15°p~r si1hr11/ hour. to bring the Sun successively over a given location. Marking one solar
rJ,ere 111r 23 t1r 56 min@d day in this way compensates for the apparent shift in the Sun's position.
4 s ef sol,1r timr in 2-+ sidarnl This also means one solar day is longer than one sidereal day
1 mean solar day = 1.0027 sidereal days
liours. So, in terms ~( solar t1'ne
23 hr 56 min 04 s mean solar time = 24 sidereal hours = 1 sidereal day
mwtli is 15.04107° }'er 111e1111
We illustrate the reason for this difference between a solar day and a
solar lioin. sidereal day in Figure 9-5. Note that here we're using the vernal equinox
direction as our fixed point of reference.
1 solar day
(24 hours)
oo
----!}
1 sidereal day (23 hours
56 minutes 4 seconds)
Figure 9-5. Solar Versus Sidereal Day. A solar day is longer than a sidereal day because
Earth rotates slightly more than 360" to bring the Sun back over a certain point, while Earth
revolves around the Sun. The vernal equinox direction stays fixed in space, so Earth rotates
exactly 360" for a sidereal day.
296
9.1 Launch Windows and Times
Un.fortunately, converting from local sidereal time to local solar time is
not simply a matter of subtracting four minutes. Although (fortunately)
we don't have to worry about doing the conversion here, it requires us to
know the exact position of the vernal equinox at some past solar time. We
then have to "propagate," or account for Earth's rotation and revolution
about the Sun, from that time to the sidereal time we're interested in. In
practice, mission planners work in local sidereal time (converting it to
Greenwich Mean Time [GMT] for launch controllers) and use precise
launch-window geometry to calculate launch opportunities, as we'll see
in the next section.
11111111 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
apparent solar day >- A launch window is the period during which we can launch
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) directly into a desired orbit from a particular launch site
launch window
local sidereal time (LST) >- We can measure time in degrees as easiJy as in hours
mean solar day >- A mean solar day is the average time between the Sun's
sidereal day successive passages over a given longitude on Earth
sidereal time
• Mean solar time is the time we keep on our clocks and
watches
• Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the mean solar time at
Greenwich, England, which is on the Prime Meridian (0°
longitude)
>- We mea ure solar time with respect to the Sun. Because Earth
revolves about the Sw1, solar time isn't a good inertial time
reference for Launching spacecraft. Instead, we use sidereal time
(having to do with the stars), with the vernal equinox direction
as a reference
• We define a sidereal day as the time between successive
passages of the vernal equinox over a given longitude on
Earth
• Local sidereal time (LST) is the time since the vernal equinox
was last over a given local longitude
>- Earth must rotate slightly more than 360° to bring a given
longitude back directly under the Sun, because Earth revolves
· about the Sun. Thus, to bring the Sun back over a given
longitude, a olar day is slightly longer than a sidereal day.
297
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
9.2 When and Where to Launch
11111111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
" Explain how many opportunities (launch window ) there are to
launch from a given launch site into a specific orbit
~ Draw a diagram representing launch-window geometry and use it
to determine launch-window parameters
Let's take a closer look at how we determine launch-window times and
K directions. But before we begin, we must remember one very important
concept-launch-window calculations always depend on geometry' This
means we must draw a picture to fully understand what is going on' In
Chapter 5 we saw that, as an orbital plane slices through Earth's center, it
extends north and south to latitude lines equal to its inclination, as shown
in Figure 9-6. Thus, to launch a spacecraft directly from a given launch
site into a given orbital plane, we must wait until the launch site rotates
under the fixed orbital plane. Only at that point, do we have the correct
geometry and can find the angles needed for a successful launch.
This means the orbit's inclination, i, must be equal to or greater than
the launch site's latitude, L0. In other words, a launch window can exist
only for the following conditions
Figure 9-6. Inclination Versus Latitude. An L0 s i (direct orbits)
orbital plane slices through Earth's center and
extends north and south to latitude lines equal or L0 s 180° - i (in-direct or retrograde orbits)
to the orbital inclination. To launch directly from
a given launch site on Earth, we must wail for For example, we can't launch a spacecraft from the Kennedy Space Center
the launch site to pass through the orbital plane. (KSC) (L0 = 28.5°) directly into an equatorial orbit (i = 0°). Instead, we have
to first launch it into an orbit with i = 28.5°, and then perform a plane
change maneuver to reach i = 0°. But, as we saw in Chapter 6, plane
changes require very expensive velocity changes (Li V), so naturally we'd
prefer to launch our spacecraft directly into its final orbital plane. Also,
unless indicated, we'll focus here on prograde (direct) orbits (i < 90°). The
geometry for retrograde orbits is the same, but the relationships are
slightly different. -,
Assuming a launch window does exist (L0 s i for a direct orbit), let's
look at the number of launch windows we can have. Consider the two
cases shown in Figure 9-7. In Case 1, the latitude equals the orbital
inclination, that is L0 = i. This means the launch-site rotates to intersect the
orbital plane only once daily, so we have only one launch opportunity per
day. As Case 1 in Figure 9-7 shows, the launch site's latitude is tangent to
the orbital plane at only the northern-most point under the plane. For
example, if we want to launch into an orbit with i = 28.5° from KSC (L0 =
28.5°), we would have exactly one launch window per day. A polar view
of this case is in Figure 9-8.
298
9.2 When and Where to Launch
case 1 case 2
one chance to launch per day two chances to launch per day
launch site launch site
at the only latitude
opportunity
launch launch site
site at the at the 2nd
trace
1st opportunity opportunity
Figure 9·7. Launch Opportunity. Chances to launch fall into two possible cases. First, if the launch-site latitude equals the orbital inclination,
we have one chance per day. Second, if the launch-site latitude is less than the orbital inclination, we have two opportunities per day: once near
the ascending node and once near the descending node. If the launch-site latitude is greater than the inclination, we have no opportunity to
launch.
But what if the launch site's latitude is less than the orbit's inclination:
L0 < i? This is illustrated as Case 2 in Figure 9-7. Remember the orbital
plane is fixed in inertial space, and the launch site sits on the rotating
Earth. As Earth rotates, it carries the launch site under the orbit twice each
launch site
latitude
day. At those two times, windows are available to launch directly into the
orbital plane at two locations-one near the ascending node and another
near the descending node.
Of course, if the launch site's latitude is greater than the inclination,
L0 > i, then the launch site never passes under the orbit, so no launch
window exists.
Now, let's see how we determine when to launch. To do this, we use
the local sidereal time (LST) for when the launch site is under the orbital
plane (launch time). We call this the launch-window sideveul time (LWST),
which we measure from the vernal equinox direction (I) to the point
where the launch site passes through the orbital plane. So, whenever the Figure 9·8. Case 1. If we look down on Earth
local sidereal time (at the launch site) equals the launch-window sidereal from the North Pole, we can sketch the latitude
time (LST = LWST), the correct geometry exists to launch the spacecraft line of the launch site and the arc the orbital
plane makes. If the orbital inclination equals
into the desired orbit. In other words, if we're waiting for the 11:13 A.M. the launch-site latitude, the two intersect each
bus, and your watch says its 11:13 A.M., time to go! other at only one point. (Keep in mind the
Figure 9-9 illustrates the relationship between LWST and LST that we orbital plane is fixed, and Earth (and the launch
site along with it] rotate underneath.) As Earth
use to find the LWST for a particular opportunity. We start by drawing rotates, the launch site moves closer to the
the orbital ground track on the sphere of the Earth. We then sketch in a point where it will intersect the orbital plane.
dotted line showing the latitude for the launch site (L0) and a symbol
representing the launch site. We use Case 1 for the example. Notice the
launch site latitude intersects the orbital trace at only one point, 90° from
the ascending node. As Earth rotates, the launch site moves closer to this
intersection.
To determine the LWST, again referring to Figure 9-9, we also need the
orbit's right ascension of the ascending node, Q, which we should already
have, because it's one of the classic orbital elements that define this orbit.
299
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
So, the total angle from the vernal equinox to the launch point (LWST) for
Case 1 is the sum of the right ascension of the ascending node and 90°.
Thus, LWST = Q + 90°.
descending
node
Figure 9-9. Relating LST to LWST. We define the local sidereal time (LST) at the launch site
as the angle from the vernal equinox direction, i , to the launch site, as shown in the figure on
the left. (Keep in mind the orbital plane is fixed and Earth [along with the launch site] rotates
underneath.) The launch window opens when Earth has rotated enough to cause the launch
site to intersect the orbital plane (LST = LWST), as shown in the figure on the right.
Thus, for Case 1, finding LWST is pretty straightforward, but for Case 2,
things get a little more challenging. Because in this case the angle from the
ascending node to either of the two points of intersection is not 90°, we
must take a closer, 3-dimensional look at the geometry of the problem to
find what these angles are.
We know that in Case 2 the orbital plane intersects the launch-site
latitude at two points. One of these points is closer to the ascending node
and we call it the ascending-node opportunity, while the other is closer to the
descending node and we call it the descending-node opport1111ity.
We start by drawing the local longitude line on Earth's surface from
the North Pole, through the launch site at the ascending-node opportu-
nity, to the equator, as shown in Figure 9-10. This line crosses the orbital
trace at the launch site's latitude and forms a triangle on Earth's surface
with one side the launch site latitude (L0), one side along the equator, and
the third side along the orbital trace. Because we draw this triangle on the
surface of a sphere, it's naturally called a splterica! triangle. Spherical
triangles are different from planar triangles. The sum of the angles in a
spherical triangle can be more than 180° and we measure the sides as
angles. By using the Jaw of cosines for spherical trigonometry, we get a
Figure 9-10. Case 2. Taking a three-dimen- relationship between the two sides and two angles within the triangle.
sional view of the problem, we can draw Calculating this triangle's sides provides the key to finding the Jaunch-
launch-site latitude and longitude lines on the
globe to show where they intersect the orbital window sidereal time and the launch direction. (See Appendix A.l for an
plane for the ascending-node opportunity. explanation of spherical trigonometry.)
Notice this method forms a triangle on Earth's We define two auxiliary angles, a and y, in this triangle. We call the first
surface. Because Earth is a sphere, this is a
spherical triangle, giving it properties different angle the inclination auxiliary angle, a, and define it at the ascending node
from planar triangles. between the equator and the ground trace of the orbit. Notice a equals
300
9.2 When and Where to Launch
inclination, i, for direct orbits. The second angle, called the munch-direction
nuxilinry angle, y, we measure at the intersection of the ground trace and
the longitude line. The side opposite y, we call the launch-window location
a11gle, CJ, and measure it along the equator, between the node closest to the
launch opportunity being considered and the longitude where the orbit
crosses the launch-site latitude. The side opposite a is the launch-site
latitude, L0• Figure 9-11 shows another view of this auxiliary triangle. We
can apply the law of cosines for spherical triangles to these angles to get
an expression that leads to the value for y
cosa = -cos90°cosy + sin90°sinycosL0
cosa = sinv cos L, (9-1)
To find y, we rearrange Equation (9-1)
cos a
siny = (9-2)
cosL0 Figure 9-11. Auxiliary Triangle for a
Launch Window. From the spherical triangle
where formed on Earth's surface for the ascending-
node opportunity, we can see the right side is
y = launch-direction auxiliary angle (deg or rad) the launch-site latitude, L0. The angle between
a = inclination auxiliary angle (deg or rad) the orbital trace and the equator is the
inclination auxiliary angle, o.. The angle
L0 = launch site's latitude (deg or rad) between the orbital trace and the longitude line
is the auxiliary angle, y. The side opposite y is
The next important step is to define the triangle's sides. The side opposite the angle Ii. (Note that in spherical triangles,
sides are actually angles measured from
y is the launch-window-location angle, o. We measure it along the equator, Earth's center.)
between the node closest to the launch opportunity and launch site's
longitude. The other side we need is the one opposite a-the launch site's
latitude, L0, which we know. We find o by using spherical trigonometry
again to get
sinn cos o = cosysin90° + sinv cos Xr cos L, (9-3)
Rearranging Equation (9-3), we get
cos S = cosy (9-4)
sin a
where
o = launch-window location angle (deg or rad)
y = launch-direction auxiliary angle (deg or rad)
a = inclination auxiliary angle (deg or rad)
With all these auxiliary angle definitions in hand, we can find the
launch-window sidereal time (LWST) for Case 2 (a direct orbit in the
Northern Hemisphere), as shown previously in Figure 9-7. It always
depends on the intended orbit's right ascension of the ascending node, Q,
and the launch-window location angle, o. To find the window near the
ascending node, use
Q +0 (9-5)
301
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
To find it for the window near the descending node, use
I LWST0N = Q+(180°-o) I (9-6)
If we know the current local sidereal time for the launch site, we can
calculate how long to wait until it's time to launch by subtracting it from
the launch-window sidereal time. For example, if the launch-window
sidereal time is 1400 and the current local sidereal time is 1200, then we
must wait two hours before the launch site comes under the orbital plane
to open the launch window. (As we've shown in the previous section,
these are sidereal hours, which are slightly shorter than the solar hours
we keep on our watches.)
Finally, we need to define one more important angle-the lm111c/1
nziinuth, (3. This angle tells us what direction to launch. We measure ~
from true north at the launch site, clockwise to the launch direction, as
shown in Figure 9-12. Note that we measure ~ in the same way as
magnetic heading on a compass, with north= 0°, east= 90°, south= 180°,
and west = 270°. Also notice that for a launch at the ascending-node
opportunity from a Northern Hemisphere site, ~ = y. To find ~ for this
case, use Equation (9-2) and set~= y. For a launch at the descending-node
opportunity, the spherical triangle is a mirror image of the one at the
ascending node. For this case, calculate the launch-direction auxiliary
angle, y, using Equation (9-2), and then find the launch azimuth, ~' using
~ = 180° - y. Table 9-1 summarizes all these angles.
Figure 9-12. Launch Azimuth, 13. The launch azimuth, [:}, is the angle from true north (at
the launch-site longitude line) clockwise to the launch direction. When only one chance to
launch exists, the launch azimuth is 90° (due east), for direct orbits.
For sites in the Southern Hemisphere, the spherical triangles are turned
180°, because the launch site comes under the orbital plane at the
descending-node opportunity before it reaches the ascending-node
opportunity. But the equations for the launch azimuth corresponding to
the two node opportunities remain the same
descending-node opportunity: ~ = 180° - y
ascending-node opportunity: ~ = y
302
9.2 When and Where to Launch
By now you may be confused about the difference between a and
LWST and all these other angles. To clear things up, you must remember
that computing LWST and ~ depends on three choices
• Direct or retrograde orbit?
• Opportunity near the ascending node or descending node?
• Launch-site in Northern or Southern Hemisphere?
Table 9-1. Key Angles for Launch Geometry.
Angle Name Definition
ct Inclination auxiliary Measured from the equator to the ground track at
angle the node-same as inclina1ion for direct orbits
y Launch-direction Measured from the ground track to the launch-site
auxiliary angle local longitude line
0 Launch-window Measured from the node closest to the launch
location angle opportunity to the launch-site local longitude line
B Launch azimuth Measured from due north clockwise to the launch
direction
Lo Launch site latitude Measured from the equator to the launch site
As an example, let's look at a direct orbit near the descending node in
the Northern Hemisphere with i > L0• To see how to compute LWST for
this situation, we begin by drawing two diagrams, as shown in Figure 9-
13. One is in three dimensions showing the spherical launch geometry
and the other is a two-dimensional polar view showing the relationship
between LWST, Q, and o.
equatorial view polar view
Figure 9·13. Another Look at Launch Geometry. We can analyze the launch problem for
a launch at the descending node opportunity from a launch site in the Northern Hemisphere.
We begin by drawing the 3-D view showing the spherical Earth and the auxiliary triangle. We
then sketch a 2-D polar view of the problem showing Q and LWST in a polar view of Earth.
303
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
By inspection, we see the inclination auxiliary angle, a, equals the
inclination, i. The launch azimuth, ~, equals 180° minus the auxiliary
angle, y (~ = 180° - y). We find the launch-window location angle, o,
knowing a and y and using Equation (9-4). To find LWST ON (DN is
descending node) for this situation, we look again at our diagram to see
LWSTON= Q + (180° - o) for a direct orbit
and a Northern-hemisphere site
Let's review where this came from. Q is the part of LWST ON between I
and n
(the ascending-node vector); adding 180° to this value takes us all
the way to the descending node; then, we subtract o to get the value for
LWSToN which we measure to the launch-site longitude.
In all, there are eight launch-window situations. Table 9-2 summarizes
the four direct-orbit cases.
Table 9·2. Summary of Direct-orbit Cases for Launch Opportunities.
Near Ascending Node Direct Orbits Near Descending Node
DN
LWST= Q +I\ LWST = Q+ 180°-1\
i=a
13=·1 13 = 180° -y
Northern Hemisphere
Near Descending Node Direct Orbits Near Ascending Node
ON AN
LWST = Q + 1 ao· + Ii LWST=Q-li
i =u i =a
p = 180° -y 13 = y
Southern Hemisphere
304
9.2 When and Where to Launch
!!!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
ascending-node opportunity > For a launch window to exi tat a given launch site, the latitude
descending-node opportunity of the launch ite, L0, must be less than or equal to the inclination
inclination auxiliary angle, a of the desired orbit (L0 :s i).
launch azimuth, [3
launch-dir ction auxiliary angle, y
> Computing launch-window sidereal time (LWST) and launch
azimuth, I\ depends on geometry. You must draw a diagram to
launch-site latitude, L0
clearly visualize all angles.
launch-window sidereal time
(LWST) polar view at the start
launch-window location angle, 6 of th problem
spherical triangle
Key Equations
. cos a
Siily = --
COSL0
cosy
cos S = -.- polar view at
sm o;
launch time
LWSTAN=Q+o
LWST DN = Q + 180°-6
LST= LWSTA
• Launch-window geometry depends on spherical trigonometry
• After sketching the launch-window geometry, we can see an
auxiliary triangle. Table 9-1 defines the auxiliary angles in this
triangle.
• Launch-window sidereal time (LWST) i a function of the desired
right ascension of the ascending node, Q, and the launch-window
location angle, &
• Launch azimuth, B, i defined as the direction to launch from a
given site to achieve a de ired orbit. We measure f3 clockwise from
due north at the launch site.
> Table 9-2 summarizes launch-window geometry for the four
most common of the eight possible case where L0 < i
305
Example 9-1
Problem Statement Conceptual Solution
Suppose the Space Shuttle will deploy an interplane-
tary probe bound for Saturn. The probe requires a Time until the next launch window opens
parking orbit with a right ascension of the ascending 1) By inspection, find the inclination auxiliary angle, a
node, Q, of 195° and an inclination of 41 °. If the current
LST at the launch site is 0100, how long before the next a=i
launch window opens for a launch from Kennedy
Space Center (28.5°N, 80°W)? What is the launch 2) Knowing a and L0, find the launch-direction
azimuth, ~, for this opportunity?
auxiliary angle, y
. cos a
smy = --L-
eos O
Problem Summary
Given: LST = 0100, L0=28.5°N, Q = 195°, i= 41 ° 3) Knowing y, find the launch-window location
Find: Time in hours until the next launch window angle, 6
opens
cos o = cosy
Launch azirnuth.B, for the next window sin a
4) By drawing and inspecting launch-site geometry,
Problem Diagram determine the relationship between LWST, Q, and
6 for the ascending-node opportunity
polar view at
start of problem LWSTAN = Q +6
5) Solve for LWST for the ascending-node opportu-
nity
"I
LST = 0100 = 15° _ 6) By inspecting the launch-site geometry, determine
the relationship between LWST, Q, and 6 for the
descending-node opportunity
LWSToN = Q + 180° - 6
LWSTAN
7) Solve for LWST for the descending-node opportu-
nity
8) Determine which LWST is next
9) Determine the time until the next opportunity
10) Knowing y and inspecting launch-site geometry
for the next opportunity, find ~
306
Example 9-1 (Continued)
Analytical Solution
1) By inspection, find the inclination auxiliary angle, 7) Solve for LWST for the descending-node
a opportunity
a= i = 41° LWSTDN = 195° + (180° - 38.65°) = 336.35°
2) Knowing a and L()I find the launch-direction LWST0N( 0) 336.35°
auxiliary angle, y LWSToN (hrs)=----
wEarth 15° /hr
. cos a cos41 ° __ = 22.423 hr
smy = -- = 0_8588
cos L0 cos 28.5 °
0.423 hr = 25.4 min
y = 59.18°
so the time is 2225.4
3) Knowing y, find the launch-window location
angle, o 8) Determine which LWST is next in hours
cos o = cosy Because LST = 0100 and LWSTDN = 2225.4, we
sin a missed the descending-node opportunity (0100 is
after 2225.4). Thus, we must wait for the
cos
o -- cos59.18o = 0.7809
sin41 °
ascending-node opportunity, and the next LWST
is at 1534.6.
0 = 38.65°
9) Determine the time until the next opportunity
4) By inspecting the launch-site geometry, determine The time until the next opportunity is the time
the relationship between LWST, Q, and o for the from the current LST (0100 = 1.00) until LWSTAN
ascending-node opportunity
(1534.6 = 15.577) or 15.577 - 1.0 = 14.577 hours=
LWSTAN = Q +O 14 hours and 34.6 minutes.
10) Knowing y and inspecting the launch-site
5) Solve for LWST for the ascending-node
geometry for the next opportunity, find !3.
opportunity
For the ascending-node opportunity, 13 = y, thus
LWSTAN= 195° + 38.65° = 233.65°
i3AN = 59.18°
LWSTAN( 0) 233.65°
LWSTAN (hrs)=---- = /hr
(!)Earth 150
= 15.577 hr Interpretingthe Results
0.577 hr = 34.6 min
We must wait 14 hours and 34.6 minutes until the
so the time is 1534.6 ascending-node opportunity to launch the Space
Shuttle into a parking orbit with Q = 195° and i = 41 °.
6) By inspecting the launch-site geometry, determine We will launch when LST is 1534.6 hours, at an
the relationship between LWST, Q, and O for the azimuth of 59.18° (northeast).
descending-node opportunity
LWSTDN = Q + (180° - 0)
307
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
9.3 Launch Velocity
~ In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,.. Determine the total change in velocity a launch vehicle must
deliver to put a spacecraft into a given orbit
The launch window tells us when (Launch Window Sidereal Time) and
in what direction (azimuth, ~) to launch our launch vehicle to achieve
some desired orbit. Now let's examine how much velocity the launch
vehicle must deliver to place a payload into this orbit.
During liftoff, a launch vehicle goes through four distinct phases on its
way from the launch pad into orbit, as shown in Figure 9-14.
, ~---t- vacuum
, / b,-.,.1 turn
~
vertical ascent
Figure 9-14. Phases of launch Vehicle Ascent. During ascent a launch vehicle goes
through lour phases-vertical ascent, pitch over, gravity tum, and vacuum.
Phase one-vertical ascent
• During this phase, it needs to gain altitude quickly to get out of the
dense atmosphere that slows it down due to drag. In some cases, it
also does a distinctive roll maneuver as it leaves the pad. This roll
properly aligns its launch azimuth with the correct orbital plane.
308
9.3 Launch Velocity
Phase two-pitch over
• After the launch vehicle has gained enough altitude, it must pitch over
slightly so it can begin to gain velocity downrange (horizontally). As
we showed in Chapter 4, this horizontal velocity keeps a spacecraft in
orbit.
~
O Phase three-gravity turn -, «l>j,urnaut
• During this phase, gravity pulls the launch vehicle toward hori- Altbumout
zontal, thereby also pulling its velocity vector toward horizontal
D Phase four-vacuum phase
• During this phase, the launch vehicle is effectively out of Earth's
atmosphere and continues to accelerate to gain the necessary velocity
to achieve orbit. In this final phase of powered flight, the control
Figure 9-15. Launch Vehicle Burnout
system works to c!fliver the vehicle to the desired burnout Conditions. During the vacuum phase the
conditions: velocity (V burnout), altitude (Altburnout), flight-path angle control system is trying to deliver the launch
(<Pburnout), and downrange angle (8burnout), as shown in Figure 9-15. vehicle to a specified set of burnout conditions
including velocity, flight-path angle, altitude, and
In this section ":'.,_e'll look at these burnout conditions, specifically, downran~ angle. Note: We measure <Poornout
between V burnout and the local horizontal.
burnout velocity (V burnout)· As we'll see, this is a very important
parameter that goes into the design and selection of a launch vehicle for a
given mission, when a launch vehicle reaches the burn out conditions, it
is in the intended mission orbit.
The velocity needed to get to orbit consists of the launch vehicle's
burnout velocity and the tangential velocity that exists at its launch site
due to Earth's rotation. First, let's consider what we mean by tangential
velocity. Suppose we have an old-fashioned record player and we set
weights on a spinning record-one near the center and one near the
outside edge. We see that the weight farther from the center moves faster
(has a larger tangential velocity) than the one near the center. The entire
record is spinning at the same angular velocity (revolutions per minute),
but the tangential velocity is higher at the larger radius, as seen in Figure
9-16.
We express the relationship among tangential velocity, angular rate,
and radius as
V=Rw (9-7)
where Figure 9-16. Tangential Velocity Increases
V = instantaneous tangential velocity (m/ s) with Radius. If you look at a spinning record
you can see that the tangential velocity
R = radius from the center of rotation (m) increases as you look farther out from the
center.
co = angular velocity (rad/ s)
The same thing happens to us because we're rotating with Earth. Even
when we think we're motionless, we're actually moving fast. "Doesn't
feel like it," you say? Well, Earth spins on its axis, so any point on it
(except at the poles) has some tangential velocity due to this rotation. We
don't feel it, but Earth's surface (and us along with it) moves eastward at
nearly 1,600 kilometers per hour (1,000 m.p.h.)! A launch vehicle sitting
on the launch pad is moving eastward too. Thus,
309
Chapter 9 Gerling To Orbit
V1aunch site = R (!)Earth
where
V1aunch site = launch site's instantaneous tangential velocity (m Is)
R = radius from the spin axis to the launch site (m)
WEarth = Earth's angular velocity (rad Is)
= 15.04107 ( /hr)= 7.29212 x 10-5 (rad Is)
0
Note: Here we use a more exact rotation rate for Earth (15.04107° /hr) than
we did in Section 9.1 (15° /hr).
In this case, the velocity is
Vat equator= (15.04107° /hr) (6378.137 km)
Converting units, gives us
Vat equator= (0.0000729212 rad Is) (6378.137 km)
Vat equator= 0.4651 km/ S
The Boeing Sea Launch platform can be positioned at the equator to take
full advantage of this velocity and the European Space Agency's site at
Kourou, French Guyana, with a latitude of 4° N gets nearly all the effect. At
other locations, we can't use Earth's radius directly to find tangential
velocity. To find the radius from the spin axis to a site at other locations, we
must multiply by the cosine of the latitude. Thus, as we increase latitude,
Figure 9-17. Higher Latitude Means Lower
Velocity. The tangential velocity of a point on L()I up to 90°, the distance from the spin axis, R, decreases, and so the
Earth's surface is a function of its latitude. At tangential velocity decreases, as shown in Figure 9-17.
higher latitudes (either north or south) the per-
pendicular distance to the spin axis decreases, V1aunch site = (REarth COS Lo)WEarth
so the tangential velocity decreases.
and because
vat equator= REarth (!)Earth= 0.4651 km/ s
we can say
V1aunch site= (0.4651 km/ s) cosl..,
Notice that, for higher latitudes, the radius from the spin axis is smaller,
and so is the launch site's tangential velocity.
To fully describe a launch site's tangential velocity, we need to know its
direction of motion, so we can put it into vector form. To express the
velocity as a vector, we need to choose a new coordinate frame.
Previously, we picked inertial frames because we were writing equations
of motion and needed to apply Newton's laws. Now, because we want to
know the velocity a launch vehicle must deliver from a given launch site,
we pick an Earth-fixed reference, called a topocentric-horizon [mine. As the
name implies, the origin for this frame is at the launch site, with the
horizontal (a plane tangent to Earth's surface at the launch site) as the
fundamental plane. If we choose the vector pointing due south from the
site as the principal direction (S) and the straight-up or zenith direction
(Z) as the out-of-plane vector, the east direction (E) completes the right-
hand rule. We call this the south-east-zenith (SEZ) coordinate system, as
310
9.3 Launch Vel city
shown in Figure 9-18. We can now express the velocity due to Earth's
rotation as a vector in the eastward direction. z(up)
v,aunchsite = (0.4651km/s)cosLO E (9-8)
So what does this mean in terms of putting a payload into orbit?
Because a launch site has a tangential velocity in the eastward direction, it
gives a launch vehicle a "head start" (assist) for launches in the easterly
direction-into direct (prograde) orbits. The closer a launch site is to the
equator, the greater assist the launch vehicle gets when launching
eastward. For example, the European Space Agency's launch site at
Kourou (4° N latitude) gives launch vehicles an assist of 0.464 km/ s
versus 0.4087 km Is for the Kennedy Space Center at 28.5° latitude. This E(ed)
means that for a given launch vehicle we can launch a larger payload
from a launch site at a lower latitude. This seemingly small "free"
velocity can actually be a big advantage, especially for large commercial
spacecraft where every kilogram they save means longer lifetime on orbit
generating revenue. Figure 9-18. The SEZ Coordinate System.
We use the south, east, up (zenith) or SEZ
What about launching into a retrograde orbit? A launch vehicle won't coordinate system centered at the launch site
get any ,help because it'd be launching in a westerly direction while the as a tropocentric-horizon frame, from which to
launch-site velocity, 1\...
11c11 site» is eastward. In fact, it's coming from behind analyze launch-site velocity.
because it has to make up this difference to get into orbit. Thus, it's more
costly (in terms of velocity) to launch into a retrograde orbit.
To achieve some specified orbital elements, the spacecraft must reach a
certain inertial velocity and altitude. To get to this condition, a launch
vehicle must meet two primary objectives (Figure 9-19.)
• Increase altitude to orbital altitude (increase potential energy)
• Increase velocity to orbital velocity (increase kinetic energy)
In order to have a successful launch, it must provide enough velocity
so that it can meet both of these objectives. Determining this velocity h
during launch planning is a very complex problem and to get accurate
values, engineers usually use numerical integration in sophisticated
trajectory modeling programs. This process often incorporates properties
of the launch vehicle, atmospheric density models, and other factors.
There may be significant differences between accurate numerical
integration solutions and answers produced by the method below, but
Figure 9-19. Launch Vehicle's Two Primary
many of the basic concepts are similar. Objectives. A launch vehicle must get to the
To begin with, we initially define four velocities we need to find desired altitude and have the inertial velocity to
stay in orbit.
• V 1055 gravity = extra velocity needed to overcome gravity and reach the
correct altitude
-'
• Vburnout = inertial velocity needed at burnout to be in the desired
orbit
• V,aunch site = velocity of the launch pad due to Earth's rotation (which
works for us or against us depending on whether we
launch east or west)
311
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
• ~ V needed = total velocity change that the launch vehicle must
generate to meet the mission requirements
We add the first two terms, V loss gravity and V burnout, to get the total
velocity desired. Together they show how the launch vehicle gets to the
desired altitude and leaves the spacecraft with the jesired inertial
velocity. We add the second two terms, V launch site and ~ V needed , to show
what the launch vehicle must deliver to reach these desired conditions.
We show a graphical representation of these velocities in Figure 9-20. In
------E practice, we calculate all the velocity terms ~xcept ~ V needed . After we
obtain these three values, we can determine ~ V needed from them.
We already saw how to find Vlaunchsite, so next let's tackle the gravity
losses. Please note that this value is not really a "loss," from an energy
Figure 9-20. Vectors Related to Launch standpoint. What occurs here is that the launch vehicle must effectively
Velocity. V1oss gravity and \/burnout form the provide an additional vertical velocity component to overcome gravity.
desired velocity. V1aunch site and !:i. V needed However, as the launch vehicle goes up, it trades this vertical velocity
are the components that get the launch vehicle (kinetic energy) for potential energy. (Figure 9-21). To model this, we can
to the right velocity. assume the launch vehicle adds just enough vertical velocity (kinetic
energy), so that by the time it reaches the desired altitude, it has the
desired potential energy (i.e., no vertical velocity remains). In this
approximation, the left hand side of Equation (9-9) represents the specific
mechanical energy the launch vehicle needs at the launch altitude
(usually at the launch pad) to reach the desired altitude with zero vertical
velocity, and the right hand side represents the needed specific
mechanical energy of the launch vehicle at the desired altitude.
2
V loss gravity µ_ 02 µ (9-9)
2 Rlaunch 2 Rburnout
where
Vloss gravity = velocity needed to reach the correct altitude (km/ s)
Riaunch = radius to the launcher (usually Earth's radius) (km)
Rburnout = radius to the burnout point (km)
We can solve this equation for Vlossgravity' but the answer is only a
magnitude. What we need is a vector, so we must determine the
Figure 9-21. Gravity Losses. We use the
gravity loss term to account for the energy direction. Because this component is solely for getting the correct altitude,
needed to go from the launch altitude (usually the direction is "up" or in the zenith direction. Using this information,
Earth's surface) to orbital attitude. Equation (9-9), and some algebraic manipulation, we get
--' 2µ(Rburnout - Rlaunch) ,
V loss gravity = (R1aunch · Rburnout) Z
(9-10)
where
Z = unit vector in the zenith direction (unitless)
This equation gives us an approximation for the additional velocity the
launch vehicle must provide to reach the desired orbital altitude. The
greater the gravitational parameter, µ, the greater the amount of
312
9.3 Launch Velocity
additional velocity it needs to reach orbit. Therefore, as we'd expect, it is
cheaper, in terms of velocity, to reach orbit from the surface of a smaller
planet like Mars than from Earth. This is sometimes called the grnvity well
that launch vehicles must fly out of to reach orbit. ____,.
Now we can switch our focus to the burnout velocity, V1oumout. We use
the velocity magnitude, V burnout, the flight-path angle, qi, and the launch
azimuth angle, ~, to compute the SEZ components of the velocity at
burnout (Figure 9-22 and Appendix C.8).
V burnout south
= -V burnout COS <P COS~ (9-11)
V burnout east
= V burnout COS <P sin~ (9-12)
vb urnoutzcnith = vb urnout sin o (9-13)
where
v burnout,ooth,casl, zenith = components of the burnout velocity in the
south, east, and zenith directions (km/ s) Figure 9-22. Converting Velocity at
Burnout to SEZ Coordinates. We use the
V burnout = magnitude of the velocity from the launch
velocity magnitude, flight-path angle, and
(km/ s) launch azimuth to perform this conversion.
<P = flight-path angle of spacecraft at burnout (deg
or rad) = 0° for circular orbits
~ = launch azimuth (deg or rad)
_,.We now have enough information to compute the velocity needed,
L1 V11wtert. From Figure 9-20 we can show that
/';. v needed = vloss gravity+ v burnout - vlaunch site (9-14)
In terms of the individual components, we have
l'1 v nee d e d south = o + vb urnoutsouth - o (9-15)
l'1 v nee d e d cast = o + vb urnouteast - V1 aunc h site
· (9-16)
l'1 v nee d e d zenith = V1 oss gravity
. + vb urnoutzcnith - o (9-17)
where
/';. v needed,oulh,cosl,,en;tl,= components of the velocity needed by the
launch vehicle to get the spacecraft from the
launch site to orbit in the south, east, and
zenith components (km/ s)
vburnout,oulh,eaSl,1.€ndh = components of the burnout velocity in the
south, east, and zenith directions (km Is)
V1aunch site = velocity of the launch pad due to Earth's
rotation (km Is)
313
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
vloss gravity = velocity needed to reach the correct altitude
(km/s)
The magnitude of the needed velocity is
/l. V needed = I /l. V neededl
J( /l.V neededsouth)
2
+ ( /l. V neededeast) 2 + ( /l. V needed zenith)
2
(9-18)
This is the velocity that the launch vehicle needs to provide to get the
spacecraft into its orbit. This estimate accounts for the potential energy
that it must gain to reach the correct altitude, provides for the kinetic
energy that it must gain for the desired velocity at burnout, and accounts
for the motion of the launch pad.
In practice, launch vehicles must also overcome significant air drag,
back pressure, and steering losses. They incur drag losses as they pass
through the atmosphere. Back pressure losses result from operating a
rocket engine in an atmosphere. And steering losses happen when they
have to correct for winds and other disturbances that take them off their
planned trajectory. Adding an extra term ll. V1osseS' compensates for these
last few losses and gives a new value that we'll call design velocity,
..1 Vdesign • The value, ll. Vlosses, varies depending on the launch vehicle and
mission, but a rough estimate is 1.5 km/ s.
I /l. V design = /l. V needed + /l. V losses I (9-19)
where
ll. Vdesign = design velocity the launch vehicle must deliver to
reach the desired orbit (km/ s)
ll. Vneeded = velocity needed by the launch vehicle to get the
spacecraft from the launch site to orbit (km/ s)
ll. V1osses = velocity losses during ascent due to drag, back
pressure, and steering s 1.5 km Is
This is the velocity we must design our launch vehicle to provide. As
we'll see in Chapter 12, the launch vehicle continually compares its
desired velocity with its actual velocity and makes corrections to ensure
that it satisfies the desired burnout conditions.
As we'll explore in Chapter 14, ll.Vdesign is a critical requirement when
it comes to sizing a launch vehicle's propulsion subsystem and staging
options.
314
9.3 Launch Velocity
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
--' > We design a launch vehicle to go from a given launch site
burnout velocity, V burnout and deliver a spacecraft of a certain size into a specified
d sign velocity, 6. v design orbit. It does this in four phases
gravity well • Vertical ascent
launch-site velocity, v,aunch site
• Pitch over
• Gravity tum
south-east-zenith (SEZ) coordinate system
• Vacuum
topocentric-horizon frame
> Because Earth is rotating eastward, a launch vehicle sitting
velocity need d, 6. v needed
on the launch pad already has some velocity in the
eastward direction. Thus,
Key Equations
• A launch vehicle has a "head start" for launching into
direct orbit
...,. 2µ(Rburnout - Rlaunch) •
• A launch vehicle mu t overcome Earth's rotation to get
V loss gravity (Rlaunch · Rburnout) Z
into a retrograde orbit
• The velocity of a launch site depends on the launch-site's
latitude and is i11 the eastward direction
> To determine the velocities needed to get into orbit, we
define the topocentric-horizon coordinate system (or SEZ),
vbumout ze ,.11h = vburnoutsincjl as shown in Figure 9-18
~ -.:i.. ...>.. ~
> Launch vehicles must meet two primary objectives
6. vneedcct = v,ossgravity + vburnoul - v,nunch site • Increase altitude to orbital altitude
• Increase velocity to orbital velocity
t:. v need Cct ~l\Uth = o + vb llrOOUl:-outli
-o
> Four v locities help us analyze what a launch vehicle must
deliver
6. V neec I ecI c,,"1 = 0 + Vb urnou t east - VI aunc I 1 site
.
.....
• V10~~ gravity = extra velocity needed to overcome
6. v nee d e ct zcnnh = V1 oss gravity
· + vb urnout,.,·nith - o gravity and reach the correct altitude
--'
• vburnout = inertial velocity needed at burnout to be in
the desired orbit
• Viaunch site = velocity of the launch pad due to Earth's
rotation (which works for us or again t us depending
6. V design t, V needed + t,V losses on whether we launch east or west)
• t. V needed = total velocity change that the launch
vehicle must generate to meet the mission
requirements
> In practice, launch vehicles also encounter significant air
drag, back pres ure, and steering losses
• So, ll V design is the velocity we must design the launch
vehicle to deliver. t. V design= t. V needed + 6. V1osses
315
Example 9-2
Problem Statement 6) Compute the Ss_Z components of the needed
velocity change, V needed
Suppose you have to design a launch vehicle to place a
spacecraft into a circular orbit, at 400 km altitude, and ~ V needed = V loss gravity + V burnout - V launch site
an inclination of 28.5°. Plan to launch from the ~ Vneeded south = V loss gravity south + Vburnoutsouth
Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and use 1.5 km/s for - Vlaunchsite south
~ V1osses· Compute the A Vdesign for this launch.
~ Vneeded east = V loss gravity east + Vburnouteast
- V1aunch site east
Problem Summary ~ Vneededzenith= V1oss gravity zenith + Vburnoutzenith
- V1aunch site zenith
Given: hburnout = 400 km ~v needed=
Circular orbit
2
~ V1osses = 1.5 km/ S J( ~ V needed south) + ( ~ V needed east)
2
+ ( ~ V needed zenith)
2
Launch site: Kennedy Space Center, L0 = 28.5°
7) Compute the launch vehicle's design velocity,
Find: ~ Vdesign accounting for drag and steering losses
~ Vdesign = ~ Vneeded + ~Vlosses
Conceptual Solution
1) Determine Vburnout from the velocity of a circular
orbit at 400 km altitude Analytical Solution
µEarth 1) Determine Vburnout from the velocity of a circular
Vburnout = V circular orbit= Rcircular orbit at 400 km altitude
2) Determine the launch azimuth, 13, and burnout ...;. 2µ(Rburnout - Rlaunch) •
flight-path angle, <j> V loss gravity (Rlaunch · Rburnout) Z =
Use the launch-site latitude, LO' and orbital 3 3
inclination to decide on the launch azimuth, (3. 3.986 x 105k~ 3.986 x 105k~
Use the flight-path angle of circular orbits to s s
determine the burnout flight-path angle, <j>. (6378 km+ 400 km) 6778 km
3) Compute the launch-site velocity ~ 7.669 km
= ~oo.ovo7--
s
V1aunch site= 0.4651 cos Lo
4) Compute the gravity-loss velocity that will result 2) Determine the launch azimuth, (3, and burnout
in the correct burnout altitude flight-path angle, <j>
The launch site latitude, LO' is 28.5° and the
...;. 2µ(Rburnout - Rlaunch) • orbital inclination is 28.5°, so the launch vehicle
V loss gravity (Rlaunch · Rburnout) Z must launch due east, which means, 13 = 90°. The
flight-path angle for circular orbits is 0°, so the
5) Compute_,_the SEZ components of the burnout burnout flight-path angle must also be 0°.
velocity, v burnout
Vburnout south = -Vburnout COS <I> COS 13 3) Compute the launch-site velocity
vburnout east= vburnout cos <I> sin 13 V1aunch site= 0.4651 cos L0 = 0.4651 COS 28.5°
Vburnoutzenith = V burnout sin <I> = 0.4651 (0.87882) = 0.4087 km/ s
316
Example 9-2 (Continued)
4) Compute the gravity-loss velocity that will result l'!.Vneeded =
in the correct burnout altitude 2 2 2
( /'!,. V needed south) + ( /'!,. V needed cast) + ( /'!,. V needed zenith) =
-" 2~ih ,
2 2
V Joss gravity = (REarth)(REarth + h) Z =
l'!.V11eeded = (O/ + (7.260k:n) + ( 2.716k~)
2( 3.986 x 105~) ( 400 km) = J60.08km = 7.751 km
s s
6378 km (6378 km+ 400 km) Z = 2.716 Z km/s
7) Compute the launch vehicle's design velocity,
5) Compute_,_the SEZ components of the burnout accounting for drag and steering losses
velocity, v burnout l'!.Vdesign = l'!.Vneeded + l'!.Ytosses = 7.751 km/s + 1.5
km/ s = 9.251 km/ s
Vburnoutsouth= -Vbumout cos cp cos~= -7.669 cos
0° cos 90° = 0 km/s
Vburnouteast= VburnoutCOS <P sin ~ = 7.669 COS 0°
sin 90° = 7.669 km/ s Interpretingthe Results
Vburnoutzenith= Vburnout sin <P = 7.669 sin 0° The launch vehicle for the mission needs a /'!,. Vdesign of
= 0 km/s 9.251 km/ s to reach the required burnout conditions
and overcome the losses due to gravity, drag, and
6) Compute the SEs_ components of the needed steering.
velocity change, /'!,. V needed
/'!,. V neededsouth= Vlossgravitysouth + Vburnoutsouth -
Vlauncbsite south = 0 + 0 - 0 = 0
/'!,. V neededeast= Viossgravityeast+ Vburnouteast -
Vlaunchsite east= 0 + 7.669 km/ S -
0.4087 km/ s = 7.260 km/ s
/'!,. V neededzenith= Yiossgravityzenith+ Vburnoutzenith
- Y1aunch site zenith= 2.716 km/ S + 0
-0=2.716km/s
317
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
mll References 7 If LST is 45°, what is it in hours, minutes, and
seconds? Draw a diagram to illustrate this time.
Bate, Roger R., Donald D. Mueller, and Jerry E. White.
Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1971.
8 If your current location has rotated 50° past the
mll Mission Problems vernal equinox direction, what is your LSI in
hours, minutes, and seconds?
9.1 Launch Windows and Time
1 What is a launch window?
9.2 When and Where to Launch
9 What do we mean when we say orbital planes are
fixed in inertial space?
2 How do mission planners specify a desired orbit
so a spacecraft can do its mission?
10 If an orbit has an inclination of 45°, what is the
highest northern latitude it will pass over? The
highest southern latitude?
3 What is local sidereal time (LST)? Draw a diagram
to illustrate your answer. What is meant by
"sidereal"?
11 Define right ascension of the ascending node, Q.
4 Why do we use sidereal rather than solar time for
computing launch windows?
12 Mission planners want to launch the Space Shuttle
from Kennedy Space Center (L0 = 28.5°) into an
orbit with an inclination of 28.5°. How many
launch windows will there be each day? Draw a
diagram to illustrate this case. How would this
5 What is the difference between solar and sidereal
change if the desired inclination were 57°? Draw a
time? Draw a diagram to illustrate which is longer diagram to illustrate this case.
and why.
13 Define launch-window sidereal time (LWSI)?
6 How does local sidereal time (LSI) change as What is the difference between LWSTAN and
Earth rotates? How does right ascension of the LWST DN? Draw a diagram to illustrate your
ascending node, Q, change as Earth rotates? answers. How does LWST change as Earth rotates?
318
References
14 Mission planners want to launch the Space Shuttle c) Draw a 3-D side view of this launch geometry.
from Kennedy Space Center (L0 = 28.5°) into an
orbit with an inclination of 28.5° and a right
ascension of ascending node of 45°.
d) Draw the auxiliary triangle for the ascending-
a) What is the LWST for this launch, in degrees?
node and descending-node opportunities.
b) What is the LWST for this launch in hours, e) What is the inclination auxiliary angle, a, for
minutes, seconds? the ascending- and descending-node
opportunities?
c) If the current LST at Kennedy Space Center is f) What is the launch-direction auxiliary angle, y,
1200 hrs, how long until the launch window for the ascending- and descending-node
opens? opportunities?
g) What is the launch-window location angle, o,
15 Why do we need to determine angles on a for both opportunities?
spherical auxiliary triangle to determine LWST for
cases with two opportunities per day?
h) What is the LWSTAN?
16 Sketch the spherical auxiliary triangle we use to
compute launch windows and define all angles. i) How long until the LWSTAN?
j) What is the launch azimuth, ~' for the
17 Mission planners at the European Space Agency ascending node?
want to launch their Ariane 4 launch vehicle from
French Guyana (L0 = 4° N) into a low-Earth orbit
with an inclination of 30° and a right ascension of
ascending node of 135°. LST at the launch site is k) What is the LWST0N?
1430.
a) How many launch opportunities will there be
per day? 1) How long until the LWSTDN?
m) What is the launch azimuth, ~' for the
b) Draw a 2-D polar view of this launch geometry. descending node?
319
Chapter 9 Getting To Orbit
18 Mission planners want to launch the Proton 23 Define the following
launch vehicle from Baikonur cosmodrome (L0 =
-'
51 ° N) into an orbit with an inclination of 63° and a) V loss gravity
a right ascension of ascending node of 270°. If the
LST is 0945, when will the next launch window ...,.
b) Vburnout
open? What direction will they launch?
...,.
c) V launch site
...,.
d) !:!,. V needed
19 Australian launch planners are designing a new
e) !:!,. vlosses
launch site for the northern coast (L0 = 13° S).
f) !:!,. V design
a) What is the lowest inclination for an orbit from
this site? g) The SEZ coordinate system
24 Mission planners want to launch a new spacecraft
to monitor hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean. The
b) If planners want to use this site to resupply the launch vehicle will launch from Kennedy Space
Space Station (i = 51.6° and Q = 35°), how much Center into a circular orbit at an altitude of 800 km,
time elapses between launch opportunities with an inclination of 28.5° and right ascension of
each day? ascending node of 25°.
...,.
a) Find the SEZ components of V burnout .
...,.
b) Compute V1aunch site·
9.3 Launch Velocity
...,.
c) Compute I:!,. V needed in SEZ coordinates.
20 What are the four phases of launch vehicle ascent?
...,.
d) What is the magnitude of I:!,. V needed?
e) If we assume !:!,. vlosses are 1.0 km/ s for this
launch, what is I:!,. V design?
21 How fast is Kennedy Space Center (L0 = 28.5° N)
moving?
25 Launch-process teams are preparing the new
Ariane V launch vehicle for launch from French
Guyana (L0 = 4° N). For propellant loading, what
I:!,. V design does it need to achieve a circular orbit at
22 Explain why eastward launches get a "head start" 500 km, with an inclination of 4°, if the total losses
but westward launches don't. from drag are 0.8 km/ s?
320
Mission Proiile- -Salyut=:;;=;;;;;;
One of the most ambitious goals of space exploration is Salyut 6 was home to 33 cosmonauts who kept it
establishing a permanent human presence beyond the occupied for 676 days-far longer than Skylab's
cradle of Earth. From 1971-1986, the Soviet Salyut 171 days. Deorbited July 1982.
program logged a staggering number of human hours ./ Salyut 7: Launched April 19, 1982. Ten crews spent
in space, established procedures for resupplying a total of 812 days onboard. It received more than
cosmonauts, and laid the foundation of technology and 37,000 kg (81,400 lb.) of cargo from twelve Progress
experience for eventually colonizing of space. and three Cosmos vehicles. Cosmonauts
Mission Overview Dzhanibekov and Savinykh rescued the station
after a nearly catastrophic power failure. Salyut 7
From 1971 to 1986, the former Soviet Union designed, was visited one last time by Kizim and Soloviev to
built, launched, and operated seven Salyut space salvage equipment for use onboard the new Mir
stations of increasing capability. Cosmonauts conducted space station in 1986. Salyut 7 finally succumbed to
experiments in life sciences, astronomy, Earth observa- atmospheric drag, re-entering in 1991.
tion, and materials processing. They developed proce-
dures for automated resupply, extravehicular activities
(EVA or space walks), and in-flight maintenance and
repair.
Mission Data
./ Salyut 1: Launched April 19, 1971. Occupied for
more than 23 days beginning June 16, 1971. Cosmo-
nauts Dobrovolsky, Volkov, and Patsaiev died
returning to Earth due to a sudden loss of cabin
pressure .
./ Salyut 2: Launched April 3, 1973. The station broke
up and decayed shortly after launch. No cosmo-
nauts ever visited it. Salyut 7 was the capstone of the Soviet Salyut program. (Courtesy
of Plane/a Publishers, Moscow, Russia)
./ Salyut 3: Launched June 25, 1974. Cosmonauts
Popvich and Artyukhin spent more than 15 days MissionImpact
onboard. It re-entered in January 1975 after seven The Salyut program showed the importance of incre-
months of occupied and unoccupied operation. mental improvement in a total program, each success
./ Salyut 4: Launched December 26, 1974. Cosmonauts setting the stage for the next. Building on their Salyut
Goubarev and Grechko logged more than 29 days experience, in 1986 the former Soviets launched the Mir
onboard followed by Klimauk and Sevastianov with station, which they can expand by adding on modules.
a record-setting 63-day stay. The unmanned Soyuz
20 mission demonstrated automated rendezvous
For Discussion
and docking. The station deorbited on February 3, • The U.S. built the Space Shuttle while the former
1977. Soviets built Salyut. Which was the better choice?
Why?
./ Salyut 5: Launched June 22, 1976. Cosmonauts
Volynov and Jolobov spent more than 49 days in • How could the experience gained during Salyut
the station. Soyuz 23 failed to dock. Soyuz 24 with apply toward planning a manned Mars mission?
Gorbatko and Glazkov, successfully docked in Feb-
ruary 1977, and they spent 17 days onboard. The References
station deorbited August 8, 1977. Wilson, Andrew (ed.) Space Directory 1990-91.
./ Salyut 6: Launched September 29, 1977. Signifi- Coulsdon, U.K.: Jane's Information Group, 1990.
cantly advanced over its predecessors, it consisted Rycroft, Michael (ed.) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
of five modules and two docking ports. The crews Space. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press,
used a shower and self-contained space suits. 1990.
321
The Space Shuttle orbiter streaks into the atmosphere blazing a fiery trail through the sky. (Courtesy of NASA!Jo/Jnson Space Center)
Returning
from Space:
Re-entry
~ In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... ~ Outline
• Describe the competing design requirements for re-entry vehicles 10.1 Analyzing Re-entry Motion
.- Describe the process for analyzing re-entry motion Trade-offs for Re-entry Design
The Motion Analysis Process
..- Describe the basic trajectory options and trade-offs in re-entry design
Re-entry Motion Analysis in
.- Describe the basic vehicle options and trade-offs in re-entry design Action
,.. Describe how a lifting vehicle changes the re-entry problem
10.2 Options for Trajectory Design
Trajectory and Deceleration
~ You Should Already Know ... Trajectory and Heating
Trajectory and Accuracy
O The motion analysis process checklist (Chapter 4)
Trajectory and the Re-entry
Conservation of energy (Chapter 4) Corridor
O Newton's Second Law of Motion (Chapter 4)
10.3 Options for Vehicle Design
O Basic concepts of calculus (Appendix A.3) Vehicle Shape
O Basic approach to interplanetary transfer (Chapter 7) Thermal-protection Systems
10.4 Lifting Re-entry
All around him glows the brilliant orange color. Behind, visible through the center
of the window is a bright yellow circle. He sees that it is the long trail of glowing
ablation material from the heat shield, sh-etching out behind him and flowing
together. "Tnis is Friendship 7. A real fireball outside!"
Astronaut, John Glenn
during re-entry of Mercury-Atlas 6
February 20, 1962
{Voas, 1962]
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
alking along the shore of a tranquil lake on a sunny, spring day,
W most of us have indulged in one of life's simplest pleasures:
skipping stones. When the wind is calm, the mirror-like surface
of the water practically begs us to try our skill. Searching through pebbles
on the sandy bank, we find the perfect skipping rock: round and flat and
just big enough for a good grip. We take careful aim, because we want the
stone to strike the water's surface at the precise angle and speed that will
allow its wide, flat bottom to take the full force of impact, causing it to skip.
If we have great skill (and a good bit of luck), it may skip three or four
times before finally losing its momentum and plunging beneath the water.
We know from experience that, if the rock is not flat enough or its angle of
impact is too steep, it'll make only a noisy splash rather than a quiet and
graceful skip.
Returning from space, astronauts face a similar challenge. Earth's
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter atmosphere presents to them a dense, fluid medium, which, at orbital
deals with the Trajectories and Orbits segment velocities, is not all that different from a lake's surface. They must plan to
of the Space Mission Architecture, introduced hit the atmosphere at the precise angle and speed for a safe landing. If
in Figure 1-20.
they hit too steeply or too fast, they risk making a big "splash," which
would mean a fiery end. If their impact is too shallow, they may literally
skip off the atmosphere and back into the cold of space. This subtle dance
between fire and ice is the science of atmospheric re-entry.
In this chapter we explore the mission requirements of vehicles
entering an atmosphere-whether returning to Earth or trying to land on
another planet. We consider what engineers must trade in designing
missions that must plunge into dense atmospheres (Figure 10-1). When
we're through, you may never skip rocks the same way again!
Figure 10·1. Apollo Capsule Re-entry. This artists' concept of the Apollo re-entry shows
that air friction causes the capsule to glow red hot. The astronauts inside stay cool, thanks
to the protective heat shield. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
324
10.1 Analyzing Re-entry Motion
10.1 Analyzing Re-entryMotion
!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- List and discuss the competing requirements of re-entry design
,... Define a re-entry corridor and discuss its importance
..- Apply the motion analysis process (MAP) checklist to re-entry
motion and discuss the results
., Describe the process for re-entry design and discuss its importance
Trade-offs for Re-entry Design
All space-mission planning begins with a set of requirements we must
meet to achieve mission objectives. The re-entry phase of a mission is no
different. We must delicately balance three, often competing, requirements
• Deceleration
• Heating
• Accuracy of landing or impact
The vehicle's structure and payload limit the maximum deceleration or
"g's" it can withstand. (One "g" is the gravitational acceleration at Earth's
surface-9.798 m/s2.) When subjected to enough g's, even steel and
aluminum can crumple, like paper. Fortunately, the structural g limits for
a well-designed vehicle can be quite high, perhaps hundreds of g's. But a
fragile human payload would be crushed to death long before reaching
that level. Humans can withstand a maximum deceleration of about 12
g's (about 12 times their weight) for only a few minutes at a time. Imagine
eleven other people with your same weight all stacked on top of you.
You'd be lucky to breathe! Just as a chain is only as strong as its weakest
link, the maximum deceleration a vehicle experiences during re-entry
must be low enough to prevent damage or injury to the weakest part of
the vehicle.
But maximum g's aren't the only concern of re-entry designers. Too
little deceleration can also cause serious problems. Similar to a rock
skipping off a pond, a vehicle that doesn't slow down enough may
literally bounce off the atmosphere and back into the cold reaches of space.
Another limitation during re-entry is heating. The fiery trail of a
meteor streaking across the night sky shows that re-entry can get hot!
This intense heat is a result of friction between the speeding meteor and
the air. How hot can something get during re-entry? To find out, think
about the energies involved. The Space Shuttle in orbit has a mass of
100,000 kg (220,000 lb.), an orbital velocity of 7700 m/ s (17,225 m.p.h.),
and an altitude of 300 km (186 mi.). We can find its total mechanical
energy, E, using the relationship we developed in Chapter 4.
325
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
1 2
E=2mV +mgh (10-1)
where
E = total mechanical energy (kg m2 / s2 = joule)
m = mass (kg)
V = velocity (m/ s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) = 8.94 m/s2
h = altitude (m)
Substituting the above values and converting to standard units of energy,
we get
E = 3.23 x 1012 joules = 3.06 x 109 Btu
Ntlte: 011e British thermal
Let's put this number in perspective by recognizinf that heating the
tmit (Btrt) is tint tIHIOIWt Ly' average house in Colorado takes only about 73.4 x 10 Btu/year. So, the
hent required tti rsiise tm, Shuttle has enough energy during re-entry to heat the average home in
yound (if w,1ter t111e d~JrL'L' Colorado for 41 years!
The Shuttle has kinetic energy due to its speed of 7700 m/ s and
F11hrrnlieit. J Btu = 252
potential energy due to its altitude. It must lose all this energy in only
c11lorics = r 055. J Jou/t'.5. about one-half hour to come to a full stop on the runway (at Earth's
surface). But, remember, energy is conserved, so where does all the "lost"
energy go? It converts to heat (from friction) caused by the atmosphere's
molecules striking its leading edges. This heat makes the Shuttle's
surfaces reach temperatures of up to 1477° C (2691° F). We must design
the re-entry trajectory, and the vehicle, to withstand these high tempera-
tures. As we'll see, not only do we have to contend with the total heating
during re-entry, but the peak heating rate as well.
The third mission requirement is accuracy. Beginning its descent from
over 6440 km (4000 mi.) away, the Space Shuttle must land on a runway
only 91 m (300 ft.) wide. However, the re-entry vehicle (RV) of an
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) has even tighter accuracy
requirements. To meet these constraints, we must again adjust the
trajectory and vehicle design.
On the other hand, if a vehicle can land in a larger area, the accuracy
constraint becomes less important. For example, the Apollo missions
required the capsules to land in large areas in the Pacific Ocean--much
larger landing zones than for an ICBM's RV payload. Thus, the Apollo
capsule was less streamlined and used a trajectory with a shallower re-
entry angle. In all cases, designers adjust the trajectory and vehicle shape
to match the accuracy requirement.
As you can see from all these constraints, a re-entry vehicle must walk
a tightrope between being squashed and skipping out, between fire and
ice, and between hitting and missing the target. This tightrope is actually
a three-dimensional re-entry corridor, shown in Figure 10-2, through which
a re-entry vehicle must pass to avoid skipping out or burning up.
The size of the corridor depends on the three competing constraints-
deceleration, heating, and accuracy. For example, if the vehicle strays
326
10.1 Analyzing Re-entry Motion
below the lower boundary (undershoots), it will experience too much drag,
slowing down rapidly and heating up too quickly. On the other hand, if the
vehicle enters above the upper boundary (overshoots), it won't experience
enough drag and may literally skip off the atmosphere, back into space. If
designers aren't careful, these competing requirements may lead to a re-
entry corridor that's too narrow for the vehicle to steer through!
------------t Iovershoot
boundary
;t
~----------T undershoot
lboundary
Figure 10-2. Re-entry Corridor. The re-entry corridor is a narrow region in space that a re-
entering vehicle must fly through. If the vehicle strays above the corridor, it may skip out. If it
strays below the corridor, it may burn up.
Whereas the above three constraints determine the re-entry corridor's
size, the vehicle's control system determines its ability to steer through
the re-entry corridor. In this chapter we concentrate on describing what
affects the corridor's size. We'll discuss limits on the control system in
Chapter 12.
The Motion Analysis Process
Imagine one of Earth's many, small, celestial companions (say, an
asteroid) wandering through space until it encounters Earth's atmosphere
at more than 8 km/ s, screaming in at a steep angle. Initially, in the upper
reaches of the atmosphere, there is very little drag to slow down the
massive chunk of rock. But as the meteor penetrates deeper, the drag force
builds rapidly, causing it to slow down dramatically. This slowing is like
the quick initial deceleration experienced by a rock hitting the surface of a
pond. At this point in the meteor's trajectory, its heating rate is also
highest, so it begins to glow with temperatures hot enough to melt the iron
and nickel within. If anything is left of the meteor at this point, it will
continue to slow down but at a more leisurely pace. Of course, most
meteors burn up completely before reaching our planet's surface.
The meteor's velocity stays nearly constant through the first ten
seconds, when the meteor is still above most of the atmosphere. But
things change rapidly over the next ten seconds. The meteor loses almost
90% of its velocity-almost like hitting a wall. With most of its velocity
lost, the deceleration is much lower-it takes 20 seconds more to slow
down by another 1000 m/s.
327
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
Of course, unlike the meteor, in establishing cl trajectory for cl re-entry
vehicle, we must keep the vehicle intact. Thus, we must trade
deceleration, heating, and accuracy to calculate the correct trajectory for
each vehicle. But first, to understand these trade-offs, we need to
understand the motion of re-entering objects.
Before we can see how to juggle all these re-entry constraints, we need
to develop a way of analyzing re-entry motion, to see how various
trajectories and vehicle shapes affect its re-entry. Whether it's a rock
hitting the water or a spacecraft hitting the atmosphere, we still have a
dynamics problem, one we can solve by applying our trusty motion
analysis process (MAP) checklist as shown in Figure 10-3.
First on the list is defining a coordinate system. We still need an inertial
reference frame (so Newton's laws apply), which we call the re-entry
coordinate system. To make things easy, we place the origin of the re-e!ltry
coordinate system at the vehicle's center of mass at the start of re-entry. We
Figure 10-3. Motion Analysis Process then analyze the motion with respect to this fixed center.
(MAP) Checklist. This checklist Is the same
one we introduced in Chapter 4.
The fundamental plane is the vehicle's orbital plane. Within this plane,
we can pick a convenient principal direction, which points "down" to
Earth's center. (By convention, the axis which points down is the Z
direction.) We define the X direction along the local horizontal in the
direction of motion. The Y direction completes the right hand rule.
However, because we assume all motion takes place in plane, we won't
worry about the Y direction. Figure 10-4 shows the re-entry coordinate
system.
We also define the re-entry flight-pnth nngle, y, which is the angle
between the local horizontal and the velocity vector. (Note this angle is
Z ~cluwn) the same as the orbital flight-pa th angle, cp, used earlier, but re-entry
analysts like to use gamma, y, instead, so we play along.) Similar to cp, a
re-entry flight-path angle below the horizon (diving toward the ground)
is negative. and a flight-path angle above the horizon (climbing) is
positive.
Next, we derive an equation of motion. To do this, we brainstorm what
Figure 10-4. Re-entry Coordinate System. forces could possibly affect a re-entering spacecraft. Of course there's
Our re-entry-coordinate system uses the center
of the vehicle at the start of re-entry as the gravity (it always seems to get involved) and, because it's travelling
origin. The orbital plane is the fundamental through the dense atmosphere, just like an airplane, it must also contend
plane, and the principal direction is down. The with lift and drag. Finally, we throw in "other" forces to cover all our
re-entry flight-path angle, y, is the angle
between local horizontal and the velocity vector. bases. We show a vehicle with all these forces in Figure 10-5. Summing all
of these forces, we get
(10-2)
We now apply Newton's Second Law, which, in equation form, is
"-'
_L.. Fcxternal = ma~ (10-3)
Once again, we have a rather complicated equation to solve. So, it's time
for some assumptions to bail us out. To make our lives easier, let's assume
• The re-entry vehicle is a point mass
328
10.1 Analyzing Re-entry Motion
• Drag is the dominant force-all other forces, including lift and
gravity, are insignificant. (We'll see why this is a good assumption
later.)
For meteors entering the atmosphere, the lift force is almost zero. Even
for the Space Shuttle, lift is relatively small when compared to drag. for
these reasons, we can assume for now that our vehicle produces no lift, y
thus, F = 0. (Actually, the lift generated by the Space Shuttle is enough to
significantly alter its trajectory, as we'll see in Section 10.2. However, this v gr.wit
assumption will greatly simplify our analysis and allow us to
demonstrate the trends in re-entry design.) Thus, we can assume gravity
doesn't affect the vehicle and the vehicle produces no lift.
Looking at Figure 10-5, we can see that drag acts in the direction
opposite the vehicle's motion. Because it has magnitude and direction, we
must apply a little trigonometry, using the re-entry flight;path angle, y, to Figure 10-5. Significant Forces on a Re-
resolve the components of the drag vector in the X and Z directions entry Vehicle. A re-entry vehicle could poten-
tially encounter lift, drag, gravity, and other
forces.
(10-4)
Next we make some assumptions about drag. Drag on a vehicl ~
depends on the dynamic pressure, iJ (" q-bar"). q describes the effect of
traveling through a fluid (air) with a density, p, at a velocity, V.
Nl tc: Far n:-ent1y,
I
y is il
(10-5)
11tqnlive 111~qlt1. \W 11Cio11n!e1i
where
for tl1is i11 E11111tit111 ( J 0-4-),
q = dynamic pressure on the vehicle (N / m2) i.e., cir (-y) = C()sy mid
p = atmospheric density (kg/ m3) sin (-y) = -5i11y.
V = vehicle's velocity (m/ s)
We can then describe drag using a unique property of vehicle shapc-
coefficient of dmg, C0. Engineers compute and validate this quantity using
wind tunnels. Combining it with the dynamic pressure and the cross-
sectional area of the vehicle, A, we can describe the drag force c1s
j F,,., ~ q c0 A ~ ~P v' c0 A (10-6)
where
Fdrag= drag force on a vehicle (N)
Co = drag coefficient (unitless)
A = vehicle's cross-sectional area (n/)
p = atmospheric density (kg/ m3)
V = vehicle's velocity (m / s)
We can now simplify Equation (10-4) even more, to get
(10-7)
329
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
If we divide both sides by the vehicle's mass to get the vehicle's
acceleration, a,
we notice the result has C0A Im in both terms
(10-8)
where
a =vehicle's acceleration (m I s2)
m = vehicle's mass (kg)
y = vehicle's flight-path angle (deg)
Ever since engineers began to analyze the trajectories of cannon balls, this
quantity (C0A Im) has had a special significance in describing how an
object moves through the atmosphere. By convention, engineers invert
this term and call it the ballistic coefficient, BC.
[sc~~ [ (10-9)
Figure 10-6. Comparing Ballistic Coeffi-
cients. A sack of potatoes and a skydiver have where
about the same ballistic coefficient (BC). BC = vehicle's ballistic coefficient (kg/m2)
m = vehicle's mass (kg)
C0 = vehicle's drag coefficient (unitless)
A = vehicle's cross-sectional area (m2)
From Equation (10-8), we can see the magnitude of the deceleration
from drag, la.I, is inversely related to BC
lal = i:i
BC
(10-10)
This relationship means that as BC goes up, deceleration goes down and
vice versa.
Let's take a moment to see what BC really represents. Suppose a 60 kg
(150 lb.) skydiver and a 60 kg (150 lb.) sack of potatoes fall out of an
airplane at the same time (same mass, same initial velocity). If the
skydiver and the potatoes have about the same mass, m; cross-sectional
area, A; and drag coefficient, C0, they have the same BC. Thus, the drag
force on each is the same, and they fall at the same rate, as shown in
Figure 10-6. What happens when the skydiver opens his parachute? He
now slows down significantly faster than the sack of potatoes. But what
happens to his BC? His mass stays the same, but when his chute opens,
his cross-sectional area and C0 increase dramatically. When Co and area
increase, his BC goes down compared to the sack of potatoes, slowing his
descent rate, as shown in Figure 10-7. From this example, we see that an
Figure 10-7. Changing BC. With his object with a low BC slows down much quicker than an object with a high BC. In
parachute open, the skydiver greatly increases everyday terms, we would say a light, blunt vehicle (low BC) slows down
his area, A, and drag coefficient, Co, thus
decreasing his ballistic coefficient, BC, and much more rapidly than a heavy, streamlined (high BC) one, as shown in
slowing down much faster than the potatoes. Figure 10-8.
330
10.l Analyzing Re-entry Motion
streamlined vehicle blunt vehicle
(high ballistic coefficient) (low ballistic coefficient)
Figure 10-8. Blunt Versus Streamlined Vehicles. A light, blunt vehicle (low BC) slows
down much more rapidly due to drag than a heavy, streamlined (high BC) one.
Now that we have the re-entry equation of motion, we can turn our
attention to the next item on the MAP checklist-Initial Conditions (ICs).
These ICs are especially important for re-entry. The initial re-entry
velocity, V re-entry, and the initial re-entry flight-path angle, y, determine
most of the conditions experienced during re-entry. Determining what
these ICs should be involves many trade-offs for trajectory and vehicle
designers. For re-entry analysis, we'll concentrate on the effects of these
ICs and not spend any time on Error Analysis or Testing the Model. So,
this concludes the MAP checklist. Let's look at how we can use what
we've learned about re-entry motion.
~----Astra FunFact-----
Dinosaursand Meteors
Every day, 400 tons of micrometeorite dust hit Earth in the form of minute cosmic
particles. Yet, this did not explain what geologist Walter Alvarez discovered in Italy in
the late 1970s. He unearthed a half-inch layer of clay deposited 65 million years ago.
He named this layer the K-T layer, as the clay lay between the Cretaceous and
Tertiary Time periods. Later, a technique called neutron activation found this deposit
contained thirty times the normal amount of iridium, an element rare on Earth but
abundant in meteors. This evidence led to the theory that a massive meteor collision
with Earth caused the extinction of dinosaurs. The theory, officially called the K- T
theory of extinction, appears viable. Possible sites for the meteor's impact include a 190-mile-wide crater off the
coast of South America, as well as, an unknown-sized crater 3500 feet below ground on the Yucatan peninsula
(indicated by geographical surface features). Why then, you may ask, did other species survive such an
enormous catastrophe? While no scientific explanation can yet answer this question, many scientists believe it
may simply have been another event in the natural selection process-survival of the fittest!
Evans, Barry. The Wrong Way Comet and Other Mysteries of Our Solar System. Blue Ridge Summit: Tab
Books, 1992.
Contributed by Troy Kitch, the U.S. Air Force Academy
331
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
Re-entry Motion Analysis in Action
Because the equation of motion we developed for re-entry in Equation
(10-8) is still quite complicated, let's take some time to see how we can
use it. We need to understand how the acceleration equation affects a
vehicle's velocity and, in turn, its position during re-entry.
If we give an object a constant acceleration, we can determine its
velocity after some time, t, from
vinitial + at (10-11)
where
V....,. final = final velocity (m/ s)
V;11i1ial = initial velocity (m/s)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
= time (s)
The final position of the object is
...>. ...>. ....,. 1.,, 2
Rfinal = R;nitial + Vinitial t + 2at (10-12)
Unfortunately, a re-entry vehicle's acceleration isn't constant. Notice in
Equation (10-8) that drag deceleration is a function of velocity, and the
velocity changes due to drag' This equation is another example of a
transcendental function similar to the one we discussed in Chapter 8. We
can't solve these equations for a vehicle's position directly. How do we deal
with it, then? We use a method first developed by Isaac Newton-
numerical integration. Sound complicated? Actually it's not that bad. We
assume that over some small time interval, M, the acceleration is constant
(a good assumption if L'lt is small enough). This allows us to use the velocity
and position equations for constant acceleration during that time interval.
10,000 ---.--------,--.-- By adding the acceleration effects during each time interval, we can
9000 determine the cumulative effect on velocity and position. (Of course this
8000 means lots of calculations, so it's best to use a computer. We could either
.-.. 7000 write a new computer program or use the built-in flexibility of a
<ll
-6000 spreadsheet. We did all the analysis in this chapter using a spreadsheet.)
..Ssooo Let's start by applying this numerical analysis technique to the motion of
f4000
O 3000
the meteor entering the atmosphere, as we discussed earlier. Recall, its
velocity is pretty much constant initially, while it is high in the thin
ll2000 atmosphere. But then, it hits a walJ as the atmosphere thickens and it slows
1000 rapidly. The results of the numerical integration for this example are shown
o. .\-.i-ii-............;:;;;;;;;;;~ in Figure 10-9. We can see from the graph what we expected to find from
~ 10 ·15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 our discussion. Notice in the figure that the velocity stays nearly constant
lime (s) through the first ten seconds, when the meteor is still above most of the
atmosphere. But conditions change rapidly over the next ten seconds. The
Figure 10-9. Meteor Re-entering the meteor loses about 90% of its velocity-almost like hitting a wall. With
Atmosphere. Notice how abruptly a meteor
slows down-similar to a rock hitting the most of its velocity lost, the vehicle decelerates much more slowly-it takes
surface of a pond. 20 seconds more to slow down by another 1000 m/s.
332
10.1 Analyzing Re-entry Motion
We now have a precise mathematical tool to analyze re-entry character-
istics. We can use this tool to balance all the competing mission require-
ments by approaching them on two broad fronts
• Trajectory design, which includes changes to
- Re-en try velocity, Vre-en try mission
- Re-entry flight-path angle, y requirements
• Vehicle design, which includes changes to
- Vehicle size and shape (BC)
deceleration
- Thermal-protection systems (TPS) heating
Trajectory design involves changing the re-entry initial conditions, accuracy
entry corridor
defined by the vehicle's velocity as it enters the effective atmosphere.
These initial conditions are the re-entry velocity, V,-c-c,,rn/' and re-entry
flight-path angle, y. Vehicle design includes changing thevehicle's shape
to alter the BC or designing a thermal-protection systems (TPS) to deal
with re-entry heating.
As seen in Figure 10-10, re-entry design requires iteration. Mission vehicle traiectory
requirements affect the vehicle design. The design drives deceleration, design options
heating, and accuracy. These parameters, in tum, affect trajectory options,
which may change the vehicle design, and so on. In practice, we must
continually trade between trajectory and vehicle design, until we reach Figure 10-10. Re-entry Design. Re-entry
some compromise vehicle that meets mission requirements. In the next design begins with mission requirements.Then
engineers must work the trade-offs between
few sections, we'll explore trajectory options and vehicle design in greater vehicle design, deceleration, heating, accuracy,
detail. re-entry corridor, and trajectory options.
333
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
!111111111 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
ballistic coefficient, BC > We must balance three competing requirements for re-entry
coefficient of drag, C0 design
dynamic pressure, q • Deceleration
re-entry coordinate system
re-entry corridor • Heating
re-entry flight-path angle, y • Accuracy
re-entry velocity, vre-entry
> We base the re-entry coordinate system on the
Key Equations • Origin-vehicle's center of gravity at the beginning of re-entry
• Fundamental plane-vehicle's orbital plane
• Principal direction-down
> To analyze re-entry trajectories, we must use numerical
Fc1,ag = q C0 A integration with the following assumptions
• Re-entry vehicle is a point mass
-" • Drag is the dominant force-all other forces, including gravity
a and lift, are insignificant
> Ballistic coefficient, BC, quantifies an object's mass, drag
BC coefficient, and cross-sectional area and predicts how drag will
affect it
• Light, blunt vehicle-low BC-slows down quickly
• Heavy, streamlined vehicle-high BC-doesn't slow down
quickly
> To balance competing requirements, we tackle the re-entry-
design problem on two fronts
• Trajectory design-changes to re-entry velocity, Vre-entry and
re-entry flight-path angle, y
• Vehicle design-changes to a vehicle's size and shape (BC) and
thermal-protection sy terns (TPS)
334
10.2 Options for Trajectory Design
10.2 Options for Trajectory Design
11111111111111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,.. Explain how changing the re-entry velocity and flight-path angle
ai£ects deceleration and heating rates
,.. Determine the maximum deceleration and the altitude at which
this deceleration occurs for a given set of re-entry conditions
,,.. Determine the maximum heating rate and the altitude at which this
rate occurs for a given set of re-entry conditions
,.. Explain how changing the re-entry velocity and flight-path angle
affects accuracy and size of the re-entry corridor
Depending on the mission and vehicle characteristics, planners can do
only so much with the re-entry trajectory. For example, the amount of
propellant the Space Shuttle can carry for the engines in its orbital
maneuvering system (OMS) limits how much it can alter velocity and
flight-path angle at re-entry. Re-entry conditions for ICBM re-entry
vehicles, depend on the velocity and flight-path angle of the booster at
burnout. In either case, we must know how the re-entry trajectory affects
a vehicle's maximum deceleration, heating, and accuracy, as well as the
re-entry corridor's size,
Trajectory and Deceleration
As we showed with our meteor example in the last section, a vehicle
re-entering from space takes time to make its way into the denser layers
of the atmosphere. Deceleration builds gradually to some maximum
value, am,IX' and then begins to taper off. To see how varying the re-entry
velocity and angle affects this maximum deceleration, let's apply our
numerical tool to the re-entry equation of motion we developed in the last
section. We begin by keeping all other variables constant and change only
the initial re-entry velocity, Vrc-entry, to see its effect on amJx· We can plot
the deceleration versus altitude for various re-entry velocities, if we set
the following initial conditions
Vehicle mass = 1000 kg
Nose radius= 2 m
Cross-sectional area= 50.3 m2
C0 = 1.0
BC= 19.9 kg/m2
Re-entry flight-path angle, y = 45°
335
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
9000-y-~~~~~,,_,,=c"'!09....., ..... _ Figure 10-11 shows that a higher re-entry velocity means greater
maximum deceleration. This should make sense, if we think again about
8000
skipping rocks. The harder we throw a rock at the water (the higher the
7000
Vre-entry), the bigger the splash it will make (greater amax). Without going
6000 into a lengthy derivation, we can find the vehicle's maximum decelera-
]sooo tion, and the altitude at which it occurs, from
OJ 4000
]
$'. 5000
-v,..,..,ntry = 6000 m/s
v;e-entry~siny
"'ii 2000 (10-13)
---- -V,.....ntrv= 8000m/s 2e
-----v ·=10000m/s
re-entry '
Altitude a !in( Po ) (10-14)
max ~ BC ~ siny
Figure 10-11. Deceleration Profiles for where
Various Re-entry Velocities. For a given re-
entry flight-path angle, the higher the re-entry = vehicle's maximum deceleration (m/ s2)
velocity, the greater the maximum deceleration. Vre-entry = vehicle's re-entry velocity (m/ s)
~ = atmospheric scale height, a parameter used to describe
the density profile of the atmosphere= 0.000139 m-1 for
Earth
y = vehicle's flight-path angle (deg or rad)
e = base of the natural logarithm = 2.7182...
ln = natural logarithm of the quantity in parentheses
Po = atmospheric density at sea level= 1.225 kg/m3
BC = vehicle's ballistic coefficient (kg I m2)
Notice the maximum deceleration depends on th.e re-entry velocity
and flight-path angle, but the altitude of amax depends only on the flight-
C()OO
path angle (see Equation 10-14). So, as Figure 10-11 shows, no matter
_____ vre-entry = 8 km/s what the velocity, the altitude of amax will be the same for a given flight-
8000
path angle.
7000
Now that we know how Vre-entry affects deceleration, let's look at the
..--. 6000
-.g
.2
E: 5000
41:100
other trajectory parameter-flight-path angle, y. Keeping the same initial
conditions and fixing the re-entry velocity at 8 km/s, we can plot the
deceleration versus altitude profiles for various re-entry flight-path angles.
:.::; 3000 In Figure 10-12, we show that the steeper the re-entry angle the more
o3 -Y= 15°
2000 --------- -Y= 45°
severe the peak deceleration. Once again, this should make sense from
1000 - - - - .- - - - - -"( = 85° the rock-skipping example, in which a steeper angle causes a bigger
01- -1
splash. In addition, we show that a vehicle with a steeper re-entry angle
o~~~§ag??i~~-~ ..... plunges deeper into the atmosphere before reaching the maximum
.... .... ,-; deceleration.
decelesation (g's)
Now let's look at the amount of maximum deceleration (in g's) for
Figure 10-12. Deceleration Profile for varying re-entry velocities and flight-path angles. Notice the maximum
Various Re-entry Flight-Path Angles. For a
given velocity, the higher the re-entry llight- deceleration is over 160 g's! Because the acceleration from gravity is defined
path angle (steeper the re-entry) the greater as 1 g, we can conclude the dominant force on a vehicle during re-entry is
the maximumdeceleration experienced. drag. This justifies our earlier decision to ignore gravity.
336
10.2 Options for Trajectory Design
Trajectory and Heating
Earlier, we described why a re-entry vehicle gets hot-all the orbital
energy it starts with must go somewhere (conservation of energy). Before
looking at how the vehicle gets hot, let's review how heat transfers from
one place to another by radiation, conduction, and convection. Rudiation
or radiative ueat transjer, discussed in Chapter 3, involves the transfer of
energy from one point to another through electromagnetic waves. If
you've ever held your hand in front of a glowing space heater, you've felt
radiative heat transfer.
Conduction or conductive heai transfer moves heat energy from one point
to another through some physical medium. For example, try holding one
end of a metal rod and sticking the other end in a hot fire. Before too long
the end you're holding will get HOT (ouch)! The heat "conducts" along
the metal rod.
Finally, conuection or convective heat transfer occurs when a fluid flows
past an object and transfers energy to it or absorbs energy from it
(depending on which object is hotter). This is where we get the concept of
"wind chill." As a breeze flows past us, heat transfers from our body to
the air, keeping us cool.
So what's all this have to do with a re-entering vehicle? If you've ever
been on a ski boat, plowing at high speeds through the water, you may
have noticed how the water bends around the hull. At the front of the
boat, where the hull first meets the water, a bow wave forms so the
moving boat never appears to run into the still water. This bow wave
continues around both sides of the boat, forming the wake of turbulent
water that's so much fun to ski through.
A spacecraft re-entering the atmosphere at high speeds must plow into
the fluid air, much like the boat. Because of the extremely high re-entry
speeds, even the wispy upper atmosphere creates a profound effect on a
vehicle. In front of the re-entering spacecraft, a bow wave of sorts forms.
This shock wave results when air molecules bounce off the front of the
vehicle and then collide with the incoming air. The shock wave then bends v-
the air flow around the vehicle. Depending on the shape of the vehicle, the
shock wave can either be attached or detached. If the vehicle is stream-
lined (high BC, like a cone), the shock wave may attach to the tip and attached shock wave
transfer a significant amount of heat, causing localized heating at the
attachment point. If the vehicle is blunt (low BC, like a rock), the shock
wave will detach and curve in front of the vehicle, leaving a boundary of
air between the shock wave and the vehicle's surface. Figure 10-13 shows
v-
both types of shock waves.
So how does the vehicle get so hot? As the shock wave slams into the air
molecules in front of the re-entering vehicle, they go from a cool, dormant detached shock wave
state to an excited state, acquiring heat energy. (To see why, strike a metal Figure 10-13. Attached and Detached
object, such as a nail, with a hammer many times and feel the object get Shock Waves. As a vehicle plows into the
hot.) Similar to the energetic re-entry vehicle, transferring energy to air atmosphere from space a shock wave forms
out in front. This shock wave attaches to
molecules, the hammer converts its kinetic energy into heat, which it streamlined vehicles {high BC) but detaches
transfers to the metal object upon contact. from blunt vehicles (low BC).
337
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
These hot air molecules then transfer some of their heat to the vehicle
by convection. Convection is the primary means of heat transfer to a
vehicle entering Earth's atmosphere at speeds under about 15,000 m/s.
(For a re-entry to Mars or some other planet with a different type of
atmosphere, this speed will vary.) Above this speed, the air molecules get
so hot they begin to transfer more of their energy to the vehicle by
radiation.
Without going into all the details of aerodynamics and thermo-
dynamics, we can quantify the henting rate, q ("q dot" or rate of change of
heat energy) a re-entry vehicle experiences. We express this quantity in
watts per square meter, which is heat energy per unit area per unit time.
It's a function of the vehicle's velocity and nose radius, and the density of
the atmosphere. Empirically, for Earth's atmosphere, this becomes
approximately
q '= 1.83 x 10-4 V3 J p
nose
(10-15)
where
q = vehicle's heating rate (WI m2)
V = vehicle's velocity (m/ s)
p = air density (kg I m ')
r1105e = vehicle's nose radius (rn)
lO,UOO -,-,-,,.....-------,-----,,-,-~ Returning to our numerical analysis of a generic re-entry vehicle with the
y =45' same initial conditions as before, we can plot heating rate, q , versus
9000
ROOD - altitude for various re-entry velocities. In Figure 10-14 we show that the
........ 7000 maximum heating rate increases as the re-entry velocity goes up. We can
..§, ,,oon find the altitude and velocity where the maximum heating rate occurs
using
-5 5000 .,-_,,...----
2 4(1)0
:r:;
iii 3000 - - - - ="; ...
•ntry = hUUO m/ · !in( Po ) (10-16)
2000 - - - - - \'n'-<•ntrv = 80C'Kl m/ t, ~ 3BC ~ siny
1000 - - - - - V11'-""1n = LO,llOO m / o;
where
06
~ = atmospheric scale height= 0.000139 m-1 for Earth
a~g rate (WI rn-') Po = atmospheric density at sea level= 1.225 kg/ m3
BC= vehicle's ballistic coefficient (kg/m2)
Figure 10-14. Variation in Heating Rate for
Three Re-entry Velocities. As the re-entry y = vehicle's flight-path angle (deg or rad)
velocity increases, the peak heating rate, q ,
also increases. and
V c\m.>x "" 0.846 V re-entry (10-17)
where
v qnlilX
= vehicle's velocity when it reaches maximum heating
rate(m/s)
V re - entry = vehicle's re-entry velocity (m/ s)
338
10.2 Options for Trajectory De ign
From Equation (10-17), we learn that the velocity for the maximum 10,000 ........----------
heating rate is about 85% of the re-entry velocity. 9000
We can also vary the re-entry flight-path angle, y, to see how it affects 8000
the maximum heating rate. Let's use a re-entry velocity of 8 km/s again.
- 7000
Keeping all other initial conditions the same and varying y, we can plot q ..§. 6000
versus altitude for various re-entry flight-pa th angles, as shown in Figure ~ 5000
10-15. .a
4000
le
Notice the correlation between steepness of re-entry and the severity of "iii 3000 - - - - - - - - - - + t= 15°
the peak heating rate. Recall from our earlier discussion that the steeper 2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - Y= 450
the re-entry the deeper into the atmosphere the vehicle travels before 1000 - - - - - - - - - - - + t= sso
reaching maximum deceleration. This means the steeper the re-entry oC).......... ._. ........,.._...,.....,..~
angle, the more quickly the vehicle reaches the ground, creating an .......~
Ii 8
interesting dilemma for the re-entry designer heating rate (WI cm2)
• Steep re-entry angles cause high maximum heating rates but for a Figure 10·15. Variation in Heating Rate at
short time Different Re-entry Flight-Path Angles. The
steeper the re-entry angle, t, [Equation (10-16)]
• Shallow re-entry causes low maximum heating rates but for a long the higher the peak heating rate, tj .
time
A steep re-entry causes a very high heating rate but for a brief time, so
the overall effect on the vehicle may be small. On the other hand, shallow
re-entries lead to much lower heating rates. However, because heating con-
tinues longer, the vehicle is more likely to "soak up" heat and be damaged.
To understand this difference, imagine boiling two pots of water. For
the first pot we build a fire using large, thick logs. They'll build up a low,
steady heating rate, lasting for a long time. Under the second pot we
place an equal mass of wood but in the form of sawdust. The sawdust
will burn much faster than the logs but will also burn out much more
quickly. Which option will boil the water better? Because the logs burn at
a lower heat rate but for much longer, the water is more likely to soak up
this heat and begin to boil. The sawdust burns so fast that the pot can't
absorb it quickly enough, so most of its heat simply escapes into the air.
This example underscores the importance of considering the heating 900
rate, q , along with the total heat load, Q. Total heat load, Q, is the total 800 ------t---l
,,....,
amount of thermal energy (JI m2) the vehicle receives. We find Q by Cl
E 100
integrating or summing all the q's over the entire re-entry time. As we've ::::. 600 ----+--
already seen, q varies with re-entry velocity. Q also varies with velocity ~
.._, 500
but not with flight-path angle. This makes sense when we consider the ,:;
heat results from mechanical energy dissipating during re-entry, which is .2 4()0
independent of re-entry angle. This means, the higher the re-entry iii
::.,
300
velocity, the higher the total heat load, as shown in Figure 10-16. Thus, ..c: 200
although the peak heating rate varies with flight-path angle, the total heat <ii
0
..... 100
load for a given re-entry velocity is constant.
0
Again, we face an acute engineering dilemma for manned re-entry 8000 10,000
vehicles. We'd like a shallow re-entry to keep the maximum deceleration re-entry velocity (m/s)
low (don't crush the crew), but this means a greater risk of soaking up the
Figure 10-16. Total Heat Load for Various
re-entry heat. Fortunately (for the crew), we have ways to deal with this Re-entry Velocities. The higher the re-entry
heat energy, as we'll see in the next section. velocity, the greater the total heat load, Q.
339
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
Trajectory and Accuracy
Next, we can look at how trajectory affects accuracy. Consider what the
atmosphere does to a re-entering vehicle. Drag and lift forces perturb its
trajectory from the path it would follow under gravity alone. When we
modeled these effects, we used several parameters to quantify how the '
atmosphere affects the vehicle. Whether we're modeling the density, p, or
the drag coefficient, C0, the values we use are, at best, only close to the
real values and, at worst, mere approximations. Thus, the actual
trajectory path will be somewhat different, so when we try to aim at a
particular target we might miss!
To reduce these atmospheric effects, and improve our accuracy, we
want a trajectory that spends the least time in the atmosphere. So we
choose a high re-entry velocity and a steep re-entry angle. But as we've
just seen, this increases the severity of deceleration and heating. Thus, to
achieve highly accurate re-entry for ICBMs, we build these vehicles to
withstand extremely high g forces and peak heating. Manned vehicles, on
the other hand, accept lower accuracy to get much lower peak
deceleration and heating.
Trajectory and the Re-entry Corridor
From the definition of re-entry corridor, we can think of the upper or
overshoot boundary as the "skip out" boundary. A vehicle entering the
atmosphere above this boundary risks bouncing off the atmosphere and
back into space. While hard to quantify exactly, this boundary is set by
the minimum deceleration needed to "capture" the vehicle. Changes to
re-entry velocity or flight-path angle don't move this boundary
significantly. Therefore, we can change the size of the re-entry corridor
most effectively by tackling the lower or undershoot boundary.
As we've just shown, maximum deceleration and maximum heating
rate, the two parameters that set the undershoot boundary, increase
directly with increased re-entry velocity, V re-entry, or re-entry flight-path
angle, y, (steeper re-entry). Most programs limit maximum deceleration
and maximum tj to certain values. Thus, we could still expand the re-
entry corridor by decreasing Vre-entry or y. This change would give us a
larger margin for error in planning the re-entry trajectory and relieve
requirements placed on the control system. Unfortunately, for most
missions, V re-entry and y are set by the mission orbit and are difficult to
change significantly without using rockets to perform large, expensive
!'!,. Vs. Therefore, as we'll see in the next section, our best options for
changing the re-entry corridor size lie in the vehicle design arena.
Table 10-1 summarizes how trajectory options affect deceleration,
heating, accuracy, and re-entry-corridor size.
340
10.2 Options for Trajectory Design
Table 10-1. Trajectory Trade-offs for Re-entry Design. Notice that maximum deceleration and maximum heating rates vary
directly with velocity and re-entry flight-path angle. For a constant velocity, altitudes for maximum deceleration
and maximum heating rate vary inversely with flight-path angle. For a constant re-entry flight-path angle, altitudes
for maximum deceleration and maximum heating rate are Independent of velocity. total heat load varies directly
with velocity and is independent of re-entry flight-path angle.
Altitude of Maximum Altitude of
Maximum Maximum Heating Maximum Corridor
Parameter Deceleration Deceleration Rate Heating Rate Accuracy Width
Re-entry velocity, V,e-entry
(constant y)
High High Same High Same High Narrow
Low Low Same Low Same Low Wide
Re-entry flight-path angle, t
(constant V,e-entryl
Steep High Low High Low High Narrow
Shallow Low High Low High Low Wide
!!!!!!!!!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
conduction ),,- We can meet re-entry mission requirements on the trajectory front by
conductive heat transfer changing
convection • Re-entry velocity, Vre-entry
convective heat transfer
heating rate, q • Re-entry flight-path angle, y
radiation ),,- Increasing re-entry velocity increases
radiative heat transfer
shock wave • Maximum deceleration, amax
total heat load, Q • Maximum heating rate, q max
Key Equations >- Compared to the drag force, the gravity force on a re-entry vehicle is
insignificant
v~-entry~siny >- Increasing the re-entry flight-path angle, y, (steeper re-entry)
2e increases
• Maximum deceleration, amax
Altitude, !in( Po )
m,l;\"
~ BC ~ siny • Maximwn heating rate, q max
>- The more time a vehicle spends in the atmosphere, the less accurate
AJtitudeq.
max
= ~tn(38Cp;
JJ ·
. )
s1ny it w.ill be. Thus, to increase accuracy, we use fast, steep re-entry
trajectories,
V <im.,, = 0.846 V re-entry >- To increase the size of the re-entry corridor, we decrease the re-entry
velocity and flight-path angle. However, this is often difficult to do.
>- Table 10-1 summarizes the trajectory trade-offs for re-entry design
341
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
10.3 Options for Vehicle Design
- In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Discuss two ways to determine the hypersonic drag coefficient for
a given vehicle shape
,,... Discuss the effect of changing the ballistic coefficient on
deceleration, heating rate, and re-entry-corridor width
.- Discuss three types of thermal-protection ystems and how they
work
Once we've exhausted all trajectory possibilities, we can turn to options
for vehicle design. Here, we have two ways to meet mission requirements
• Vehicle size and shape
• Thermal-protection systems (TPS)
In this section, we'll look at both of these.
Vehicle Shape
The re-entry vehicle's size and shape help determine the ballistic
coefficient (BC) and the amount of lift it will generate. Because adding lift
to the re-entry problem greatly complicates the analysis, we'll continue to
assume we're dealing only with non-lifting vehicles. In the next section,
we'll discuss how lift affects the re-entry problem.
The hardest component of BC to determine for re-entry vehicles is the
drag coefficient, C0, which depends primarily on the vehicle's shape. At
low speeds, we could just stick a model of the vehicle in a wind tunnel
and take specific measurements to determine C0. But at re-entry speeds
approaching 25 times the speed of sound, wind tunnel testing isn't
practical because no tunnels work at those speeds. Instead, we must
create mathematical models of this hypersonic flow to find C0. The most
accurate of these models requires us to use high-speed computers to solve
the problem. This approach is now a specialized area of aerospace
engineering known as computational fh1id dy11amics (CFO).
Fortunately, a simpler but less accurate way will get us close enough for
our purpose. We can use an approach introduced more than 300 years ago
called Neiotoniau jlow. Yes, Isaac Newton strikes again. Because Newton
looked at a fluid as simply a collection of individual particles, he assumed
his laws of motion must still work. But they didn't at low speeds. Centuries
later, however, Newton was vindicated when engineers found his model
Figure 10-17. Computational Fluid Dynam- worked quite well for flow at extremely high speeds. So the grand master
ics (CFD) Versus Newtonian Flow. In CFO, of physics was right again-but only for certain situations. Figure 10-17
high-speed computers numerically model the
fluid flow. Newton's approach models the fluid summarizes these two approaches to analyzing fluid dynamics. Using
flow as many individual particles impacting the Newton's approach, we can calculate C0 and thus find BC. We show three
vehicle. examples using this approach for three simple shapes in Table 10-2.
342
10.3 Options for Vehicle Design
Table 10-2. Examples of Estimating BC Using Newton's Approach.
Estimated Ballistic
Shape Example Values Coefficient
Sphere D=2m BC ss 333 kg/m2
=
C0 2.0
m = 2094 kg
(Assumes density = 500 kgtm3)
1-0-/
Cone I= 3.73 m BC es 4543 kgtm2
l:lc = 15° = cone half angle
1-1-1 re= 1 m = cone radius
c0 es 2 1:1~ = 0.137
=
m 1954 kg
(Assumes density= 500 kgtm3)
Blunted cone I= 3.04 m BC • 3266 kgtm2
6c = 15° = cone half angle
re= 1 m = cone radius
rn = 0.304 m
m = 1932 kg
(Assumes density = 500 kgtm3)
C0 = (1-sin4 1:1cl(~)2
+ 2sin2 1:1c[1 -(~/ cos21:1c]
10,000.---------==;;;a.-
C0"' 0.188 9000 -B = 31kg/m2
-BC= 333 kg/m2
SOOO - - - - - -BC =4540 kg/m2
Effects of Vehicle Shape on Deceleration
Now that we have a way to find BC, we can use the numerical tool we
used in the last section to see how varying BC changes a re-entry vehicle's
deceleration profile. Let's start by looking at three very different vehicles
entering Earth's atmosphere at an angle of 45° and a velocity of 8000 m/ s.
Notice something very interesting in Figure 10-18: the maximum
deceleration, am,w is the same in all cases! But the altitude of amax varies
with BC. This is what we'd expect from Equations (10-13) and (10-14).
The higher the BC (the more streamlined the vehicle), the deeper it
plunges into the atmosphere before reaching amax· This means a
streamlined vehicle spends less time in the atmosphere and reaches the Figure 10-18. Deceleration Profiles for
ground long before a blunt vehicle. Various Ballistic Coefficients (BC). Note
that, regardless of shape, all the vehicles
experience the same maximum deceleration
but at different altitudes.
343
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
Effects of Vehicle Shape on Heating Rate
1~000~~~~~~~~...-;-,........~ Now let's see how varying BC affects the maximum heating rate. In
9000 - BC= 31 kg/m2 Figure 10-19, notice the maximum heating rate is much more severe for
- BC= 333 kg/m2 the high-BC (streamlined) vehicle and occurs much lower in the
-BC= 4540kg/m2 atmosphere. The shape of the shock wave surrounding each vehicle
causes this difference. Remember the nature of shock waves for blunt and
streamlined vehicles, shown in Figure 10-13. Blunt vehicles have
detached shock waves that spread the heat of re-entry over a relatively
large volume. Furthermore, the air flow near the surface of blunt vehicles
tends to inhibit convective heat transfer. Thus, the heating rate for blunt
vehicles is relatively low.
Streamlined vehicles, on the other hand, have attached shock waves.
This situation concentrates a large amount of heat near the sharp tip
causing it to reach very high temperatures-hot enough to melt most
materials. In addition, the heat around the vehicle stays in a smaller
Figure 10-19. Heat Ing Rate Profiles for volume, and the air flow near the surface doesn't inhibit heat transfer as
Various Ballistic Coefficients (BC). Stream- well. As a result, the overall heating rate is higher as illustrated in Figure
lined vehicles have a much higher maximum 10-20. For these reasons, "needle-nosed" vehicles (like you see in some
heating rate. lower in the atmosphere, than
blunt vehicles. science fiction movies) aren't very practical. In practice, even relatively
streamlined vehicles have slightly rounded noses to keep the tips from
burning off.
~ heat spread over
larger volume
attached shock wave detached shock wave
Figure 10-20. Shock Waves and Heatl ng. For streamlined vehicles (high BC), the shock
wave Is attached, concentrating heat at the tip. For blunt vehicles (low BC), the shock wave is
detached, spreading the heat over a larger volume.
Effects of Vehicle Shape on Accuracy
As we've seen, a more streamlined (high-BC) vehicle reaches maximum
deceleration much lower in the atmosphere than a blunt (low-BC) vehicle;
thus, it reaches the ground more quickly. We know from earlier discussion
that the atmosphere can greatly decrease re-entry accuracy, so we want
our vehicle to spend as little time in the atmosphere as possible. As a
result, we want a streamlined vehicle for better accuracy, even though we
must accept more severe heating rates. As we'll see, thermal-protection
systems can deal with this heating.
Effects of Vehicle Shape on the Re-entry Corridor
We already said that the re-entry corridor's upper or overshoot
boundary depends on the minimum deceleration for atmospheric
capture. Variations in vehicle shape don't affect this end of the corridor
344
10.3 Options for Vehicle Design
significantly. However, we can change the lower or undershoot boundary
by changing the limits on deceleration or heating rate. But maximum
deceleration is independent of the BC, so a vehicle's shape doesn't affect
this boundary either. On the other hand, as we've seen, decreasing the BC
can dramatically decrease the maximum heating rate. Thus, when the
corridor's lower boundary is set by the maximum heating rate,
decreasing BC can be helpful. This decrease expands the re-entry corridor
and gives us more margin for navigational error.
Table 10-3 summarizes how vehicle shape affects re-entry parameters.
Table 10·3. Summary of Ballistic Coefficient (BC) Trade-offs for Re-entry Design.
Altitude of Maximum Altitude of
Ballistic Maximum Maximum Heating Maximum Corridor
Coefficient (BC) Deceleration Deceleration Rate Heating Rate Accuracy Width
High (streamlined) Same Low High Low High Narrow
Low (blunt) Same High Low High Low Wider
Thermal-protection Systems
As you know by now, during re-entry, things get hot. How do we deal
with this massive heat accumulation without literally burning up? We use
specially formulated materials and design techniques called thermal-
protection systems (TPS). We'll look at three approaches to TPS
• Heat sinks
• Ablation
• Radiative cooling
Heat Sinks
Engineers first dealt with the problem of massive re-entry heating for
ICBMs, in the 1950s. Initially, they couldn't get rid of the heat, so they
decided to spread it out and store it in the re-entry vehicle, instead. In
other words, they created a heat sink-using extra material to absorb the
heat, keeping the peak temperature lower.
To see how a heat sink works, let's consider what happens when we
put a five-liter pan and a ten-liter pan of water over a fire. Which pan will
boil first? The five-liter pan will because less water is storing the same
amount of heat, so the water heats faster. Similarly, a vehicle with less
material will heat faster during re-entry. Thus, whenever a vehicle faces a
fixed amount of heat energy (such as for a given set of re-entry
conditions), designers can lower the peak temperature by increasing the
volume of its material to "soak up" more heat.
The heat sink, although heavy, was a simple, effective solution to re-
entry heating of early ICBMs. These missions used high re-entry angles,
giving better accuracy, because the vehicle traveled more quickly through
the atmosphere. Thus, the heat sink had to absorb heat for a relatively
short period. Unfortunately, for a given launch vehicle, as designers
345
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
increased a heat sink's mass, they had to drastically constrain the available
payload mass. Because payload is what they were trying to put on target,
they had to consider alternatives to the simple, but heavy, heat sink.
Ablation
How do you keep your sodas cold on a hot day at the beach? You put
them in a cooler full of ice. At the end of the day, the ice is gone, and only
cold water remains. Why don't you just fill your cooler with cold water to
start with? Because ice at 0° C (32° F) is "colder" than water at the same
temperature! Huh? When ice goes from a solid at 0° C to a liquid at the
same temperature, it absorbs a lot of energy. By definition, 1 kilocalorie of
heat energy will raise the temperature of one liter of water by 1 ° C. (1
kilocalorie = 1 food calorie, those things we count every day as we eat
candy bars.) But to melt 1 kg of ice at 0° C to produce one liter of water at
the same temperature requires 79.4 kilocalories! This phenomenon, known
as the latent heat of 'fusion, explains why your sodas stay colder on ice.
So what does keeping sodas cold have to do with a re-entry vehicle?
Surely we're not going to wrap it in ice? Not exactly, but pretty close! A
re-entry-vehicle designer can take advantage of this concept by coating
the vehicle's surface with a material having a very high latent heat of
fusion, such as carbon or ceramics. As this material melts or vaporizes, it
soaks up large amounts of heat energy and protects the vehicle. This
melting process is known as ablation.
Ablation has been used on the warheads of ICBMs and on all manned
re-entry vehicles, such as the Apollo capsule shown in Figure 10-21, until
the time of the Space Shuttle. Russia's manned vehicles still use this
Figure 10-21. Ablative Cooling. The bottom
process to protect cosmonauts during re-entry. But ablation has one major
side of the Apollo re-entry capsule shown here drawback. By the time the vehicle lands, part of it has disappeared! This
was coated with a ceramic material that literally means we must either build a new vehicle for the next mission or
melted away during re-entry. As it melted, it completely refurbish it. To get around this problem, engineers, faced with
took away the fierce heat and kept the
astronauts safe and comfortable. (Courtesy of designing the world's first reusable spaceship, devised a new idea-
NASA/Johnson Space Center) radiative cooling.
Radiative Cooling
Stick a piece of metal in a very hot fire and, before long, it will begin to
glow red hot. Max Planck first explained this process. When you apply
heat to an object, it will do three things-transmit the heat (like light
through a pane of glass), reflect it (like light on a mirror), or absorb it (like
a rock in the Sun). If an object absorbs enough heat, it warms up and, at
the same time, radiates some of the heat through emission. This emission
is what we see when a metal piece begins to glow. If heat energy
continues to strike the object, it heats until the energy emitted balances
the energy absorbed. At this point, it's in thermal equilibrium, where its
temperature levels off and stays constant.
The amount of energy emitted per square meter, E, is a function of the
object's temperature and a surface property called emissivity. Emissivity, e,
is a unitless quantity (O < e < 1.0) that measures an object's relative ability
to emit energy. A perfect black body would have an emissivity of 1.0. We
determine the energy emitted using the Stefan-Boltzmann relationship
346
10.3 Options for Vehicle Design
(10-18)
where
E = object's emitted energy (WI m2)
o = Stefan-Boltzmann constant= 5.67 x 10-8 W /m2 K4
e = object's emissivity (0 < e < 1.0) (unitless)
T = object's temperature (K)
If an object being heated has a high emissivity, it will emit almost as
much energy as it absorbs. This means it reaches thermal equilibrium
sooner, at a relatively low temperature. This process of reducing equilib-
rium temperatures by emitting most of the heat energy before a vehicle's
structure can absorb it is known as rndiaiiue cooling. However, even for
materials with extremely high emissivities, equilibrium temperatures
during re-entry can still exceed the melting point of aluminum.
The high temperatures of re-entry pose two problems for us in finding
materials for radiative cooling. First, we must select a surface-coating
material that has a high emissivity and a high melting point, such as a
ceramic. Second, if we place this surface coating directly against the
vehicle's aluminum skin, the aluminum would quickly melt. Therefore, Figure 10-22. Shuttle Tiles. Space Shuttle
we must isolate the hot surface from the vehicle's skin with very efficient tiles composite material has high emissivity
insulation having a high emissivity. and is an etticient high-temperature insulator.
(Courtesy of NASNJohnson Space Center)
This artful combination of a surface coating on top of a revolutionary
insulator describes the, now famous, Shuttle tiles. The insulation in these
tiles is made of a highly refined silicate (sand). At the points on the
Shuttle's surface where most of the heating takes place, a special coating
gives the tiles an emissivity of about 0.8, as well as their characteristic
black color, as shown in Figure 10-22.
-----AstraFunFact--------
ShuttleTiles
We know re-entry gets hot. For the Space Shuttle, temperatures can
exceed 1247° C (2300° F). But the aluminum skin of the Shuttle doesn't
reach its maximum temperature of 350° until almost 20 minutes after
landing, thanks to perhaps the greatest technical advance of the Shuttle
program-tiles. Designed to withstand the aerodynamic loads of ascent
and re-entry, temperature extremes of over 1350° C (2400° F), and
repeated use, they're one of the most unique materials ever invented. To
cover the complex contours of the Shuttle surface, over 30, 000 individually
(Courtesy of NASNJohnson Space Center)
machined tiles fit together like a big jigsaw puzzle. Each tile has two
pieces-a white silica fiber structure (basically highly refined sand) covered by the characteristic black coating
made of reaction-cured glass (RCG). During re-entry, the RCG dissipates 90% of the heat energy in radiation
back to the atmosphere while the white silica fiber structure insulates the inner aluminum skin and bears the
brunt of the aerodynamic forces.
Refractory Composite Insulation, L/900. L/2200. FRC/, How It Works... , Lockheed Missiles & Space
Company, Sunnyvale, CA.
347
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
- Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
ablation >- We can meet mission requirements on the design front by
computational fluid dynamics (CFO) changing
emission • Vehicle size and shape, BC
emissivity, e
heat sink • Vehicle thermal-protection systems (TPS)
latent heat of fusion >- lncrea ing the vehicle's ballistic coefficient, BC,
Newtonian flow
• Doesn't change its maximum deceleration, amax
radiative cooling
thermal equilibrium • Increases its maximum heating rate, q
Key Equations >- There are three types of thermal-protection systems
• Heat sinks-spread out and store the heat
• Ablation-melts the vehicle's outer shell, taking heat aw·ay
• Radiative cooling-radiates a large percentage of the heat
away before the vehicle can absorb it
348
Example 10-1
Problem Statement Analytical Solution
Long-range sensors determine a re-entry capsule is 1) Solve Stefan-Boltzmann equation for T
emitting 45,360 WI m2 of energy during re-entry. If the
emissivity of the capsule's surface is 0.8, what is its
temperature? T = J!
w
45,360-2
m
4
T = ( 5.67x 10-8 m';K4) (0.8)
Problem Summary
T = 1000 K
Given: E = 45,360 W / m2
E = 0.8
Find: T
Interpretingthe Results
During re-entry, the capsule's surface reached 1000 K.
With the surfaces' emissivity, this means 45,360 WI m2
Conceptual Solution
of energy is emitted. Imagine 450 100-watt light bulbs
1) Solve Stefan-Boltzmann relationship for T in a 1 m2 area!
E = OET4
T = J!
349
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
10.4 Lifting Re-entry
~ In This Section You'll Learn to ...
• Discuss the advantages offered by lifting re-entry
.- Explain aerobraking and discuss how interplanetary missions can
take advantage of it
In Sections 10.1 through 10.3, we assumed the force of lift on our re-
entering vehicle was zero, so we could use a straightforward equation of
motion to investigate the trade-offs between re-entry characteristics.
Adding lift to the problem takes it beyond the scope of our simple model
but gives us more flexibility. For example, we can use the lifting force to
"stretch" the size of the corridor and allow a greater margin of error in re-
entry velocity or angle. Controlling lift also improves accuracy over a
strictly ballistic re-entry. We can change the vehicle's angle of attack (angle
between the vehicle's nose and its velocity vector) to improve lift, making
the vehicle fly more like an airplane than a rock. This allows the pilot or
onboard computer to guide the vehicle directly to the desired landing
Figure 10-23. An Astronaut's View of
Landing. The Space Shuttle uses the lift from area, as shown in Figure 10-23.
its wings to guide it to a pin-point landing on a The Space Shuttle is a great example of a lifting-re-entry vehicle. About
tiny runway. This photograph shows the pilot's one hour before landing, re-entry planners send the Shuttle crew the
view of the landing strip at Edwards Air Force
Base. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space necessary information to do a deorbit burn. This bum changes the
Center) Shuttle's trajectory to re-enter the atmosphere by establishing a -1° to - 2°
re-entry flight-path angle. After this maneuver, the Shuttle is on "final
approach." Because it has no engines to provide thrust in the atmosphere,
it gets only one chance to make a landing!
Preparing to hit the atmosphere (just like a skipping stone), the Shuttle
rotates its nose to a 40° angle of attack. This high angle of attack exposes
it's wide, flat bottom to the atmosphere. At an altitude of about 122,000 m
(400,000 ft.), the re-entry interface takes place. Here the atmosphere begins
to be dense enough for the re-entry phase to begin. From this point, more
than 6400 km (4000 mi.) from the runway, the Shuttle will land in about 45
minutes! Figure 10-24 shows a graph of the Shuttle's re-entry profile.
Throughout re-entry, the Shuttle rolls to change lift direction in a
prescribed way, keeping maximum deceleration well below 2 g's. These
roll maneuvers allow the Shuttle to use its lift to steer toward the runway.
In contrast, Apollo and Gemini capsules had minimal lifting ability, so
they re-entered much more steeply and didn't roll much, so they endured
up to 12 g's. Figure 10-25 compares these re-entry profiles.
Another exciting application of lifting re-entry is aerobraking, which
uses aerodynamic forces (drag and lift) to change a vehicle's velocity and,
therefore, its trajectory. In Chapter 7 we explored the problem of
interplanetary transfer, and we saw that to get from Earth orbit to another
planet required us to start the spacecraft's engines twice: 6-Vboost to get it
on its way and 6- V retro to capture it into orbit around the target planet.
350
10.4 Lifting Re-entry
80
\ -
V=7300m/s
60
]
'-'
Q)
"O 40
.8
:0
nl
20
o--1-~-=-~-r-~-=--~-,,-~~_..:.ru:,:::n:w:ay:..:::::======::.cl
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
range (km)
Figure 10-24. Re-entry Profile for the Space Shuttle. This graph shows the Space
Shuttle's altitude and velocity profile for a typical re-entry.
120
90
]
Q)
"O 60
.:§
.....
"iii
30
0
0 500 1000 1500
time from re-entry interface (s)
Figure 10·25. Re-entry Profiles for the Shuttle Versus Gemini and Apollo. This graph
shows the difference between re-entry profiles for Apollo, Gemini, and the Space Shuttle.
Notice Gemini and Apollo re-entered much more steeply than the Space Shuttle. The
Shuttle's re-entry profile must stay within a tight corridor between equilibrium glide, which
insures it will slow enough to avoid skipping out and not over shoot the runway, and surface
temperature/load factor requirements, which determine maximum heating and deceleration.
But if the target planet has an atmosphere, there's another option. Instead
of using engines to slow the spacecraft enough to enter a parking orbit,
we can plan the hyperbolic approach trajectory to take it right into the
atmosphere and then use drag to do the equivalent of the !::, Vretro burn.
We then use its lift to pull it back out of the atmosphere before it crashes
351
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
into the planet! By getting this "free" t::. V, we can save an enormous
amount of fuel. Calculations show that using aerobraking, instead of
conventional rocket engines, is almost ten times more efficient. This
efficiency could mean a tremendous savings in the amount of material
that must be put into Earth orbit to mount a mission to Mars. Figure 10-26
shows an artist's conception of an aerobraking vehicle. In his novel 2010:
Odyssey Two, Arthur C. Clarke uses aerobraking to capture a space ship
into orbit around Jupiter. The movie made from this novel dramatically
depicts the aerobraking maneuver.
Figure 10-27 shows an aerobraking scenario. On an interplanetary
transfer, the spacecraft approaches the planet on a hyperbolic trajectory
Figure 10-26. Aerobraking Concept. This (positive specific mechanical energy with respect to the planet). During
artist's concept shows a heat shield that could
be used for aerobraking at Mars or Earth. aerobraking, it enters the atmosphere at a shallow angle to keep
(Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space Flight maximum deceleration and heating rate within limits. Drag then reduces
Center) its speed enough to capture it into an orbit (now it has negative specific
mechanical energy with respect to the planet). To "pull out" of the
atmosphere, it changes its angle of attack, lift. Basically the vehicle dives
into the atmosphere, and then "bounces" out. In the process it loses so
much energy that it is now captured into orbit. This atmospheric
encounter now leaves the vehicle on an elliptical orbit around the planet.
Because periapsis is now within the atmosphere, the vehicle would re-
enter if it took no other actions. Finally, it completes a single bum, much
smaller than t::. Vretro, is completed to put the vehicle into a circular
parking orbit well above the atmosphere.
high drag = velocity
re-orient for loss and high
apoapsis bum heating rate
re-entry vehicle
circularize on hyperbolic
orbit approach
Figure 10-27. Aerobraking. The aerobraking maneuver allows a vehicle to get "free" !::.V
by diving into the atmosphere and using drag to slow down.
352
10.4 Lifting Re-entry
The Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, shown in Figure 10-28, was the
first interplanetary spacecraft designed to take advantage of aerobraking.
it was initially captured into a relatively high orbit around Mars, and,
over the course of several months, it used aerobraking to lower itself to
the final mission orbit, saving many kilograms of precious propellant.
Figure 10-28. Mars Global Surveyor. The
Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft was the first
interplanetary mission that was designed to
use aerobraking to lower itself Into its final
rrussion orbit. (Courtesy of NASA/Jet
Propulsion Laboratory)
111111111! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
aerobraking > Applying lift to the re-entry probl mallows us to stretch the size
angle of attack of the re-entry corridor and improve accuracy by flying the
vehicle to the landing site.
> The Space Shuttle is a good example of a lifting-re-entry vehicle.
It u es its lift to keep re-entry deceleration low and fly to a
pinpoint runway landing.
> A robraking can significantly decrease the amount of ma s
needed for interplanetary transfer. During an aerobraking
maneuver, the vehicl dives into the target planet's atmosphere,
using drag to low enough to be captured into orbit.
353
Chapter 10 Returning from Space: Re-entry
1111111111111! References 3 Why would increasing the ability of a re-entry
vehicle to withstand higher g forces not
Chapman, Dean. An Analysis of the Corridor and necessarily increase the maximum deceleration
Guidance Requirements for Supercircular Entry Into requirement for the mission?
Planetary Atmospheres. NASA TR R-55, 1960.
Concise Science Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, U.K. Market House Books, Ltd., 1984.
Eshbach, Suoder, (ed.). Handbook of Engineering
Fundamentals. 3rd edition. New York, NY: John 4 What is the re-entry corridor? Define its upper and
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1975. lower boundaries.
Entry Guidance Training Manual. ENT GUID 2102,
NASA Mission Operations Directorate, Training
Division, Flight Training Branch, NASA/Johnson
Space Center, Houston, TX, December 1987.
Regan, Frank J. Reentry Vehicle Dynamics. AIAA
Education Series, J.S. Przemieniecki series ed. in 5 Describe the re-entry coordinate system.
chief. New York, NY: American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1984.
Tauber, Michael E. A Review of High Speed Convective
Heat Transfer Computation Methods. NASA Technical
Paper 2914, 1990.
6 What are the potential forces on a re-entry vehicle?
Tauber, Michael E. Atmospheric Trajectories. Chapter for What is the dominant force during re-entry? Why?
AA213 Atmospheric Entry. NASA/ Ames Research
Center, Stanford University, 1990.
Tauber, Michael E. Hypervelocity Flow Fields and
Aerodynamics. Chapter for AA213 Atmospheric
Entry. NASA/ Ames Research Center, Stanford
University, 1990.
7 Define ballistic coefficient and describe how a
Voas, Robert B. John Glenn's Three Orbits in Friendship 7. blunt versus a streamlined shape affects how a
National Geographic, Vol. 121, No. 6. June 1962. body will slow due to drag.
1111111111111! Mission Problems
10.1 Analyzing Re-entry Motion
8 What two approaches can we use to balance
competing re-entry requirements?
1 What are the three competing re-entry require-
ments?
10.2 Options for Trajectory Design
2 Where does all the heat generated during re-entry
come from? 9 Describe re-entry design.
354
Mission Problems
10 To save fuel, Venture Star (X-33) engineers want to 16 Compare the advantages and disadvantages the
increase the velocity and the flight-path angle for re- three types of thermal-protection systems.
entry. How will this affect the maximum
deceleration and maximum heating rate? The
altitudes for maximum deceleration and maximum
heating rate?
17 What is latent heat of fusion and how does it relate
to ablation?
11 Contact lenses being manufactured in space are
returned in a re-entry capsule to Earth for
distribution and sale. If the re-entry velocity is 7.4
km/ s and the re-entry flight-path angle is 10°,
determine the maximum deceleration it will
experience and at what altitude? The capsule's BC
is 1000 kg I m2. 18 During re-entry, a meteor reaches a temperature of
1700° K. If its emissivity is 0.25, how much energy
is emitted per square meter?
12 For the same capsule in Problem 11, determine the
altitude of maximum heating rate and the velocity
at which this occurs.
10.4 Lifting Re-entry
19 What are the advantages offered by a lifting-re-
13 What is a shock wave? entry vehicle?
10.3 Options for Vehicle Design
20 How does the Space Shuttle use lift to reach the
14 In what two ways can we determine the runway?
hypersonic drag coefficient for a vehicle?
15 Mission planners for a manned Mars spacecraft
face two different re-entry vehicles. Vehicle A has 21 A vehicle attempting to aerobrake into orbit
a high BC; vehicle B has a low BC. Assuming the around Mars needs to achieve an equivalent 6 Vretro
re-entry velocity and flight-path angle are the of 2 km Is. If the entire aero braking maneuver lasts
same for both vehicles, explain any differences in for 10 minutes, what is the average drag force (in
deceleration profile. g's) we must attain?
355
Mission Profil---e -Space Shuttle;;;;;;;;
On April 12, 1981, the world's first reusable space ship Mission Data
rocketed into the Florida skies with astronauts John
Young and Robert Crippen aboard. The successful ,I Shuttle Ascent
flight of STS-1 (Space Transportation System mission
• T-8 seconds: The three main engines ignite. As
1) heralded a new era which promised to make access
they throttle up to 104% capacity, generating five
to space routine.
million newtons of thrust (1.125 x 106 Ibf.), the
entire vehicle pitches forward slightly. If the
Mission Overview onboard computers detect any engine problems,
they shut down all three and Mission Control
The Space Shuttle, or Space Transportation System as scrubs the mission for the day.
it's sometimes called, is the most complex flying
vehicle ever constructed. It has three main parts-the • T -0 seconds: As the vehicle rocks back to upright
winged orbiter, the external tank (ET), and a pair of at T - 0, the mighty SRBs ignite. Each applies a
solid-rocket boosters (SRBs). The orbiter houses the force of more than 11.8 million newtons (2.65 x 106
crew compartment with avionics, payload bay, three lbf.) to the vehicle, causing it to almost leap off the
Space Shuttle main engines (SSMEs), two orbital pad. When the SRBs ignite, there's no way to stop
maneuvering system (OMS) engines, and 44 reaction them. At lift-off, the Shuttle system has a gross
control system (RCS) thrusters for attitude control. The mass of more than two million kg (4.4 x 106 Ib.).
ET is a big gas tank holding 790,000 kg (1.58 x 106 lb.) • T +60 seconds: The three main engines throttle
of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen fed to the three down to 65% to minimize loads, as the vehicle
SSMEs on the orbiter through large interconnect flies through "Max-Q," the region of maximum
valves. The SRBs provide the necessary thrust to get dynamic pressure. After Max-Q, the engines
the entire system off the pad at lift-off. A typical Shuttle throttle up to 104%. [Note: The reason the SSMEs
mission divides into three phases-ascent, on-orbit,
can exceed 100% has to do with engine calibration
and re-en try.
data established early in the Shuttle's
Forward reaction development. 100% is simply a benchmark value
control system
which it can safely exceed by 4%.]
• T + 120 seconds: The two SRBs burn out and are
jettisoned to parachute into the ocean, where
nud deck
md crew
barge crews recover them and return them to
.ngr<'-"'5i shore to be refurbished for future missions .
::J{~ss
1.1.tch
• T +480 seconds: SSMEs again throttle down to
stay below three g's on the vehicle and crew.
SRB recovery
system
• T +500 seconds: Main engine cut-off (MECO). The
remote maid puletor
system (1101 installed
ET jettisons and falls into the atmosphere to burn
for STS-1) up over the Indian Ocean.
RCS fuel tank
• At MECO, the orbiter is not yet in orbit as perigee
SRC separation motors is well within the atmosphere. The OMS engines
SRD holddown posts(']) must fire at least once to establish a safe orbit.
The Space Shuttle has three main parts-the orbiter, external tank,
and solid rocket boosters-with numerous subsystems in each. .I On-Orbit
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
• Once on-orbit, the Shuttle uses its OMS engines to
change orbits and rendezvous with satellites or to
achieve the correct parking orbit and deploy
payloads. Typical Shuttle orbits are nearly
circular at about 300 km (186 mi.) altitude with an
inclination of 28.5° or 57°.
356
,I Re-entry Mission Impact
As of 1999, the Shuttle has flown over 100 missions.
• De-orbit burn: The re-entry phase starts with the
From satellite deployment and retrieval to satellite
de-orbit burn of 100 ml s (328 ft. Is) over the
repair and scientific experiments, the Shuttle has
Indian Ocean about one hour before landing. This
proven its flexibility. However, the emotional impact of
burn lowers the Shuttle's orbit for a controlled re-
the Challenger accident, caused by burn-through in a
entry into the atmosphere.
booster, showed how fragile the complex Shuttle
system is and showed that access to space has a long
• De-orbit coast: The crew orients the vehicle to way to go before we consider it routine.
present the wide, flat bottom to the atmosphere at
a 40° angle of attack.
• Re-entry interface (RI): RI takes place about 30
minutes before landing, at an altitude of 122,000
m (400,000 ft.) more than 8300 km (5158 mi.) up
range from the landing site. At this altitude, the
atmosphere becomes dense enough for
aerodynamic forces to be significant. Throughout
re-entry, the guidance, navigation, and control
system must manage the Shuttle's energy to
guide it through the narrow re-entry corridor,
bleed off enough energy to land safely (but not
too much, so it can overfly the landing site), and
maintain acceptable heating levels.
• TACAN acquisition: At about 40,000 m (131,000
ft.), the Shuttle's navigation system begins
On Space Shuttle mission STS·49, astronauts grabbed and boosted
processing data from ground-based Tactical Air the Intelsat VI satellite. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Navigation (TACAN) stations-the same ones
used by military and commercial aircraft-to
update its position and velocity and ensure it's on
course for the runway. For Discussion
• Has the Space Shuttle been a good investment for
• HAC intercept: At about 20,000 m (65,600 ft.) the the U.S.?
Shuttle intercepts the heading alignment cone
(HAC) for a wide (up to 270°) turn to align with • Given the inherent dangers of space flight, was the
the runway centerline. public's strong reaction to the Challenger accident
justified?
• On glide-slope: The Shuttle seems to dive at the • How would you design a next-generation Shuttle
runway, flying a 19° glide slope, much steeper to replace the current one?
than a convention airliner's 3°.
References
• Touchdown: The Shuttle touches down at 98 ml s
(218 m.p.h.) compared to only 67 ml s (150 m.p.h.) Space Shuttle System Summary, SSV80-1, Rockwell
for an airliner. International Space Systems Group, May 1980.
357
Even the design of a small satellite constellation, such as the one shown in this artists' conception, represents a significant effort in space mission
engineering. (Courtesy of Maarten Meerman, Surrey Satellite Technology, Ltd., U.K.)
Space
Systems
Engineering
In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... !!!!!!!!! 0 u t Ii n e
,rr Describe the systems engineering process and apply it to designing
11.1 Space Mission Design
space missions
The Systems Engineering
,.. Describe how payload requirements drive the rest 0£ the spacecraft Process
design
Designing Payloads and
..- Identify the major spacecraft subsystems and their associated Subsystems
performance budgets
The Design Process
11.2 Remote-sensing Payloads
!!11111m You Should Already Know ... The Electromagnetic Spectrum
O Elements of a space mission architecture (Chapter 1) Seeing through the
O Basic requirements for maneuvering in orbit (Chapter 6) Atmosphere
O Concepts of vector mathematics (Appendix A.2) What We See
Payload Sensors
O Calculus concepts (Appendix A.3)
Payload Design
O Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion (Chapter 2)
Man must rise above the Earth-to the top of the atmosphere and beyond-for
only then will he fully understand the world in which he lives
Socrates ca. 450 B.C.
Chapter 11 Space System Engineering
e all use space systems. As you kick back in your easy chair,
W remote control in hand, the cable TV shows that you watch are
beamed around the world using communication spacecraft.
Weather forecasts on the evening news depend on up-to-the-minute
images from weather spacecraft that patiently track the motion of clouds
and storms around the globe. In the last several chapters, we've focused
all of our attention on the trajectories spacecraft follow through space.
You've seen how to select the proper orbit for their mission, launch them
from a given launch site, and help them re-enter the atmosphere for a
smooth landing on Earth.
But orbits are only part of the story. In this chapter, we'll step back and
take a look at the "big picture" of space mission design. We'll discover
how designers use the tried-and-true systems engineering process to
translate user needs into fully-integrated space missions. We'll learn how
these needs form the basis for mission requirements and constraints from
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter which we decide how all of the elements of a mission will fit together.
deals with the Spacecraft segment of the
Space Mission Architecture, Introduced in
From these top-level requirements, we'll learn how to design the payload
Figure 1 ·20. and how it relates to the other and individual subsystems that make up the spacecraft (Figure 11-1).As
mission elements. we'll discover, the payload is one of the most important drivers of any
mission. With this in mind, we'll turn our attention to an important class
of space payloads, remote sensing, to learn the basic principles governing
their limitations and design.
This chapter lays the groundwork for future chapters that delve in
greater detail into the design of spacecraft subsystems, launch vehicles
and the other elements of a space mission architecture. While you may
not be able to build your own spacecraft in your garage when you're
done, you should develop a greater appreciation for the challenge of
designing missions to work in the final frontier.
Figure 11-1. International Space Station. Building the International Space Station
depends on a careful space systems engineering process. This starts with well-defined
requirements needed to tie together the dozens of countries that participate in designing,
building, and operating it. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
360
11.1 Space Mission Design
11.1 Space Mission Design
== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
""" Describe the systems engineering process
.- Apply the systems engineering process to designing space missions
.- Describe how the payload requirements drive the rest of the
spacecraft design
• Identify the major spacecraft subsystems and their associated
performance budgets
If you've ever built a tree house or even planned a big party, you've
probably applied a systematic approach to translate your needs into a
final product. In this section we'll look closely at this process to
understand its component steps and see how we can apply it to design
anything from a backyard BBQ platform to an on-orbit observation
platform. We'll begin by looking at the basic steps in the process, then
we'll see how we can apply it to the design of complex space missions.
The Systems Engineering Process
All design problems begin with a need. Ancient astronomers needed a
means to track celestial events, so they designed Stonehenge. Henry Ford
needed a car that appealed to the average driver, so he designed the
Model-T. NASA needed a vehicle to launch astronauts to the Moon, so they
designed the Saturn V, shown in Figure 11-2. Over the centuries, engineers
have developed a well-tested process for translating simply-stated needs
into complex systems. We call this process systems engineering.
To see how the systems engineering process works in action, let's look
at a simple weekend project-building a backyard deck. Imagine you
wake up one bright, sunny Saturday and take an appraising look at your
backyard. The lawn looks good, the hedges are trimmed, its almost
perfect. You only need one thing to finish it-a deck. A nice deck or patio
would give you a great place to put the BBQ and a nice location for that
new hot tub (which you'll decide you need next weekend).
The right approach to this project would be to resist the urge to drive to
the hardware store, buy a load of lumber, grab your power saw, and start
filling the yard with sawdust. The right approach would be to think
before you act, to start by carefully defining what it is you really need. A
general statement of your requirement may look something like this Figure 11·2. Saturn V Launch Vehicle.
NASA scientists and engineers designed and
built the Saturn V launch vehicle in response to
Requirement: A.flat, dry area in your backyard, roomy enough a need to take astronauts safely to the Moon.
to house your BBQ and entertain friends. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
Along with this general requirement, you could probably define some
constraints as well. For example, you could specify your budget for the
project (say, less than $10,000), some basic ideas on when you'd like it to
be done (in time for the summer) and its overall quality (you'd like it to
last at least as long as you'll live in the house).
With this basic understanding of your needs on paper, you can then
start to derive more specific requirements about what your deck will look
like (Figure 11-3). You'll probably want to do a bit of research on pre-
fabricated "deck kits" you can buy off-the-shelf or maybe some basic
plans from a "How to Build a Deck in a Weekend" book. Once you shop
around a bit, you may find that the deck you really want is way over your
budget, or will take too long to build. Or, the deck that is in budget may
not be sturdy enough to survive more than one season of BBQ parties. At
that point, you may need to revisit your initial requirements to see if you
should expand your budget or relax your other requirements.
Figure 11-3. Systems Engineering in
Action. Any project, large or small, can benefit Once you've made this trade-off between what you want and what
from the systems engineering process, even you can really afford, you can start specifying your deck characteristics
something as simple as a backyard deck.
(Courtesy of Decks U.S.A.) (size, shape, materials, etc.). With these decisions made, you can finally
get down to the business of designing what it will look like and how you
will build it. You'll need to make some detailed drawings, specify the
amount and type of lumber to use, types of nails and bolts and all the
other construction details. As you do this, you may find that some of the
specifications aren't possible given the available materials or backyard
conditions. This may mean a few trips "back to the drawing board" as
you modify your original specifications.
Finally, you finish a design you are happy with. At this point, before
define mission you actually break ground and start getting your hands dirty, it's a good
design&
requirements idea to review this massive project to make sure it's really what you need.
analysis
& constraints tools With that decided and maybe a few minor design adjustments, the fun
begins and your project gets underway (watch out for flying sawdust').
requirements
Now that we've seen a little bit of the systems engineering process in
loop
derive system action, let's take a closer look at it. Figure 11-4 shows the generic systems
requirements engineering process. In our deck example, we started by defining our
& constraints basic "mission" requirements and constraints. Then we derived
design loop requirements for what the deck, the "system," would look like. Once we
shopped for materials, we had to trade-off requirements versus what was
realistically available, given our budget and time constraints. With the
design
subsystems basic deck requirements decided, we then specified details about the
design and construction of the foundation, sub-floor, railing, and other
Figure 11-4. The Systems Engineering
"subsystems." Along the way, we used a number of tools (spreadsheets,
Process. The systems engineering process is design books, rulers and other "Design and Analysis Tools") to help us
the fundamental technique we can use to make decisions.
design anything from a backyard BBQ platform
to space platforms. The process goes through The backyard deck example helps to introduce the systems
several steps. Each step draws upon design engineering process. Now, we can apply it to space systems. In the
and analysis tools. Note that the process is
iterative. Between each step in the process,
following sections, we'll step through each phase of the process in more
there are loops that take us back to review detail to see how the same process can help us to design complex
decisions in the previous step. spacecraft with down-to-Earth benefits.
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11.1 Space Mission Design
Defining Mission Requirements and Constraints
Yogi Berra once said, "if you don't know where you're going, you'll
probably end up someplace else!" We begin the systems engineering
process by defining top-level mission requirements and constraints.
Before we set out to solve any problem, we want to make sure we're
solving the right problem. The best way to do this is to clearly state what
we really want-our requirements. For this reason, the first and most
important, step in the systems engineering process is to define the
mission requirements. We need to ask ourselves
• "What end result do we want to achieve or accomplish?"
• "What is our ultimate objective?"
• In space terms, "What is the mission?"
The more clear and specific our requirements, the easier it is chart a
course to achieve them. Requirements communicate what we need to
others and to ourselves as well. Clearly-defined requirements also give us
an opportunity to eliminate distracters, to separate what's important
from what's not. Often we get sidetracked from our ultimate goal by
competing objectives that, on closer analysis, really aren't that important
anyway! Equally important, requirements give us a means of evaluating
(and measuring) our performance, by comparing where we are with
where we want to go. We have a compass heading we can continually
refer to: "Are we headed in the right direction?"
There are two important qualities of requirements to remember: they
should be clear and simple. Clearly stated requirements tell us exactly
what we want. Ambiguity can lead to misunderstandings and disaster.
Requirements should also be simple. As General George S. Patton, one of
the greatest tank commanders of WW II, was fond of saying, "Never tell
people how to do things. Tell them what to do and they'll surprise you
with their ingenuity." By applying the "keep it simple" rule to require-
ments at the beginning of a program, we're far more likely to have a
useful product at the end.
Applying th.is first step to space missions, we see that all space missions
begin with a specific need, such as the need to economically transmit
television shows or to provide world-wide navigation. Only with th.is need
clearly in mind, can we begin to develop space missions to satisfy it.
To help us define space mission requirements, we begin by developing
a mission statement. As we introduced in Chapter 1, the mission statement
clearly and simply lays out
• The mission objective-why we do the mission
• The mission users-who will benefit from and use the information
• The operations concept-how all the mission elements fit together
The mission objectioe defines the purpose of the mission and what
services or information it will deliver to users. Users are the customers
who give us the reason (and usually money!) for the mission. Once we
know why and who, the next question is how, which leads us to the
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
operations concept. The operations concept describes how people, systems,
and all the elements of the mission architecture will interact to satisfy the
mission requirements.
In Chapter 1, we introduced the space mission architecture, shown in
Figure 11-5. Th.is architecture shows the basic elements of any space
mission and how they relate to each other. In Chapters 4 through 10,
we've focused on only one important element-trajectories and orbits.
Now we turn our attention to defining the rest of the elements. During
this first step of the space systems engineering process, we focus on the
heart of the mission architecture by deciding what form our mission will
take and how the various elements will interact. The architecture we
define, and the various systems and subsystems that underlies it, must
ultimately satisfy our mission need (Figure 11-6).
Figure 11·6. All Space Missions Begin
with a Need. Whether we're launching a tiny
microsat (FalconSAT above) or a massive
space station (ISS below). we must define a
need to start the systems engineering process.
(Courtesy of USAF Academy and NASN
Johnson Space Center)
Figure 11 ·5. Space Mission Architecture. The elements of a space mission perform the
functions that satisfy the mission requirements.
To see the space systems engineering process in action, let's begin by
describing a mission need that will serve as an example to guide our
discussion in this and subsequent chapters. We'll pick a need with global
impact, one that concerns all of us in some way: detecting forest fires.
Every year forest fires devastate tens of thousands of hectares (acres) of
valuable timber or wilderness resources and wildlife habitat, as shown in
Figure 11-7. As Smokey the Bear reminds us, "Only you can prevent forest
Figure 11-7. Detecting Forest Fires. The
FireSat mission is motivated by the need to
fires." So, while space assets can do little to prevent the human
detect and contain the damage done by forest carelessness that often starts fires, space assets can help us track and put
fires. (Courtesy of the National Forest Service) them out faster after they start.
364
11.l Space Mission Design
For this example mission, we need to notify world-wide forest services
!Fh1eSat2
in time for them to contain fires before they spread out of control. We'll
call this mission FireSat. An example FireSat mission statement could be
• Mission objective-detect and locate forest fires worldwide and
provide timely notification to users
-, gr0t_111d /
• Users-U.S. Forest Service and other national and international ~ station
agencies responsible for fighting forest fires 1
• Operations Concept-there are a number of possible operations
concepts for this type of mission. For this example, let's pick a concept
that relies on a number of spacecraft in low-Earth orbit to detect and
locate the fires. The system will communicate this information to users
through the internet. We'll control the entire mission via a single,
dedicated ground station (Figure 11-8).
While our discussion so far has focused mainly on requirements (what
we want), an equal, and sometimes more important, mission aspect to
define is mission constraints-s-limits on what we can do. Even though the
spacecraft will operate in a vacuum, the mission design cannot. We
design all missions in the "real world" and they must conform to a Figure 11-8. FireSat Operations Concept.
This operations concept uses two FireSat
variety of economic, technical and political constraints. We'll examine the satellites in low-Earth orbit, one ground station,
impact of all of these in more detail in Chapter 16. Purely political and an Internet link that passes forest fire
constraints aside (such as constraints on which congressional district to information to users.
build it in), systems engineering constraints typically fall into three
general categories: cost, schedule, and performance.
The bottom-line program cost is an easily recognized constraint to
anyone who operates on a budget. In the realities of the post-cold war
aerospace communities, budget constraints have become one of the
biggest drivers of modern space missions. More and more often, mission
planners use a dedicated approach known as design-to-cost that is
specifically oriented toward developing effective design solutions within
a cost-constrained environment.
Along with cost, schedule can also be a significant constraint on any
engineering solution. Often, missions must conform to a specific schedule
to meet a particular launch window or simply to ensure the required
spacecraft is on station in time to service paying customers. Naturally,
cost and schedule go hand-in-hand. "Time is money" is a well-known
economic principle. Typically, the longer a mission takes to get off the
ground, the more expensive it will be.
Balanced against cost and schedule is performance. It's not difficult to
imagine that the cheapest and fastest solution may not be the best
technical approach. Systems engineers must design a spacecraft composed
of various subsystems that work together reliably to accomplish the
mission. They may use off-the-shelf parts or design new-technology
components for each of the subsystems. The combined performance of
these subsystems determine the success of the overall mission. On the
other hand, the "best" technical solution offering the greatest performance
may be expensive and time consuming to implement.
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
Cost, schedule, and performance represent the three-dimensional
"trade-space" in which all space missions, and any other problems for that
matter, are constrained as Figure 11-9 illustrates. Whether we're deciding
what to eat for dinner (fast food, cheap food, or health food) or designing a
global communications network, we must constantly trade these three
constraints, one against the other. Later we'll see how this trade-off takes
place between m..ission requirements and system requirements. Figure 11-
10 summarizes the activities that take place during the first phase of the
space systems engineering process.
With the mission requirements and constraints defined, the next phase
in the systems engineering process translates these basic, top-level require-
ments into more specific system requirements. We'll see how system
Figure 11-9. Mission Constraints: Cost, requirements develop from mission requirements next.
Schedule, and Performance. Cost, schedule,
and performance comprise the 3-dimensional Deriving System Requirements and Constraints
trade-space that all missions must operate
within. Systems engineers must constantly While mission requirements focus on the big picture items (the reasons
trade these competing objectives to achieve a for and results of the project), systems requirements focus on the
well-balanced solution.
individual elements of the system architecture to describe in more detail
Define Mission Requirements what we expect of each for mission success. Naturally, the elements are
and Constraints closely interrelated. The launch vehicle depends on the size of the
• Define the mission statement spacecraft and the mission orbit. The operations network depends on the
• State the mission objective number and types of spacecraft and the amount of data transmitted to
• Identify users users. The mission orbit depends on the altitude and inclination to satisfy
• Create the operations concept the mission requirements.
• Identify the mission constraint In the "real world," few space missions begin with a totally blank sheet
of paper. Typically, at least one of the mission elements is completely
• Cost
• Schedule defined, or severely constrained, by economic, political or other factors at
• Performance the outset. For example, we may design a mission to take advantage of a
Figure 11-1 o. The First Phase of the
specific launch opportunity, in which case the launch vehicle, range of
Systems Engineering Process. This phase achievable orbits, and hard limits on spacecraft mass are defined before
focuses on defining mission requirements and we begin system design, as shown in Figure 11-11.
constraints.
Even if there are no specific limits on the launch vehicle, there are
practical limits on it because there are only a relatively small number of
options available "off the shelf," and few missions can afford to build
their own launch vehicle from scratch. Typically, mission operations are
also constrained at the beginning of mission design in some way. While
very large programs, such as the Iridium global telephone network, can
justify designing and building a dedicated operations network from
scratch, most missions, such as NASA or U.S. Military missions, must use
existing facilities.
Figure 11-11. Real-world System Con- Generally, the most unconstrained element of a space mission is the
straints. Small satellites can often take advan- spacecraft. For this reason, we'll focus our discussion of the space systems
tage of low-cost "piggyback" opportunities on engineering process on it. Recall from Chapter 1 that we conceptually
large launch vehicles, such as, the Ariane. We
show four of them here, attached to the Ariane
divide the spacecraft into two functionally different parts-the payload
Structure for Auxiliary Payloads. But we don't and the spacecraft bus. The pmJload consists of the sensors or other
get something for nothing. By taking advantage instruments that perform the mission. The bus is a collection of subsystems
of this cheap ride into space, the mission designed to support the payload. Payload requirements are usually the
accepts a number of system constraints on
launch time, orbit, etc. (Courtesy of Surrey biggest drivers of the spacecraft configuration. For this reason, the payload
Satellite Technology, Ltd., U.K.) is the first system, for which we must derive requirements.
366
11.1 Space Mis ion Design
We start deriving payload requirements by returning to the mission
statement defined earlier. Somewhere in the description of the objectives,
users, and operations concept should be an indication of the mission
subject. We define the subject of the mission to be a natural or
manufactured object or phenomena that the payload will sense or interact
with. We characterize the subject by such things as its color, size, shape,
temperature, chemical composition, or frequency. Only after we know
what type of subject we're dealing with, can we lay out clear and simple
payload requirements.
Returning to our FireSat mission example, the obvious subject for this
mission is forest fires. After all, they're what the mission objective states we
should detect and locate. But what kind of forest fires? How big or how
hot? What particular characteristics of forest fires should the payload
detect? These questions may sound trivial, but to the payload designer,
they can be very important. After all, we don't want to send out a forest-fire
alert every time someone starts a campfire. On the other hand, we don't
want to ignore a multi-acre blaze that may be out of control. We must
design FireSat to respond to the right kind of fires. (Figure 11-12)
With further analysis, we could also specify other characteristics of
such a fire, including the amount of heat and smoke it gives off. All of Figure 11-12. Defining the Right Subject.
these will be important when it comes to designing the type of sensor or Looking down from space, a spacecraft's
sensors the payload will employ to detect and locate fires. We'll learn payload must detect or interact with the right
subject for the mission.
more about how sensors do this in the Section 11.2.
Once we know these payload requirements, the rest of the mission
elements fall into place. The type of payload greatly determines the mission Derive the System Requirement
orbit. Payload mass, volume, power and other requirements determine the
• Review the constraints on
basic size and mass of the spacecraft. If they are not already constrained, mi sion architecture (launch
these system requirements determine, or at least limit the options, on the vehicle, orbit, operations, etc.)
launch vehicle and operations systems. Figure 11-13 summarizes the steps
• Identify and characterize the
during this second phase of the space systems engineering process. In the
mission subject
next section, we revisit the decisions made during the previous phase in
light of these results to see if there is room for trade-offs. • Derive payload requirements
• Derive orbital requirements
Trading Requirements • Determine basic spacecraft
size and mass
While the shortest distance between two points on a map is a straight • Identify the potential launch
line, this is seldom the case for systems engineering. Few successful vehicle(s)
projects take a linear course to their final design. Instead, we write
• Derive operations systems
mission requirements and constraints knowing they may change. Often,
rcqu i rem en ts
the results from detailed analysis of the system requirements may make
us rethink some of them. Quite often, program sponsors unknowingly tie
Figure 11-13. Derived System Require-
mission designers' hands with an ambiguous or overcomplicated require- ments. In the second phase of the systems
ment. So, we use the "requirements loop," a necessary and continuous engineering process, we must derive system-
"process within a process," to re-evaluate requirements, based on new level requirements.
in£orma ti on.
For example, the FireSat mission objectives require us to "detect and
locate forest fires worldwide and provide timely notification to users."
How fast is "timely?" A preliminary analysis of the number of spacecraft
needed to provide global coverage may show that to provide truly instant
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
notification the manufacturing, launch, and operations costs are
prohibitive. However, a single spacecraft may be able to detect and notify
within three days-too much time to be useful. This analysis would mean
mission designers and sponsors would need to work together to more
clearly define the requirement for "timely" coverage. By refining this
requirement somewhat, say by redefining "timely" to be "within 24
hours," a mission that is too expensive or impossible to accomplish may
become affordable and doable, as illustrated in Figure 11-14.
Designing Payloads and Subsystems
After we fully derive the system requirements, and, where necessary,
redefine the mission requirements that drove them, we can finally move
to the last phase of the space systems engineering process-payload and
subsystem design. This phase is the real nuts and bolts of the mission.
Here we roll up our sleeves and design detailed specifications for the
payload and its supporting subsystems, including drawings, mechanical
and electrical interfaces, and even nuts and bolts. Let's begin by looking
briefly at payload requirements, then consider the subsystems that make
up the spacecraft bus.
The Payload
In the previous phase of the space systems engineering process, we
derived the overall payload requirements in terms of the subject with
which it must interact. During this final phase of the process, we take a
more detailed look at the payload to design the components that make
Figure 11-14. Trading Requirements. By this interaction possible. The GPS mission, shown in Figure 11-15, is just
trading mission requirements versus system
requirements, a mission that is impractical or one example of how the payload drives the other subsystem
too expensive may become doable and afford· requirements.
able.
Continuing with our FireSat mission scenario, we now know that the
subject is a forest fire. But how do we detect such a fire? We know fires
generate heat, light, and smoke. Fortunately, we can build electronic
devices, or sensors, to detect each of these attributes of our subject.
Imagine you're sitting around a campfire on a clear, cool night. You can
feel the heat from the fire. You can see its light, with sparks and ashes
dancing in the air, and smell the smoke. If we put these kinds of sensors
on a spacecraft, they become the spacecraft's payload.
The payload could consist of a single, simple camera to detect light
from the fire, or include a collection of several sensors, each tuned to
detect a particular characteristic such as its light, heat, or smoke. We'll
explore how sensors remotely detect these phenomena in greater detail in
Section 11.2. For now, we simply need to understand that the number and
Figure 11-15. Defining Payload Require- type of sensors chosen, and how they work together to form the
ments. In considering the payload require- spacecraft's payload, determine how we design the rest of the spacecraft
ments for the GPS satellite, engineers had to
define support requirements for power, tem- to support it. As we design the payload, we generate a number of "spin-
perature, data handling, and communication off" requirements for the spacecraft bus that dictate
that affected the overall system design. (CoL1r·
tesy of the U.S. Air Force) • Where and how precisely the spacecraft must point
368
11.1 Space Mission Design
• The amount of data the bus must process and transmit
• How much electrical power it needs
• The acceptable range of operating temperatures
• The payload's volume and mass
The subsystems that make up the spacecraft bus must satisfy all of
these payload requirements. Typically, mission designers define these
requirements in terms of performance budgets. Just as your household
budget determines the amount of money you have to spend on a given
activity (such as going to the movies), subsystem performance budgets
specify the amount of velocity change, electrical power or other limited
resource that it must "spend" to accomplish some activity (such as
getting to the correct orbit or turning on the payload). In the remainder of
this section, we'll look at spacecraft subsystems and their performance
budgets in more detail.
The SpacecraftBus
The spacecraft bus exists solely to support the payload, with all the
necessary housekeeping to keep it healthy and safe. Perhaps the best way
to visualize the relationship between the payload and bus is to picture a
common, everyday, school bus, such as the one in Figure 11-16.
horn, radio and driver body and frame (structures and mechanisms)
(communication and
data handling)
steering (space
vehicle control) _
battery and --
alternator
(electrical power)./ . . . ._ ·~
radiator, air conditioning,
and heater (environmental engine and drive train passengers
control and life support [ECLSS]) (propulsion) (payload)
Figure 11-16. A Spacecraft "Bus." The major functions performed on a spacecraft are also performed on a school bus.
A school bus is designed to take its payload-students-to and from
school, and all of its subsystems support this goal. To design a school bus,
we must understand the specific needs of the payload. For this example,
we have to know things such as
• How far and how fast the students need to go, so we have a big
enough engine and plenty of gas
• How many students there are, so we know how big to make the bus
• How warm to keep the bus, so the students don't freeze or overheat
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
In addition to knowing these things to directly support the payload, the
school bus designer must keep in mind other requirements to support the
overall mission. This leads to the design of other important subsystems
such as the steering system and the horn and the radio.
Now that we've shown how a school bus works to support its payload,
let's apply the analogy to understand the specific subsystems that
comprise a spacecraft bus. Figure 11-17 shows an exploded view of the
Magellan spacecraft with its payload and many of its subsystems. In this
final phase of the space systems engineering process, we want to
understand the critical requirements that drive the subsystem design.
i
high-gain antenna solar array
low-gain
antenna
payload
spacecraft
bus
1
Figure 11-17. Spacecraft Subsystems. This exploded view of the Magellan spacecraft
shows the location of many of the subsystems, as well as the primary payload. The star
scanner is part of the attitude control subsystem. The solar arrays generate electrical power.
The structural elements hold the spacecraft together. The solid rocket motor and thrusters
make up the propulsion subsystem. The large high-gain antenna helps to communicate with
the ground system on Earth and to collect payload data as part of the synthetic aperture
radar (SAR). The black rectangles on the side of the forward equipment module are louvers
used for thermal control. Other elements of the spacecraft bus, such as the data-handling
subsystem, batteries, and other electronics, are packed safely inside. (Courtesy of Lockheed
Martin)
Steering-Spacecraft Control. School bus drivers must know what
route to take, where they are, and how to steer the bus to get where they
need to go. This is all part of controlling their vehicle. On a spacecraft,
there is a similar subsystem that "steers" the vehicle to control its attitude
and orbit. A spacecraft has to have the right attitude, or orientation, to
Figure 11-18. Attitude and Orbit Control. To
accurately point at ground stations, the Tracking
point cameras and antennas at targets on Earth. (Experience has shown
and Data Relay Satellite relies on its attitude there's nothing worse than a spacecraft with a bad attitude!) For attitude
and orbit control subsystem (AOCS). The control, rockets or other devices rotate it around its center of mass. Also, a
required mission pointing accuracy translates
Into attitude and orbit control budgets that drive spacecraft must be able to reach and maintain its operational orbit. To do
the AOCS design. (Courtesy of Hughes Space orbital control it uses rockets that perform the maneuvers described in
and Communications Company) Chapter 6. (Figure 11-18)
370
11.J Space Mission Design
The subsystem that controls the spacecraft's attitude and orbit we
naturally call the attitude and orbit control subsystem (AOCS). We derive the
critical performance budgets for the AOCS from the payload and other
system requirements. We can split these into an attitude-control budget
and an orbital-control budget. The attitude-control budget is the total
angular momentum that the spacecraft may use during the mission
lifetime. The orbital-control budget is the total /',. V needed to reach and
maintain the operational orbit.
In addition to the raw numbers in the performance budgets, AOCS
designers need to know how the spacecraft will determine its attitude
and orbit and what mechanisms it will use to control it. In Chapter 12
we'll describe in greater detail how control systems use sensors, rockets
and other tools to keep spacecraft pointed in the right direction and
settled into the right orbit.
The Horn, Radio, and Driver-Communication and Data Handling.
On school buses, drivers have a demanding (and often thankless job).
They have to
• Monitor the activities of dozens of overactive little "payloads" in the
back of the bus (using their eyes), while
• Keeping the passengers comfortable (using the heater I air
conditioner), while
• Keeping track of the bus's location (using their eyes and a map),
while
• Steering the bus on the road and dodging road hazards (using the
steering wheel), while
• Communicating location with the central office (using the radio),
while
• Announcing their frustrations to other busses and cars (using the
horn), while
• Getting their bus where it needs to go (using the engine,
transmission, and wheels)
We can easily identify the driver on the school bus, in the front, behind
the steering wheel. On a spacecraft, the driver is less easy to pick out, but
the role is just as important. If we look at the list of tasks the driver needs
to perform, we can see they interact with the payload and all other
subsystems in the spacecraft, as well as users and operators on the
ground. This interaction is in the form of communicating and handling
data from other parts of the bus and the outside world. For this reason,
the "driver" of the spacecraft bus is called the communication and data- Figure 11-19. Communlcatlon and Data-
handling subsystem (CDHS). handling Subsystem (CDHS). The CDHS
collects and processes data from onboard and
The school bus drivers take in information about the route and the from the ground, decides on courses of action,
bus's performance, and processes this information through their brain to and executes commands. Here a NASA
decide how to use it. On a spacecraft, the CDHS consists of computers to astronaut performs these functions as he talks
to mission control while analyzing mission
collect, process, and store data and radios to communicate to the outside data. (Courtesy of NASA!Jo/Jnson Space
world. (Figure 11-19) Center)
371
hapter 11 Space Sy terns Engineering
A spacecraft may have several computers that work in the same way as
a typical home computer. The size and complexity of onboard systems for
data handling depend on the volume of commands and data received,
stored, processed, and transmitted, as well as the degree of autonomy
built into the vehicle. In design terms, we define these data budgets similar
to specifications for our personal computer: speed (instructions per second
e.g. "333 MIPS") and storage (e.g. "Megabytes" or "Gigabytes").
Radios on a spacecraft are not that different from the AM/FM radios
we listen to every day. In fact, a spacecraft may have several radios to
• Allow controllers to keep track of where the spacecraft is, check how
it's doing, and tell it what to do
• Send mission data back to users
• Relay data sent from ground stations
Analysis of the communication requirements produces a link budget that
specifies parameters for the type of radio and the amount of data.
Engineers use the data budgets and link budgets, along with other mission
and subsystem requirements to design the CDHS. We'll learn more about
how they do this when we explore the fundamentals of communication
and data-handling subsystems in more detail in Chapter 13.
Battery and Alternator-Electrical Power. To start the school bus in
the morning, the driver uses electrical power stored in the battery. Once
the engine is running, the alternator keeps the battery charged and
provides electrical power to run the lights, the radio, and other electrical
components. Just li.ke the school bus, spacecraft depend on electrical
power to keep components running.
The electrical power on a spacecraft is no different from the electrical
power used to run your television. Unfortunately, in space, there's no
outlet to plug into, and an extension cord to Earth would have to be very
long! Therefore, a spacecraft must produce its own electrical power from
some energy source, just as the school bus uses chemical energy released
from burning gasoline to run the engine that turns the alternator. In
Chapter 13, we'll see how the electrical power subsystem (EPS) converts
some energy, such as solar energy, into usable electrical power and stores
it to run the entire spacecraft. We add the electrical power requirements
for each of the other bus systems to determine the total electrical power
budget. This is the biggest driver of the EPS design.
Radiator, Air Conditioner, and Heater-Environmental Control and
Life Support. A school bus engine would overheat without a radiator to
Figure 11-20. Environmental Control and keep it cool. The radiator circulates a mixture of water and antifreeze
Life-supportSubsystem (ECLSS). To keep through the engine block, where it heats up and then transfers the heat to
the payload healthy and happy, the ECLSS
must maintain the temperature within an the cooler air that rushes through the radiator. If you've ever ridden on a
acceptable operating range and provide air, school bus on a cold winter morning or a hot summer day, you also
water, food, and other amenities, if necessary. know the bus's heating and air conditioning systems can be life savers!
Here, astronaut Cady Coleman tends to a
mouse-ear plant on Columbia's flight deck All these subsystems are designed to keep the passengers comfortable
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center) (Figure 11-20).
372
11.1 Space Mission Design
Similarly, a spacecraft must regulate the temperature of its components
to keep them from getting too cold or too hot. In addition, on the Shuttle
and the International Space Station, astronauts must be protected from
the harsh space environment. They need a breathable atmosphere at a
comfortable temperature, humidity, and pressure, along with water and
food to sustain life. Unmanned spacecraft don't have these tight require-
ments on passenger comfort, however, careful temperature control is still
critical to keep payloads functioning normally.
The job of the spacecraft environmental control and life-support subsystem
(ECLSS) is to provide the required temperature, atmosphere and other
conditions necessary to keep the payload (including astronauts!) healthy
and happy. Rather than specifying budgets, we typically state ECLSS
design requirements in terms of acceptable operating rauges. For example, a
payload sensor may have a temperature range of 0° to 50° C, or an
astronaut may need an atmospheric pressure of 1 ±0.1 bar (14.5 ±1.5
p.s.i.). In Chapter 13 we'll learn how a spacecraft moderates temperatures
and other parameters to keep vital components and passengers working
smoothly.
The Body and Frame-Structures and Mechanisms. Holding the
school bus together are all sorts of beams, struts, and fasteners. These
components comprise the basic structure of the bus and support the loads
it feels as it bounces along the road. The school bus structure literally Figure 11·21. Spacecraft Structure. Here
holds it together. When the driver steps on the gas pedal, the bus we see a technician working on the NICMOS
accelerates, forcing passengers back into their seats. When a spacecraft remote-sensing instrument. It's structure holds
everything together and supports it during
blasts into orbit, it experiences a similar force as the launch vehicle launch. (Courtesy of Ball Aerospace &
accelerates it into space. The spacecraft structure must be sturdy enough Technologies Corporation)
to handle all these high loads and hold all the other subsystems in place.
In addition to these static structures, spacecraft also have many
mechanisms that crank, extend, bend, and turn to deploy solar panels,
extend antennas, or perform other functions. In Chapter 13, we'll see the
kinds of structures needed to hold spacecraft together, learn some of the
basic principles of structural analysis, and discover the types of
mechanisms needed to complete the mission, as we look at the structures
and mechanisms subsystem. (Figure 11-21)
The Engine and Drive Train-Propulsion Subsystem. Finally, the bus
has an engine and drive train. These supply torque to the wheels, moving
the bus where the driver wants it to go. This torque, combined with the
friction of the wheels on the road, causes the bus to move forward just as
Newton's Third Law of Motion (for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction) describes. In space we take advantage of Newton's Third Law by
using rockets to expel mass in one direction causing the spacecraft to
move in the other. Large rockets on launch vehicles produce the necessary
thrust to get the spacecraft into orbit. (Figure 11-22) Once there, smaller
rockets in its propulsion subsystem produce thrust to maneuver it Figure 11 ·22. Propulsion Subsystem. The
between orbits and control its attitude. propulsion subsystem consists of the rockets
that take a spacecraft where it needs to go and
The design of the propulsion subsystem depends to a large extent on
maintain its orbit. Here, an engineer inspects
the attitude and orbital-control budgets determined by the AOCS. But we the Shuttle main engines prior to STS-51.
must consider other factors as well, such as the number and size of (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
373
Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
maneuvers and how quickly they must be performed. From these
requirements, we can derive an equally important design parameter for
the propulsion system, the propellant budget. No one would start a long
bus journey without a full tank of gas. Similarly, designers must carefully
determine how much "gas" or propellant the spacecraft must have to
satisfy mission requirements. In Chapter 14 we'll explore rocket science in
greater detail to learn how rockets take spacecraft where we want them to
go in space and how much propellant they need to get there.
The Design Process
Now that we understand the scope of the subsystem design task, we can
step back to look at the process needed to complete the spacecraft design.
The challenge is to painstakingly design every mechanical and electrical
detail of the payload, along with every bus subsystem, and carefully define
the interfaces between them. Once again, requirements drive the process.
For example, the mission concept and payload determine the attitude and
orbital-control budgets. These budgets affect design decisions about how
the control system measures and changes the spacecraft's orientation and
position in space. These results determine the mission's velocity change,
11 V, and propellant budgets that drive the propulsion system design. The
communication and data-handling subsystem must receive and process
commands to move the spacecraft and reorient it. While the propulsion
subsystem provides the 11 V to change the spacecraft's orbit, the structure
must bear the loads this maneuver generates. The environmental control
and life-support subsystem must dissipate the additional heat that sunlight
on the spacecraft creates. Finally, all subsystems need electrical power to
meet these demands. During the "design loop," of the space systems
engineering process, these detailed subsystem design issues must be
constantly traded with overall system requirements.
Figure 11-23 shows the interdependence involved with the design of all
the subsystems. Notice all subsystems link together in a continuous
chain. Spacecraft designers must be very conscious of this interrelation-
ship between the payload and the bus subsystems. During the design
process, seemingly innocent changes to the design of the electrical power
subsystem, for example, may have profound effects on the performance
of other subsystems. Thus, the design process is, by its very nature, an
iterative one. That is, changes to one subsystem lead to changes in
another which, in turn, lead to changes in another and ... well, you get
the idea.
We can never achieve a perfect design. One of the most important,
practical rules of engineering design is "Better Is the Enemy of Good." We
can design a perfectly good system to death in an attempt to constantly
reach for a "better" design. Time and money (two sides of the same coin)
are not infinite. At some point we have to quit designing and go with the
design we have. The best we can hope for is to iterate the process enough
times to reach a design that satisfies the mission performance require-
ments on time and within budget.
374
11.1 Space Mission Design
attitude and
orbit control
subsystem
(AOCS)
Figure 11-23. The Spacecraft Design Process. Here we show how the Interdependence
of all the spacecraft subsystems. When we adjust the design of one subsystem, we are likely
to have to adjust some, or all, of the other subsystems.
It is also important to keep in mind that the subsystem design is only
one part of the problem. After we have a design, we have to build the
spacecraft. All too often, initial designs satisfy mission requirements, but
are difficult or impossible to build! Throughout the design process, there
needs to be good communication between the engineer that designs the
part and the technician who must make it. Dcsign~for-111a11ufncturing
principles force us to focus on issues such as types of materials, number
of parts, commonality of components and other details that can make the
crucial difference between a useful subsystem that can be economically
produced and one that simply can't be built.
Design and Analysis Tools
With perhaps billions of dollars or even human lives at stake,
programmatic and system design decisions made throughout the space
systems engineering process can't rely on gut feelings alone. We must
support all decisions, big or small, with hard data. How do we
characterize the mission subject? What payload will detect it? What is the
spacecraft's mass? Will the launch vehicle deliver it to the right orbit? To
help make these decisions, mission planners and systems engineers have a
wide variety of design and analysis tools in their toolkit. These range from
375
Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
simple "back of the envelope" calculations using a pencil, paper, and
calculator (or spreadsheet) to complex computer simulations requiring
hours of run time.
Computer-based tools have increasingly become indispensable to
modern space systems engineering. From initial mission definition through
requirements trade-off and subsystem design iterations, these sophisticated
tools allow designers to quickly assess the far ranging impact of a single
decision on the entire mission architecture. Off-the-shelf packages that
support routine analysis and design tasks are now widely available to
rapidly perform complex orbital analysis (Figure 11-24) or complete
detailed engineering drawings.
Ironically, as these design and analysis tools become more
sophisticated and widely used, it becomes even more important that
mission designers understand the fundamental principles on which
they're based. Because the ultimate responsibility for the mission success
Figure 11-24. Mission Analysis. Computer- (or failure) rests with the mission planners, they must carefully act as a
based mission analysis tools allow engineers to "reality check" on all analysis results. The "garbage in, garbage out" rule
rapidly model mission scenarios and trade-of always applies. The designers must understand the assumptions behind
system requirements. (Courtesy of Analytical
Graphics, Inc.) the analysis in order to assess the reasonableness of the results. If the
spacecraft breaks, we can't blame it all on the computer simulation!
Validating the Design
One of the biggest challenges during the design phase is keeping the
entire mission in perspective. Too often, people responsible for specific
subsystems get so involved in designing their own small piece of the
mission that they lose sight of how their decisions affect other subsystems
and the overall mission performance. Figure 11-25 offers a humorous look
at how different subsystem designers often view the spacecraft.
Of course, we don't want subsystem managers to look at the spacecraft
this way. To design a spacecraft to meet the objectives on time and within
budget, everyone involved with a project must keep one eye clearly
focused on the overall mission-the big picture. Only then can they make
effective trade-offs between competing requirements to produce the best
result. For this reason, we build the "Validation Loop" into the systems
engineering process. This loop forces us to constantly compare subsystem
design decisions to the original mission requirements. The most cleverly
designed subsystem is useless if it doesn't support the payload. The most
high-tech spacecraft is useless if it doesn't satisfy the user's needs.
Figure 11-26 summarizes the entire space systems engineering process
we've explored in this chapter. As we learned, one of the biggest drivers
of the design process is the payload. Because payloads are so important to
mission planning and to the ultimate design of the entire spacecraft, let's
continue by looking at the physical limitations on their design in the next
section.
376
11.1 Space Mission Design
a pacccrnft according tu ...
commun.icatiun
designers
Figure 11·25. The Spacecraft According to the Communication, Controls, Payload,
Power, Rocket, Structure, and Trajectory Designers. Sometimes individual subsystem
designers get so focused on their subsystem they lose sight of the overall mission.
design and
analysis
tools
derive system requirements
1.L~~jd!ll!f!~---J • review constraints on mission architecture
(launch vehicle, orbit, operations)
l
requirements loop • identify and characterize mission subject
• derive payload requirements
• derive orbit requirements
= determine basic spacecraft size and mass
• identify potential launch vehicle(s)
• derive operations network ~---'---------'-------'----~
requirements design subsystem
I
• start wi~h payload
requirements
design loop • define subsystem
performance budgets
validation loop • iterate spacecraft
design
• destgn for rnanufaotunng ,
Figure 11-26. Space Systems Engineering Process. By following this process, systems engineers design spacecraft that meet mission
requirements while staying within budget and schedule constraints.
377
Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
- Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
acceptable operating ranges > We can apply the systems engineering process, illustrated in
attitude and orbit control Figure 11-4, to any project from a backyard BBQ platform to a
sub ystem (AOCS) space platform. It consists of
attitude-control budget • Three major steps
bus
- Define mission requirements and constraints
communication and data-handling
subsystem (CDHS) - Derive system requirements and constraints
data budgets - Design subsystems
design-for-manufacturing • Three "loops" that form processes within the proces
design-to-cost - Requirements loop-verify derived requirements match
environmental control and life- overall mission requirements and constraints
support subsystem (ECLSS)
- Design loop-verify subsystem designs meet system
link budget
requirements and constraints
mis i n objective
mission statement - Validation loop-verify the overall system design meets
operations concept mission requirements and constraints
orbital-control budget • Design and analysis tools include computer-based and
payload other techniques to calculate subsystem specifications and
propellant budget simulate trade-offs
subject > During the first step of the space systems engineering process we
systems engineering define mission requirements and constraints, This involves
users
• Define mission statement
- State the mission objective-why we do the mission
- Identify mission users-who will benefit from or use the
information produced by the mission
- Create the operations concept-how will all the mission
e1ements fit together
- Identify mission constraints (cost, schedule, and
performance)
> During th second step of the space systems engineering
proc ss, we derive the system requirements
• Review the constraints on mis ion architecture (launch
vehicle, orbit, operations, etc.)
• Identify and characterize th~ mission subject-the subject
of a mission is "what" the spacecraft payload will sense or
iJ1 teract wi th
• Derive payload requir ments
• Derive orbital requirements
• Determine basic spacecraft size and mass
• Identify potential launch vehicle(s)
• Derive the operations-network requirements
Continued on next page
378
11.1 Space Mission Design
!!!!!!!!!!!! Section Review (Continued)
Key Concepts (Continued)
> The spacecraft bu provides all the housekeeping functions needed to run the payload and get data to
users
> The attitude and orbit control subsystem (AOCS) controls the spacecraft's attitude, so it can point in the
.ight direction, and controls the spacecraft's po ition and velocity, so it can get where it needs to go
• The attitude budget is the total angular momentum the spacecraft may use during the mission lifetime
• The orbital-control budget is the total ;,... V needed to reach and maintain the mission's operational orbit
> The communication and data-handling subsystem (CDHS) consists of cornput rs and radio needed to
process mission data, as well as send and receive information from operators on the ground
• The data budgets refer to the total amount of data the CDHS must proc ss and store
• The link budget refers to the amount of data that must be communicated to/ from the ground station
> The electrical power subsystem (EPS) converts energy from some source into usable electrical power to
run the other subsystems and the payload. The spacecraft power budget is the sum total of all mission
electrical power requirements.
> The environmental control and Life-support subsystem (ECLSS) controls
• Temperature for all onboard hardware
• The environment, including air and water, for fragile human payloads
• Requirements are specified in terms of operating ranges, e.g., temperature between 0° and 50° C
> The structural subsystem holds together all the other subsystems and payload and withstands launch
and mission loads. A variety of mechanisms may also deploy and retract throughout the mission.
> The propulsion subsystem provides the torque and a V needed by the AOCS. The propellant budget is
the sum total of propellant needed throughout the mission.
> The spacecraft design process (as illustrated in Figure 11-23) is inherently iterative as changes made in
one subsystem ultimately effect the design of all other subsystems
> Figure 11-26 illustrates the space systems engineering process
379
Example 11-1
Problem Statement Find: 1) Define the mission requirements and
constraints
Environmental damage from forest fires can destroy 2) Derive the system requirements and
valuable resources and wildlife habitats. To contain constraints
fires before they rage out of control, forest services
worldwide need timely warning of new fires. You have
been given the job of program manager for the FireSat
mission to detect and locate fires that exceed 4 hectares
(40,000 m2 or -10 acres) and notify U.S. and other Conceptual Solution
national forest services worldwide within 24 hours.
This is a low-cost demonstration mission to prove the There are practically an infinite number of possible
usefulness of a space-based forest fire system. This will mission designs to satisfy this need. We'll go through
be a "bare bones" mission with a total budget of $10M one possible solution that will serve as the basis for
for all spacecraft and 5 years of operation. Operations subsequent example problems.
will be conducted from an existing ground station in
Colorado Springs, Colorado, U.S.A., with mission data 1) Define mission requirements and constraints
distributed to users through the Internet. Launches
Stepping through the process outlined in Figure
will be donated, but must be "piggy back" opportuni- 11-26
ties on the new Falcon launch vehicle. These donated
opportunities allow spacecraft designers to use spare Define the mission statement
launch capacity to place small spacecraft into 500-km
altitude circular, polar orbits (near the sunsynchronous • Define the mission objective-detect and locate
orbit of the primary payload). Launches are limited to forest fires (>4 hectares) worldwide and inform
"nanosatellites" up to 15 kg in mass with dimensions the users within 24 hours
of 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.30 m. Each launch can accommodate
3 nanosatellites and there will be 2 launch opportuni- • Identify the users-national forest services in
ties available beginning in 2 years (a total of up to 6 the U.S. and worldwide
spacecraft). To satisfy the mission sponsors (the people • Define the operations concept-Assume the
with the money), the mission must be operational mission will need a six-satellite constellation to
within 3 years. Complete, on a conceptual basis only, provide 24-hour notification to users. All
the first two phases of the space systems engineering operations will take place from an existing
process for this mission. ground station in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Spacecraft will collect and store mission data
onboard and relay it to the ground station when
they pass overhead. Notify the users through
the Internet.
Problem Summary
Define the mission constraints
Given: Need to detect and locate forest fires (>4
hectares) worldwide and provide information • Cost-<$10M
to forest services within 24 hours. Launch • Schedule-first 3 spacecraft ready for launch in
opportunities for nanosatellites (up to 15 kg 2 years
with dimensions of 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.30 m) into
500-km altitude, circular, polar orbits. Total • Performance-minimum to detect >4 hectares
budget of $10M. The mission must be from 500-km circular, polar orbit and relay data
operational within 3 years. to the ground station
380
Example 11-1 (Continued)
2) Derive the system requirements and constraints Interpretingthe Results
We can now look at each of the major systems that The space systems engineering process is a powerful
comprise the mission architecture to see what tool that helps us translate general mission require-
requirements and constraints are already known ments and constraints into more specific system and
• Launch vehicle-constrained by mission subsystem requirements. From these, we can start to
management to be the Falcon launch vehicle. design the hardware to do the mission. In this scenario,
No further requirements can be defined at this much of the mission architecture was "pre-defined" by
point. Specific requirements of the launch the mission constraints. This is not unusual for typical
vehicle will come from the launch vehicle missions, especially low-cost ones. For our FireSat
provider. mission, we have described a system of 6 satellites in
500-km circular, polar orbits. Each spacecraft must be
• Orbit-constrained by the launch vehicle to less than or equal to 15 kg and not exceed the volume
500-km, circular, polar. No further of a cube 0.30 m on a side. The spacecraft must have a
requirements can be defined. payload capable of detecting forest fires >4 hectares
• Operations network-constrained by mission (40,000 m2) and relaying this information each time it
management to be the existing facility in passes over the single ground station in Colorado
Colorado Springs, Colorado. No further Springs, Colorado. Users will receive this information
requirements can be defined at this point. from the ground station through the Internet. The
Specific requirements will come from the entire mission must be operational in 3 years at a total
ground station operators. cost (excluding launch) of $10M. For other example
problems, in this and subsequent chapters, we'll
• Spacecraft-constrained by the launch vehicle continue this scenario to see how the systems engi-
to be <15 kg with dimensions of 0.30 x 0.30 x neering process is used as we define more details of the
0.30 m. 5 year onboard lifetime. Derived mission.
requirements include
- Payload capable of detecting forest fire >4
hectares from the mission orbit
- Spacecraft bus must support the payload
- Spacecraft bus must communicate
mission data to existing operations
network
381
Chapter 1 "J Space Systems Engineering
11.2 Remote-sensing Payloads
m= In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,,... Identify the elements of a remote-sensing system
.- Describe and comput important parameters of electromagnetic
radiation
,... Use Wien's Law and the Stefan-Boltzmann equation to analyze an
object's temperature versus the wavelength of its emitted radiation
,... Identify the two types of remote-sensing payloads and describe
their basic functions
As you read this book and listen to the sounds around you, your eyes
and ears act as sensors to help you perceive your surroundings. Your eyes
see all the colors of the rainbow-light. Your ears detect tiny disturbances
in the pressure of the air around you-sound. Payloads are the "eyes"
and "ears" of a spacecraft. Payloads detect objects on Earth and in space.
They also "talk" to other spacecraft and Earth-based ground stations.
Looking and listening from space involves sensing portions of the
etectromaguetic (EM) spectrum. All space missions-communications,
navigation, weather, and remote-sensing-rely on the EM spectrum to
collect data and interact with other elements of the mission.
To further illustrate the basic process of payload design that we began
in the last section, we'll concentrate on remote eensing-:« broad category
of missions designed to detect and monitor subjects on Earth, on other
planets, or far out in space. Remote sensing missions monitor the global
environment, observe the weather, spy on enemies, search for natural
resources, assess agricultural yields, observe the universe, and even
detect forest fires, like the one shown in Figure 11-27, and communicate
this information to users.
Electromagnetic energy provides the information necessary for remote
sensing. This energy is either emitted by a subject, e.g., the Sun, or reflects
off the subject, e.g., ships at sea. For example, if a spacecraft needs to
detect an airplane in flight, the EM radiation originates at the Sun. This
radiation first travels through space and through the atmosphere. It then
reflects off the airplane, carrying information back through the
Flgure 11 ·27. Forest Fires from Space. atmosphere for sensors on the spacecraft to detect. Computers on the
NASA astronauts captured this photograph of
a forest fire. The FireSat mission would need
spacecraft process the detected radiation, forming an image of the
other types of remote-sensing payloads to airplane, which it relays to users on the ground. Figure 11-28 shows how
automatically detect them. (Courtesy of NASA! these components of a remote-sensing system all work together. To learn
Johnson Space Center)
more about these systems, let's start by looking closer at the EM
spectrum.
382
11.2 Remote-sensing Payloads
( 4) spacecraft ~ Gti
dtetsBM
·ad iaitiion
(2) interaction with.
atmosphere
(3) EM radiation interacts with
and emits from subject ~ /
----- ---- -·- -------(·.
__j
~/
"\
Figure 11-28. Components of a Remote-sensing Mission. A basic remote-sensing
system includes an EM radiation source, atmospheric interaction, a subject, a sensor, and
an information link to users.
The ElectromagneticSpectrum
The colors of the rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet or "Roy G. Biv" if you need an easy way to remember them)
represent the range or spectrum of light that is visible to the human eye.
However, this spectrum is only a tiny fraction of all possible colors. Colors
of light beyond the visible range we refer to as bands of electromagnetic
radiation. The light we see with our eyes is just one small part of the entire
EM spectrum. Figure 11-29 shows the entire EM spectrum with key parts
identified. We use the visible portion of the spectrum to take conventional
pictures using reflected light. We use the infrared part of the spectrum to
sense heat emitted by a subject. Finally, we use radio wavelengths to
transmit voice, television, and radio signals. Most space missions use
several different parts of the EM spectrum.
for extreme
infrared infrared
visible 0.4 Q.b as l.O 6.0 15 30 "-
r1-, 3.0
~
'1.lh:lt014 ):<lll14 5xl013 2x1013 lxl013 f(Hz)
gamma x-rays ultra- infrared . radio
I
rays violet
I I
~HF SHF UHF VHF HF MF
II
LF
I
VL~l
I
O.IA IA IOA lOOA O.l urn lµm IOµm IOOµm O.Jcm 'l cm lOc111 lm JOm 100111 lkm 10km 100km 'A
3xl019 3x1017 3xlO"' 3xJOl3 3xl011 3x109 3xl07 3x1os 3x1Q3 f(Hz)
Figure 11-29. ~M Spectrum. Here we see the entire EM spectrum. Frequencies are in Hz. Wavelengths are in Angstroms, meters, urn, etc.
One Angstrom, A, Is 10-10 m, one ftm is 10-6 m, one cm is 10-2 m, and one km is 1000 m.
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
Electromagnetic radiation is a fickle phenomenon. We can describe it
as either particle or wave motion. Sometimes it's useful to think about
EM radiation as waves, such as the ripples on a pond after we've dropped
in a rock. EM waves spread out from the source, traveling at the speed of
light: 300,000 km/ s (186,000 mi. Is). These waves can be detected by
sensors (like our eyes) and interpreted by computers (like our brains).
Other times it's more useful to think of radiation as photons-tiny,
massless bundles of energy emitted from the source at the speed of light.
This dual nature of radiation (sometimes called the "wave-icle" theory)
can, of course, lead to some confusion. For the most part, except where
noted, we'll think of radiation as waves.
Because payloads can use different parts of the EM spectrum, we need
to understand how we describe these different types of radiation. Let's
look at the EM wave shown in Figure 11-30. The distance from crest to
crest is called the uxtoelength, J... The number of waves that go by in one
second is the frequency, f So, if 10 waves or cycles go by per second, the
frequency is 10 cycles/s or 10 Hertz (1 cycle/s = 1 Hz). The time it takes
for just one wave to go by is 1 If. That is, if the frequency is 10 Hz, one
cycle takes 1 /10 second. Now, because we know that distance is just speed
Figure 11-30. Wavelength. We describe EM multiplied by time, we can relate wavelength, speed, and frequency as
radiation in terms of its wavelength (1,.)-the
distance between crests or the waves.
A = ~ (11-1)
f
where
A = wavelength (m)
c = speed of light in a vacuum= 3 x 108 m/ s
f = frequency (Hz)
Energy in EM radiation relates to the number of waves that hit an object
during a given time. Thus, ten waves hitting in one second (10 Hz)
delivers twice the energy of five waves (5 Hz). This energy relationship
can be expressed as
Q=hf (11-2)
where
Q = energy (joules, J)
f = frequency (Hz)
h = Planck's constant= 6.626 x 10-34 J · s
Equation (11-2) implies more energy is available at higher frequencies,
so higher-frequency waves have more energy than lower-frequency
waves. For example, radio frequencies have much less energy than X-
rays. That's why we can walk through radio waves all day long without
worry, but must take special precautions around medical X-ray
equipment. As we discussed in Chapter 3, this high energy radiation can
have harmful effects on the human body.
Figure 11-31. Electromagnetic Radiation Whenever EM radiation hits an object, one of three things can happen, as
Interacting with an Object. When EM radiation
hits an object, the energy is either transmitted, Figure 11-31 illustrates. The object transmits, reflects, or absorbs the energy.
reflected, or absorbed. Trauemitted euergy passes directly through an object, (like light through a
384
11.2 Remote-sensing Payloads
pane of glass). Reflected e11ergi; bounces off the object (like light off a mirror).
Absorbed energy adds to the internal energy of the object (usually in the
form of heat, like a hot pavement on a sunny day). From the principle of
conservation of energy discussed in Chapter 4, we can say that the sum of
the transmitted, reflected, and absorbed energy must equal the total energy
that initially hits the object. The amount of energy transmitted, reflected, or
absorbed depends on the wavelength (or frequency) of the incident energy
and the properties of the material. In the following sections, we'll explore
the importance of transmission, reflection, and absorption to remote
sensing missions.
Seeing through the Atmosphere
On a crystal clear night, we can see the light from stars thousands of
light years away. On nights like these, the sky appears completely
transparent. In other words, it transmits all the radiation that hits it. But
we know that on a cloudy day, we can't see the Sun, so not all the light is
being transmitted. However, even on a cloudy day it can be warm and we
can still get sunburned. How can this be? It turns out that the atmosphere
is selectively transparent to different wavelengths 0£ radiation. On a
cloudless day, we see light from the Sun, £eel its heat, and get sunburned
from its ultraviolet (UV) radiation. On a cloudy day, some of the light and
heat are blocked, but some UV radiation still gets through, so we can still
get sunburned. Clouds consist of water droplets that block certain
wavelengths of radiation. Even on a clear day, different molecules in
Earth's atmosphere, such as ozone, block various wavelengths, such as,
certain harmful frequencies of UV. This protects living things on Earth
from the harmful effects of radiation, as discussed in Chapter 3.
For a remote-sensing system, we want to collect the EM radiation
reflected by or emitted from objects on Earth's surface, while our spacecraft
is above the atmosphere in space. We also need to use radio waves to
communicate to and from the surface, again through the atmosphere. Thus,
we must know which wavelengths the atmosphere readily blocks and
those that easily pass through it. Figure 11-32 shows the percentage of each
wavelength of EM radiation that passes through the atmosphere.
energy 100%
U) transmitted
·o~
&i~
;a0 O"'
~Jj 0%
0.3µm lµm lOµm lOOµm lmm lcm 10cmlm
wavelength
Figure 11-32. AtmosphericWindows. This graph depicts the transmission characteristics
of Earth's atmosphere at various wavelengths. Notice that certain parts of the EM
spectrum-visible light, heat, and radio waves-get through the atmosphere while other
wavelengths are blocked. [1979, Lillesand]
385
Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
Notice in Figure 11-32 that some wavelengths (such as visible light) are
completely transmitted while others are almost completely blocked. We
see that our spacecraft instruments have access to Earth from space
through various windows of transmission. Atmospheric ,t indows are the
wavelengths that are 80%-100% transmitted through the atmosphere.
The most notable atmospheric windows are the visible, infrared, and
radio wavelengths. Using the visible and infrared windows, spacecraft
instruments can peer through the atmosphere to sense properties of
objects on Earth from space. We use the radio-frequency window to p21ss
television and radio signals from studios on the ground through satellites
to our living rooms. Now that we've shown how transmission of EM
radiation allows us to see through the atmosphere, let's take a closer look
at what we're seeing.
What We See
After EM radiation makes it through the atmosphere, it hits a subject (a
field of grass, a patch of dirt, or other object), which either reflects or
absorbs it. Reflected light is what we see. If we look out a window on a
sunny day, the grass is green because it absorbs all light frequencies
except green, which it reflects. The dirt is brown because it absorbs all
frequencies except those that mix to make the color we call brown. In
conversation, we say "the grass is green" and the "the dirt is brown," but
in reality the grass is every color except green and dirt is every color except
brown! Because objects reflect different wavelengths of EM radiation,
measuring the amount and type of radiation reflected tells us many
things about it. Just by the color, we can conclude that green grass is alive
and brown grass is dead. More detailed analysis of the reflected energy
can tell us about soil properties, moisture content, types of grass, and
many other important details.
As noted earlier, absorbed energy causes an object to heat up.
K (material property) However, some objects are already hot. A piece of metal heated in a fire
starts to glow red-hot, as shown in Figure 11-33. This red color is not due
to reflected energy, but due to emitted energy. Everything above the
temperature of absolute O K (-273° C or -460° F) emits some EM
radiation. It's easy to imagine that the Sun, at 6000 K, emits energy we call
sunshine. However, Earth, at a mere 300 K, emits radiation in the form of
"Earth shine," as well. You too, at a robust 310 K (98.6° F), emit EM
radiation (and you thought it was just your glowing personality). Because
everything has some temperature, everything emits some EM radiation.
Objects emit EM radiation at different wavelengths depending on their
Figure 11-33. Red Hot. When a piece of
metal reaches a certain temperature, ii begins material properties and temperature. The classic explanation for this
to glow red hot. This represents the emittance phenomenon is that thermal radiation begins with accelerated, charged
of EM radiation due to temperature. particles near the surface of an object. These charges then emit radiation
like tiny little antennas. The thermally excited charges can have different
accelerations, which explains why an object emits energy at many
different wavelengths.
386
J 1.2 Remote-sensing Payloads
Max Planck (1858-1947) refined this explanation and helped to usher
in the field of quantum physics. He postulated that objects emit energy in .24~~~--------~
tiny bundles or "quanta" called photons. Planck used a black-body as his
perfect case. A black body is an object that absorbs and re-emits all of the
radiation that strikes it. He developed a model that related the amount of
power given off at specific wavelengths as a function of an object's
temperature. Remember the glowing red-hot piece of metal? Using
Planck's relationship, we can relate the distribution of wavelengths of this
glow directly to its temperature. The curves in Figure 11-34 show the wavclength(µm)
wavelengths of black-body radiation for the Sun and Earth. Figure 11-34. Planck's Black-body Radia·
Notice in Figure 11-34 that the peak output for the Sun is in the visible tion Curve for the Sun. The hotter the object,
region. Thus, our eyes take advantage of the most abundant type of such as the Sun, the more EM radiation it emits
at shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies and
radiation from the Sun. How convenient! The relationship between hence higher energy). As this graph illustrates,
temperature and wavelength of peak emission had been noted earlier by the Sun at a robust 6000 K emits energy over a
Wilhelm Wien (1864-1928). Wien's Displacement Law relates the range of wavelengths that peak in the visible
wavelength (and hence the frequency) of maximum output for a given bands. UV refers to ultraviolet (1979, Lillesandl.
black-body radiator to its temperature.
I Am ~ ~ I (11-3)
where
Am = wavelength of the maximum output (urn)
T = object's temperature (K)
For the Sun at 6000 K, Am is 0.483 µm, which is in the middle of the range
of visible light (0.39-0.74 µm). Just what we'd expect!
Astra Fun Fact
The Greenhouse Effect
The property of the atmosphere that makes it transparent to some wavelengths but opaque to others, causes the
greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a result of near-infrared radiation at short wavelengths being
allowed into the atmosphere. When this radiation hits the ground and ocean, it's reflected or re-radiated
O
~
as longer-wave radiation, such as far infrared, which can't penetrate the atmosphere. Thus,
energy is "trapped" in the atmosphere as heat. Without the greenhouse effect, the effective
temperature of Earth would be about 0° F (-18° C). Thus, the greenhouse effect is a
very useful, natural phenomenon which keeps Ea,th warm enough to
support life. The controversy over the greenhouse effect has to do with
man-made things that block Earth's window that allows thermal radiation
(heat) to escape. Cerlain man-made and naturally occurring compounds,
JA.i-CJ~;-, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and methane, block this window. As
a result, Earth may heat up even more than we want it to. NASA's Earlh
Science Enterprise spacecraft will observe the greenhouse effect to deter-
mine whether human actions, such as pollution and deforestation, or
natural phenomena, such as volcanos, may lead to more global warming.
Masters, Prof. Gil. Environmental Science and Technology. Autumn
1989. Course Reader, CE170. Stanford University.
387
Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
Using Wien's law, we can determine the best frequency to use to see a
particular subject. For example, if we need to detect the hot plume from a
rocket's exhaust, we'd need to know its temperature and then design a
sensor tuned to the frequency of maximum output for that temperature.
We can also determine the total power output of black-body radiation.
To do this, we use the Stefan-Boltzmann equation developed by Joseph
Stefan (1853-1893) and theoretically derived by Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844-1906).
E (11-4)
where
E = object's energy per square meter (WI m2)
e = object's emissivity (0 < £ < 1)
a = Stefan-Boltzmann constant= 5.67 x 10-8 WI m2 K4
T = object's temperature (I<)
This equation estimates the total amount of energy available over all
wavelengths for a specified temperature. Note that the energy output of a
black body goes up as the fourth power of temperature. So, if we double an
object's temperature, its energy output increases 16 times! Recall we used
the Stefan-Boltzmann equation in Chapter 10 to estimate the amount of
energy emitted by a vehicle re-entering the atmosphere. Later, in Chapter 13,
we'll use this same relationship to analyze thermal control for spacecraft.
Payload Sensors
So far our discussion has focused mainly on the physics involved with
EM radiation used for remote sensing. Now let's look at the technology
involved with making workable sensor systems. To observe a subject on
the ground. a spacecraft sensor must
1) Look at it-move the sensor to point at the subject
2) See it-collect EM radiation from it
field of view 3) Convert it-transform EM radiation into usable data
4) Process it-tum data into usable information
Let's start with step one. If someone asks you what time it is, you need
to move your head or your eyes to focus on your watch or the clock on
the wall. Before you can see the clock, you must first look at it. Spacecraft
sensors have a similar limitation. Before they can see the subject, they
must first point at it. Sensor scanning mechanisms can vary widely in
complexity. Some sensors simply stare at the ground and use the
spacecraft's own motion over Earth to scan the area beneath it. In this
case, information collection is limited by the field-of-view of the sensor, as
Figure 11-35. Field-of-View (FOV). The
shown in Figure 11-35. Field-of-view (FOV) is the angular width that a
FOV of a satellite determines how much of sensor can see. Our eyes, for example, have an angular field-of-view of
Earth it can scan at any one time. about 130°. This means we can detect objects out to 65° on either side of
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1 J .2 Remote-sensing Payloads
where we look. The edge of this range is called our peripheral uisiou. There,
we can sense an object only if it's moving. To really see something, we use
the muscles around our eyes to move them in the direction of the object of
interest. Similarly, many spacecraft use mirrors to move the image in a
sweeping pattern to look at objects of interest. The speed at which this
motion takes place is called the scan rate.
The second important function of a sensor system is to collect incident
radiation and focus it on a detector. This is exactly what our eyes and aperture
cameras do. In our eyes, the lens collects light and focuses it on our retina.
In an ordinary camera, a lens gathers light from the subject and focuses it
onto photographic film, as shown in Figure 11-36. We use two important
parameters to describe how our eyes, a telescope, or any sensor works:
focal length and aperture. Focal length, fl, is the distance from the lens to
the detector. The aperture, D, is the diameter of the lens or antenna used.
The aperture gathers light either by refraction, using an ordinary lens, or
by reflection, using a mirror.
Cameras, small telescopes, and our eyes rely on refraction. Large
telescopes, such as the Hubble and a radio frequency antenna use Figure 11-36. Cameras. A camera "sees" an
reflection. For simplicity, we'll consider only the refraction case. A image by collecting light reflected from the
subject through the lens and focusing it on the
diagram of a simple space-based telescope is shown in Figure 11-37. The detector-photographic film.
radius of the detector is rd and the distance from the lens to the subject is
the height, h. For telescopes, we're most often interested in the
magnification factor it gives us-how close are things made to look that
are far away? We define magnification as the ratio of focal length to height
or detector radius to the ground image radius, Rg (the distance across the
ground that the instrument can "see.")
fl rd if .
h = R = magru ica tion (11-5)
g
Realize that twice the ground image radius, Rg, gives us the sensor
swath width (width of the field of view across the ground).
Swath width= 2 Rg
Knowing the focal length and the detector radius, we can also determine
the sensor field of view (FOV). Figure 11-37. Simple Space-based Tele-
scope. For an Earth-observing telescope, the
detector radius and focal length determine the
FOV = 2tan -I (rd)
If (11-6) field-of-view, the ground image radius and
detector radius set the magnification, and the
aperture diameter and wavelength determine
The size of the aperture, and the wavelength of radiation we're the resolution.
interested in, determines the smallest object we can see-the resolution. If
we have perfect eyesight, our vision is "20/20." This measurement means
that at a distance of about 6.1 m (20 ft.) we can read all the letters on a
specific line of an eye chart. Opticians have determined the resolution
limit of the human eye and they compare our vision to this standard. For
optical systems, like our eyes, cameras, and telescopes, we express the
angular resolution, e, as an angle that is a function of wavelength, 11., and
aperture diameter, D
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
(11-7)
where
8 = instrument's angular resolution (rads)
A = wavelength of radiation sensed (m)
D = instrument's aperture diameter (m)
This equation says the smallest angle we can detect between points is
detector radius, rd directly proportional to the wavelength we select and indirectly
proportional to the size of the lens aperture we use. From geometry,
focal
length, shown in Figure 11-38, we determine the smallest linear dimension our
fl instrument can distinguish at a given distance by multiplying the angular
resolution by two times the distance from the sensor to the object. Note
that the resolution tells us the smallest detectable object, so the smaller
the resolution, the better
I Res~ 20h ~ ~ (11-8)
where
Res = instrument's resolution (rn)
8 = angular resolution or beamwidth (rads)
h = distance between the lens and the viewed object (m)
A = wavelength of radiation sensed (m)
D = instrument's aperture diameter (m)
Figure 11-38. Ground Resolution Versus
Angular Resolution. Ground resolution (size The human eye, for example, has an aperture diameter of about 1 cm.
of resolution element) is two times the angular
resolution times the altitude, h.
Taking a wavelength in the middle of the visible range of 0.5 µm, the
resolution limit is about 0.2 mm at 3.2 m (20 ft.).
These relationships tell us the limits on resolution due to optics.
However, a lens only collects energy and focuses it on a detector. The
detector still must convert this energy into a useful form. This is the third
function of a sensor system. The complexity of the detector depends on the
nature of the radiation being sensed. Most sensors operate in the visible or
infrared (IR) parts of the spectrum. The simplest type of detector is
conventional photographic film. The film is coated with chemicals that
react to the incident radiation, forming an image when developed. The
first spy satellites took images using conventional film and then dropped
the film canisters back to Earth, where the U.S. Air Force C-119 and C-130
airplanes caught them in mid-air! (Figure 11-39)
Since then, visual and IR detectors have been produced using semi-
conductor materials similar to solar cells. In an array of these solid-state
Figure 11-39. C-119 Box Car Catches a detectors each one generates an electrical current proportional to the
Discoverer Canister. Through careful plan- incident radiation. A computer samples the entire array and processes the
ning and a bit of luck, aircrews could catch a
film canister that was jettisoned by a remote- voltage from each cell, producing the final image. The most commonly
sensing satellite, after its parachute deployed. used solid-state detector is a charge-coupled device (CCD). These are now
(Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force) used in virtually all video cameras. The big advantages of CCDs are they
390
11.2 Remote-sensing Payloads
don't wear out and they produce a digital, electronic image that computers
can easily store, process, or enhance.
Infrared detectors are similar to visible-wavelength detectors, but they
sense a different part of the spectrum-heat. If you close your eyes and
hold your hand close to a fire, you can feel the heat and use it to move
your hand directly to the fire without peeking. The reason you can detect
the fire is that your hand is much cooler than the heat from the fire. For
spacecraft infrared sensors to be sensitive enough to detect rather small
amounts of infrared energy from space, they must be very cold-about 77
K to 120 K (-383° F to -340° F). To keep them this cold, spacecraft rely on
liquid nitrogen (80 K) coolers or active refrigeration techniques. The Figure 11-40. Infrared Sensors. This infra-
Landsat satellites use sensitive IR sensors, cooled by cryogenic coolers, to red image of Mount Saint Helens volcano taken
by Landsat shows vegetation in red and rocks in
image vegetation. Figure 11-40 shows a Landsat infrared image. green and blue. Remote-sensing images of this
Most people are familiar with optical sensors, such as cameras; type are especially useful for monitoring natural
however, many astronomers use sensors in another part of the spectrum- disasters such as volcanos. (Courtesy of NASAi
Goddard Space Flight Center)
radio frequencies. Scientists are interested in the radio waves emitted by
distant stars, as well as unique interstellar radio sources such as pulsars.
Radio telescopes are simply radio receivers designed to "tune in" to these
stellar radio programs. Other telescopes detect the high-energy gamma
and X-rays emitted in violent supernovas or mysterious black holes.
Regardless of the frequencies used, all types of astronomy benefit greatly
by having instruments in space, where faint signals are not blocked or
attenuated by the atmosphere space-based sensors, such as the Chandra
X-ray Telescope shown in Figure 11-41 and with greater resolution than
their Earth-based counterparts. Figure 11-41. Space-based Sensor. Tele-
scopes, such as the Chandra X-ray Observatory
So far, we've only looked at sensors that detect either emitted radiation benefit from being in space, above the atmo-
or reflected radiation that originated at some other source, e.g., sunlight. sphere, where they can see further with greater
resolution. (Courtesy of NASA/Chandra X-ray
Sensors of this type are called passiue sensors since they do not directly Center/SmithsonianAstrophysical Observatory)
interact with the subject. Passive sensors (Figure 11-42) work well if the
subject of interest emits enough energy to detect or we only want to take
pictures in daylight. However, when the spacecraft moves into Earth's
shadow or clouds move over the subject, the mission pauses temporarily
until the subject is again clearly visible in sunlight. To work around this
problem, and enable all-weather imaging, another type of sensor, called
an active sensor, is available. These sensors transmit their own radiation
that reflects off the subject and returns to the sensor.
When you're groping across a very dark room, your eyes, which are
passive sensors, can't detect enough reflected or emitted EM radiation
from the objects in the room. So you hit your toe on that darn coffee table
again. To avoid another toe injury, you could use a flashlight to illuminate
the objects in the room and allow your eyes to see them. In this way, you
are effectively acting as an active-sensor system by shining EM radiation
on an object you want to see and then detecting the reflected energy with
your sensors (eyes).
Of course, we don't actually put big spotlights in space to shine down
on the night side of the planet. But we do "shine" EM radiation from
Figure 11-42. Passive Sensors. Your eye is
other parts of the spectrum, such as radar. If you've ever known anyone a passive sensor. It detects EM radiation other
pulled over for speeding (surely you'd never do such a thing), you're objects reflect or emit.
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engin ering
familiar with the police radar gun. TI1e radar gun is an active sensor. It
transmits EM radiation in the radar frequencies at speeding cars. The
radiation reflects off the cars back to a sensor on the gun. The gun then
measures this reflected radar energy to determine the car's speed.
Radar can do many other things besides enforce speed limits. Air
traffic controllers use radar to track aircraft. Airplanes use onboard radars
to create an image of the terrain below them, even if they can't see the
ground through the clouds. This allows the aircrew to navigate by
comparing terrain features to maps. Large ground-based radars are an
important part of a mission operations network to determine the position
and velocity of spacecraft.
Because radar is an active sensor, it works day or night and doesn't
depend on sunlight, as optical sensors do. TI1e reflected radar signal
reveals much about the topography of the ground being imaged, as well
as its composition (such as soil type and presence of subsurface features
like ancient river beds). Space-based radar allows us to measure terrain
features accurately to construct a 3-0 picture of a planet's surface.
Resolution is still an issue with active sensors. Because resolution relates
directly to the wavelength of the signal, shorter wavelengths yield better
resolution than longer wavelengths. Optical sensors use wavelengths on
the order of 0.5 urn, while radar systems operate at about 240,000 urn. Thus,
for optical and radar systems with the same size aperture, the optical
system has almost one-half million times better resolution. For
conventional radar to have the same resolution as an optical system, we
must increase the size of the radar's aperture. A conventional radar
operating at a wavelength of 240,000 µm would need an aperture of more
than 3900 km (6200 mi.) to get the same resolution as an optical system
with a mere 1 m (3.28 ft.) aperture! Obviously, an aperture this size is
impractical. Instead, we've developed signal-processing techniques that
can make the electronics think the aperture is much larger than it really is.
This is the basis for a syHthetic aperture radar (SAR). SARs have been
successful in remote sensing of Earth and Venus. The SAR on the Magellan
spacecraft used a very high-resolution (around 150 m or 492 ft.) to give us a
detailed map of more than 98% of Venus, as shown in Figure 11-43.
The final function of a sensor system is to process the data from the
detector into useful information. One of the many tasks for computers on
spacecraft is to interface with sensors to process images for storage and/ or
transmission to users. As we'll learn in Chapter 13, the communication
and data-handling subsystem (CDHS) can be quickly overwhelmed if it
tries to store every possible image coming from a sensor. For this reason,
"smart" sensors have built-in computers to process the raw signal coming
from the detector. This task may involve screening images to sort good
Figure 11·43. Radar Images of Venus. The ones from bad ones. The processor may also need to compress the data for
Magellan spacecraft used a synthetic aperture easier storage in limited computer space. Fortunately, advances in com-
radar to pierce the dense clouds and return
highly accurate images of the surface of Venus. puter technology to support video cameras and internet teleconferencing
(Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory) have made many of these computer, image-processing operations routine.
392
11.2 Remote-sensing Payloads
Payload Design Identify and ctwac:terize
In this section we've reviewed important fundamental principles of the Mission Suhject
EM radiation and learned how they relate to remote-sensing payloads. • Define the wavelength/ frequency
Space mission design generally, and spacecraft design specifically, grow of EM radiation that wiJJ best
from the payload requirements. When it comes to space missions, the characterize the subject
payload is the star of the show. In Section 11.1 we described the entire • Define the required minimum
space systems engineering process. There we learned that two important resolution
steps involved with deriving systems requirements are • Design the sensor sy tem to
1) Identify and characterize the mission subject observe the subject
2) Define the payload requirements • Passive v . active sensor
• Aperture diameter
Based on our discussion in this section, we can now break down these • Focal length
steps into more specific actions, as shown in Figure 11-44 for remote-
sensing payloads. • Derive the performance
budgets for supporting
With the payload requirements determined, we can now turn our
subsystems
attention to designing the rest of the spacecraft. The performance budgets
• Attitude and orbital control
needed by the payload will help us design the necessary subsystems. In the
budgets
following chapters we'll dig into the spacecraft subsystems in greater detail
• Electrical powPr budget
and explore the basic principles that govern their function and design.
• Thermal control ranges
• Data budget
• Link budget
• Launch and other
tructural loads
Figure 11-44. Payload Design Process.
We follow these steps when designing a
remote-sensing mission.
!!!!!!!!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
absorbed energy >- Sensors are the spacecraft's "eyes" and "ears." Spacecraft "look"
active sensor and "listen" from space u ing the EM spectrum.
angular resolution, e
>- EM radiation can be thought of as waves of energy emanating
aperture, D
from some source like ripples in a pond
atmospheric windows
bands • EM radiation is classified by wavelength-the distance between
black body crests of the waves
charge-coupled device (CCD) • The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency-the
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum number of waves or cycles per second
field-of-view (FOY) • The higher the frequency, the greater the energy of the radiation
focal length, fl
frequency, f >- Certain frequencies of EM radiation are blocked by Earth's
magnification atmosphere, while other frequencies pass through. The range of
passive sensors frequencies that pass through are known as atmospheric
peripheral vision windows. Engineers must be careful to select frequencies that can
photons penetrate the atmosphere for remote-sensing.
reflected energy Continued on next page
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Chapter 11 Space Systems Engin cring
!!!! Section Review (Continued)
Key Terms (Continued) Key Concepts (Continued)
reflection > Any object with a temperature greater than OK emits EM
refraction radiation: Planck described how an object's temperature
remote sensing determines its varying radiation frequencies
resolution • Wien's law tells us the frequency at which the maximum amount
scan rate of black-body radiation will take place, depending on an object's
swath width temperature
synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
transmitted energy • The Stefan-Boltzmann relationship describes how much energy
wavelength, A an object will emit, depending on its temperature
> To observe a subject on the ground, spacecraft sensors must
Key Equations
• Look at it-move the sensor to point at the subject
2898 • See it-collect EM radiation from it
T • Convert it-transform EM radiation into usable data
E = ECJT4
• Process it-turn data into usable information
> Sensor resolution refers to the smallest object a sensor can d tect.
fl Resolution depends on the
magnification
h
• Sensor's wavelength
• Distance to the subject
FOY = 2tan -1 (rd)
TI • Diameter of the sensor's aperture
fl = 1.22')...
> Remote-sensing payloads use passive and active sensors
D • Passive sensors detect energy reflected or emitted from a subject
• Active sensors shine EM radiation at the subject and then detect
2.44Ah the energy reflected
Res 28h
D
> During the payload design proce , we start by identifying and
characterizing the subject, which involves
• Defining the wavelength I frequency of EM radiation that will
best characterize the subject
• Defining the required minimum sensor resolution
• Designing the sensor system to observe the subject
- Passive ver us active sensor
- Aperture diameter
- Focal length
• Derive performance budgets for the supporting subsystems
394
Example11-2
Problem Statement Analytical Solution
You've been named payload manager for the FireSat 1) Determine the minimum sensor resolution.
mission described in Example 11-1. You know the
No further analysis is required, Resmin = 200 m
mission subject is a forest fire >40,000 m2. Assuming
the average forest fire has a temperature of 1160 K, 2) Determine the wavelength of maximum emission
characterize the subject by determining the best using Equation (11-3)
wavelength/ frequency to monitor and the required
sensor resolution. The following system requirements, 2898 (µm K) 2898 x 10-6m K
relevant to the payload design, have already been T(K) 1160 K
defined in Example 11-1
• Orbit constrained by the launch vehicle to 500-
km, circular, polar. No further requirements can 3) Convert the wavelength to frequency using
be defined. Equation (11-1)
• Spacecraft-constrained by launch vehicle to be
3.0 x 108m
<15 kg with dimensions of 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.30 m c s
A.max
Problem Summary
Given: Forest fires 1 km2
T = 1160 K
Interpretingthe Results
Find: Resolution, A.max, fmax
The FireSat payload sensor must have a linear
Conceptual Solution resolution of at least 200 m. At the expected
temperature of 1160 K, forest fires will have a
1) Determine the necessary payload resolution maximum energy emission at a wavelength of 2.50 µm,
which corresponds to a frequency of 1.2 x 1014 Hz.
Since the minimum size of a forest fire is given to
According to Figure 11-29, this frequency is in the mid-
be 40,000 m2 (10 acres), the logical answer would
infrared region. Fortunately, from Figure 11-32, we can
be a linear resolution of 200 m (200 m x 200 m =
see there is an atmospheric window at this wavelength
40,000 m2). Regardless of the actual dimensions of
that will allow us to see the fire.
the fire, if the total area is greater than 40,000 m2,
it will exceed 200 min at least one dimension.
2) Determine the wavelength of maximum emission
for a 1160 K forest fire using Equation (11-3).
11. = 2898(~tmK)
max T(K)
3) Convert the wavelength to frequency using
Equation (11-1).
c = 3.0 x 108 m
s
f = _c_
A.max
395
Example 11-3
Problem Statement
FOV = 2atan("de;tor)
Continuing the payload design problem for FireSat
begun in Example 11-2, we want to determine critical
parameters for the sensor and its operation. From Analytical Solution
Example 11-1, we know the operational altitude for the 1) Find sensor swath width based on detector char-
spacecraft will be 500 km. From Example 11-2, we know acteristics and resolution
the required frequency and resolution. A review of swath width = (Res) x (pixels)
available sensor materials reveals that Lead Selenide swath width = (200 m) x (1024)
(PbSe) detectors, although somewhat expensive, are
swath width= 204.8 km
sensitive to this range of IR. A 1024 x 1024 pixel CCD
PbSe array will serve as the sensor detector. Unfortu- 2) Find ground radius
nately, this detector must be cooled to at least 196 K to R = swath width 204.8 km
be effective, creating additional requirements for the g 2 2
other subsystems we'll see in Chapter 13. Assume the Rg = 102.4 km
detector will have an effective radius of 1 cm. For the
required sensor resolution of 200 m, determine the 3) Solve Equation (11-5) for sensor focal length, fl
corresponding ground swath width and ground width
fl = rdetectorh (O.Olm)(500 km)
along with sensor focal length. Then, find the minimum
Rg 102.4 km
sensor aperture to achieve the required resolution.
Finally, compute the sensor field of view. fl= 0.049 m
4) Solve Equation (11-8) for the minimum sensor
Problem Summary
aperture
Given: "max = 3.22 x 10-6 m
D = 2.4411.maxh 2.44(3.22 x 10-6m)(500 km)
Res= 200 m
Res 200m
pixels = 1024 x 1024
h=500km D = 19.6 mm
rdetector = 0.01 m 5) Solve Equation (11-6) for the sensor field of view
Find: Swath width; sensor focal length, fl; (FOV)
minimum aperture, D; and field of view, FOV
FOV = 2atan(de:tor) = 2atan(gi419:)
Conceptual Solution FOV = 0.404 rad
1) Find sensor swath width based on detector char- FOV = 23.148 deg
acteristics and resolution
Interpretingthe Results
swath width = (Res) (pixels)
We now have a preliminary design of the FireSat
2) Find ground radius payload. To achieve 200 m linear resolution imaging
900 K forest fires emitting radiation in the 11. = 3.22 µm
R = swath width
g 2 range, the sensor will need a focal length of approxi-
mately 5 cm with a minimum lens aperture of about 2
3) Solve Equation (11-5) for sensor focal length, fl cm. Of course, this lens must be transparent to the IR
wavelength we're interested in. Fortunately, there are
fl = r detectorh
a variety of lens materials that are transparent to these
Rg wavelengths (such as CaF2). With a focal length of 5 cm
4) Solve Equation (11-8) for the muumum sensor and an image plane with a radius of 1 cm, the sensor
aperture should easily fit in the available spacecraft volume.
This sensor configuration will give the mission a field
D = 2.4411.maxh of view of just over 23° for a ground swath width of 204
Res km in a 500-km altitude orbit. In Chapters 12, 13, and
14 we'll analyze performance requirements for the
5) Solve Equation (11-6) for the sensor field of view
spacecraft bus.
(FOV)
396
References
4 Describe the mission objective and operations
- References concept for our proposed FireSat. Why are these
Elachi, Charles. Scientific American. December 1982. two things so important to overall mission design?
Vol. 247, No. 6. Radar Images of the Earth From
Space.
Halliday, David and Robert Resnick. Fundamentals of 5 What is the subject of the proposed FireSat
Physics. 2nd edition. New York, NY: John Wiley and mission?
Sons, Inc., 1981.
Lillesand, Thomas A. and Ralph W. Diefer. Remote
Sensing and Image Interpretation. New York, NY: John 6 Describe the steps in the space systems
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1979. engineering process and relate them to the FireSat
mission. How do decisions made in this phase
Masters, Prof. Gil. Environmental Science and Technology.
affect what will happen during the rest of the
Autumn 1989. Course Reader, CE170. Stanford
mission?
University.
NASA-STD-3000. Man-Systems Integration Standards.
Serway, Raymond A. Physics For Scientists and 7 List the various parts of the spacecraft bus and
Engineers. Vol. II. 1990. Saunders Golden Sunburst describe functions for each one.
Series.
Stanford University. Spring 1990. AA141, Colloquium
on Life in Space.
8 Describe what happens during preliminary
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission spacecraft design. What are the key concerns for
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht, each subsystem? Why is this an iterative process?
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
- Mission Problems 11.2 Remote-sensing Payloads
9 Describe the primary elements for the remote-
11.1 Space Mission Design sensing system.
1 Describe the systems engineering process and
explain how it could be applied to an every day
10 What is the difference between wavelength and
project. frequency?
2 What three things does the mission statement tell 11 The wavelength of visible light is around 0.5 µm.
us? What is its frequency?
12 Gamma rays have a wavelength of about 10-13
3 What is the subject of a mission and how does it urn, AM radio waves have a wavelength of about
relate to the payload design? 102 m. Which has more energy? Why?
397
hapter 11 Space Systems Engineering
13 What contribution did Max Planck make to our 23 What is the angular resolution of an antenna with
understanding of how objects emit radiation? a 1 m aperture operating at a wavelength of 1 µm?
14 What is Wien's Law and why is it important?
24 A remote-sensing payload operates in the visible
part of the spectrum (I = 0.5 urn). If it has an
aperture diameter of 1 m, what is the highest
15 How could you use the Stefan-Boltzmann relation-
altitude orbit it should operate in to achieve a
ship to determine an object's temperature?
resolution of 10 m?
16 Forest fires bum at about 538° C (1000° F). What is
the wavelength of maximum power output for a
forest fire? What is its energy output per square For Discussion
meter?
25 What may have been some of the mission
requirements and constraints for the Hubble Space
Telescope mission?
17 What are atmospheric windows and why are they
important to selecting a spacecraft payload?
26 What systems did engineers have to plan when
designing the satellites for global positioning
18 Using Figure 11-32, which frequency would be (navigation)?
better to use for a remote-sensing spacecraft-7.5 x
1013 Hz or 1.03 x 1014 Hz? Why?
Projects
19 Describe the differences between passive and
active sensors and give examples of each. 27 The Environmental Protection Agency is
interested in detecting the amount of pollution
flowing from the mouth of the Mississippi River
into the Gulf of Mexico. Plan the space mission for
20 What are the main parts of a passive sensor? this problem, identify the major trade-offs in
selecting a payload, and discuss some of the
considerations involved with spacecraft design.
21 What is sensor resolution?
28 Step through the space systems engineering
process for a manned mission to Mars. Discuss
22 Which sensor has better resolution, one with how the mission objective and payload require-
Res= 5 cm or one with Res= 10 cm? Why? ments affects the eventual spacecraft design.
398
Mission Profil~c-Landsat;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
The Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1)was Mission Impact
designed in the 1960s and launched in 1972. It was the
For more than 24 years, the Landsat program has
first satellite designed specifically for broad-scale, produced images of most of Earth's land masses,
repetitive observation of Earth's land areas. The useful for analyzing long-term and quick-response
program was renamed Landsat (land satellite) in 1975. changes. In the 1980s, with the improvement of
Landsat developed as a cooperative, multi-agency, computer technology to process Landsat images, the
government project under NASA's direction. During applications for this data have exploded. Landsat
the 1970's and 80's, Landsat transitioned to a images have been used for many long-term environ-
conunercial project under the private sector's control. mental studies, such as disappearing tropical forests,
In 1985, the Earth Observation Satellite Company expanding desert areas, and climatic changes, as well
(EOSAT) won a competitive bid to operate Landsat 4 as Earth's response to natural disasters such as the
and 5-to collect, archive, distribute, and sell Landsat explosion of Mount St. Helens and fires arising from
images and to increase the user base. the Midwestern floods. Landsat imagery has also been
used for monitoring oil spills, identifying wildlife
Mission Overview habitats, and measuring the growth of urban areas.
The objective of the Landsat satellite is to conduct
remote sensing of Earth's resources, geology, and
features made by humans and return this data to users
on Earth. Landsat employs two primary sensors-the
multi-spectral scanner and the thematic mapper. The
scanner images in four distinct bands ranging from
green to near infrared, with a spatial resolution of 80
m. The mapper images over a larger part of the EM
spectrum than the scanner, with seven bands instead
of four and a resolution of 30 m.
Investigators use Landsat images to track the destruction of forests.
MissionData These Landsat images show Rondonia, Brazil, in 1975 (left) and 1986
(right). Settlers colonized the area and converted forest land to
./ Landsat launched in June, 1972. Designed for only agricultural land, which shows on the right as a fishbone pattern
radiating from the highway. (Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space Flight
a one-year mission, it wasn't retired from service Center)
until June, 1978, after returning more than 300,000
images of Earth. For Discussion
./ Landsat 2 launched in January, 1975 and remained How have we benefited from commercial remote-
sensing technologies?
in service until September, 1983.
• What are the disadvantages of the Landsat
./ Landsat 3 launched in March, 1978 and retired in sensors? How could the sensors be improved?
September, 1983 • How can we use Landsat data to better manage
Earth resources?
./ Landsat 4 was an improved design of 1, 2, and 3,
and launched in July, 1982. Because Landsat 4
Contributors
suffered a power distribution problem in March Steve McGregor and Mark Hatfield, U.S. Air Force
1983, it operates at reduced power. Academy
References
./ Landsat 5, identical to Landsat 4, launched in
March 1984, with a planned lifetime of three years. American Society of Remote Sensing. Manual of Remote
It was still in use nine years later, in 1993. Sensing. Virginia: The Sheridan Press, 1983.
Campbell, James B. Introduction to Remote Sensing. New
./ All Landsat satellites operate in a near-polar, sun- York, NY: Guilford Press, 1987.
synchronous orbit crossing the equator at 9:45 A.M. EOSAT Corp., Landsat Data Users Notes, published
local time. quarterly.
399
The manned maneuvering unit (MMU) gives astronauts the freedom to soar through space as a one-person spaceship.(Courtesy of NASA/
Johnson Space Center)
Space Vehicle
Control
Systems
- In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... - Outline
.- Describe the elements 0£ and uses for control systems
12.1 Control Systems
... Explain the elements 0£ space vehicle attitude determination and
control subsystems and describe various technologies currently in use 12.2 Attitude Control
,.. Explain the elements of space vehicle navigation, guidance, and Having the Right Attitude
control subsystems and how they work together to deliver a vehicle to Attitude Dynamics
a desired point in space Disturbance Torques
Spacecraft Attitude Sensors
Spacecraft Attitude Actuators
- You Should Already Know ... The Controller
O Effects of the space environment on spacecraft (Chapter 3)
O Newton's Laws of Motion (Chapter 4) 12.3 Orbit Control
Space Vehicle Dynamics
D The principle of conservation of momentum (Chapter 4)
Navigation-The Sensor
O Components and functions of the spacecraft bus (Chapter 11) Rockets-The Actuators
Guidance-The Controller
The Enrth is a cradle of the mind, but we cannot live forever in a cradle.
Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky
[ntuer of Russian cosmonautics
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
I
magine you're a one-person spacecraft, flying the manned
maneuvering unit out of the Space Shuttle's payload bay, as shown in
Figure 12-1. Your mission is to fly to a crippled satellite and install a
new black box. You must somehow manipulate the joy sticks in your
hands to control your position, velocity, and orientation so you're lined up
with the access panel on the spacecraft. How should you rotate? In which
direction should you fire your thrusters? Do you speed up or slow down?
While this may sound like a fun scenario for a video game, we must
answer these questions for nearly all spacecraft. In this chapter we'll begin
by examining the basics of any control system and then see how we can
apply this process to rotate and move a spacecraft through space.
Space Mission Architecture.This chapter
deals with the Spacecraft segment of the
Space Mission Architecture, introduced in
Figure 1-20.
Figure 12-1. Space Vehicle Control. An astronaut flying the manned-maneuvering unit
(MMU) must carefully control rotation, position, and velocity to accomplish the mission (and
not get lost in space!). (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
402
12.1 Control Systems
12.1 Control Systems
== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.r Describ the elements of a system
• Explain the difference between open-loop and dos d-loop control
systems and give examples of each
,,.. Describe the steps in the control process
,... Apply block diagrams to describe the functions of control systems
A system is any collection of things that work together to produce
something. Systems have inputs (what goes in), outputs (what comes out),
and some process in between that turns the inputs into outputs. In
electronic systems, the inputs and outputs are called signals. The part of
the system that performs the process is typically called the plant. The plant
is usually an "equal opportunity" processor that will respond to either
precisely calculated inputs or random envirorunental inputs or both.
To simplify our discussion of systems, we like to illustrate them using
block diagrams where lines represent input and output signals and boxes
represent the plant or other components. Figure 12-2 shows the simplest
type of system block diagram. For space vehicle applications, the success
or failure of the mission depends on the output of various subsystems.
Therefore, we' re most interested in a specific class of systems called
control systems. Control systems are everywhere. If you've ever flushed a
toilet, driven a car, or turned up the thermostat on a frigid winter night,
you've used a control system.
process
inputs---~ ,--- outputs
"the plant"
Figure 12-2. System Block Diagram. All systems take some input (or inputs), perform
some process in the "plant," to produce an output (or outputs). We illustrate the functions of
systems using block diagrams where input and output signals are shown as arrows and the
plant, or other components, are shown as boxes.
To understand how we use control systems, let's look at a problem
we're all familiar with-heating a house. In the old days, people heated
their homes only with fireplaces. They started with some desired result
"It's too cold in here, let's warm things up!" and decided what action to
take-"Throw some logs on the fire!" The logs burned, providing heat, Figure 12-3. A Simple Heating Control
and the house warmed up. We can draw a simple diagram for this whole System. With the simplest type of heating
control system, we throw logs on the fire and
process, as shown in Figure 12-3. As you can see, the input (logs) go into wait for heat to come out, warming the room.
the fireplace and burn, which produces the output (heat). Unfortunately, such a simple system is "open-
looped," so there is no guarantee we'll get the
right amount of the desired output.
403
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
Unfortunately, this simple control system has one major drawback. If
you put on too many logs, the room can get too hot. And, when you went
to sleep at night, there was no way to ensure that the house would still be
warm in the morning. A system that can't dynamically adjust the inputs
based on what's actually happening is an open-loop control system. Of
course, people lived with this kind of heating system for thousands of
years (and still do). But eventually we got tired of waking to a cold house
and invented the modern home-heating system. Let's see what makes this
modem control system an improvement.
On cold winter nights, we turn up the dial on the thermostat to a
desired temperature and wait for the heat. After some time, the furnace
reaches its operating temperature, turns on its fan, and the room tempera-
ture starts to rise. When the house reaches the desired temperature, the
furnace shuts off. Simple, right? But what's really going on here?
As with any control system, we have some desired result-a house at
20° C (75° F). This desire is what we tell the thermostat when we set the
dial. For this example, the heating-control system has different jobs. First,
it measures the current temperature in the house using a thermometer. In
control-system lingo, the thermometer is a sensor, because it measures the
output of the system. Next, the control system decides what to do using
the "brains" of the thermostat. The "brain" of the thermostat is called the
controller, because it compares the sensor output to the desired output and
decides what type of input the system needs. If it's cold outside, the
"environmental inputs" will eventually reduce the temperature in the
house to less than 20° C (75° F). When this happens, the controller knows
to tum on the furnace. Similarly, if the temperature is greater than 20° C
(75° F), it knows to turn off the furnace. Finally, the furnace carries out the
thermostat's decision by providing heat. We call the furnace an actuator,
because it takes commands from the controller and produces the required
output for the system. Figure 12-4 illustrates the various pieces of this
control system.
desired
current
temperature
measured temperature
Figure 12-4. The Modern Home-heating System. A modern home-heating system
constantly measures the temperature and decides when to turn the furnace on or off.
404
12.1 Control Systems
We call this type of system a feedback control system or a closed-loop
control system, because we have a thermometer (sensor), which constantly
thermostat furnace house
measures the current temperature and feeds this information back to the (controUer) (actuator) (plant)
thermostat (controller). With this information, the thermostat produces
the correct furnace (actuator) commands to maintain the house at 20° C
(75° F), in spite of environmental inputs (close the window please!).
Again, we can draw a simple block diagram to illustrate what's going on
in this system, as shown in Figure 12-5.
OJ
In this simple example we've identified the four basic tasks all control
systems must do
• Understand the system's behavior-how the plant will react to inputs,
including environmental inputs, to produce outputs. This is also
known as the plant model.
• Observe the system's current behavior-using sensors Figure 12·5. Block Diagram for a Heating-
control System. It's easier to represent the
• Decide what to do-the job of the controller elements of a control system using blocks.
• Do it-using actuators
Closed-loop control systems, such as the heating system described
above, are in cars, planes, spacecraft, and even the human body. They are
extremely useful because, unlike open-loop systems, they can make a
system do what we want even in the face of random environmental
inputs.
On space vehicles, control systems are an integral part of virtually all
payloads and subsystems. Recall the payload and bus design issues
discussed in Chapter 11. For example, a remote sensing payload may
need to control
• Exposure
• Aperture settings
• Lens cover mechanisms
• Imaging time and duration
To support the payload, each subsystem in the spacecraft bus needs to
control something as well
• Momentum (angular and linear)-attitude and orbit control
subsystem (AOCS)
• Data (bits and bytes)-communication and data-handling subsystem
(CDHS)
• Power (current, voltage, distribution)-electrical power subsystem
(EPS)
• Internal environment (temperature, air, water, food, waste)-
environmental control and life-support subsystem (ECLSS)
• Loads (bending, twisting, shaking)-structures and mechanisms
• Rocket thrust (valves, pressure, temperature)-propulsion
subsystem
405
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Con rol Systems
In the rest of this chapter, we'll focus our attention on momentum
control-angular and linear-the job of the aitiiude and orbit contro!
subsyste111 (AOCS). This is the "steering" function we described for the
school bus in Chapter 11. As you can imagine, in operation the two
functions of controlling angular and linear momentum often overlap. (In
practice, it's difficult to just change angular momentum without having
some effect on linear momentum-try spinning a frisbee without moving
it!) However, for purposes of discussion here, we'll keep the two functions
(angular and linear momentum control) separate. In Chapters 13 and 14
we'll return to the other subsystems to see their control systems in action.
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
actuator > All systems take some input and perform some process to produce an
attitude and orbit control output. Inputs and outputs are called signals and the element performing
subsystem (AOCS) the process is called the plant. We can best illustrate systems using block
bloc.k diagrams diagrams.
closed-loop control system > The simplest type of control system is open-loop. Input produces an output.
control systems Unfortunately, open-loop systems can't dynamically adjust inputs to control
controller outputs.
feedback control system
open-loop control system > Feedback control systems, also called closed-loop control systems can better
plant assure we get our desired utput because it can sense outputs (what we get),
plant model compare them to desired outputs (what we want), and adjust inputs as
sensor needed. Closed-loop control systems accomplish this in four steps
signals • Understant: the system's behavior-how the plant will react to inputs,
system including environmental inputs, to produce outputs. This is also known as
the plant model.
• Observe the system's current behavior-using sensors
• Decide what to do-the job of the controller
• Do it-using actuators
> Virtually all spacecraft payloads and subsystems rely on closed-loop
systems to control
• Imaging, communicating, and operating other missions-payloads
• Momentum (angular and linear)-altitude and orbit control subsystems
(AOCS)
• Data (bits and bytesr=communication and data-handling subsystem
(CDHS)
• Power (current, voltage, distributionj+-electrical power subsystem
• Internal environment (temperature, air, water, food, waste)-
environmental control and life-support subsystem (ECLSS)
• Loads (bending, twisting, shaking)-structures and mechanisms
• Rocket thrust (valves, pressure, temperature)-propulsion subsystem
406
12.2 Attitude Control
12.2 Attitude Control
!!!!!!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,... Explain and apply important concepts in attitude dynamics to the
problem of space vehicle control
,-... Describe key elements and technologies used in space-vehicle
attitude determination and control subsys ems and explain them
using block diagram
We'll begin our discussion of the space vehicle attitude and orbit
control subsystem (AOCS) by focusing on the attitude part of the
problem. Attitude defines a vehicle's orientation in space. For example, if
we want a spacecraft to take pictures of a particular spot on Earth, we
need to align the payload so it points at the spot. In this case, we'd need
to control the spacecraft's attitude so it points "down," toward Earth. In
space terms, we say, "down toward Earth" is the nadir direction. The
opposite direction, away from Earth toward space, is the zenith direction.
Similarly, launch vehicles need to control their attitude to steer into the
correct orbit and keep forces aligned along the long axis where they are
strongest. However, in this section, we'll focus primarily on the unique
problems for spacecraft. Because this function is so important, it is
sometimes given a separate name-attitude determination and control
subSJJStem (ADCS). In this section, we'll refer to it by that name.
Regardless of the name given to the subsystem, its job is the same-keep
its spacecraft pointed in the right direction.
In the last section, we learned that all closed-loop control systems have
the same basic components and functions, as shown in Figure 12-5. In this
section, our "desired state" is the specific attitude a vehicle needs to do its
mission. We start by defining this desired attitude. Then, we move on to
the first function of any control system-understanding system behavior.
We explore attitude dynamics to understand the basic principles that
govern a vehicle's angular momentum. We also see how various
phenomena in the space environment affect a spacecraft's attitude. After
this introduction, we'll turn our attention to attitude sensors to learn how
we use instruments to "look out the window" to determine a spacecraft's
orientation in space. Before looking at attitude controllers, we'll first
examine the types of attitude actuators available to designers. With these
in mind, we'll finally consider the controller and see how the entire
subsystem fits together (Figure 12-6).
Having the Right Attitude
Before we go too far, let's review some basic terms used to describe
attitude. Recall that when we described the motion of an object in
Chapter 4, we referenced it to some coordinate system. To describe
407
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
desired environment
state
L actual
state
measured state
sensors
Figure 12-6. Closed-loop Control System. All closed-loop control systems have the
same basic elements. The desired state is one input to the controller. It compares this state
to the actual state from the sensors. By comparing the difference between these two input
signals, it decides on specific commands to send to the actuators. Actuator changes, along
with environmental inputs, attecl the final output of the plant. System sensors detect and
measure this output.
attitude we must do the same thing, but we're now interested in rotation
z rather than translation. For this reason, we define attitude in terms of
angles instead of distances. Attitude is described as an angular rotation
with respect to a body-centered coordinate frame, called the body frame,
where X points out the nose, Y out the left wing, and Z out the top, as
x shown in Figure 12-7. It is usually given as roll, pitch, and yaw angles,
,... where roll is a rotation about the X axis, pitch is a rotation about the Y
x axis, and yaw is a rotation about the Z axis, as shown in Figure 12-8.
Obviously, box-shaped spacecraft don't have noses or wings. Instead,
designers define preferred directions through the center of mass in a
body-centered system and then they define roll, pitch, and yaw angles
with respect to it.
y
Figure 12-7. Body Frame. We describe
attitude in terms of rotations in degrees (or
radians) around one or more of the body-
centered axes from the body frame. For
airplanes and vehicles like the Space ShuttJe, Figure 12-8. Describing Attitude. We describe space-vehicle attitude in terms of roll,
the X -direction points out the nose, the Y - pitch, and yaw angles around the axes of the body frame.
direction out the left wing, and the Z -direction
(out of the page) completes the right hand rule. Now that we showed how to describe a spacecraft's attitude, how do
For box-shaped spacecraft without a "nose" or
wings, designers pick convenient, preferred
we determine whether it has the right attitude? We must first know what
directions through the center of mass to define attitude it needs. Typically, we describe attitude-control requirements in
the body frame. terms of accuracy and rate of attitude change. To understand what we
mean by attitude or pointing accuracy, let's pretend we're trying to point
a laser beam at a target, as shown in Figure 12-9. Our ability to keep the
beam on the target depends on the size of the target and the steadiness of
our hand. It should make sense that the smaller the target, the more
steady our hand must be to maintain the laser on target. Hopefully, even
408
12.2 Attitude Control
as our hand wavers, the beam will tend to stay within a cone, more or
less, centered on the target. The angular size of this cone defines pointing
or attitude accuracy, 1p. For a spacecraft trying to point an antenna at a
ground station on Earth, for example, the control system must be accurate
enough to keep the radio beam focused over the receiver antenna.
Figure 12-9. Attitude Accuracy. In this example, the shooter is pointing a laser beam at a
dinner-plate sized target. As his hand wavers, the beam describes a cone, more or less,
centered on the target. The angular size of this cone, ,~. defines attitude or pointing accuracy.
To get a better feel for what we mean by attitude or pointing accuracy,
let's pretend we're trying to keep the laser pointer focused on a target
about the size of a 25 cm (10 in.) dinner plate, as shown in Figure 12-9. We
know the pointing accuracy, ,~, and the distance to the target, h. To find
the apparent diameter of the target we can hit, D, we use
(12-1)
where
D = approximate diameter of target (m)
h = distance to target (m)
'ljJ = pointing accuracy (rad)
Table 12-1 shows the required pointing accuracy to stay focused on the
dinner plate at various distances. Now let's put this in space terms. A
remote-sensing spacecraft passing directly overhead at an altitude of 500
km (310 mi.), for example, would need about 0.003° of accuracy to point a
laser range finder directly at a house (D = 26 m or 85 ft.). Fortunately,
pointing a laser beam is a worst-case scenario because the narrow beam
has a very narrow field of view. Remote sensing missions using optical or
infrared cameras typically have lenses with fields of view of several
degrees or more, depending on the application. To give the widest
/ possible coverage, communication missions will often design antennas
with very wide fields of view. The actual requirement for spacecraft
pointing, then, depends on the subject, the sensor's field of view, and
other factors, such as timing and viewing angles.
The rate of attitude change is also important to consider when defining
attitude control requirements. For example, a remote-sensing spacecraft
may need to shift its attention between various targets on the ground. To
shift attention means it must rapidly change its attitude to focus on a new
point of interest. Slew rate is the angular speed (in degrees, or radians, per
second) describing how fast the spacecraft can change its attitude.
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Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
Table 12-1. Pointing Accuracy.
To Point at a Target the Size of a Dinner Plate The Pointing Accuracy
(25 cm or 1 O in. diameter) at this Distance... Needs to be...
1.4m(4.6fl.) 10°
14 m (46 ft.) 1°
140m(460ft.) 0.1°
1400 m (0.87 mi.) 0.01 °
Now that we understand more about describing attitude, let's start to
see how we control it by first trying to understand attitude dynamics.
We'll then turn our attention to environmental factors affecting attitude
that spacecraft must deal with.
Attitude Dynamics
As we know, all spinning objects-tops, yo-yo's, ice skaters, and even
spacecraft-follow Newton's Laws of Motion. Recall from Chapter 4 that
a spinning mass has angular momentum, which is a function of its shape
and mass distribution, along with its rate of spin. Notice, for example,
that a compact object with all the mass concentrated near the center of
mass spins much easier than an object that has a lot of mass located far
from the center of mass. As Figure 12-10 shows, this is why figure skaters
bring their arms in to spin faster and extend their arms to slow down. The
distribution of mass describes an object's mass moment of inertia, T. By
Jpowing the mass moment of inertia, I, and the object's angular velocity,
Q, we can find its angular momentum, H, in pretty much the same way
we found its linear momentum.
(12-2)
where
....,.
H = angular momentum (kg · m2 Is)
I = mass moment of inertia (kg· m2)
----'
Q = angular velocity (rad Is)
We also know from Chapter 4 that to change an object's momentum we
must apply a force. We explained this using Newton's Second Law, which
we express as
..>
F
dp ~
p (12-3)
dt
Figure 12-10. Changing Mass Moment of
Inertia. Figure skaters change their moments where
of inertia to vary their rate of spin. For the same -'
total angular momentum, they will spin faster F = force (N)
by bringing their arms in (lower moment of
inertia) and slower by extending their arms p = momentum (kg· ml s)
(higher moment of inertia). p~ = tune
. rate of change of momentum (kg·ms/s)
410
12.2 Attitude Control
When we kick a football or serve a volleyball, it's not hard to see that
applying a force to a mass changes its velocity. But how do we apply force
to a rotating mass? If we push on spinning ice skaters they'll start moving
in a straight line across the ice while continuing to spin. What if we want
to change only their rate or direction of spin but not move them
anywhere? Then we must apply a torque. A torque is a twisting force that
results when we try to rotate an object, such as when we use a wrench to
turn a bolt. We apply a force some distance away from the bolt, producing
a torque, as shown in Figure 12-11. A torque in one direction tightens the
bolt. A torque in the other direction loosens it.
Mathematically, we define the direction of torque as the vector cross
product of the applied force's position vector with the force vector. In
other words, we use the good-old right-hand rule: we point the fingers of
our right hand in the direction of the twist and our thumb points in the
torque-vector direction. In Figure 12-11.'.>. we have a force applied to the Figure 12·11. Torque. Turning a bolt with a
end of a wrench. The torque vector, T, points into the bolt. We can wrench is a good example of applying a torque.
We find the direction of torque using the right
compute the torque using hand rule. By wrapping the fingers of our right
hand in the direction of spin, our thumb points
---' ---' .,. in the direction of the torque vector. In this
T RxF (12-4) case, the torque direction Is into the bolt, as
we'd expect.
where
---'
T = torque (N · m)
---'
R = distance from the center of mass to the point where the force
is applied (m)
.,.
F = applied force (N)
According to this relationship, we can get more torque with the same
force by simply applying the force farther from the center of rotation.
Aristotle knew of this effect when he bragged he could move the Earth if
given "a fulcrum, a long enough staff, and a place to stand." We don't
have to move the Earth to see this effect. All we have to do is push open a
door. If we push at the edge of the door, far from the hinges, the door
swings right open. If we push on the door right next to the hinges, it's
much harder to move.
Returning to Newton's Second Law, we can now see how to relate
torque and angular momentum. Just as force equals the time rate of
change of linear momentum, torque is the time rate of change of angular
momentum. In other words, if we apply a torque to an object, its angular
momentum will change. We can express this as
(12-5)
where
---'
T = torque (N · m)
__:,,
H = angular momentum (kg · m2 Is)
....,,
H =
.
time rate of change of angular momentum (kg· sm
2
/s)
411
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
This relationship tells us something we already learned back in
Chapter 4. When torque is zero, angular momentum stays constant. Later,
we'll see we can use this basic principle to give us accurate attitude
sensors, as well as efficient actuators to control attitude. For now let's see
how we can use it to analyze how attitude works. Remember that if we
apply a force to an object, it will accelerate. Similarly, if we apply a torque
to a free-floating object, it will start to spin faster and faster. That is, it will
experience angular acceleration, a. Thus,
(12-6)
where
= mass moment of inertia (kg · m2)
a = angular acceleration (rads/ s2)
As we know from our discussion of linear motion, as something
accelerates over time, it acquires velocity. If we drop a ball, it accelerates,
gains velocity, and falls faster with time. Similarly, when an object has
angular acceleration over time, it gains angular velocity, Q . Thus, to
determine a spacecraft's attitude, described by an angle 8 (an amount the
spacecraft rotated from its previous attitude), we must look at how long it
accelerates and how long it moves at some angular velocity. In other
words, by applying a torque to a non-spinning, free-floating object (such
as a spacecraft), we create angular acceleration, leading to angular
velocity and hence a change in angular position. The model for this
aspect of spacecraft behavior is the block diagram in Figure 12-12.
angular
angular angular position
torques
acceleration velocity or
attitude
spacecraft over time n =e over time 8
I (integration) (integration)
attitude dynamics: "The Plant"
Figure 12-12. Block Diagram of Attitude Dynamics. A torque applied to a spacecraft (or
any object for that matter) causes an angular acceleration. Over time, this acceleration
increases angular velocity, changing its attitude.
When we apply a torque to a non-spinning spacecraft, predictable things
happen. For example, when we turn a screw with a screwdriver, it rotates
in the way we'd expect. But if the spacecraft is spinning when we apply the
torque, the dynamics get more complicated. As we know, a spinning object
has angular momentum. If we apply a torque parallel to the angular
momentum direction, it causes angular acceleration and angular velocity
changes. However, if we apply the torque in a direction other than parallel
to the angular momentum vector, something quite different happens.
412
12.2 Attitude Control
In Figure 12-13, we have a spinning disk with a force couple (torque)
applied to it. You might expect the mass to begin to rotate in the same
direction you're torquing it, or clockwise as you look down on it. But
that's not what happens! The mass begins to rotate counter-clockwise
about an axis that comes out of the page! This phenomenon is known as
precession.
For the disk shown in figure 12-14, the H vector will begin to move
(or precess) toward the T vector (things would behave differently if it
were a different shape). This precession occurs around a th~d vect2r
called the precession vector, w, and is at right angles to both H and T .
For a constant torque, the precession rate is also constant; it doesn't
accelerate, as we'd expect! As we'll see, knowing how a spacecraft gains
angular velocity and precesses helps us determine how to apply forces to
adjust it's attitude. Note that the direction of precession depends on how
mass is distributed in the object-its mass moment of inertia. Analyzing Figure 12-13. Torque Applied to a
Spinning Disk. Here, the angular momentum
why it precesses the way it does is beyond the scope of this book.
vector, Fl, points to the left. As we apply a force
There is one more important result of the interaction between a couple to the spinning disi5., Into and out of the
spinning spacecraft and an applied torque. We all know that spinning page, it creates a torque, T , that points down.
footballs and spinning rifle bullets travel further and faster than non-
spinning ones. This is because spin makes them more stable and resistant
to outside torques. The faster they spin, the more stable they become. This
stability is referred to as an object's gi;roscopic stiffness. The mathematical
explanation for what makes a spinning object "stiffer" than a not-
spinning object is beyond the scope of our discussion here. However, as
we'll see, we can make use of this fact to keep spacecraft pointed where
we want them.
Disturbance Torques
So why can't we just stick a satellite out in space with the desired
attitude and forget about it? As we know from Chapter 3, space can be a
nasty place. Over time, if we do nothing, environmental effects called
disturbance torques will drive a spacecraft away from its original attitude.
Figure 12-14. Precession of a Spinning
These torques are extremely small (in most cases, they literally couldn't Disk. When we apply a torque to the spinning
kill a fly). But just as tiny drops of water can wear away mountains over disk, it begins to precess by rotating around an
time, these torques can eventually rotate even very large spacecraft. We're axis 90° from both the torque and angular
momentum axes. In general, Fi tends to move
concerned with four main sources of disturbance torques towards T . Using the Qght-hand rule, curling
your fingers from Fl to T allows you to predict
• Gravity gradient the direction of the precession axis with your
• Solar-radiation pressure thumb.
• Earth's magnetic field
• Atmospheric drag
We'll go through each of these before turning our attention to the problem
of attitude determination.
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Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
Gravity-gradient Torque
Gravity-grndie11t torque results from the difference in gravitational force
exerted on different parts of a spacecraft. Recall from Chapter 4 that
Newton said the force of gravity on an object varies inversely with the
square of the distance from the central body.
(12-7)
where
-'
Fg = force of gravity (N)
µ = gravitational parameter of the central body (km3 I s2)
m = mass of the object (kg)
Figure 12-15. Gravitational Force. From
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation, we R = distance from the object to the central body (km)
know that gravitational attraction decreases
with the square of the distance between two
R = unit vector in the R
direction (dimensionless)
objects. Thus, if we double the distance, the Thus, we show in Figure 12-15, if one object is twice as far from Earth as a
gravilational force is only 1/4 as strong.
second object, the gravitational force will be one-fourth as large. This is
easy to visualize if the difference in distances from the central body is very
great, but it works the same way for very small differences. Imagine we
have a dumbbell-shaped spacecraft in Earth orbit. If the dumbbell is
hanging vertically, as in Figure 12-16, the lower mass (m-) will have a
slightly greater gravitational force on it than the higher mass (m2).
If m2 is directly above m1, nothing interesting happens. However, if the
dumbbell gets displaced slightly off vertical, as in Figure 12-17, this slight
difference between the gravitational forces on the two masses will create
a torque on the spacecraft that will tend to restore it to vertical. This is fine
if you want it to be vertical, but if you don't, your control system must
constantly fight against this torque. We can estimate the magnitude of this
torque using
Figure 12-16. Gravity Gradient. In this (12-8)
simplified, dumb bell shaped spacecraft, we
show that the gravitational force on the lower
part Is slightly gr_1!ater than the force on the
upper part, F1 > F2. The same effecl happens
in more conventional shaped spacecraft due to
differences in internal mass distribution. F1 > F2
this creates
, ··: : ~_,.·.,
··,.]::·" . ·'.
a net torque
on the
spacecraft
~"··, i ¢
. l : which rotates
the spacecraft
back to vertical
Figure 12-17. Gravity-gradient Torque. The slight difference in gravitational force between
the upper and lower part of a spacecraft will tend to rotate the spacecraft to vertical, with its
long axis pointed to Earth.
414
12.2 Attitude Control
where
Tg = gravity-gradient torque (Nm)
~l = gravitational constant (km3 / s2) = 3.986 x 105 k.m3 / s2 for
Earth
Iz = spacecraft moment of inertia about the Z axis (where we
assume Ix= Iy and Iz >> Ix) (kg m2)
Iy = spacecraft moment of inertia about the Y axis (kg m2)
8 = angle between the body Z axis and the local vertical
This equation tells us three important things about the gravity-
gradient effect
• It decreases with the cube of the distance, e.g., by going from a 500 km
altitude orbit (R = 6878 km) to a 1000 km (R = 7378 km) altitude orbit
the torque reduces by almost 20%
• It depends on the difference between moments of inertia in the Z axis
and X - Y plane, thus for a homogenous spacecraft with Ix = Iy = I2
the effect is zero
• It depends on the angle between the Z axis and local vertical. The
greater the angle from local vertical, the greater the torque
Later in this section we'll see how we can turn this sometimes annoying
effect to our advantage.
Solar Radiation Pressure
Another source of disturbance torque for spacecraft comes from the
Sun. The Sun exerts an ever-so-slight force called solar-mdiation pressure
on exposed surfaces. We're used to being warmed by the Sun, tanned by
the Sun, and even burned by the Sun, but pushed by the Sun? Yes. One
way to think about sunlight (or any light for that matter) is as tiny
bundles of energy called photons. In one of those seeming paradoxes of
modern physics, we say these photons are massless (thus, they can travel
at the speed of light), but they do have momentum. As photons strike any
exposed surface, they transfer this momentum to the surface. Why can't
we feel this force when we hold our hand up to the Sun? Because this
force is very, very small. We can estimate the force using
F = (t) As(l + r)cosI (12-9)
where
F = force on a surface (N)
Fs = solar constant= 1358 WI m2 at Earth's orbit around the Sun
c = speed of light= 3 x 108 m/ s
A5 = illuminated surface area (rrr')
r = surface reflectance (where r = 1 for a perfect reflector and O
for a perfect absorber) (unitless)
= incidence angle to the Sun (deg)
415
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
The force exerted on even a very large spacecraft with ten square
meters of surface (assuming perfect reflectance) is only 9 x 10-5 N (2 x 10-5
lb.)! We assume this force acts at the center of pressure for the surface. The
moment arm is the distance from the center of pressure to the spacecraft's
center of mass. We find the resulting torque by multiplying this force
times the moment arm (T = F x d). Even with a 1 m moment arm, the
resulting solar pressure torque is only 9 x 10-5 Nm. So why worry about
it? Over time, even this tiny force, acting unevenly over different parts of
the spacecraft, especially large areas like solar panels, can cause problems
for spacecraft needing precise pointing. In Chapter 14 we'll see how we
harness this small force to propel large solar sails.
Magnetic Torque
A third source of disturbance torque comes from Earth's magnetic
field. As we learned in Chapter 3, because of the impact of charged
particles in space, the surface of a spacecraft can develop a charge of its
own giving it a distinct dipole-north/south ends, like a compass. Just as
a compass needle rotates to align with Earth's magnetic field, the dipole-
charged spacecraft will similarly try to rotate as it passes through the
magnetic field. The size of this magnetic torque depends on the spacecraft's
effective magnetic dipole and the local strength of Earth's magnetic field.
We estimate this from
T=DB (12-10)
where
T = torque on a spacecraft (Nm)
D = spacecraft dipole (amp-m/)
B = local magnetic field strength (tesla). This varies with altitude
(R = distance to Earth's center) and latitude. Earth's
magnetic moment, M, is approximately 7.99 x 1015 tesla-m3.
At the poles, B = 2M/R3. At the equator, B = M/R3.
(tesla = kg/ amp-s2)
Magnetic torque is a big concern for operators of small satellites in low,
polar orbit but hardly noticeable for large spacecraft in geostationary orbit.
Later, we'll see how we can create a large dipole on purpose to use this
torque as an attitude actuator.
Aerodynamic Drag
The last disturbance torque we have to worry about is drag. As we saw
in Chapter 3, in low-Earth orbit the atmosphere applies a drag force to a
vehicle, eventually causing it to re-enter the atmosphere and burn up. In
Chapter 10 we introduced the drag force as
1 2 (12-11)
F drag = p V Co A
2
416
12.2 Attitude Control
where
Fdrag = force of drag (N)
p = atmospheric density (kg/ m3)
V = velocity (m/ s)
C0 = drag coefficient (unitless)
A = impacted area (m2)
Because parts of a spacecraft may have different drag coefficients (solar
panels, for example, act like big sails), drag forces on different parts of the
spacecraft can also differ. This difference, along with the distance
between the center of pressure (where the drag acts) and the center of
mass, causes a drag torque. A spacecraft designer can do little to prevent
this torque (short of moving the spacecraft to a higher orbit), so again the
control system must be designed to deal with it.
Spacecraft Attitude Sensors
As we've seen, an essential element of closed-loop control systems is a
device that can watch what's happening to the system and report this
information to the controller. In other words, we need a sensor. Sensors
are the control system's "eyes and ears." Sensors observe the system to
determine attitude and transform these observations into signals that the
controller processes.
All of us have a built-in attitude-sensor system. As we know from our
discussion of the human vestibular system in Chapter 3, we use fluid
flowing over tiny hairs in our inner ear, along with information from our
eyes to detect changes in our attitude. For example, they sense if we're
standing up or falling over. If we suddenly tilt our head to the side, these
sensors detect this motion. If our body violently moves or shakes (like
when we ride a roller coaster), our eyes and inner ear can get "out of
synch," leading to motion sickness. Fortunately, spacecraft don't get sick
from all their rotating, but they do need good attitude sensors. So let's
take a look at a spacecraft's eyes and ears.
To understand how sensors help spacecraft determine their attitude,
pretend you're flying the Space Shuttle in low-Earth orbit and need to
point the nose at some spot on the surface. You're in the commander's
seat facing toward the nose. To point the nose at the surface, you must
first determine where you're currently pointed. How can you do this?
The obvious answer is to look out the window at some reference. Let's
say you look out and see the Sun out the left-hand window. Would this
tell you all you need to know? Unfortunately, no. A single reference point
tells you your current attitude in only two dimensions. In other words,
you'd know that the left wing is pointed at the Sun and the nose is
pointed perpendicular to the Sun. But the nose could point in various
directions and still be perpendicular to the Sun, so what do you do?
To determine your attitude in three dimensions, you need another
reference. If you could see some known star out the front window you'd
know your orientation with respect to two reference points-the Sun and
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Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
a star. Knowing the angle between the Sun and the Earth and between a
known star and Earth, you could determine how to change your attitude
to point the nose at Earth. Let's look at how we can apply this technique
for attitude determination.
"Looking out the Window"
When pilots fly along in their airplanes, the easiest way for them to
determine attitude is to look out the window (if the weather is good). If the
ground is down and the sky is up, they're flying upright. Similarly, the
simplest way for a spacecraft to determine its attitude is to just "look out
the window." One important class of attitude sensors works the same way
as the remote sensing payloads discussed in Chapter 11 (on some
spacecraft, the payload can actually serve both functions). Recall, to look at
a subject, a remote sensing system must perform the following functions
• Look at it-scan the sensor to point at the subject
• See it-collect EM radiation from it
• Convert it-transform EM radiation into a usable data
• Process it-turn data into usable information
When it comes to remote sensing for attitude determination, there are
three primary subjects available for reference-Earth, the Sun, and the
Stars. This gives us three classes of "out the window" sensors
• Earth sensors
• Sun sensors
• Star sensors
All of these sensors work in pretty much the same way as other remote
sensing devices. Typically, they are attached to the spacecraft so the
spacecraft must rotate to bring the subject into the sensor field of view or
rely on "targets of opportunity" that will routinely go in and out of the field
of view. Similar to a telescope or camera, EM radiation from the primary
subject enters through a lens and focuses on solid state detectors, such as
the charged-coupled devices described in Chapter 11. The accuracy of the
sensor depends on how precisely it can discriminate the target, or portion
of the target, and how much onboard processing it can accomplish.
In low-Earth orbit, Earth fills a big portion of the sky. Earth sensors can
roughly indicate the "down" direction by simply discriminating where
Earth is with respect to the rest of the sensor's field of view. At
geostationary altitude, the angular radius of Earth is about 10°, so a
sensor that can find Earth is at least accurate to within that amount. To
use Earth as a more accurate method of attitude determination, a sensor
Figure 12-18. Earth Sensors. As their name must focus only on one small portion. Conveniently, sensors can detect
implies, Earth sensors use Earth as a target for Earth's horizon by focusing on a narrow band of EM radiation emitted by
determining spacecraft altitude. Sensors focus
either on the gross direction of Earth or on
carbon dioxide, C02, in the atmosphere, as shown in Figure 12-18. These
narrower (and more accurate) parts of Earth, Earth-horizon sensors can be as much as ten times more accurate than a
such as the horizon. simple Earth detector.
418
12.2 Attitude Control
Sun sensors, the most widely used spacecraft attitude sensors, are similar
in function to Earth sensors. As the name implies, a sun sensor finds the
Sun and determines its direction with respect to the spacecraft body frame,
as shown in Figure 12-19. By their nature, Earth and Sun sensors can give
accurate information about attitude in only two-dimensions. For example,
this means an Earth or Sun sensor can measure pitch and roll relative to the
horizon, but not yaw; or pitch and yaw but not roll, etc. reference
A more accurate 2-axis reference is a star sensor. As Figure 12-20 shows, axis
star sensors measure a spacecraft's attitude with respect to known star
locations. Then they compare these measurements to accurate maps of Figure 12-19. Sun Sensor. A Sun sensor
the brightest stars stored in the spacecraft's memory. The angle between determines spacecraft attitude by finding the
direction of the Sun with respect to the body
the known star's position and a reference axis on the spacecraft, 8, then frame. like Earth sensors, this sensor can only
helps determine the spacecraft's inertial attitude. By using two or more give a 2-dimensional fix on attitude without
star sensors located around a spacecraft (or by taking multiple another point of reference.
measurements with the same sensor), the system can determine its
attitude in 3-dimensions.
As we mentioned, each of these sensors provides only a 2-0 reference.
To determine attitude in 3-dimensions, we often use two or more sensors
together. For example, onboard computers can combine data from an
Earth sensor with Sun-sensor data to get a 3-0, accurate fix. As we'll see,
all of these sensors can also work in conjunction with a spacecraft's
reference
"ears" -gyroscopes and magnetometers. ---
axis
Gyroscopes
Figure 12-20. Star Sensor. A star sensor
Gyroscopes, like our inner ear, can determine attitude and changes in determines a spacecraft's attitude with respect
attitude, directly, without needing to look out the window. The simplest to the known orientation of certain, bright stars.
type of gyroscope is a spinning mass. As we know, any spinning mass has
angular momentum that is conserved. By using this fundamental
principle, we can use the gyroscope to detect spacecraft's angular motion.
Two basic principles of gyros make them useful as attitude sensors
• With no torques, their angular momentum is conserved-they
always point in the same direction in inertial space
• With torque applied, they precess in a predictable direction and
amount
When a mass starts to spin, its angular momentum vector remains
stationary in inertial space, unless acted on by an outside torque. For
example, let's spin a gyroscope at 6:00 A.M. (see Figure 12-21) with its
angular momentum vector pointed at some convenient inertial
reference-say, a star just above the eastern horizon (somewhere to the
right side of the page). We can then observe how conservation of angular
momentum works to keep the gyro always pointed in the same inertial
direction, as long as no torque affects it. ....,.
In this case, the angular momentum vector, H, appears to "track" the
star because the star is essentially fixed in inertial space. As the gyro sits in
its stand, it looks like it's rotating throughout the day. Actually, the stand is
moving as Earth rotates. The gyro remains stationary in inertial space.
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Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
6:00 A.M. noon 6:00 P.M. midnight
Cl--
A
o-A
Figure 12-21. Conservation of Angular Momentum. A spinning mass, such as a
gyroscope, has angular momentum that is naturally conserved. If we spin a freely rotating
gyro pointing east at 6 A.M., in this polar view of Earth, it appears to rotate as the day goes
on. Actually, the Earth-bound observer rotates with Earth, but the gyro stays pointing in the
same direction In inertial space.
Museums often demonstrate this principle with huge pendulums
suspended on long cables. The swinging pendulum's plane remains fixed
in inertial space, but as Earth turns, the pendulum path appears to move,
knocking over dominos spaced around it to the delight of the crowds.
The second basic principle of gyroscopes relates to their strange
motion in response to an applied torque. Earlier, we called this motion
precession-rotation with constant angular velocity in a direction 90°
from the direction of the applied torque.
Knowing these two basic principles, let's see how we can use a gyro to
sense attitude. Because its angular momentum vector stays constant in
inertial space, it provides a constant reference for inertial direction. One
way to measure rotation with respect to the reference is to isolate the gyro
from torques by mounting it on a gimbal (hinged brackets that allow it to
rotate freely or that allow the mounting box to rotate freely around the
stationary gyro). We then mount the gimbal on a platform in a spacecraft
and measure the spacecraft's rotation by measuring how much the
spacecraft rotates with respect to the stationary gyro.
~----Astra FunFact-----
FoucaultPendulum
For centuries, scientists have known that Earth rotates on its axis, but until 1851, no one had proved it. That
year, a young French physicist names Leon Foucault (1819-1868) demonstrated that a simple pendulum
appeared to change its swing axis over the course of a day. He surmised that since there were no rotational
forces to cause the axis change, then Earth must rotate under the arcing pendulum. Inspiration for the idea
came from an experiment with a long steel rod that he twanged while it was spinning in a lathe. He noted that
while it continued to spin in the lathe, its vibration axis stayed in the same plane. He tried his first pendulum
experiment in his home, using a 5-kg brass ball {bob) on a 2-m wire. It worked, so he lengthened the wire to 11
m and moved it to the Paris Observatory. Because of growing public interest, he was invited to show all of Paris
in the Pantheon, where he hung a 28-kg bob on a 67-m wire. Important witnesses saw the pendulum move
slowly clockwise with each swing, thus proving that Earth rotated counterclockwise.
Robin, William. Leon Foucault. Scientific American. July, 1998.
Contributed by Douglas Kirkpatrick, the U.S. Air Force Academy
420
12.2 Attitude Control
Another way to measure a spacecraft's rotation is to strap a gyro
directly to the spacecraft. Then, when the gyro (or the spacecraft) rotates
around an axis perpendicular to the spin vector, the resulting torque will
cause the gyro to precess. By measuring this precession angle and rate,
the system can compute the amount and direction of the spacecraft's
rotation and thus determine its new attitude.
Newer types of gyroscopes, called ring-laser gtjl"OScopes, don't use these
principles of a spinning mass. They use principles associated with laser
light! A ring-laser gyro consists of a circular cavity containing a closed
path, through which two laser beams shine in opposite directions (it's all
done with mirrors). As the vehicle rotates, the path lengths traveled by
the two beams change, causing a slight change in the frequency of both
beams. By measuring this frequency shift, the system can compute the
vehicle's rate of rotation. By integrating this rate over time, it can
determine the amount of rotation and hence the vehicle's new
orientation. Ring-laser technology offers similar or better accuracy, with
greater reliability than the old style spinning-mass gyros.
Magnetometers
Another means of measuring attitude directly uses Earth's magnetic
field. A magnetometer is basically a fancy compass that measures the
direction of the magnetic field and its strength. Earlier, when we discussed
the disturbance torque caused by the magnetic field, we indicated its
strength varies with the cube of radius (R3) and by a factor of two between
the pole and equator. By comparing the measured direction and strength
of the local field with a high fidelity model of Earth's field, the sensor can
determine the orientation of the spacecraft with respect to Earth. An
engineering drawing of a magnetometer is shown in Figure 12-22.
To see how this works, think about a compass needle. It's usually just a
lightweight magnet that can rotate freely. If you've ever played with Figure 12-22. Magnetometers. A magneto-
magnets, you know that one side of a magnet will readily attract and stick meter functions as a highly accurate compass
that measures the direction and strength of the
to another magnet, while the opposite side will repel it. With magnets, local magnetic field. By comparing this mea-
opposites attract and likes repel, so the north pole of a magnet attracts the surement to a model or Earth's lield, it can
south pole of another magnet. The lightweight magnet rotating freely in a determine an accurate estimate or the current
attitude. (Courtesy of Maarten Meerman,
compass tries to do the same thing. The north end of the compass tends to Surrey Satellite Technology, Ltd., U.K.)
point at Earth's North Pole, and suddenly, you're no longer lost1
Use of magnetometers is limited by the strength of the field, making
them more useful in low-Earth orbit than at geostationary altitude. The
sensor accuracy depends on the accuracy of the field model. Even so, they
offer a relatively inexpensive sensor that can deliver an independent
reference from the other sensors we've discussed.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
The newest attitude sensor to emerge on the scene is the "differential"
Global Positioning System (CPS). GPS is a constellation of 24 satellites in
high Earth orbit (12-hour period) designed and deployed by the U.S. Air
Force to provide world-wide position, velocity, and time information.
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Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
Clever engineers figured that by placing two GPS receivers some distance
apart on a vehicle, and carefully measuring the difference between the
two signals, they could determine a vehicle's attitude. This attitude deter-
mination technique has the potential to offer a relatively inexpensive,
independent system for low-Earth orbiting spacecraft.
Spacecraft Attitude Actuators
After we've determined what our spacecraft's attitude is, we need to
know how to change it. For example, we may need to compensate for
disturbance torques or rotate the spacecraft to point at a new subject. As
we've seen, applying a torque changes a vehicle's attitude. That's why we
need actuators. Actuators provide "torque on demand" to rotate a space-
craft as needed to take pictures, downlink data, or meet other mission
requirements.
Many types of attitude actuators are available to spacecraft designers.
Just as several different types of sensors often work together to accurately
measure attitude, typically two or more types of actuators combine to
apply torque to achieve a desired attitude. For simplicity, we'll discuss
each type of actuator separately.
We can conceptually divide actuator types into two general classes,
passive and active. Passive actuators operate more or less open loop. In
other words, after the spacecraft is in the desired attitude, passive
actuators will keep it there with little or no additional torques needed.
Active actuators, on the other hand, require continuous feedback and
adjustment. As you would expect, passive actuators typically can't reach
the same level of accuracy as active ones; however, in many cases, they're
good enough. We'll look at three types of passive actuators
• Gravity-gradient stabilization
• Spin stabilization
• Dampers
and three types of active actuators
• Thrusters
• Magnetic torquers
• Momentum-control devices
Gravity-gradient Stabilization
Figure 12-23. Gravity-gradient Stabiliza-
tion. Some spacecratt take advantage of the The first type of passive actuator takes advantage of the gravity-
gravity-gradient torque to keep them oriented gradient disturbance torque discussed earlier. We can exploit this "free"
in a local vertical, or "downward," attitude. torque to keep a spacecraft oriented in a local vertical, or "downward,"
Usually, they maximize this effect by deploying
a small mass at the end of a very long boom. orientation. Fortunately, a spacecraft doesn't have to be shaped like a
This artist's conception of the PicoSAT dumbbell to take advantage of this effect. For example, why do we see
spacecraft shows it to scale with a 6 m long only one face of the Moon and never the mysterious "dark side?" Because
deployable boom with a small mass on the
end. (Courtesy of Surrey Satellite Technology, of uneven distribution of mass within the Moon's crust, it's in a gravity-
Lid., U.K.) gradient-stabilized attitude with respect to Earth. However, to maximize
422
12.2 Attitude Control
the effect of this cheap and reliable attitude actuator, spacecraft will
usually deploy weighted booms to create a more dumbbell-like shape.
Figure 12-23 shows an artist's conception of the PicoSAT spacecraft using
a 6 m deployable boom.
Gravity-gradient attitude control offers a simple, reliable, inexhaustible
(as long as there's gravity) system with no moving parts. However, it has
a few drawbacks
• Two axes control only-pitch and roll but not yaw
• Limited accuracy-depending on the spacecraft moments of inertia,
downward pointing accuracy is only about ±10°
• Only effective in low-Earth orbit-because gravity varies with the
square of the distance, it's not very effective beyond LEO
Despite these disadvantages, gravity-gradient-controlled spacecraft have
been used effectively on a variety of missions.
Spin Stabilization
Earlier we saw that a spinning mass has unique gyroscopic properties.
A spin-stabilized spacecraft takes advantage of the conservation of angular
momentum to maintain a constant inertial orientation of one of its axes.
Because the angular momentum vector, H, of a spinning mass is fixed in
inertial space, the spacecraft tends to stay in the same inertial attitude, as
shown in Figure 12-24.
Perhaps the best example of a spin-stabilized satellite is Earth. The
spinning Earth is essentially a giant gyroscope. Earth's H vector points
out of the North Pole. This H stays fixed in inertial space (except for a
Figure 12-24. Spin Stabilization. A spinning
minor wobble), always pointed at the same place in the sky. When we spacecraft keeps its angular momentum vector
observe the motion of the stars at night, we see they all appear Jo rotate fixed in inertial space.
around one star-the North Star. This occurs because Earth's H vector
points at the North Star!
Spin stabilization is useful, as long as we want our spacecraft to stay
pointed in the same inertial direction. However, usually we're more
interested in non-inertial pointing. For example, spin stabilization isn't
very useful for pointing H at Earth, as illustrated in Figure 12-25. For this
reason, we mostly use it only during spacecraft deployment, when the
natural gyroscopic stiffness we discussed earlier is useful to maintain a
known orientation until the spacecraft is free from the launch vehicle.
This spin is usually maintained through the first major maneuver,
providing a stiff, stable platform during a rocket firing. During high- Figure 12·25. Spin Stabilization Isn't Much
thrust, orbit-insertion rocket firings, spin stabilization is often the only Good for Earth Pointing. Because spin
technique that can efficiently keep the spacecraft stable. stabilized spacecraft have fixed pointing with
respect to inertial space, they aren't a good
One way to avoid Earth-pointing limitations of spin stabilization is to choice for Earth-pointing missions. During part
use a dual-spin system. Dual-spin systems also take advantage of the of the orbit, they may point toward Earth but
constant angular momentum vector of a spinning mass. These systems during other parts of the orbit, they'll point away.
consist of an inner cylinder cal.led the "de-spun" section, surrounded by an
outer cylinder that is spinning at a high rate. The outer cylinder provides
overall spacecraft stability. The word "de-spun" is actually a misnomer.
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Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
In fact, the "de-spun" section does spin, but at a much slower rate than
the outer section. To allow for antenna and sensor pointing, the "de-
spun" section spins at a rate to keep them pointed at Earth. For example,
if a spacecraft is in geostationary orbit, the de-spun section rotates at
"orbit rate" or once every 24 hours, keeping antennas or other sensors
focused on Earth, as shown in Figure 12-26.
inner, despun section
~
outer,
spun section
/
spun section provides "stiffness,"
dual-spin spacecraft des pun section stays pointed at Earth
Figure 12-26. Dual-spin Spacecraft. A dual-spin spacecraft uses the inherent stiffness of
a spinning outer section with a "de-spun" inner section that can independently point at Earth.
The de-spun section turns at the orbital rate to keep sensors and antenna pointed at Earlh.
Figure 12-27. Dual-spin Communication Of course, the need for independently spinning sections makes dual-
Spacecraft. Large geosynchronous communi-
cation spacecraft, such as the Satellite Busi-
spin spacecraft much more complex. Electrical and other connections
ness Systems spacecraft, shown here, make must run from the spun to the "de-spun" sections. Highly reliable
good use of dual-spin attitude control. (Cour- bearings must allow the two sections to spin at different rates with little
tesy of Hughes Space and Communications
Company)
friction. Even with these inherent technical challenges, dual-spin has been
a popular control option for large, geosynchronous, communication
spacecraft, such as the one shown in Figure 12-27.
Dampers
As mentioned earlier, we seldom use a single type of attitude actuator
alone. A damper is another actuator usually used in combination with
others for a complete system. Generally speaking, a damper is a device
that changes angular momentum by absorbing energy. We know
momentum is constant only as long as energy stays constant. If we add or
take away energy, momentum changes. As a spacecraft attitude actuator,
dampers absorb unwanted momentum. Where does it go? When we hit
Figure 12-28. A Simple Spacecraft Damper.
the brakes in a car, the linear momentum "goes" into heat produced by
Dampers "absorb" unwanted angular momen- friction between the brake pads and the disks or drums. Similarly,
tum by converting the energy into friction, in attitude dampers use friction or other means to convert angular
much the same way as the brakes in a car turn
linear momentum into heat through friction. A
momentum energy into other forms.
ball inside a circular tube filled with a viscous One simple type of momentum damper consists of a small ball in a
fluid is one type of damper. As the spacecraft circular tube filled with highly viscous fluid, as illustrated in Figure 12-28.
rotates, the ball moves through the fluid. The
resistance produces heat, dissipating the
As a spacecraft rotates, some of its momentum is contained in the ball
angular motion. that moves inside the tube. Friction between the ball and the fluid in the
424
12.2 Attitude Control
tube converts some of the momentum into heat that slowly dissipates
throughout the spacecraft. Over time, the spacecraft can use this simple
technique to absorb mechanical energy, slowing it's rotation. Dampers are
usually designed and oriented to reduce rotation about a specific axis. In
this way, designers often use them in spinning spacecraft to remove
unwanted "wobbles" in the spin axis.
Thrusters
All of the actuators we've discussed so far are passive, in that, once put
in motion, they can more or less function in an open-loop mode, with
little or no additional inputs. Now we'll turn our attention to active
actuators. Thrusters are perhaps the simplest type of active actuator to
visualize. Thrusters are simply rockets that rely on "brute force" to rotate
a spacecraft. By applying a balanced force with a pair of rockets on
opposite sides of a spacecraft, we can produce a torque, as shown in
Figure 12-29. By varying which thruster pair we use and how much force
we apply, we can rotate a spacecraft in any direction. Figure 12-29. Thrusters. Thrusters are
rockets that apply a force some distance away
Placing thrusters as far from the satellite's center of mass as possible from the center of mass, causing a torque that
gives them a larger moment arm and allows them to exert a greater rotates the spacecraft.
torque for a given force. This is evident by looking at Equation (12-4),
where we see that the bigger R is, the more torque is delivered from the
same force. However, as we learned earlier, because of precession, when a
spacecraft is already spinning, any applied torque in a direction other
than the spin axis causes the spacecraft to rotate at constant velocity
about an axis perpendicular to the torque direction.
The biggest advantage of using thrusters is that they can produce a
well-defined "torque on demand," allowing the spacecraft to slew
quickly from one attitude to another. Unfortunately, the amount of
propellant a spacecraft can carry limits their use. For short missions, such
as those flown by the Space Shuttle, this limit is no problem. For longer
missions (months or years), designers use thrusters only as a backup and
for other purposes we'll discuss later. We'll explore basic principles of
rocket science and propulsion system technologies in greater detail in
Chapter 14.
Magnetic Torquers
A magnetic torquer is another type of actuator that takes advantage of a
naturally occurring torque in the space environment. Earlier we looked at
the magnetic disturbance torque caused by the interaction of the
spacecraft's magnetic field due to surface charging with Earth's magnetic
field. We can use this effect in an active mode by creating powerful Figure 12-30. Magnetic Torquers. A mag-
onboard magnets and switching them on and off as needed to rotate netic torquer is an active spacecraft attitude
actuator that takes advantage of the natural
"against" Earth's magnetic field. Magnetic torquers are simply torque caused by Earth's magnetic field
electromagnets produced by running an electrical current through a loop interacting with a magnet; it's the same effect
of wire onboard. Like a compass needle, this electromagnet tries to align that rotates a compass needle. Onboard, the
system switches electromagnets on and off as
with Earth's magnetic field, dragging the rest of the spacecraft with it, as needed, pushing "against" the magnetic field,
seen in Figure 12-30. producing the necessary torque.
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Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
Magnetic torquers offer a relatively cheap and simple way to control a
spacecraft's attitude. Furthermore, because they need only electrical
power to nm, they're inexhaustible-unlike thrusters. Unfortunately,
their effectiveness depends directly on the strength of Earth's magnetic
field, so they become less useful in higher orbits. Also, because the field
strength varies by a factor of two between the equator and the poles, they
are most useful in highly inclined orbits. Even so, they are an important
secondary means of attitude control used on many LEO spacecraft.
Momentum-control Devices
The most common actuator for spacecraft attitude control is a family of
systems that all rely on angular momentum. These momentum-conitol
devices actively vary the angular momentum of small, rotating masses
within a spacecraft to change its attitude. How can this work? If you
stand on a turntable, holding a spinning bicycle wheel at arm's length,
you can cause yourself to rotate by tilting the bicycle wheel to the left or
right. This works because total angular momentum of a system is always
conserved. As the bicycle wheel rotates one way, you rotate another to
compensate, keeping the total angular momentum constant, as you can
see in Figure 12-31.
Figure 12-31. Bicycle Wheels in Space? You can do a simple experiment to see one way
spacecraft control their attitude. By standing on a turntable holding a spinning bicycle wheel,
as shown In the left-hand photograph, you can change direction (your attitude) by applying a
small torque to the wheel by slightly tilting the wheel to one side, as shown in the right-hand
photograph.
Let's look at where this attitude change comes from. From Equation
(12-2), we know angular momentum is the product of an object's mass
moment of inertia, I, and its angular velocity, Q.
___,.
H = IQ (12-2)
426
12.2 Attitude Control
Note that a large mass (high I) spinning at a relatively slow speed (low Q)
can have exactly the same angular momentum as a small mass (low I)
spinning at a much higher rate (high Q ). If we consider a spacecraft and
all mass inside it to be one system, we can control where the spacecraft
points by changing the angular momentum (rate and direction of spin) of
a small spinning mass inside. There are three approaches to momentum-
control devices currently in wide use
• Biased momentum systems-"Momentum wheels" that typically
rely on a single wheel with a large, fixed momentum to provide
overall stiffness. The wheel's speed gradually increases to absorb
disturbance torques.
• Zero-bias systems-"Reaction wheels" that rely on three or more
wheels, normally with little or no initial momentum. Each wheel
spins independently to rotate the spacecraft and absorb disturbance
torques.
• Control-moment gyroscopes- rely on three or more wheels, each
with a large, fixed momentum. The wheels are mounted on gimbals,
rotating the wheels about their gimbals changes the spacecraft
orientation.
Biased momentum systems are the simplest type of momentum control
device. In operation, these systems use one or two constantly spinning
momentum toheels, each with a large, fixed momentum. (They are "biased"
toward having a particular, set momentum, hence the name). Because
they are always spinning, they give the spacecraft a large angular Figure 12·32. Biased Momentum Systems.
momentum vector, fixed in inertial space. This is exactly the same concept We use momentum wheels in biased momen-
used by spin-stabilized spacecraft, discussed earlier. Only, in this case, in- tum systems. They typically rely on a single
wheel with a large, fixed ("biased") momentum
stead of spinning the whole spacecraft, we only spin a small wheel inside lo provide overall stittness. The wheel speed
the spacecraft to achieve the same effect, as illustrated in Figure 12-32. gradually increases to absorb disturbance
torques. (Courtesy of Ball Aerospace & Tech-
In contrast, reaction toheels are a type of zero-bias system, because their nologies Corporation)
normal momentum is at or near zero (no bias). Typically, an attitude
control system uses at least three separate reaction wheels, oriented at
right angles to each other, as seen in Figure 12-33. Often, a fourth wheel is
skewed to the other three for redundancy. When the spacecraft needs to
rotate to a new attitude, or to absorb a disturbance torque, the system
spins one or more of these wheels. To see how this works, let's step
through what happens to the relationship between a reaction wheel and
the overall spacecraft momentum.
First of all, realize that without any external torque, the total angular
momentum of the spacecraft (including the reaction wheels) is conserved
(and usually maintained at or near zero). Thus, the angular momentum of Figure 12-33. Reaction Wheels. Reaction
the spacecraft plus the angular momentum of the reaction wheels must wheels are part of a zero-bias system that uses
three independent wheels, one along each
add up to a constant vector quantity. Now, imagine one of the reaction axis, normally with zero or near zero
wheels begins to spin using a motor. As the wheel's spin rate increases, its momentum. To rotate the spacecraft or absorb
angular momentum also increases. But, the total angular momentum of disturbance torques, one or more wheels begin
to spin. Often, designers add a fourth wheel,
the wheel and spacecraft must always sum to a constant value. So what skewed with respect to the other three, for
happens to the spacecraft? redundancy.
427
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
Let's look at a more specific example to get a better idea. We can
express the total angular momentum of the spacecraft (including reaction
wheels) as
....,.
HrnT (12-12)
where
H TOT= total angular momentum of the spacecraft (kg m2 Is)
Hs;c = angular momentum of just the spacecraft (kg m2 Is)
HRw = angular momentum of the reaction wheels (kg m2 Is)
[Note: This relationship is vector addition, so IHrnTI ;" IHs1cl + IHRwl !)
If a reaction wheel spins faster, its angular momentum increases by an
amount L'lHRw. Because the total angular momentum must stay constant,
the spacecraft's angular mo~entum must automatically decrease to
compensate by an amount L'lHs;c. The vector increase in the reaction
wheel's momentum must exactly equal the decrease in the spacecraft's
momentum, or L'lHRw = -L'lHs1c, to keep a constant total. Figure 12-34
shows these relationships. To conserve momentum, the spacecraft must
either slow its rotation or start rotating in the opposite direction. In either
case, the spacecraft's attitude has changed simply by spinning a small
mass faster inside.
before the reaction wheel spins up
~ ~
Hr01 = Hs;c = 0
after the reaction wheel spins
HrnT = Hs;c + HRw = 0
Figure 12-34. Reaction Wheels in Operation. The total angular momentum of a spacecraft
system is the sum of the spacecraft's momentum plus the momentum of each reaction wheel.
In this example, we start with a non-rotating spacecraft that has zero total angular momentum.
To rotate the spacecraft in one direction, a reaction wheel is spun up in the opposite direction,
such that the total angular momentum of the system stays constant.
.~, Three reaction wheels can deliver precise control of a spacecraft's
Figure 12-35. Reaction Wheels for
Accurate Pointing. The Hubble Space attitude in all three axes. Unfortunately, as with any mechanism with
Telescope observes many Interstellar objects moving parts, they can be complex, expensive, and have a limited opera-
al such long distances that ii must point very tional lifetime. Despite these limitations, they remain the primary choice
accurately. To be this accurate, it relies on very
accurate reaction wheels. (Courtesy of NASA/ for attitude control on large, modern spacecraft requiring very accurate
Johnson Space Center) pointing, such as the Hubble Space Telescope shown in Figure 12-35.
428
l2.2 Attitude Control
The final type of momentum-control device is the control-moment
gyroscope (CMG). A CMG consists of one or more spinning wheels, each
mounted on gimbals that allow them to rotate freely in all directions.
Recall that reaction wheels change momentum by changing magnitude
only (spinning faster or slower). CMGs change momentum by changing
their magnitude and direction (physically rotating the spinning wheel).
Again, because the total angular momentum of the system must be
conserved, as the momentum of a CMG changes in one way, the
spacecraft will rotate in the other to compensate. CMGs provide pointing
accuracy equivalent to reaction wheels but offer much higher slew rates
and are especially effective on very large platforms, such as the Skylab
Space Station shown in Figure 12-36. Figure 12·36. A Control Moment Gyro-
scope (CMG) in Space. CMGs can vary the
One important limitation of all momentum control devices is that there magnitude and direction of their angular
is a practical limit to how fast a given wheel can spin. In operation, all of momentum, allowing for much higher slew
rates and making possible efficient attitude
these systems must gradually spin faster and faster to rotate the
control on very large platforms, such as the
spacecraft and absorb disturbance torques. Eventually, a wheel will be Skylab Space Station shown here. (Courtesy
spinning as fast as it can, without damaging bearings or other of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
mechanisms. At this point, the wheel is "saturated," meaning it has
reached its design limit for rotational speed. When this happens, the
wheels must "de-saturate" through a process known as "momentum
dumping." Momentum dumping is a technique for decreasing the angular
momentum of a wheel by applying a controlled torque to the spacecraft.
The wheel can absorb this torque in a way that allows it to reduce its rate
of spin. Of course, this means the spacecraft needs some independent
means of applying an external torque. For this reason, on all spacecraft
using momentum control devices, designers use either magnetic torquers
or thrusters (or both) to allow for momentum dumping.
The Controller
So far, we've looked at the dynamics of rotating systems to understand
how torque affects a spacecraft's angular momentum, including the
environmental sources for disturbance torques. We then looked at the
various types of sensors used to measure attitude. Finally, we discussed
the different types of actuators, passive and active, used to generate
torques that allow us to freely change a spacecraft's attitude. Now we can
put the entire attitude determination and control subsystem together by
looking at the "brains" of the operation-the controller.
The controller's job is to generate commands for the actuators to make
the spacecraft point in the right direction based on mission requirements
for accuracy and slew rate. To use the information from sensors and
continuously adjust actuator commands, the controller must be smart. It
has to know what's happening and decide what to do next. To do this
right, the controller has to keep track of
• What's happening now
• What may happen in the future
• What happened in the past
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Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
Knowing what's happening now is pretty easy-the controller simply
asks the sensors to find the current attitude. It then compares this to the
desired attitude. The difference between the measured and desired
attitude is the error sig11nl. Based on this error signal, the controller steers
in the direction of the proper orientation. That is, if the attitude is 10° off,
the controller commands a 10° change. This is known as proportiona!
control and is used in some form in virtually all closed-loop control
systems.
However, predicting what's going to happen and remembering what's
happened in the past can be just as important. For example, if you need to
stop at a stop sign, you need to know not only where you are, but also
how fast you're going, so you can hit the brakes in time. Similarly, to hit
the desired attitude, the spacecraft controller must monitor the attitude
rate, as well as the current attitude. For you calculus buffs, you may
recognize this rate of change calculation as a derivative. In this case, by
knowing the rate of change or "speed" of attitude, the controller can more
accurately determine how to command the actuators to achieve better
accuracy. This process is called derivative control.
Sometimes we can be more precise by keeping track of how close we're
getting to the desired result. One way to do this is for the controller to
monitor the angular difference between the measured and desired
attitude, 68. When the spacecraft reaches the desired attitude, this
difference, 68, will be zero. If the system stops commanding the actuators
at this point, the attitude will immediately begin to drift due to
disturbance torques. A really smart controller, however, won't just look at
the instantaneous 68. Instead, it would keep a running tally, summing the
68 over time. The result would always be some value other than zero and
would tell the controller how much torque to add in a "steady-state"
mode to compensate for the disturbance torques. In calculus, this process
is called integration, so we call this type of control intcgra! control.
Designers use it for highly accurate pointing.
Regardless of the exact scheme used, the controller combines its
memory with its current measurements and an ability to predict future
behavior to decide how to command the actuators. We can now complete
a block diagram of a spacecraft's attitude-control system in Figure 12-37.
system input: difference: disturbance physical output:
desired attitude, error signal, torques the current
8desired
+ eerror
I] torques
spacecraft
attitude, ereal
"the plant"
measured output:
the measured attitude, emeasured
sensors
Figure 12-37. Attitude Determination and Control Subsystem (ADCS). A complete ADCS (the attitude part of an AOCS) includes a
controller, actuators, the spacecraft ("the plant"), and sensors that work together to maintain or change spacecraft attitude in response to
changing mission requirements.
430
12.2 Attitude Control
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
active actuators >- To understand a spacecraft's behavior or how it reacts to inputs, we must
attitude accuracy, 'ljJ understand the model of system dynamics based on linear and rotational
attitude determination and laws of motion. To rotate a spacecraft we must recognize that
control subsystem (ADCS) • Angular momentum is always conserved
biased momentum systems
• A torque describes the direction of a force couple applied to a system
body frame
control-moment gyroscope • A torque applied to a non-spinning object (or applied parallel to the
(CMG) direction of spin for a spinning object) causes angular acceleration,
damper which leads to angular velocity and hence, change in angular
derivative control orientation
dipole • A torque applied in a direction other than the direction of spin for a
disturbance torques spinning object wiJI cause precession. This means it will begin to rotate
drag torque at constant angular velocity about an axis perpendicular to the torque
dual-spin systems direction.
Earth sensors
error signal
> A Spacecraft experiences many environmental disturbance torques that,
over time, work to change its attitude. These include
gimbal
Global Positioning System • Gravity gradient
(GPS) • Magnetic
gravity gradient torque
• Solar-radiation pressure
gyroscopic stiffness
gyroscopes • Atmospheric drag
integral control >- Sensors determine a spacecraft's attitude
magnetic torque
magnetic torquer • Sun sensors, horizon sensors, and star sensors are the "eyes" of the
magnetometer spacecraft, determining attitude by "looking out the window." They
mass moment of inertia, I function in much the arne way as remote sensing payloads.
momentum-control devices • Gyroscopes are the "inner ears" of spacecraft. They can directly sense
momentum dumping changes in attitude because a spinning mass has two important
momentum wheels properties
passive actuators - The angular momentum of a spinning mass is constant
photons
pitch - Torque applied to a spinning mass causes precession
pointing accuracy • Ring-laser gyros measure the changing frequency of light to detect
precession attitude changes
proportional control • Magnetometers measure the direction and magnitude of Earth's
reaction wheels magnetic field to determine attitude
ting-laser gyroscopes
roll • Differential Global Positioning System (GPS) measures the difference
slew rate between signals received at two or more locations on a spacecraft to
solar-radiation pressure d termine attitude
spin stabilized
Continued on next page
431
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
!!!!! Section Review (Continued)
Key Terms (Continued) Key Concepts (Continued)
star sensors > Applying torques to the spacecraft requires spacecraft actuators.
Sun sensors Actuators are either passive or active.
thrusters
torque
> Passive attitude actuators include
yaw • Gravity-gradient stabilization
zero-bias system • Spin stabilization
Key Equations • Dampers
---'
> Active attitude actuators include
H = IQ • Thrusters
..:. ~ .,. • Magnetic torquers
T RxF
• Momentum control devices
..,. ---' ..,.
T H = Ia - Zero-bias systems-momentum wheels
..... ..... - Bia momentum systems-reaction wheels
HToT = Hs.c + HRw - Control moment gyros
> The controller decides what commands to send to active actuators based
on current and historical data from sensors and an uncle ·standing of
spacecraft rotational properties
432
Example 12-1
Problem Statement 2) Complete a conceptual design of the FireSat
attitude control system, using the simplest
Based on your experience in designing the FireSat techniques.
payload (as described in Example Problems 11-1, 11-2,
and 11-3), you've now been put in charge of the attitude There are almost an infinite number of possible
control system. For the FireSat constellation to provide control schemes we could use to achieve modest
continuous coverage, the center of the sensor's FOY pointing accuracy. Given that the spacecraft will
must not deviate from nadir by more than ±100 km. operate in LEO and must be primarily nadir
Determine the corresponding attitude accuracy pointing, the simplest technique would be
required. Given this accuracy, complete a conceptual gravity-gradient stabilization. The addition of a
design of the FireSat attitude control subsystem using short boom (2 m-3 m) with a small mass at the tip
the simplest available techniques. Draw a simple block (-1 kg) should provide sufficient gravity-gradient
diagram for your resulting subsystem. torque to keep the spacecraft nadir pointing. To
ensure the payload is pointing "right side down,"
a small magnetorquer could also be added. Three-
axis attitude determination can be done using a
simple sun sensor (2 axis) plus a magnetometer
Problem Summary (3-axis).
Given: D = 100 km
3) Draw a simple block diagram for the subsystem.
h = 500 km (from Example 11-1)
Find: 'l)J, conceptual design of FireSat attitude desired magnetic field
control system GG
attitude
nadir
± 100
controller
actuators
•GGboom •
• magnetometer
Conceptual Solution sensors
• Sun sensor
1) Determine 'l)J, for the given D and h, using • magnetometer
Equation (12-1)
D = h'l)J
11' = !2h
Interpretingthe Results
2) Complete a conceptual design of the FireSat atti-
tude control system using the simplest techniques.
Given the computed attitude accuracy and the concep-
3) Draw a simple block diagram for the subsystem. tual design of the FireSat attitude control system, we
can present the system block diagram, as shown above.
As team players in the overall spacecraft design, we
need to consider the corresponding requirements this
particular subsystem will have on other spacecraft sub-
Analytical Solution systems. For example, the use of a gravity-gradient
boom will mean the structures and mechanisms must
1) Determine 'l)J, given D and h be able to accommodate its storage during launch and
D 100 km successful deployment on orbit. The use of magne-
11' = h = 500 km torquer will place additional demands on the electrical
power subsystem.
~J = 0.2 rad
11' = 11.459°
433
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
12.3 Orbit Control
~ In This Section You'll Learn to ...
• Describe key element· and technologies used in space-vehicle rbit
control and explain them using block diagrams
,... Apply orbit control concepts to the problem of delivering a launch
vehicl to orbit
In the last section, we looked at the problem of how to point a space
vehicle in the right direction-the "A" of the vehicle's attitude and orbit
control subsystem (AOCS). ln this section, we look at the separate, but
related, problem of getting a vehicle in the right position with the right
velocity-the "O" part of the AOCS. This function is so important that it is
often given the separate name uaoigation, guidance, and control (NGO
subsystem. In this section we'll refer to it by that name. Like any closed-
loop control system, it uses the same four steps we defined in Section 12.1.
• Understand the system's behavior-how the plant reacts to inputs,
including environmental inputs, to produce outputs. This is also
known as the plant model.
• Observe the system's current behavior-using sensors
• Decide what to do-the job of the controller
• Do it-using actuators
Let's look at how the separate functions of a NGC subsystem relate to
these steps. Observing and measuring a vehicle's current position and
velocity using various sensors and computational techniques is the
problem of navigation. Understanding how the vehicle behaves and
deciding what steering commands it needs is called guidance. The
guidance system is the controller. Finally, implementing the guidance
commands using various actuators is the problem of control.
J J
a1 v1 R, As we did with our discussion of attitude control in the last section,
let's start by taking a closer look at the system dynamics that governs
vehicle position and velocity. Then we'll look at how we keep track of
~ position and velocity. After a brief look at actuators, we'll see how the
integrator integrator whole subsystem fits together.
Figure 12-38. Space Vehicle Dynamics.
We describe all dynamics for a vehicle's
Space Vehicle Dynamics
velocity and position using Newton's Laws.
From them we know that the longer an object
The basic principles that explain how to move a spacecraft, once again,
accelerates, the faster it goes. If It goes at a stem from Newton's Laws of Motion. If we apply force to a mass, it
velocity for a certain time, it will reach a new accelerates. The longer it accelerates, the faster it goes. If it goes at some
position. From a calculus standpoint, acceler-
ation over lime (integration) produces a
velocity for a certain time, it'll reach a new position. Figure 12-38
velocity change, and velocity over time illustrates this basic concept from a calculus standpoint. Accelerating a
(integration) produces a position change. vehicle over time (integration) produces a velocity change. Holding a
434
12.3 Orbit Control
velocity over time (integration) produces a position change. This is the
basis for modeling space vehicle dynamics. Designers know that to reach
a certain velocity in a certain direction, a vehicle must produce a force in
the opposite direction.
Navigation-The Sensor
Navigation is the problem of knowing where a vehicle is and where it's
going. Within the NGC subsystem is a group of sensors working in
concert to figure this out. The two primary navigation concerns are
knowing a vehicle's velocity vector, V, and its position vector, R, with
respect to an inertial reference. Using a Global Positioning System (GPS)
receiver, we can learn these two things directly. However, without a GPS
receiver, we have to resort to other, internal means. To determine velocity
and position, we only have to measure acceleration along each of our
three axes. Starting from a known position and velocity, we apply the
basic principles from Newton's Laws and work forward in time
(integrate) to determine our vehicle's new velocity and position. All we
need is some ·way to measure inertial acceleration. Let's see how we can
build something to do that.
When we stomp on the accelerator in our car, it responds by applying a
a celerometer
contact force to everything attached to it (including us), moving the car
forward and throwing us back in our seat. We feel this contact force on
our body and in our inner ear. Onboard a spacecraft, we use this same
effect to detect and measure acceleration. A device that can sense
acceleration due to contact forces is called an accelerometer. An
accelerometer can be as simple as a free-floating mass suspended reference position (no force)
between two springs. If we suddenly accelerate a box containing the mass
and springs by applying a contact force, the springs on one side will
compress as the inertia of the mass resists the acceleration. We illustrate
this principle in Figure 12-39.
Notice we said that an accelerometer measures only contact forces. But
gravity also accelerates the vehicle. How do we measure it? We can't.
Because gravity acts on all bodies, and we can't "shield" a mass from its
effect, there is no known way to build a device to sense gravity directly!
Fortunately, armed with Newton's good ol' Law of Universal Gravitation,
we can compute it. Recall from Chapter 4 that we find acceleration due to
gravity from
Figure 12-39. Accelerometers. Accelero-
Rg (12-13) meters measure acceleration. You experience
this basic principle, which makes an acceler-
ometer work, every time you push on the accel-
erator in your car. You feel yourself pushed back
where in your seat. Accelerometers use masses that
_,.
are similarly displaced when subjected to
ag = Rg = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) contact forces. By measuring this displacement,
µ = gravitational parameter of the central body (m3 I s2) you can determine the magnitude of the applied
force and, hence, the acceleration on the
R = magnitude of the position vector (m) vehicle.
a -'
R = unit vector in the direction of R
435
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control System·
So if we have a "gravity computer," as shown in Figur~ 12-40, we can
compute ag,
as long as we know the inertial position (R1 ). But wait a
ffiJ 2
1
R
Figure 12-40. A Simple Gravity Computer.
minute-that's what we were looking for in the first place! Are we going
in circles? Actually, we are, but we'll see how it all works in just a bit.
We now have the gravitational forces computed from Newton's Law
(the "gravs") and the contact, or non-gravitational forces ("grav-nots")
measured directly by the accelerometer. Because these constitute all
possible accelerations on the vehicle, the total inertial acceleration is the
We can determine gravitational acceleration,
vector sum of the two.
~g = ~g , by knowing our vehicle's position,
R1, and using Newton's Law of Universal (12-14)
Gravitation as a "gravity computer."
where
a 1 = inertial acceleration (m I s2)
ag = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
aN = acceleration due to non-gravitational forces (m / s2)
(e.g., lift, drag, thrust, etc.)
-----Astra FunFact----~
Gravity Probe B "AsAccurate as It Gets"
Due to launch in 2001, Gravity Probe Bis a relativity experiment using a small
satellite in a 644-km (400-mi.}, polar orbit. NASA and Stanford University are
developing the experiment to test two extraordinary, unverified predictions of
Einstein's general theory of relativity. The experiment will very precisely
measure tiny changes in the spin direction of four, extraordinarily precise
gyroscopes. They will measure how Earth's rotation drags space-time around
with it (frame-dragging), and how Earth's presence warps space and time
(geodetic effect). These effects, though small for Earth, have far-reaching
implications for the nature of matter and the structure of the universe.
The Gravity Probe B experiment also requires a reference telescope sighted on
HR8703 (JM Pegasus), a binary star in the constellation Pegasus. With all the
gyro spin directions also pointing toward HR8703, the frame-dragging and geodetic effects appear as spin-axis
movement at right angles to the orbital plane. To measure a spin-axis movement of about 42 milliarc-seconds for
frame-dragging, the gyroscopes must be stable to 10-11 deg/hr-a million times better than the best inertia/-
navigation gyroscopes. To build such gyroscopes, engineers and physicists electrically suspend 3.8 cm (1.5 in.)
spheres made of fused quartz, thinly coated with niobium metal. They spin them at 10,000 r.p.m. and freeze them
to 1. 8 K. In the orbital free fall, and magnetically shielded, the gyroscopes are completely isolated from outside
disturbances. They even compensate for atmospheric drag.
The thin niobium metal coating creates a weak magnetic field around each sphere as it spins, so that an
extremely sensitive instrument can sense any spin-axis movement. With this extraordinary satellite, scientists
hope to measure the general relativity effects called frame-dragging and the geodetic effect.
Stanford University website, History of Gravity Probe B topic. No author indicated.
Contributed by Douglas Kirkpatrick, the U.S. Air Force Academy
436
12.3 Orbit Control
Note that this is a vector equation. Thus, the accelerometer needs to
non-gr a vita tiona I forces
know the direction and magnitude of the acceleration caused by contact
forces. This means the system must also know the attitude of the
accelerometer that measures the acceleration. To find attitude, it needs an
attitude sensor. Earlier, we discussed using gyroscopes as attitude
sensors. Armed with an accelerometer and a gyroscope, we can then
accelerometer
determine aN, as shown in Figure 12-41.
Now that we have both ag and aN we can add them to get a,. We do
I
this by building a little "position and velocity computer," or inertial gyros
navigation system, that applies principles of feedback-control systems to Figure 12-41. Accelerometers and Gyro-
converge on an accurate solution. All we need are the initial conditions of scopes. To determine the direction as well as.
the vehicle (say, at lift-off), and the navigation system does the rest. We the magnitude of the non-gravitational acceler-
ations, a.N , we use accelerometers in conjunc-
show the elements of such an "inertial navigation system" in Figure 12-42. tion with gyroscopes.
non-gravitational
forces
L ,.,L==:=::::======::::::-,-.! .Rinertial
l,m,m accelerometer
gravity
computer
Figure 12-42. Inertial Navigation System. An inertial navigation system is the primary "sensor" of an NGC subsystem.
11 uses accelerometers, gyroscopes, and knowledge of Newton's Laws to determine the current inertial position and velocity.
Rockets-The Actuators
As Mr. Newton said, "to create acceleration we need to apply a force."
The force to move launch vehicles and spacecraft comes from rockets.
Currently, rockets are the only actuator available to NGC subsystems
(we'll explore some other futuristic options in Chapter 14). Thrust is the
force produced by a rocket. Of course, the resulting acceleration depends
~n the amount of thrust applied and the mass of the vehicle (remember,
F = ma). But a vehicle can reach the same total velocity and position
change by using a high thrust rocket for a short time or a low thrust
rocket for a long time. In Chapter 14, we'll look at rockets and propulsion
subsystems in more detail to see how they work. For the purpose of the
NGC subsystem, it simply has to know how much thrust to expect, then
decide which direction to apply it, when, and for how long.
437
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
Guidance-The Controller
We can now look at the NGC subsystem in action by looking at the
guidance portion-the controller. Since we control position by controlling
v current
~vneeded
velocity, Jet's look at just that. We start by checking our vehicle's current
velocity, V current (current velocity with respect to an inertial reference
frame). by asking the navigation SY,_Stem. The guidance system then
compares this to its desired velocity V desired, as provided by pre-defined
mission requirements or sent to it by ground controlle_rs. The difference
between these two is the additional velocity needed (fl V needed) to achieve
th~ desired velocity. Figure 12-43 shows how the guidance system finds
fl Vneeded by subtracting the other two velocity vectors .
...,. ...,. ...,.
fl V needed = V desired - V current (12-15)
Figure 12-43. Needed Velocity. The NGC
subsystem subtracts the velocity it has, where
Vcurrenl• from the velocity it wants, Vdesired, to
determine the additional velocity needed, fl V needed = velocity change needed to reach the desired velocity
t:, Vneeded· Using this value, ii computes the ...,. vector (m/s)
necessary steering and rocket commands to
produce the extra velocity. V
...,. desired = desired velocity vector (m/ s)
V current = spacecraft' s current velocity vector (m/ s)
This equation gives the NGC subsystem a simple algorithm to use.
(More complicated schemes give somewhat more accurate results.)
Figure 12-44 shows the entire process for controlling the vehicle's position
and velocity. In Example 12-2, you can see how this whole system works
together to determine the velocity a launch vehicle needs during the final
phase of powered flight to reach the desired burnout velocity.
desired output:
commands 8initial
V desired spacecraft
guidance
V current inertial
navigation
system
Figure 12-44. Complete Navigation, Guidance, and Control (NGC) Subsystem. The
block diagram sh_pws all the elements of an NGC subsystem working together. Given the
desired velocity, Vcteslred, from mission requirements, and the current velocity, Vcurrenl• from
the navigation subsystem, it computes guidance commands for the actuators (rockets).
These commands produce a force (thrust) on the vehicle causing acceleration.
438
12.3 Orbit Control
~----Astra FunFact-----
Accelerometersand Seat Belts
Most of us use accelerometers every day and we hardly notice it! The most common
place you come in contact with accelerometers is with the seat belt in your automo-
bile. If you've been in an accident, you know that the seat belt latches instantly and
holds you in the car seat upon impact. The simple accelerometer in the seat
belt mechanism detects the rapid deceleration and causes the seat belt to
hold. Two types of accelerometers are in most cars. The first is an electromechan-
ical sensor that is a metal ball held in place by a magnet. An impact interrupts the
magnetic pull, releases the metal ball, and activates the seat belt. The second is
electric. It uses a glass rod that moves horizontally and, when enough deceleration -
is placed on the system, emits a radio frequency signal which activates the seat
belt. Accelerometers can protect you every time you're in a car.
Adler, U. Automotive Handbook. Stuggart: Robert Bosch GmbH, p. 628-629, 1986.
Contributed by Michael A. Banks, the U.S. Air Force Academy
~ Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
accelerometer :> The navigation, guidance, and control (NGC) subsystem is another name for
control the orbital part of an attitude and orbit control. subsystem (AOCS). It
guidance maintains and changes a vehicle's p sition and velocity. As with all dosed-
navigation, guidance, and Jo p control systems, it must
control (! GC) subsystem
• Uudersinnd the system's behavior-how the plant will react to inputs,
inertial navigation system
including environmental input , to produce outputs. Thi is also known as
plant model
the plant mod J.
thrust
• Observe the system's current behavior-using sensors
Key Equations • Decide what to do-the job of the control er
• Do it-using actuators
:> To understand the dynamics of a vehicle, we must understand Newton's
Laws of Motion and know that a force applied over time causes an
acceleration. Acceleration over time causes a velocity change, and velocity
over time changes position.
----' ----' ----'
11 Y needed = V desired - V current :> The navigation ystem is the "sens r." It uses various other sen ors to
determine current position and velocity. It combines sensing with Newton'
Law of Universal Gravitation to form an inertial-navigation system.
> Rockets are the primary actuators for GC subsystems. They produce a
force on a vehicle call d thrust.
:> The guidance system decides what commands to send to the actuators by
comparing the current position and velocity to the desired position and
velocity
439
Example 12-2
Problem Statement 2) Find the local acceleration due to gravity, ag
The new Falcon launch vehicle on its maiden flight has u u
launched nearly due south (13 = 188°) from the
.>
a = - ..!.._R
A
= _..!.._z
A
g R2 R2
Vandenberg launch site in California to put a small
remote sensing spacecraft into Sun-synchronous orbit.
3) Compute the non-gravitational acceleration, aN,
Mission planners want the Falcon to achieve a velocity
over the navigation cycle in ml s2
at engine cut off of 7613 mis, with a flight-path angle
of 2°. The azimuth at burnout should be the same as aN s = Accels(g)
the launch azimuth. During the last navigation cycle,
four seconds ago, the navigation system placed the aNc = AccelE(g)
Falcon at an altitude of 455 km with the following
aNz = Accelz(g)
velocity vector in the topocentric-horizon (SEZ) frame:
Vz = 946.1 mis; VE= -56.4 mis; Vs= 7434.5 mis.
During the four seconds since the last navigation 4) Compute the inertial acceleration, a.1, during the
update, the inertial measurement units detected the navigation cycle
following acceleration: -0.4 g's in the east direction; 1.2
g's in the zenith direction; 4.4 g's in the south direction.
What arethe three components of the velocity-desired --'
5) Find the change in velocity, !),. V, during the
vector (V desired) that the guidance system should
navigation cycle
compute so the launch vehicle can reach the desired
burnout conditions?
Problem Summary 6) Determine the current inertial-velocity vector
Given: g = 9.798 ml s2 --' --' --'
V current = Vinitial + /),. V
1380 = 188°
M=4s 7) Determine !),. V needed
V8o = 7613 mis --' --' --'
<pso = 20 /),. V needed = V BO - V current
Altitude = 455 km
Vs'i11itinl =7434.Smls
VE lnitinl = -56.4 m Is
Analytical Solution
Vz inili;-il =946.lmls --'
µ= 3.986 x 105 km3 I s2 1) Determine the desired velocity at burnout, V 130,
Accelerations= 4.4 g's using the method from Chapter 9
AccelerationE = -0.4 g's v 805 = -V BO COS ( <p130) cos ( 13so)
Acceleration- = 1.2 g's
= -7613 m Is cos(2°) cos(l88°)
Find: V desired
V 130 s = 7534.32 ml s
Conceptual Solution V80c = V80cos(cp80)sin(f380)
--'
1) Determine the desired velocity at burnout, V 80, = 7613 ml s cos(2°) sin(188°)
using the method from Chapter 9 V80 = -1058.88 mis
E
VBOs = -VBOcos(cpBO)cos(l3BO) Vso z = Vsosin(cpBO)
VBOe = Vsocos(cp13o)sin(l3so) = 7613 ml s sin(2°)
V BOz = V so sin( <p130) vl30z = 265.69 mis
440
Example 12-2 (Continued)
2) Find the local acceleration due to gravity, ag t,,. VE = -15.68 mis
Z = 1 in the Z direction t,,. V z = a12(M) = 3.22 ml s2 (4 s)
R = 6378 km + Alt = 6378 km + 455 km t,,.V2 = 12.88 mis
R = 6833 km
3 6) Qetermine the current inertial velocity vector,
3.986x!05k~ V current
a = -~Z= - -----5- z __,_ __,_ __,_
g R2 (6833 km/ V current = V initial + t,,. V
Vcurrent S
=Vs 11111,al
... +D..Vs=7434.5mls+l72.44mls
ag = -8.54 ml s2 in the Z direction V currents = 7606.94 ml S
3) Compute the non-gravitational acceleration, Vcurrent-=VE
E
.. + t,,. VE = -56.4
initinl
ml s + (-15.68 mis)
over the navigation cycle in ml s2 V currentc = -72.08 ml S
2
aN5 = Accel5(g) =4.4g's (9.798m~s) Vcurrent = Vz . +t,,.Vz =946.lmls+l2.88mls
2 1nit1,1)
2
aN 5 = 43.llmls V currenty = 958. 98 ml S
2 __,_
aN = AccelE(g) = -0.4 g's (9.798mls) 7) Determine t,,. V needed
[ g __,_ __,_ __,_
2
aN [ = -3.92mls t,,. Vneeded = V BO - V current
mls2 t,,. V needed, = V 605 - V current,
aNz = Accel2(g) = 1.2 g's (9.798-g-)
= 7534.32 ml s - 7606.94 ml s
aN z = l l.76ml s2 t,,. V needed , = -72.62 mis
t,,. V needed.. = V BOc - V currentc
4) Compute the inertial acceleration, a,, during the = 1058.88 ml s - (-72.08 ml s)
navigation cycle
t,,.Vneeded E
= 1130.96 mis
a1 = ag + aN
t,,. V needed2 = V 602 - V currentz
a1 s = 0 + aN s = 0 + 43.11 ml s2
= 265.69 ml s - 958.98 ml s
a1 = 43.llmls2 t,,. V neededz = -693.29 ml S
s
a1c = 0 + aNc = 0 + (-3.92 mls2)
2
t,,.Vneeded = 1
(-72.62:f +(1130.967)2 +(-693.297)2
a1 [ = -3.92mls
t,,. V needed = 1328.5 m IS
a,2 = ag + aNz = -8.54 ml s2 + 11.76 ml s2
a12 = 3.22mls
2 Interpretingthe Results
__,_ The launch vehicle is slightly off course and needs to
5) Find the change in velocity, D.. V, during the make some final adjustments to its velocity to reach the
navigation cycle desired burnout conditions. It needs to gain an
D..V = a1(M) additional 1130.96 ml s in the downrange or east
direction and -693.29 ml s in the up or vertical
D.. V 5 = a1/M) = 43.11 ml s2 (4 s) direction to get the correct flight-path angle (2°) at
D..V5 = 172.44mls MECO. It also needs to correct its extra southerly
velocity by 72.62 ml s. The total t,,. V needed is 1328.5 ml s.
D..VE = a1c(M) =-3.92mls2(4s)
441
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
== References == Mission Problems
Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Biographical Encfclcpedia of 12.1 Control Systems
Science and Technology. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday
and Company, Inc., 1972. 1 What are block diagrams and why are they useful?
Chetty, P.R.I<. Satellite Power Systems: Energy
Conversion, Energy Storage, and Electronic Power
Processing. George Washington University Short 2 Define the four steps in control and apply them to
Course 1507. October, 1991. some everyday process such as hitting a baseball
with a bat.
Chetty, P.R.I<. Satellite Technology and Its Applications.
THB Professional and Reference Books, New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
3 What is a plant model? What is the plant model for
the baseball and bat example?
Gere, James M., Stephen P. Timoshenko. Mechanics of
Materials. Boston, MA: PWS Publishers, 1984.
Gonick, Larry and Art Huffman. The Cartoon Guide to 4 How do spacecraft use control?
Physics. New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 1991.
Gordon, J.E. Structures: Why Things Don't Fall Down.
New York, NY: Da Capp Press, Inc., 1978. 5 What do sensors do in a control system? What
sensors do you use to hit a baseball with a bat?
Holman, J.P. Thermodynamics. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill Book Co., 1980.
6 Draw a block diagram for the baseball-and-bat
Pitts, Donald R. and Leighton E. Sissom. Heat Transfer.
system. Assume you are the controller and the bat
Schaum's Outline Series. New York, NY: McGraw-
is the actuator.
Hill, Inc., 1977.
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht,
12.2 Attitude Control
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
7 Give an example of how you can use roll, pitch,
Wertz, James R. [ed.] Spacecraft Attitude Determination and yaw to describe the attitude a remote-sensing
and Control. Netherlands: 0. Reidel Publishing Co., spacecraft needs to point a camera at a target on
Kluwer Group, 1986. Earth.
442
Mission Problems
8 What is the difference between attitude accuracy, 14 What is the force of air drag on a spacecraft with a
slew, and slew rate? cross-sectional area of 10 m2 in a low-Earth,
circular orbit at 200 km? Assume the air density is
2.53 x 10-10 kg I m3 and C0 = 1.0.
9 A spacecraft is not spinning. If a 2.0 N thruster fires
1.0 m from the spacecraft's center of mass,
perpendicular to the center of mass, how much 15 Which of the spacecraft's sensors allow it to "look
torque does it generate and how will the angular out the window" to determine attitude and
momentum change? If the spacecraft's moment of position?
inertia is 1000 kg · m2, what angular acceleration
will the spacecraft experience?
16 What unique properties of spinning masses make
them useful as gyroscopic attitude sensors?
10 Describe how gyroscopic precession works. What
is gyroscopic stiffness?
17 What is a ring-laser gyro and how is it different
from a spinning mass?
11 What are disturbance torques and how do they
affect a spacecraft? Which ones do spacecraft
designers worry about most?
18 How do magnetometers determine a spacecraft's
attitude and what limits their use to low-Earth
orbits?
12 Suppose a burst of solar wind disturbed the
attitude of your gravity-gradient-stabilized space-
craft, and knocked it 30° off of vertical. The space-
craft specifications show the moments of inertia
are Iz = 100 kg m2, Ix= Iy = 20 kg m2. It's in a 500-
km altitude polar orbit. Find how much torque is 19 How does differential GPS determine a space-
available from the gravity gradient to restore your craft's attitude?
spacecraft to vertical.
20 What are the three main passive attitude actuators
13 After designing the solar panels for the electrical used on spacecraft?
power subsystem on a LEO spacecraft, you want
to know how much solar radiation pressure they
will have. So, for solar panels that are 20 m2 in
area, assume a perfect reflectance (p = 1.0) and
compute the worst case (I= 0°) force on the panels. 21 Describe the potential spacecraft design impacts
Use Fs = 1358 WI m2 for the solar constant. for using gravity-gradient control.
443
Chapter 12 Space Vehicle Control Systems
22 List the advantages and disadvantages of control 30 The Space Shuttle is on its way into orbit and is
strategies using gravity gradient, spin, and dual currently at an altitude of 40 km. What
spin. gravitational acceleration is it experiencing?
23 How can thrusters be used to torque a spacecraft? 31 Describe the purpose and various parts of an
inertial-navigation system.
24 How do magnetic torquers work?
32 What type of actuators are used on spacecraft?
25 What are the three momentum-control devices
and how do they work? What are their main 33 What is the basic relationship between needed
differences? velocity, desired velocity, and current velocity
used by the booster controller?
26 What does a controller do and what types of things
does it have to know? 34 A Titan IV rocket has been launched due east from
the Kennedy Space Center (28.5° N, 75° W). Mission
designers want the booster to reach a burnout
velocity of 8220 m/s, with a flight-path angle of 5°.
The azimuth at engine cut off should be the same as
27 Draw the block diagram of a complete attitude the launch azimuth. During the last navigation
determination and control subsystem and discuss cycle five seconds ago, the navigation system
all of the components. placed the booster at an altitude of 60 km with the
following velocity vector in the topoce.ntric-
horizon (SEZ) frame: V5 = -5.7 m/ s, VE= 436.2 m/
s, V z = 544.1 m Is. During the five seconds since the
last navigation update, the inertial measurement
12.3 Orbit Control units detected the following acceleration
• -0.6 g's in the south direction
28 Define the functions of navigation, guidance, and
control. • 6.4 g's in the east direction
• 4.2 g's in the zenith direction
V
What are the three components of the t,. needed
vector that the guidance system should compute
29 How do accelerometers work? What do they so the Titan IV can achieve the desired burnout
measure? conditions?
444
Mission Proiile- -GPS ==--
For centuries, mariners relied on the stars to tell them • Communication network-antennas at the five
their location at sea. Today, ships, airplanes, and even monitor stations
spacecraft can still look to the skies to determine where
they are. But instead of a crude reckoning based on
known star positions, they can now achieve unprece-
dented accuracy by looking at a man-made constel-
lation of stars, better known as NAVSTAR or the
Global Positioning System (GPS).
MissionOverview
The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is a space-
based radio navigation system which, for any number
of users, provides extremely accurate position and
velocity data anywhere on Earth to those equipped
with GPS receivers. GPS Block Il-F. The next generation GPS satellites will improve
accuracy and availability of the signal. (Courtesy of the U.S. Air
MissionData Force)
.! The elements of the mission architecture are MissionImpact
• Objective--provide world-wide navigation During Operation Desert Storm, almost every element
reference of the coalition used the GPS system. Supporting
• User-United States armed forces and anyone everything from precision air strikes to lights-out
with a receiver delivery of meals to foot soldiers in the field, the GPS
• Operations concept-a user receives signals from proved itself a true "force multiplier." Receivers were
four (or more) satellites (either simultaneously or in such demand that soldiers bought civilian sets out of
sequentially) to determine their three- their own pockets so they could navigate in the
dimensional position and velocity featureless deserts of the Middle East. Because there's
.! The receiver calculates range information by no limit to the use of GPS signals, the volume and
computing the difference between the current scope of its applications are also limitless. Cars are
receiver time and the time transmitted in the pulse now being equipped with "moving maps," which use
train, and then multiplying this time by the speed GPS and digital maps stored on compact disks (CDs).
of light. GPS may soon be a household word on par with even
radio and television .
./ By using four (or more) signals, the receiver can
mathematically eliminate its own clock errors For Discussion
(which are significant), and rely solely on the time • What other applications can you think of for GPS?
kept onboard the satellites by atomic clocks. These
clocks would lose or gain only one second every What are its potential limitations?
160,000 years if they were not updated every day. Could we use it for interplanetary or interstellar
• Spacecraft-NAVSTAR GPS. The payload navigation? Why or why not?
consists of two cesium and two rubidium atomic • The United States government provides this
clocks and a communication package to service to the world basically free of charge. Is this
broadcast GPS system time and the spacecraft's the right thing to do?
position information to users.
• Space operations-five unmanned stations
Contributor
monitor the GPS block II satellites at Hawaii, Kirk Emig, the U.S. Air Force Academy
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein Atoll,
and Schriever AFB in Colorado. Schriever AFB References
also serves as the Master Control Station. Logsdon, Tom. The Navstar Global Positioning System.
• Booster-Delta II New York, NY: VanNostrand Reinhold, 1992.
445
Technicians in a clean room prepare the combined release and radiation effects satellite (CR RES) for its journey into space. (Courtesy of Ball
Aerospace & Technologies Corporation)
Spacecraft
Subsystems
!!!!!!!!!!!!! In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... - Outline
..- Describe the main functions and requirements of the communication
13.l Communication and Data-
and data-handling subsystem (CDHS)
handling Subsystem (CDHS)
_.. Describe the main functions and requirements of the electrical power System Overview
subsystem (EPS)
Basic Principles
~ Describe the main .functions and requirements of the environmental Systems Engineering
control and life-support subsystem (ECLSS)
..- Describe the main functions and requirements of the spacecraft 13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem
structures and mechanisms (EPS)
Basic Principles
Systems Engineering
!!!!!!!!!!!!! You Should Already Know ...
O The space systems engineering process (Chapter 11) 13.3 Environmental Control and
Life-support Subsystem
O Basic functions of the spacecraft bus's subsystems (Chapter 11)
(ECLSS)
O Effects of the space environment on spacecraft (Chapter 3)
System Overview
O Black-body radiation, Stefan-Boltzmann relationship (Chapter 11) Basic Principles of Thermal
O Basic elements of a control system (Chapter 12) Control
Basic Principles of Life Support
Systems Engineering
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
System Overview
You would make a ship sail against the winds and currents by lighti11g a bonfire Basic Principles
under her deck ... I have 110 time for such no11sense.
Systems Engineering
Napoleon commenting
on Fulton's steamship
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
B
eing a spacecraft is a lot of work. It gets packed into the nose cone
of a rocket sitting on tons of explosives. It gets blasted into orbit on
a bumpy ride that subjects it to many g's of acceleration. Then it
gets dumped into the cold vacuum of space to fend for itself. It spends the
rest of its life keeping the payload happy, supplying it with electrical
powe1~ keeping it not-too-hot and not-too-cold, pointing its sensors in the
right direction, and processing its data.
In this chapter, we'll see how the spacecraft does all this. In Chapter 11,
we presented the space systems engineering process, shown again in Figure
13-1, and reviewed the basic functions of the spacecraft bus. This process
gave us a systematic way to use general mission requirements, such as
"build a small satellite to look for forest fires," to develop specific payload
and subsystem designs. In Chapter 12, we looked at control systems and
how they manage a spacecraft's angular momentum, position, and
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter velocity in the attitude and orbit control subsystem (AOCS). In this
deals with the Spacecraft segment of the chapter, we'll continue to explore the other subsystems that are on the
Space Mission Architecture, introduced in spacecraft bus. Here we'll see how to apply the systems engineering
Figure 1-20.
process to control and manage the information flow, electrical power, and
heat on a spacecraft, as well as it's structural design. We'll focus on the
define mission basic principles for design and analysis tools, as well as the "design loop"
requirements and "verification loop" issues.
& constraints We'll start by looking at the flow of information to see how the
requirements communication and data-handling subsystem (CDHS) uses radios and
loop computers to collect, store, send, and receive vital data from payloads
derive system and ground controllers. Next, we'll look at the flow of electrical power to
requirements see how the electrical power subsystem (EPS) creates, stores and
& constraints distributes electricity to power-hungry components. All this power,
design loop together with the Sun and other sources, produces lots of heat. We'll see
how the environmental control and life-support subsystem (ECLSS)
validation loop design creates a cozy working space for all the subsystems, astronauts, and other
subsystems payloads. Finally, we'll look at how everything fits together. While not a
"subsystem" in the conventional sense, we'll see how structures and
Figure 13-1. Space Systems Engineering mechanisms literally form the backbone of the spacecraft, providing a
Process. The space systems engineering framework for integrating all the other subsystems and payloads. So let's
process, introduced in Chapter 11, allows us to kick the tires and take a peek under the hood to see how a spacecraft
turn basic requirements into real system
hardware. really works.
448
13.l Communication and Data-handling Subsystem (CDHS)
13.1 Communication and Data-
handling Subsystem (CDHS)
- In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Describe the inputs, outputs, and basic processes within the
spacecraft communication and data-handling subsystem (CDHS)
..- Explain the basic principles used to communicate and handle data
,... Apply the space systems engineering process to the design and
testing of the CDHS
The most important commodity that "flows" within a spacecraft and
down to the ground is information. After all, the need for the unique
payload information motivated the mission originally. Monitoring
information on the health and status of the spacecraft is vital to the
continued success of the mission. The communication and data-handling
subsystem (CDHS) processes all this information. It serves as the
spacecraft's ears, brain, and mouth. Its "ears" gather raw data from the
payload, other subsystems, and ground controllers. Its "brain" processes
this data and translates it into a useful form that can be passed between
onboard systems and to the ground. Its "mouth" communicates this
information in a meaningful way to users in the mission control center.
We introduced the spacecraft's communication and data-handling
subsystem (CDHS) in Chapter 11. This subsystem acquires, stores, and
transfers all information for the spacecraft. The communication part of
this subsystem transfers data and operating commands among the
spacecraft, ground stations, and other spacecraft. The data handling part
collects payload or housekeeping data on all the subsystems and stores it
until it can be transmitted to the ground.
In this section, we'll start by looking at the system-level inputs and
outputs of the CDHS. Then we'll briefly review some of the basic
principles of communication and data handling needed to do its job.
We'll explain the process for translating data into a form that can be
communicated from one place to another. Then we'll look at the major
components of any data-handling subsystem and the software
requirements needed to make it all work together. Finally, we'll bring the
pieces together to understand some of the fundamental issues of systems
engineering that drive the requirements and testing of the CDHS.
System Overview
Throughout this chapter, and in Chapters 14 and 15, we'll continue to
apply the systems approach to understanding how things work on a
spacecraft we began in Chapter 12. Recall the major characteristic of any
system is that it has input, performs some process, and produces output.
449
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
Figure 13-2 illustrates the inputs and outputs of the CDHS. As the
figure shows, the CDHS is somewhat unique in that inputs and outputs
flow in both directions. Starting from the left, the CDHS collects raw data
from the payload and the other spacecraft systems. Within the data
handling portion, the CDHS processes this raw data to translate it into
valuable mission information (images, measurements, etc.) or important
information on subsystem performance (temperature, voltage, etc.).
bl)
S/C&P/L
r;j .s information "O
-:0
"d
;a
i::
§
11awdata r;j
...c; commanding ~
information
CDHS
Figure 13·2. Communication and Data-handling Subsystem (CDHS). The CDHS is a
spacecratt's "ears," "brain," and "mouth." It gathers data from the payload and other
subsystems and the ground controllers and translates it into useful information that is passed
to other "customers."
Note we make a distinction here between "data" and "information."
Dntn can be any collection of facts. For example, 23° C, or 14 volts. These
facts become useful information only when we put them in a specific
context, e.g., the temperature of the solar panels at 12:34 GMT was 23° C
or the battery voltage after eclipse was 14 volts.
After we assemble this information, the next step is to communicate it
to eager users on the ground. The communication portion of the CDHS is
simply a radio that takes the "script" written by the data handling piece
and broadcasts it to the ground. The payload and spacecraft health and
status information that the controllers receive on the ground for analysis
is called telemetry (from the Latin for "far-measurement").
Now working from right-to-left in Figure 13-2, notice that the
communications portion collects commands radioed from the ground
(e.g., "take an image over Washington, D.C.") and translates them into
specific commands that the data handler can interpret. The CDHS then
breaks this information into specific sets of instructions to the payload
and other subsystems, which execute the command (e.g., rotate the
spacecraft 14° and take a picture at 09:47 GMT). Next, we'll look at how
the CDHS performs all these processes.
Basic Principles
Whether we're speaking, writing, reading, or thinking, we're
processing information. Biologists and psychologists are only beginning
to understand the complex processes our brains use to collect, store,
retrieve, and assemble new information. This powerful tool that sits
between our ears performs many of these same functions that happen
within the components we call computers and radios in a spacecraft. All
CDHS design and analysis tools depend on some basic principles of
450
13.1 Communication and Data-handling Subsystem (CDHS)
operation for these two components. To understand these principles,
we'll start by looking at the communication function.
Communication involves translating information into a form that we
can move from point A to point B. On a fundamental level, this is the
same process that happens in a computer. The primary difference is the
amount of "translating" that occurs. In fact, on modern spacecraft, it can
be very difficult to draw a line between where computing ends and
communication begins. Both of these functions have blended together in
the same basic hardware and software. However, for purposes of
discussion here, we'll break the CDHS into two parts-communicating
and data handling.
Communicating
On May 24, 1844, Samuel Morse (1791-1872) made history by sending a
simple message, "What Hath God Wrought," from Washington, D.C., to
Baltimore, Maryland, through a wire strung between the two cities. The
Information Age was dawning. Within a few years, telegraph lines
spanned the country, linking far-flung cities. With the invention of radio
communication by Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) in 1895, the telegraph
slowly became obsolete. However, the techniques pioneered by the
telegraph are very useful in illustrating the basic process of communication
still used today.
In a simple telegraph system, a single wire connects two stations.
When an electromechanical switch closes at either end, an electric pulse
travels along the wire and another electromechanical switch at the other
end detects it. Given the obvious limitations of this fairly crude system,
how can we devise a useful communication technique?
Realize that in the absence of any communication, there is no activity in
the wire. It is silent. In engineering terms, we call the default condition of
our communication system the carrier signal. The carrier signal literally
"carries" the information with it, so it doesn't contain any information
itself. By prior agreement, we decide this electrical signal will always have
the same amplitude, phase and frequency. We communicate by laying the
message onto the carrier to get a signal to transmit. For a telegraph, the
carrier signal of the system is a silent wire (zero amplitude, phase and
frequency). When we add a message, it's like shouting across a quiet room,
it gets noticed. The specific technique we use to blend the message signal
with the carrier signal is called modulation. For telegraph, the modulation
options are pretty limited. We can only turn the pulse on or off, or vary its Figure 13-3. Morse Code Communication.
In the early 1BOO's, Samual Morse (1791-
width (shorter or longer in duration). Even so, Morse devised a simple but 1872) developed a modulation scheme for
effective modulation scheme that still bears his name: Morse code. communication called, Morse code. The tech-
Morse assigned a specific series of "dots" (short pulses) and "dashes" nique translates letters into a series of dots and
dashes. In the absence of any communication
(long pulses) to each letter of the alphabet and numbers, 0-9. Thus, on a telegraph system, the "carrier signal" Is
operators could translate any message into Morse code and transmit it silent. Operators press the key to modulate
using the telegraph. Figure 13-3 illustrates how the signal strength, or pulses representing dots and dashes onto this
carrier signal. Operators at the other end
amplitude, of the message signal-dots or dashes-is always the same, but demodulate the signal when they receive it.
the pulse width varies over time to deliver the message (now, commonly Finally, they translate it back into the original
called "pulse width modulation"). message.
451
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
With the invention of radio, the carrier signal was freed from the
confines of wires and broadcast far and wide through the atmosphere.
These carrier signals are simply specific frequencies (naturally called radio
frequencies, or simply rf) of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum we
discussed in Chapter 11. A wide variety of modulation schemes have
been developed to overlay messages on these carrier frequencies,
including the well known amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM) we can tune our car radios to.
Physical, technical, and legal limitations dictate allowable spacecraft
communication frequencies. Atmospheric windows, discussed in Chapter
11, place physical limitations on which frequencies can pass undisturbed
through the atmosphere. Technical requirements such as antenna size,
available power, data transmission rate, and other spacecraft and ground
system specifications also constrain the range of frequencies that we can
use for a certain mission. In Chapter 15, we'll look at this aspect of the
communication problem and the trade-offs between the spacecraft and
ground system. Finally, international licensing of spacecraft frequencies by
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the World
Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) dictate what frequencies we can
use that may be different than the ones we want to use. In the competitive
spacecraft-communication market, a license to use specific frequencies can
be an extremely valuable company asset. We'll learn more about these
regulatory agencies in Chapter 16.
Figure 13-4 shows the basic components of the communication portion
of the CDHS. Payload and spacecraft information is coded onto the carrier
signal by a modulator before being amplified and sent to the spacecraft
antenna for broadcast to the ground. The receiver antenna collects
commands from the ground, then an amplifier boosts the weak signal, and
a demodulator translates (decodes) it, before sending it to the data handler.
S/C & P/L
information
carrier signal amp
commanding
information
mq Ov!D
signal
Figure 13-4. Communication Components. The communication portion of the CDHS
consists of modulators (MOD), demodulators (DEMOD), amplifiers (amp), and antennas.
Payload and spacecraft information modulates onto the carrier signal, then Is amplified and
broadcast to the ground system through the antenna. The spacecraft collects commands
from ground stations (using its antenna), amplifies the signal, then demodulates it lo produce
instructions for the data handling portion of the CDHS.
A home computer handles access to the Internet in much the same
way, using a combination modulator/demodulator called a "MODEM."
Later in this section, we'll look at a simple example of how this process
works to transmit information.
452
13.1 Communication and Data-handling Subsystem (CDHS)
Handling Data
To put the message signal in a form to transmit, the modulator must
combine the message signal with the carrier signal. In mathematical terms,
the two are multiplied together to form the transmitted signal. To reach that
point, we must first have useful information to send. To get the
information, the data handler must first manipulate the payload and
subsystem data, a process that involves adding, subtracting, multiplying,
and dividing data signals. These functions form the heart of data handling,
which is the sole function of computers. In almost every way, the data-
handling hardware (and, even software) in spacecraft is identical to a home
personal computer (PC), similar to the one shown in Figure 13-5.
Modern computers labor under the same basic limitations faced by
Samuel Morse. Similar to data from a telegraph, data within a computer
Figure 13-5. Personal Computers and
can only travel as electronic pulses that are either on or off. However, Spacecraft. The communication and data-
instead of Morse code, we treat these on/ off pulses as l's and O's and handling subsystem (CDHS) has many of the
apply binary arithmetic. (Normal mathematics uses a decimal or base-10 same components as a personal computer. It
communicates using modulators/demodula·
system. Binary mathematics employs a base-2 system.) Each 1 or O is tors (MODEMs). Data handling happens in the
called a bit. Just as letters combine to form words, bits of data combine CPU. Both of those systems run operating·
system and application software. (Courtesy of
into groups called bytes. Depending on the computer, 8, 16, 32, or more
the U.S. Air Force Academy)
bits form a word.
Millions of transistors packed onto computer chips complete the
mathematical operations within the computer hardware. The more
densely we pack these transistors, the more operations they can complete
in a given time. We measure this throughput or processing speed in cycles
per second (or Hertz, abbreviated Hz) and sometimes call it "clock
speed" on home computers.
Figure 13-6 illustrates the three main components of the data handling
portion of the CDHS. Input/output (1/0) devices interact with the "outside sl c & p/1
data information
world" to collect and distribute data to other users. "Thinking" takes
place within the central processing unit (CPU). This is the main processor in
the computer and is similar (and in some cases, even identical) to the
Pentium IIITM or other processors that power a home PC.
When it needs additional information, the CPU can access and use the
information stored in memory. Memory comes in many different forms.
Read only memory (ROM) stores fixed programs and data that don't
change throughout the mission (unless overwritten by operators or
engineers). This is non-volatile memory that remains constant even if the
Figure 13·6. Data Handling. The data
computer shuts off. Within a home computer, ROM stores basic handling portion of the CDHS is the "brains" of
instructions that allow the computer to turn on and talk to input devices. the operation. It collects and distributes data
For other long-term memory storage, spacecraft use non-volatile through Input/output devices. "Thinking" takes
place in the central processing unit (CPU).
memory that stores large amounts of data such as specific programs or Mass memory modules store data for later
payload data. Originally, bulky tape drives did this work, however, solid retrieval.
state memory, similar to memory cards used with computers and digital
cameras, has replaced these mechanical storage options, for the most part
on modern spacecraft.
Computers rely on random access memory (RAM) for short-term storage.
Information flows from long-term storage into RAM where the CPU can
access it at electronic speeds. Unfortunately, RAM usually holds much
453
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
less information than tape drives or other long-term memory storage
devices. In addition, RAM is volatile memory. That is, all information
stored in RAM vanishes when power shuts off.
Software controls the actions of all these tiny data manipulators.
Operati11g-syste111 software works at the most basic level to run the entire
computer and to schedule events. On home computers, this operating
system is the basic set of instructions that allows the computer to start up
and run (e.g. Windows TM or Apple™ OS). Application software on your PC
handles specific tasks such as word processing or spreadsheets. On a
spacecraft, a separate application program may run soon after
deployment, to spin the spacecraft or extend antennas. Other application
software programs control sensors, fire thrusters, and perform other
specific tasks.
We can't over-emphasize the importance of software to a space
mission. It controls virtually every action on a spacecraft (as well as in the
operational control center). The success or failure of a mission can depend
on a single line of computer code. To insure success, mission managers
typically must perform rigorous software tests. However, as any
computer user knows, no software is ever completely bug free. For this
reason, smart mission designers build in the flexibility to reprogram their
spacecraft "on the fly," from the ground system, after launch. This allows
them to fix bugs as needed and upgrade the computer functions
throughout the life of the mission. For example, when the Voyager
spacecraft had trouble pointing it's camera after flying by Saturn, ground
controllers had to extensively modify the programs from more than three
billion km (two billion miles) away to get it working again.
-----Astra FunFact----~
Space ShuttleComputers
Computers sometimes lockup and need to be reset. However, in systems where computers control almost
everything and life is at risk, protection against lockups has to be incorporated into the system. The Space
Shuttle is a prime example of such a situation. To protect against computer errors during the trip to orbit, four
computers, all running the same software, compare answers with each other. If one computer disagrees with
the other three, it is voted out of the system and is ignored from then on. Two of the remaining computers can
also vote out the third computer, if it doesn't agree with them.
If, along the way, the voting gets to the point where the system can't decide which answer is right, the
astronauts have another option available. A fifth computer, running different software, can be brought on-line
as a backup in order to finish the ascent to orbit.
NASA Johnson Space Center. "Space Shuttle News Reference." "Data Processing System Training
Manual." TD292.
Contributed by Scott R. Dahlke, the U.S. Air Force Academy
454
13.1 Communication and Data-handling Subsystem (CDHS)
Software and hardware are susceptible to the space environment. As
we discussed in Chapter 3, cosmic rays, in the form of charged particles,
can cause a variety of problems, including single event upsets (SEU) that
cause bits stored in memory to flip (O's change to l's). Figure 13-7 shows
the pattern of SEU's recorded by the UoSAT spacecraft. Notice the
majority of these events take place in a region known as the South Atlantic
Anomaly, where Earth's magnetic field dips closer to the surface than
normal. Single event latch-ups effect the system at the hardware level,
changing the action within a single transistor. As engineers pack more
transistors together to increase performance, the hardware becomes
increasingly susceptible to these stray particles. One major focus of space
electronics research is to develop radiation tolerant (rad-hard) compo-
nents for future mission applications.
Figure 13-7. Single Event Upsets. This map illustrates the pattern of Single Event Upsets
(SEU) recorded by the UoSAT spacecraft. Notice most of events take place over the South
Atlantic Anomaly. (Courtesy of the Surrey Space Centre, U.K.)
CDHS Example
To see how data handling and communication work together in action,
let's look at the simple example of measuring the temperature on a solar
panel and preparing the value to send to interested ground controllers.
Earlier we defined data as any collection of facts. But data can be one of
two forms: analog or digital. Analog data is continuous within any range.
The real world is analog, meaning, there are an infinite number of
numbers between O and 1; and events take place in a continuous flow.
Humans are analog creatures. We see and hear over a continuous range of
sights and sounds. Temperature is another example of analog data. A
solar panel doesn't feel compelled to be exactly 23.4° C or 23.5° C. It can
be any temperature in between.
Unfortunately, as we discussed earlier, computers think in l's and O's.
They perceive the world in terms of digital data. Digital data has discrete
455
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
analog solar panel temperature values within any range. So, one of the first tasks of the CDHS is to
O' 25...---~...-~...-~...-~.--~.----. convert the real-world analog data into computer-world digital data that
bO
~ 20t--~+-~+-~+-~+--+~i'----1 it can easily manipulate. The most common way to do this conversion is
~
.a
15
10
/
,...--1
'\
I\ /
1:
I
to sample the analog signal at discrete times to produce digital values at
those times. Figure 13-8 illustrates sampling an analog temperature output
t 5.-( : I: to produce a digital representation.
t
...,
I
01141
: :
I
:
\
1 I
I
I
l
I
I
Sampling is a science in its own right. The Nyquist criteria (developed
J 1
Fit:\18110
t I f I t I
12 by Harry Nyquist in 1928) dictates that to accurately represent an analog
U 1 digital solar panel temperature signal, we must sample it at least twice as often as its highest frequency
25 I
ee I I I output. In other words, if the temperature varies once per minute, we
w 20~1-+--+-+---~1--l~l___,,.1~1--)~-
:sj
r:1
I I I I I I : I ci must sample it at least every 30 seconds to accurately represent it.
1s~:~,---+-o+-n--~'1-,,..~l-+-~-+-~--t To continue our example, let's look at a single data point. From the
graph, we can say that at exactly two minutes, the digital temperature is
o , : 11 ° C. Therefore, to make the temperature data into useful information,
we must include the time tag. Thus, we must keep the two numbers-
, , 4 6 8 10 12
time(min)
time and temperature-together to make sense. The analog-to-digital (A/
D) conversion task can take place within the sensor, or as part of the 1/0
Figure 13-8. Analog to Digital Conversion.
of the data handling portion of the CDHS. Any additional processing to
Data can be either analog or digital. Here we
show the analog output from a thermometer format the data, or collect it into "packets" that we send to ground
measuring solar panel temperature. To controllers, we assign to the CPU, based on existing software.
"digitize" this data, we sample it at a specific
rate to return a set of discrete digital data. Converting our example data into 6-bit binary "words" we have
• 2 = 000010 (representing time tag of 2 min)
• 11 = 001011 (representing temperature of 11 ° C)
The CDHS subsystem then transfers these words to the communication
portion of the subsystem. Here, each word modulates onto the chosen
carrier frequency. Figure 13-9 illustrates a crude example of how the
temperature could modulate onto a carrier frequency using amplitude
modulation (in reality, the frequencies used are far too high to easily
illustrate here). By changing, the pulse width (like Morse code), frequency,
and other parameters of the carrier frequency, we have a wide variety of
coding techniques available in addition to simple AM.
start of end of
message amplitude modulation (AM) signal message
\ I
0 0 ] 0 1 l
2.00
C)
] 1.00
~ 0.00
'4D ~h, ~ • 11 0
~ -1.00 t
~(
-2.00
-.,; ,;\ __ -· ( .; : ,, r.:, i ::.
--~
~. '- ;.: •. ·,
--
'
--- ·-
time
Figure 13-9. Amplitude Modulation. By laying the message signal (001011) onto the
carrier frequency, we can see a crude representation of pulse amplitude modulation. While
the amplitude stays below the maximum carrier amplitude {1.0) the message is "O." When the
amplitude exceeds this value (2.0) the message is "1 ." In reality, the frequencies used are
much, much higher (109 Hz range) and thus Impossible to Illustrate on paper.
456
13.1 Communication and Data-handling Subsystem (CDHS)
Systems Engineering
The basic principles we've reviewed form the basis for CDHS design
and analysis tools. We apply these tools within the design loop of the
systems engineering process. As we've described, information is composed
of data. The shear volume of data that the system must collect, process,
store, and communicate is one of the biggest drivers of the CDHS design.
Typically, the payload produces the bulk of mission data. Remote-sensing
missions especially can accumulate large amounts of data to process, store,
and send to users.
To define the CDHS requirements, we must first determine
• The communication frequencies available
• Other limitations on system design (mass, power, volume)
• The total amount of data
• The amount of onboard processing
• The amount of time available for downlink to ground stations
Physical and legal restrictions limit the available communication
frequencies. Technology (and costl) limits how much performance we can
pack into the available mass and volume. As with all system designs, we
have a wide variety of trade-offs to consider when it comes to building
the CDHS. For example, the more processing it does onboard, the more
sophisticated the data-handling components must be. The advantage is
that additional onboard processing could significantly decrease the total
amount of data that it must send to the ground system, making the
communication design simpler and the ground operations lower in cost.
Two important parameters that emerge from this design trade-off study
are the total amount of data collected and processed per orbit (the data
budget), and the required communication data rate, part of the overall link
budget. We can represent the data budget in terms of the total amount of
data generated in Mbytes/ orbit. We express the data rate as the number of
bits per second that must be transmitted during a given pass over the
ground station. The link budget accounts for the data rate and other factors
that contribute to the basic ability for the spacecraft and ground system to
communicate effectively. In Examples 13-1, and 13-2 we'll show how we
can use the data budget and data rate to help us design the onboard CDHS
for the FireSat mission. In Chapter 15, we'll look at the ground-system side
of the problem to determine antenna size, power, and other parameters go
into determining the overall mission link budget.
After we design and build the subsystem, we must finally test it.
Recall, the verification loop is in the systems engineering process to
make sure what we build is really what we want. Prior to launch, we
subject our CDHS hardware and software to a variety of tests. Typically,
we test each component separately to ensure it meets subsystem Figure 13· 10. CDHS Testing. During inte-
specifications. The ultimate test of the CDHS takes place during integrated grated testing, the spacecraft's antenna radia-
testing, when we combine the subsystem with other subsystems and the tion pattern is measured inside a large
anechoic chamber, such as the one shown
payloads on the spacecraft bus. One critical test measures the antenna's here. (Courtesy of Surrey Satellite Technology,
radiation pattern inside a vast anechoic chamber, as shown in Figure 13-10. Ltd., U.K.)
457
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
During this test phase, we fully test onboard software to verify all
subsystems are "go" and ground controllers can send commands and
receive telemetry as expected. As you can imagine, all these computers
and radios need electrical power to operate. We'll look at where all this
power comes from in the next section.
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
amplitude > The space systems engineering process (Figure 13-J) is the foundation
anechoic chamber for space mission design
analog data • It helps us translate requirements and constraints into a workable
application software subsystem design
bit
bytes • Along the way, we iterate requirements in the "requirements loop"
carrier signal and the design in the "design loop"
central processing unit (CPU) • Throughout the proces I we rely on variou de ign and analysi
communication and data- tools
handling subsystem (CDHS)
data
> The communication and data-handling subsystem (CDHS) acts as the
ears, brain, and mouth f the spacecraft
data budget
data rate • It has two primary portions =commurucation and data handling
demodulator • It translates raw data from the payloads and subsystems into useful
digital data information and sends it to the gr und system
information
• Commands from ground controllers generally request information
input/ output (I/ O)
from and give specific instructions to individual subsystems
integrated testing
link budget > Communicating is the process of laying, or modulating, an
MODEM information signal onto a carrier signal
modulation • The communication portion of the CDHS sends payload and
modulator subsystem information to the ground system and receives
Nyqui t criteria commanding informal-ion
operating system softwar
radio fr quencies (rf) • It consists of modulators/ demodulators ("MODEMs"), amplif rs,
random ace s memory and antennas
(RAM) • Physical, technical, and legal limitations dictate allowable
read only memory (ROM) communication frequencies
sampling
single event upsets (SEU)
> The data handling portion of the CDHS is very similar to what is in a
home computer
South Atlantic Anomaly
space systems engineering • Computers "think" i.J1 l's and O's, called bits
process • Bits are collected into groups called bytes
telemetry
• Data handling consists of input/ output devices (I/0), the central
word
processing unit (CPU), and various types of memory (RAM, ROM,
and long-term storage)
Continued on next page
458
13.1 Communication and Data-handling Subsystem (CDHS)
!!!!!!!!!! Section Review ( Continued)
Key Concepts (Continued)
> Software drives the data handling function
• Operating system software runs the computer and schedules events
• Application software executes specific tasks
> Data handling is susceptible to space environmental effects such as single even upsets (SEU) and single
event latch-ups
> To translate real-world analog data into computer-world digital data we must sample the analog signal.
The Nyquist criteria dictate that to obtain an accurate representation of the original signal, we must
sample at least twice as often as the lowest frequency of the signal.
> The CDHS systems engineering process is driven by
• The communication frequencies available
• Other limitations on system design (mass, powe1~ volume, etc.)
• The total amount of onboard data
• The amount of onboard processing
• The amount of time available for downlink to ground stations
> Two important CDHS quantities are the data budget and the data rate
- The data budget tells us the total amount of data to collect, process, and store
- The data rate tells us how fast the spacecraft must send data to the ground
• During CDHS testing, we execute all the software to simulate mission conditions and we test the
communication portion in large anechoic chambers
459
Example 13-1
Problem Statement 3) Determine maximum data stored
Max data bits= (number of orbits) (images saved
Using the FireSat payload requirements we developed
in Chapter 11, we must now derive the data and link per orbit) (data per image)
budgets for the spacecraft CDHS. Recall, we chose a max data bits
max d a t a b yes
t =
1024 x 1024-pixel detector for the FireSat payload. 8
Assume that we will need 8 bits to accurately record
each pixel. To minimize data collection, we know we 4) Determine minimum data rate
only need to image over land. This means the sensor max data bits
will only be active about 30% of each orbit. The 500-km min data rate =
pass time
orbit will have a period of 90 minutes. To insure we
achieve the required coverage, we will need to collect
an image about every 30 seconds. To minimize the Analytical Solution
amount of data sent to the ground station, we'll rely on
onboard processing to review and reject images with 1) Determine data per image
low probability of having a forest fire. Analysis data per i.mage = (1024) (1024) (8)
indicates this will eliminate about 95% of the images data per image = 8.389 x 106 bits
taken. All of the remaining images must be down-
linked during a 15-min pass over the mission ground 2) Determine images collected per orbit
station in Colorado. To allow additional margin for
problems, we must assume that as much as 3 orbits images per orbit = (90 min)(~)(0.30)(0.05)
worth of data must be saved and downloaded during mm
a pass. Given these assumptions, determine the images per orbit= 2.7
maximum amount of data that must be stored onboard Round up to 3 images saved per orbit
and the minimum data rate needed to download the
data to the ground. 3) Determine maximum data stored
max data bits = (3 orbits) (3 images per orbit)
Problem Summary (8.389 x 106 bits per image)
Given: Number of Pixels= 1024 x 1024, 8 bits per max data bi ts = 7.55 x 107 bits
pixel, 8 bits per word max data bits 7.55 x 107bits
max d a t a b yes
t =
Porbit = 90 min 8 8
Image every 30 s max data bytes= 9.437 x 106 bytes
Imaging over 30% of each orbit, save 5% of
images per orbit 4) Determine minimum data rate
Store up to 3 orbits worth of data
Pass time = 15 min 7.55 x 107 bits
min data rate =
Find: Maximum data to store (maximum data) and (15 min)(!i~
minimum data rate (data rate min)
min data rate = 8.389 x 104 bits Is
Conceptual Solution
Interpretingthe Results
1) Determine data per image
Data per image = (pixels wide) (pixels long) (bits Given our assumed sensor duty cycle, FireSat will
per pixel) collect about 9 images during 3 orbits of operation. We
must design our CDHS to store at least 9.5 MBytes of
2) Determine images collected per orbit data before downloading the payload data to the
Images saved per orbit= (orbital period) (image operational control center. To accomplish this, the
collection rate) (percent sensor active) (percent CDHS needs a minimum data rate of 8.39 x 104 bits/ s.
images not rejected)
460
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem
(EPS)
~ In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,.. Describe the basic functions of the spacecraft electrical power
subsystem (EPS)
- Define basic concepts and determine parameters of electrical power
- Identify the main energy sources available to spacecraft, their
applications and limitations
,.. Discuss the power supply and power conditioning and distribution
portions of the EPS
- Apply the systems engineering process to designing and testing the
EPS
Like all modern devices, payloads and subsystems need electrical
power to operate. Unfortunately, in space there are no convenient wall
outlets, and an extension cord would be much too long! The job of the
electrical power subsystem (EPS) is to take some convenient energy
source, either one the spacecraft packs along or finds along the way, and
convert its energy into usable electrical power to run the entire spacecraft.
Similar to any other system, the EPS has inputs and outputs. As Figure
13-11 illustrates, the EPS takes in raw energy from a convenient source,
usually the Sun, and converts it into electrical power in a form that other
equipment on the spacecraft can use.
energy
source
Figure 13-11. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS). The spacecraft EPS takes in energy
from some convenient source, usually the sun, and converts it's energy into electrical power
in a form that the payload and other subsystems can readily use.
In this section we'll focus primarily on the basic principles of the EPS
operation. We'll start by reviewing some basic concepts in electricity, then
turn our attention to spacecraft energy sources. With this background, we
can better appreciate the more detailed system functions. Finally, we'll
return to the systems engineering process to review some of the design
and testing issues important to building an effective EPS.
461
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
Basic Principles
To apply the design and analysis tools in the EPS systems engineering
process, we need to know about the energy source (or sources) it uses,
and the functions of the subsystem. However, to fully appreciate these
topics involves knowing about volts, watts, circuits and other concepts in
electronics. So let's start there.
Electricity and Circuits
In Chapter 4 we discussed basic concepts that describe the motion of
bodies, something we can all relate to at a basic level. But understanding
electricity is a bit less intuitive. After all, most of us have never seen an
electron, even though we use them whenever we flip a switch to light a
room. There are six terms and concepts we must first understand before
starting to examine electrical power subsystems. These are
• Charge
• Coulomb's Law
• Voltage
• Current
• Resistance
• Power
To describe these concepts, we build upon some of the concepts of
mass and motion we described in Chapter 4 and draw some analogies.
Let's start with charge. Charge is the basic unit of electricity. It's similar in
concept to mass. Recall from Chapter 4 that mass is a basic property of
matter that describes its behavior in terms of how much stuff it has or
how much gravitational force it generates. We know that applying a
force, E to a mass causes it to accelerate an amount, a, according to
Newton's famous second law, F = ma.
Similarly, charge is a basic property of matter, for which we have laws
of behavior. Charge comes in two flavors-positive(+) and negative(-). If
a particle lacks charge or has an equal number of positive and negative
charges, we say it is neutral. For mass, the basic unit is the gram. For
charge, the basic unit is the coulomb (C). One electron has 1.6 x 10-19
coulombs of negative charge. One proton has exactly the same amount of
positive charge.
charge 1 charge 2 Due to their nature, opposite charges attract, and like charges repel.
F This force of attraction or repulsion between charges is called an
~
R 0 q
electrostatic force. We show this force in Figure 13-12. We quantify it using
Coulomb's Law.
Figure 13-12. ElectrostaticForce. Coulomb's Coulomb's Law. The force of attraction ( or repulsion) between two charges
Law of electrostatic force is very similar to is directly proportionat to the amount of each chnrge and inversely
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation. proportional to the square of the distance between them.
462
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
Realize that this looks a lot like Newton's Law of Universal
Gravitation. We can write a similar equation for electrostatic force
(13-1)
where
-""
F = electrostatic force vector between charges 1 and 2 (N)
K = constant (9 x 109) (kg m3 I C2s2)
Q = value of charge 1 (coulombs, C)
q = value of charge 2 ( coulombs, C)
R = distance between charges (m)
R = unit vector in the R direction
Just as mass accelerates in a gravitational field, a particle with charge
(electron, proton, or ion) accelerates in an electric field. Imagine that a
charged particle is like a water droplet. Under pressure, the water droplet
flows through a hose. We define current, i, as the rate at which charges
flow through a given area, such as the cross section of a wire. The unit for
current is amperes (amps), which equals the charges flowing per second.
amps= charges/ time (coulombs/ s)
. dQ
1 = - (13-2)
dt
where
= current (amps)
dQ = flow of charges (coulomb)
dt = time (s)
In electricity, potential or voltage is similar to the concept of potential
energy from mechanics. Remember that we must expend energy to move
an object against a gravitational field. For example, when we climb a
flight of stairs, we expend energy that is stored as potential energy. If we
were to jump out of a window at the top of the stairs, this potential
energy would transform into kinetic energy, because of the gravitational
field, as we plummet to the ground. Similarly, we describe electrical
potential as the energy an electric field can transmit to a unit charge.
Returning to our garden hose analogy, it's similar to water pressure: the
greater the pressure, the faster the water flows. We use the unit of volts, V,
to describe this relationship.
energy per charge = volts = joules/ coulomb
For example, a 12-volt battery in a car can deliver 12 joules of energy to
each coulomb of charge. A battery with higher voltage has more potential
and can deliver more energy per coulomb of charge. We use the terms
potential and voltage interchangeably.
463
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Sub ysterns
In electricity, resistance, R, tries to prevent charges from flowing. Just as
a kink in a hose slows the water flow, a resistor slows the flow of current.
The unit of resistance is the oh111, Q. Different materials have different
resistance. A material with very low electrical resistance is a conductor.
Naturally, a material with very high resistance is a resistor.
Ohm's Lato. Relates the current to the voltage pushing the charge and the
amount of resistance to thnt push.
(13-3)
where
= current (amps)
V = voltage (volts)
R = resistance (ohms)
This equation tells us that current is directly proportional to voltage
and inversely proportional to resistance. Does this make sense? For a
given resistance, the higher the voltage, the greater the energy delivered
to a unit charge; thus, more charges flow, and current increases. It's as if
we increase the pressure in a garden hose. The more pressure on the
water (higher voltage), the more water flows (higher current).
Furthermore, the higher the resistance, the lower the flow of charges and
the lower the current (put a kink in the garden hose and less water flows).
Another important parameter is power, which is the amount of energy
delivered per unit time. The unit of power is the watt, W, and is defined as
one joule of energy per second.
1 W=lJ/s
Power also equals the product of the voltage and the current. This makes
sense if we look at what voltage and current represent.
V = energy I charge, and i = charge I time so,
P = (energy I charge) x (charge I time)= energy I time
Thus,
voltage source (13-4)
...------+
1, 1111111-----, where
P = power (W)
current V = voltage (volts)
i = current (amps)
Unlike water in a hose, however, current can only flow in a closed loop
resistor called a circuit. For example, when we turn on a lamp, we close a switch
and establish a circuit of current. With the circuit closed, electrons flow
Figure 13-13. Current Flow. We define
current as the flow of charge around a closed
through the light bulb. Resistance within the filament of the bulb causes it
path. Current can either be direct, DC, or to heat up and glow, emitting light. We generally define the flow 0£
alternating, AC. current in a circuit to be from positive to negative, as seen in Figure 13-13.
464
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
The negative terminal of the circuit is also called the ground or Earth.
Traditionally, this terminal connects to the ground to dissipate energy
into it.
Current is either direct current, DC, or alternating current, AC. With DC,
the current always flows in one direction. For AC, the direction of current
flow switches back and forth at some cyclic rate. On Earth, the standard
current in the U.S. is 60 Hz (meaning 60 cycles per second) AC at 110V.
Standard European AC is 50 Hz at 230V. AC is more efficient for very high
power demands and allows for transporting power over long distances
through high-voltage transmission lines with lower losses. However,
spacecraft most often use DC because most energy sources produce DC
current, transmission distances are short, and standard spacecraft
components run on DC.
Now that we've reviewed some of the basic principles of electricity,
let's explore the energy sources available to spacecraft and see how to use
them.
Energy Sources
As we learned at the beginning of the section, the sole input to the EPS
is energy from an energy source. Next, we look at the most common
spacecraft energy sources, starting with the Sun.
Solar Energy. The Sun is the energy source that drives life on Earth, so
it's an obvious energy source for Earth-orbiting spacecraft, as well. We
can convert solar energy to electrical energy either indirectly or directly.
indirect methods concentrate sunlight to produce heat that drives a
working fluid to run a generator. Direct means use incoming solar
photons to create a flow of electrons.
By far, the most common way is direct conversion using solar cells,
more technically called photovoltaic, PV, cells, similar to the ones in Figure
13-14. When sunlight shines on a solar cell, electrical current flows. But
how? Solar cells consist of a thin wafer of silicon, gallium arsenide, or
other semiconductor crystal. As photons strike the cell, they transmit
their energy to the atotns in the cell, freeing some electrons. These
electrons then move across tiny junctions of silicon and phosphorous, or
similar materials, within-the cell. This movement decreases the resistance
in the cell, and the freed electrons start to flow. Recall, a flow of electrons
(charges) is a current. We have electricity! Due to manufacturing
limitations, the maximum size of a single solar cell is fairly small.
Therefore, we must wire hundreds or even thousands of individual cells
together to form a complete solar array.
Currently, the efficiency of widely available solar cells is quite modest.
We define the solar cell efficiency, 17, as the percentage of incident solar
energy that converts to electrical energy. Although laboratory specimens Flgure 13-14. Solar Cells. The most
have converted energy at efficiencies over 30%, typical production silicon common source of spacecraft energy is the
cells provide only around 15%, while more expensive gallium-arsenide sun. Solar cells (or photovoltaic, PV, cells)
convert solar energy directly into electricity.
cells approach 20%. Even so, this means only 20% of the solar energy that Here's an artist's concept of the Solar Array
strikes the surface converts to electrical energy. The rest of the solar Experiment. (Courtesy of NASNJohnson
energy either reflects or remains as waste heat. Space Center)
465
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
Practically speaking, only the component of solar energy hitting the
solar cell perpendicular to the surface transforms into electrical energy.
e,
We use the 1111gle of incidence, to determine how much solar energy hits a
solar panel. This angle lies between a line perpendicular to the cell and
the Sun line. Figure 13-15 shows solar energy striking a solar cell and the
angle of incidence. Thus, the total power output of a solar cell depends on
the intensity of the solar energy (in W /m2) input, its efficiency, and the
angle of incidence.
With this information, we can express the output power density (Pout)
as
(13-5)
Figure 13· 15. Angle of Incidence. A photo-
voltaic cell takes incident solar energy and
converts ii to electrical power at some effi- where
ciency (usually around 18%). Pout= solar cell's output power density (W / m2)
Pin = solar input power density (W / m2)
nnaiXin1'l!.ln~
power poirnt 11 = solar cell's energy-conversion efficiency (typically< 0.25)
/ 8 = incidence angle (deg or rad)-perpendicular to surface= 0°
As we showed in Equation (13-4), power is a function of the current
and voltage. All solar cells have a distinctive current/voltage curve (I/V
curve), as shown in Figure 13-16. Notice from this curve there is a definite
trade-off between current and voltage output. The shape of this curve for
a given solar array can change due to temperature, age, and other factors.
We can reach the maximum power output by adjusting current and
voltage to stay on the "knee" of the curve.
Figure 13-16. Solar Cell CurrenWoltage (II Spacecraft solar arrays can be mounted in one of several ways. The
V) Curve. All solar cells exhibit a unique IN simplest way is to attach all the cells to the outside of the spacecraft. This
curve that describes how power output varies is called a body-mou11ted solar array. These arrays are relatively simple and
with voltage and current. The point of maximum
power output is at the "knee'' of the curve. typically used on spacecraft with spin or dual-spin stability, such as the
IntelSat spacecraft, shown in Figure 13-17. Unfortunately, for body-
mounted arrays, the Sun shines on less than half of the cells at one time.
The spacecraft's body shades the rest or they have an angle of incidence
so high that they produce very little effective power. For a cylindrical
spacecraft, less than one-third (actually it's 1 I re) of the spacecraft's total
surface can generate electricity at any time.
We can overcome this problem by having the solar arrays actively track
the Sun, keeping the angle of incidence near zero and the resulting power
output near maximum. To do this, we must make the arrays movable and
build a control system to keep them constantly pointed at the Sun. Figure
13-18 shows a typical sun-tracking array as used on the Hubble
Telescope.
Besides angle of incidence, several other environmental factors can
Figure 13·18. Sun-tracking Arrays. Sun-
tracking solar arrays, like the ones shown on
degrade solar cell performance
the Hubble Telescope, get higher efficiency by
maintaining a zero angle of incidence-that is, • Temperature
the sunlight always Is perpendicular to the • Radiation and charged particles
surface. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space
Center) • Eclipses
466
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
useful power
production
angle of angle of
incidence incidence
too high too high
completely shaded
Figure 13-17. Body-mounted Arrays.The lntelSat spacecraft, shown here being repaired
by astronauts, uses body-mounted solar arrays covering the entire cylindrical surtace. As the
diagram shows, approximately 1 /3 of the solar cells produce power at any one time as the
spacecraft spins, due to shading and high incidence angle. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson
Space Center)
Solar cells are very sensitive to temperature, being most efficient at low
temperatures and losing efficiency at higher temperatures. Typical solar
cells lose from 0.025% to 0.075% of their efficiency per °C as the
temperature increases above 28°C. For example, an array that's 15%
efficient at 28° C would be only about 14.75% efficient at 38° C. This means
that some type of thermal control is very important for solar arrays.
Solar cells and their cover glass are also extremely sensitive to the
radiation and charged particles in space. As radiation and particles hit the
arrays, the materials begin to degrade. Depending on the orbit, solar
arrays can lose up to 30% of their effectiveness over ten years. For this
reason, spacecraft designers deliberately over-design the size of the solar
arrays for the start of the mission (begi11ning-of-life, BOL), knowing that
over the lifetime of the mission the power output levels gradually
decrease. Thus, beginning-of-life power must be high enough, so that, by
the end of the mission (end-of-life, EOL), power is still available to run all
spacecraft systems. Figure 13-19. Earth's Shadow. Most
spacecraft pass into Earth's shadow once each
One other complication of relying on solar energy is that orbiting orbit blocking input to their solar cells.
spacecraft periodically pass through Earth's shadow (enter eclipse), as
shown in Figure 13-19. During these eclipse periods, the incident solar
energy drops to zero, and the solar cells stop producing power. The
duration of an orbital eclipse depends mostly on the spacecraft's altitude,
which determines the Earth's augulav radius, p, as shown in Figure 13-20
(we can ignore the effect of inclination to find a good worst-case
approximation).
Figure 13-20. Earth's Angular Radius. As
. -1 ( REarth ) viewed from a spacecraft in orbit, Earth has an
p sm (13-6) angular radius, p, which depends on the
h+ REarth
spacecraft's altitude, h.
467
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
where
p = Earth's angular radius viewed from space (deg)
h = orbital altitude (km)
REarth = Earth's radius= 6378 km
We can then find the total time in eclipse during one orbit by
computing the fraction of the orbital period spent in Earth's shadow.
(Note: This gives us an approximate maximum eclipse time. Actual
eclipse times will be shorter due to orbital inclination and other factors.)
2p
TE = xP (13-7)
3600
where
TE = maximum time of eclipse (min)
p = Earth 's angular radius ( deg)
P = orbital period (min)
For example, a spacecraft in low-Earth orbit (say at an altitude of 550 km
or 342 mi.) experiences 15 eclipses per day (one per orbit) or about 5500 per
year. Each lasts up to 36 minutes (depending on the inclination). In
contrast, a geostationary orbit (at 35,000 km [21,749 mi.] altitude and 0°
inclination) experiences only 90 eclipses per year, with a maximum of 72
minutes.
Of course, if less solar energy goes in, less electrical power comes out.
The intensity of solar energy decreases with the square of the distance
from the Sun. Near Earth, the density of this incident solar power is about
1358 WI m2. In comparison, near Venus, it is 2596 WI m2, and at Mars, it
decreases to only 585 W /m2. Farther from the Sun, near [upiter, the solar
energy is a mere 50 WI m2. Because the energy is so low, solar power
becomes impractical for spacecraft going to Jupiter or any of the other
outer planets. The solar arrays or collectors would be far too large to be
practical. For these missions, such as the Galileo mission to Jupiter shown
in Figure 13-21, we must turn to other energy sources, primarily nuclear,
as we'll see later.
Chemical Energy. Anther common energy source for space missions is
chemical energy. We'll look at two types of chemical-energy systems-
Figure 13·21. Too Far from the Sun. Mis- batteries and fuel cells.
sions to the outer planets, such as the Galileo
Most of us have used batteries in our portable stereos and watches.
mission to Jupiter shown here, are too far from
the Sun to rely on solar energy. So, they must Batteries are the most common means for converting chemical energy to
rely on radioisotope thermoelectric generators. electrical energy. How do they work? We can demonstrate their basic
(Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
operating principle by sticking two different types of metal nails (one
steel, one copper) into a lemon and connecting them with a conducting
wire. If we measure the voltage and current in the wire, we'll find a small
potential exists and current is flowing. In this case, the citric acid of the
lemon acts as an electrolyte-a fluid containing charged particles in the
form of ions. The two nails become the electrodes-conductors that emit or
468
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
collect electrons. One nail collects positive ions (called the anode), and the
other collects negative ions (the cathode).
All types of batteries work using this same basic principle. As electrical
energy goes into the battery (charging), a chemical reaction takes place in
the electrolyte, storing the electrical energy as chemical energy. When we
stop charging and close the circuit, the process reverses and the chemical
reaction produces electrical energy (discharging).
Spacecraft can use either primary or secondary batteries. Primary
batteries, like those in portable stereos, provide the sole source of electrical
power. They're designed for a single, short use and can't be recharged.
For very short space missions (less than one month), primary batteries
can sometimes do the job. It's easier to load enough primary batteries to
last throughout a brief mission than to provide some way to recharge
them. The FalconGold spacecraft, shown in Figure 13-22 had a mission Figure 13-22. FalconGold. The FalconGold
spacecraft built at the USAF Academy had a
life of only a few weeks, so it relied on primary batteries as its sole source mission duration of only a few weeks. Thus, it
of power. was able to rely on primary batteries as the
However, most space missions last many months, or years, so secondary sole source of electrical power. (Courtesy of
the U.S. Air Force Academy)
batteries are much more common. Secondary batteries discharge and
recharge repeatedly, similar to a car battery. This cycle makes them an ideal
backup source of electrical power for solar cells, because they can charge
while the spacecraft is sunlit, then discharge during eclipse periods.
One of the most common types of secondary batteries used onboard
spacecraft is virtually the same as the rechargeable batteries found in video
camcorders-nickekadmium, NiCd. NiCd batteries can be discharged and
recharged thousands of times, and they also have high energy density. This
means they can store a relatively high amount of electrical energy for their
weight-about 25-30 W · hr/kg.
Nickel-hydrogen, NiH2, batteries, recently developed for space applica-
tions, have an even better energy density. Figure 13-23 shows a photo-
graph of NiH2 batteries.
A battery's lifetime depends on how deeply it discharges and the total
number of charge I discharge cycles it experiences. Depth-of-discharge (DOD)
is the percentage of total stored energy that is removed from a battery
during a discharge period. The smaller the DOD, the more times a battery
can be cycled before it eventually dies. For example, a NiCd battery can be
cycled more than 20,000 times at a 25% DOD, but only about 800 times at
75% DOD, before it is unable to hold a charge. This same effect occurs with
car batteries. If you repeatedly leave your lights on all day while the car is
parked (causing a DOD of nearly 100%), your battery will wear out much
faster than the manufacturer's advertised lifetime. Eventually, no matter
how long you try to charge it, it just won't hold a charge.
The total number of charge/ discharge cycles that batteries undergo
depends on the number of eclipse cycles. Lower orbits have shorter
periods and experience more eclipses during their missions than Figure 13-23. NIH2 Batteries. The top view
spacecraft in higher orbits. Because of this, low-Earth orbit spacecraft shows a single nickel-hydrogen (NiH2) battery
need more total battery capacity, meaning more batteries (with nearly cell. The bottom view shows a set of NiH2 cells
wired to provide total energy storage require-
5500 cycles per year), versus those in geostationary orbit (with only 90 ments. (Courtesy of Eagle Picher Technolo-
cycles per year). gies, LLC)
469
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
Batteries also have stringent thermal requirements. Because of the
nature of the chemical reactions in the electrolyte, extremely high or
extremely low temperatures can greatly affect their ability to hold a
charge. Again, car batteries illustrate this point. If you've ever experi-
enced the frustration of a dead car battery on a bitter, cold winter
morning, you know how battery charge can decline when exposed to
extreme cold. Nominal operating temperature ranges for NiCd batteries,
for example, are about 10° C to 30° C.
We size batteries based on the total amount of energy they can hold.
We usually express this in terms of watt-hours (W·hrs). Remember that W
= energy I time, so W · hr is really (energy I time) x time= energy. As part
of Example 13-2, we will determine the total battery capacity for the
FireSat mission.
Fuel cells are the second type of chemical-energy system used on
spacecraft. When two highly reactive compounds mix in a carefully
controlled environment, their chemical reaction can produce a current. Fuel
cells have been used on all U.S. manned spacecraft since Gemini (except for
Skylab), because these missions have lasted two weeks or less and required
power of 1000 W or more. Typically, fuel cells use gaseous hydrogen, H2,
and oxygen, 02, as the reactants. From elementary chemistry, we know that
Figure 13-24. Fuel Cells. Fuel cells, like these two compounds combine to produce H20 (water). Thus, using fuel
these shown for the Space Shuttle, combine cells for maimed missions gives an added bonus-drinking water as a by-
gaseous hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (02) to
produce electrical power. Drinking water is a product of electrical power production. (Drink it and you could get a real
useful by-product. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson jolt!) Figure 13-24 shows a typical fuel cell.
Space Center)
The main drawback of fuel cells is the limited amount of H2 and 02
that we can practically place on a mission. As missions last longer than a
month, solar cells or other power options become much more practical.
Nuclear Energy. As mentioned earlier, for missions beyond the orbit of
Mars, solar energy becomes impractical. Batteries are also impractical
because of the mission length. For these applications, mission planners
turn to nuclear energy.
On Earth, thermal-cycle fission systems produce electrical power by
driving generators with steam created by the heat from nuclear fission. So
far, space applications of nuclear power have been far more modest. The
primary nuclear power source for space missions has been radioisotope
thermoelectric generators (RTGs).
Radioisotope tuennoelectric generatcrs ( RTGs) use the heat generated by
the decay of radioactive isotopes to produce electricity. Isotopes of
uranium or plutonium, for example, naturally decay into non-radioactive
elements over time. The time it takes for one half of the material to decay
is called its hnlf-life. Half-lives of some radioactive isotopes can last tens,
hundreds, or even thousands of years. As the radioactive material decays,
RTC1;~~1~1~.1ting _mulli-iiiil SiCc 1111kn11plc michp,111!w;it
b ms-11L1tLon source support it gives off large amounts of heat. In an enclosed container, the
Flgu re 13-25. Radioisotope Thermoelec- temperature can reach many hundreds of degrees.
tric Generator (RTG). RTGs like this one used Figure 13-25 shows a cut-away view of the RTG used for the Galileo
on the Galileo spacecraft produce electrical
power by converting the heat from radioactive spacecraft. To turn this by-product heat into electricity, RTGs use
decay into electricity using thermocouples. thermocouples attached to the outside of the heated chamber.
(Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory) Thermocouples are metallic strips formed from two unlike metals. As one
470
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
side of the thermocouple heats, the difference in resistance between the
two metals causes free electrons to flow, producing a current. Various
industries use thermocouples-often as thermometers-because we can
easily compute surface temperatures by measuring the current produced.
By placing thermocouples against the contained heat source, engineers
can get an RTG to sustain a flow of electricity for many years. For
example, RTGs on the Voyager spacecraft are still delivering some power
after over twenty years in space.
RTGs have two major drawbacks over other power options-expense
and political concerns. Radioactive material is, of course, expensive. But,
to design, construct, and test a self-contained RTG power system, housed
in a contairunent shell that can survive in the event of a launch disaster is
even more expensive. (Typically, RTGs cost $15,000/W versus solar cells
at $3000/W).
Any use of radioactive material brings public scrutiny and invites
political concerns. Due to safety concerns, activists sought a court
injunction to block the launch of the Galileo spacecraft that used an RTG.
Fortunately, mission planners were able to convince the courts that they
designed the RTG to safely contain the radioactive material during any
-------Astra
Fun
Fact-----
How Safe are RTGs?
Because RTGs contain radioactive material such as uranium or
plutonium, their launch poses obvious public health concerns. To ensure
maximum safety, engineers design RTGs to withstand every conceivable
launch failure and then they test them to precisely quantify the level of
risk for a launch. During the testing program, hundreds of thousands of
computer simulations look at how an RTG could be damaged due to
booster explosions, accidental re-entry, or impact with the ground. In
addition to the computer simulations, engineers shoot bullets traveling
684 mis (1530 m.p.h.) at the RTG containment cases, burn them with
solid rocket propellant, hurl them at high-velocity at concrete and steel,
and shoot SRB fragments at them using gas guns and rocket sleds. They
also propel fuel elements, clad in iridium, with high velocity at concrete,
steel, and sand to ensure their integrity in an accident. The results from (Courtesy of NASA/Kennedy Space Center)
all these tests indicate that the probability of exposing even one person
to 6.37 x 1 o-3 REM is 16/10, 000 (more than one hundred times fess than simply living one year at sea level). When
they consider the exposure to significant dosages, the probabilities enter the realm of the incredibly small. In
comparison, the probability of 1000 fatalities from a dam failure during the same time period of the launch is 1/100.
So, are there risks to launching RTGs? Yes, but the risks are extremely smaff and wef! understood. It's much more
likely someone will be injured driving a car to protest a launch than in an RTG accident.
Executive Summary of the Final Safety Analysis Report for the Ulysses Mission, Prepared for U.S.
Department of Energy Office of Special Applications, General Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope
Thermoelectric Generator Program, ULS-FSAR-006, NUS Corporation, March, 1990.
471
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
conceivable launch disaster and the mission proceeded. Because of these
inherent drawbacks-expense and politics-we use RTGs only for
missions that preclude using any other type of power system. Future,
more ambitious missions to colonize the planets may look for more
extensive use of nuclear energy, for electrical power, and for propulsion,
as we'll describe in Chapter 14.
System Functions
Now that we've described some of the basic principles of electrical
power and the energy sources available, we can focus our attention on the
system functions in a bit more detail.
Figure 13-26 shows a more detailed view of a typical EPS that relies on
solar energy. In this example, the system converts raw solar energy into
DC electrical power within the solar panels, as described earlier. We
divide the other EPS functions into two stages: power supply, and power
conditioning and distribution. First, we'll describe the functions of each
of these stages, then look at a simple example of an EPS in action.
subsystems -1
power
solar
conditioning
& distribution { -i payload -I
panels ____ J
(or other ~--------,------~~ ,,- - - - - -
energy source) ~---------"" = ground
Figure 13-26. Detailed View of a Solar-powered Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS).
An EPS using solar energy first converts the energy to electricity using solar panels. The
EPS then distributes the power to the subsystems and payloads. To salely complete the
circuit, everything must be lied to a common ground.
Power Supply. In the first stage, the power supply regulates the power
output from the solar panels. There are two ways to do this: direct energy
transfer and peak power tracking. With direct e11ergy transfer, the most
common way, the output voltage from the solar cells is constant, and the
total current (hence total power) varies depending on the operating
location on the I/V curve, as shown in Figure 13-16. This method means
that in some situations (such as when the solar panels first come into
sunlight after eclipse, when they're coolest) more power will be available
than the system can handle. The system simply wastes this extra power by
running it through a resistor (heater). Wasting this small amount of energy
is considered worth the convenience of having a standard output voltage.
When power is at a premium, especially for very small spacecraft, we
can use a peak power tracking system. As the term implies, for peak power
tracking, the system constantly adjusts the current and voltage to stay on
the "knee" of the I/V curve (Figure 13-16), so that it maximizes the power
output.
72
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
Whatever the total power output from the panels, the control system
must condition it, in terms of voltage and current, for supply to the
solar bus
spacecraft bus. When the bus has any excess power, it charges the
batteries. During eclipse, of course, the batteries supply all of the power. panel
regulation
voltage
regulation
1
Figure 13-27 illustrates these functions within the power supply portion
of the EPS and shows the flow of electrical power.
I
Power Conditioning and Distribution. In the second stage, the EPS
further conditions bus power for supply to the individual subsystem battery
users and distributes it according to specific mission needs, as shown in charge/
Figure 13-28. Let's consider the conditioning task first. The bus voltage discharge
may be a standard 28V, while the CDHS may need only a SY-power
supply. In this case, the EPS needs to drop the voltage before supplying
power to this user. Figure 13-27. Power Supply. The power
Note that this conditioning function can take place either within the supply portion of the EPS regulates power
output from lhe solar cells, charges the
EPS (a "centralized" system) or within each subsystem ("decentralized"). batteries, and conditions power for further
The decentralized approach is somewhat more power efficient, but places distribution.
extra demands on each subsystem design. However, for purposes of our
discussion, we'll focus on a centralized approach to conditioning and
distributing electrical power.
Once its produced, the power must go to users. However, users can't
protection
simply take what they want. First of all, this approach could endanger the
entire spacecraft. Second, it is simply greedy! As Figure 13-28 shows,
power
before being distributed, the power must pass through some protection
conditioning
circuits. In our homes, all power passes through fuses or circuit breakers
before going throughout the house. If any individual user starts drawing
distribution
too much current (for example, if you have too many appliances plugged
into the same outlet), the fuse burns through or the circuit breaker trips,
cutting power to that circuit. On a spacecraft, fuses are difficult to replace, _)
so we use power switches or solid-state breakers that ground commands
can reset. Figure 13·28. Power Conditioning and
Distribution. The power conditioning and distri-
Pre-determined mission requirements and commands from the ground bution portion of the EPS conditions power for
determine the allocation of power to individual users. For example, a individual subsystems as needed, provides
mission using synthetic aperture radar, such as the Magellan spacecraft circuit protection in the form of fuses and
breakers, and distributes power to onboard
used to map Venus, had very high payload power demands during short, users.
specific phases of the mission. During those times, power diverted from
less important functions to ensure the payload was adequately supplied.
One final system design issue to consider is grounding. Notice in
Figure 13-26 that the EPS, the payload, and all of the subsystems tie to a
common ground terminal. Electrical power will always take the easiest
path to the ground. During the EPS design phase, proper attention to
spacecraft grounding is important to prevent unwanted "ground loops"
that can lead to power drains and subsystem damage.
Example. Let's look at a simple example to see how the various
principles of EPS work together. Imagine an average-sized spacecraft
with 1-m2 sun-tracking arrays in Earth orbit. Analyzing the EPS functions
mainly involves "bookkeeping" the total energy input versus the
electrical energy output.
473
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystem
Figure 13-29 illustrates a possible power flow and distribution for our
example spacecraft. The area of the arrays, their efficiency, and the
incidence angle determines the maximum power produced. By tracking
current and voltage, the EPS power supply can keep this power
maximized.
input EPS output
lOOW = 3.6 amps payload
@28V
power I 12W = 2.4 amps
CDHS
1358 W/m2 cond. [ 132W @SV
and lSW = 1.5 amps ,..----,
100Wl3.6 amps dist. @lOV AOCS
solar panels @28V
1 m2 (n =
18%, 9 = 0°)
(I batteries'! SW =0.5 amps
@lOV
ECLS
Figure 13-29. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) Example. This example illustrates how
the EPS converts energy into electrical power and rations It to onboard users.
Now, some of this power must go to run the spacecraft and some to
charge the batteries for use during eclipses. If about 40% goes to charge
the batteries, the remainder is available to run the bus. Some of this
power the EPS uses for its internal requirements. This amount represents
overhead, to keep the whole system running. If we start with 244 W, for
our example, this leaves 132 W for the payload and subsystems.
However, different users can have different delivery requirements. The
payload, for example, may use the standard bus voltage of 28 V, while the
CDHS needs its 12 W at 5 V for a total current demand of 2.4 amps. As the
example shows, we must account for all inputs and outputs.
Systems Engineering
After this electrifying review of EPS basics and system functions, we
finish our discussion by looking at some of the design and testing issues
associated with EPS systems engineering. In Chapter 11, we said the
overall spacecraft power budget drives the EPS design. Let's start by
looking closer at what this budget represents.
As our earlier example illustrated, we can build the total system power
budget by adding the individual demands of each power "customer" in
the spacecraft. Typically, the payload is one of the neediest customers,
followed by the other subsystems. However, this isn't necessarily the
final power output, for which we should design the EPS. Recall from our
discussion of photovoltaic systems, that environmental factors such as
radiation and charged particles can degrade their power by as much as
4% per year. Thus, we should size the total system power budget to
supply the end-of-life (EOL) power needs. Then, we can factor in the
planned mission lifetime to determine the required beginning-of-life
(BOL) power that we must design the EPS to produce.
474
13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
All of these budgets represent static, maximum amounts. In reality, to
rely on these amounts alone would be similar to computing your house
power demand by assuming that all of your appliances (TV, stereo,
washing machine, dryer, etc.) were on at the same time (not usually the
easel). Instead, we must consider the dynamic demands of the mission.
This effort includes understanding the duty cycle of the batteries,
payload, and subsystems. Duty cycle defines the use timeline for
individual components. For example, a SAR payload may require very
large amounts of powe1~ but only during short periods of the mission.
Rather than designing the solar array size to meet this peak power
demand, mission designers could oversize the batteries and use them to
supplement direct solar power during payload operations.
Due to eclipse periods, power input also varies widely throughout an
orbit. If our spacecraft has body-mounted arrays, the power output can
also vary widely even while in sunlight. For these reasons, designers
make a distinction between peak power and orbit average power. Peak
power refers to the maximum power output from the EPS when the arrays
are in full sunlight. Orbit average power, a more useful measure of available
power, is the EPS power output averaged over a single orbit. In Example
13-2 we'll see how all these requirements effect the overall EPS design for
the FireSat mission.
After we consider all these design factors, and build the final system, it
will require extensive testing to validate that the design meets the overall
mission objectives. As with the CDHS, we test individual components of Figure 13-30. Spacecraft EPS Test in Solar
Chamber. Here we show solar panels from the
the EPS separately and then together in successive stages of assembly. Mars Global Surveyor being subjected to
During integrated testing, we can put the spacecraft in a large solar simulated sunlight inside a large solar chamber
simulation chamber, as shown in Figure 13-30, to measure output from at Kennedy Space Center. (Courtesy of NASA/
Kennedy Space Center)
the solar arrays and ensure the EPS works well with the other subsystems
making electrical demands.
11111111 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
alternating current, AC > The spacecraft's electrical power subsystem (EPS) converts energy,
amperes (amps) such as solar nergy, into usable electrical power to run the spacecraft
angle f incidence, 8
anode
> Charge, current, voltage, and power are some of the basic quantities
of el ctrical power
beginning-of-life (BOL)
body-mounted solar array • Charge is th basic unit of electricity; it can be positive or negativ
cathode • Coulomb's Law describes the electrostatic force between charges in
charg an electric field
circuit
• Voltage, or potential, describes the amount of energy that is
conductor
delivered to a unit of charge
coulomb, C
current, i • Current is the rate at which charges flow through a given area
depth-of-discharge (DOD) • Power is energy delivered per unit time
direct current, DC
Continued on next page
475
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
11111111! Section Review (Continued)
Key Terms (Continued) Key Concepts (Continued}
direct energy transfer > Spacecraft energy sources include the Sun, chemical energy, and
duty cycle nuclear energy
Earth's angular radiu , p
electric field > Solar energy systems primarily rely on solar cells, also called
electrical potential photovoltaic, PV, cells that convert sunlight directly into electricity
electrodes > Chemical-energy systems use either batteries or fuel cells
electrolyte
• Spacecraft batteries are either primary or secondary
electrostatic force
end-of-life (EOL) - Primary batteries are the sole source of power. They don't
half-life recharge and are for short, one-shot missions.
neutral - Secondary batteri s provide backup power and can recharge
nickel-cadmium, NiCd many times
nickel-hydrogen, NiH2
• The lifetime of secondary batteries depends on the depth of
ohm,Q discharge (DOD) and the number of cycles
orbit average power
peak power • Fuel cells produce power by combining two reactants such as
peak power tracking oxygen and hydrogen. Most United States manned missions have
photovoltaic, PV used them, but they have limited lifetimes.
potential > Nuclear energy sources for spacecraft are primarily radioisotope
power budget thermoelectric generators (RTGs). These have been almost
primary batteries exclusively used for missions to the outer solar ystem where
radioisotope thermoelectric sunlight is too week to be a practical energy source. The primary
generators (RTCs) disadvantages of nuclear energy sources are expense and political
resistor concerns.
resistance, R
secondary batteries > There are two stages within the EPS process: power supply, and
solar cells power conditioning and distribution
solar cell efficiency, 11 > Mission planners must design to a beginning-of-life (BOL) system
thermocouples power output that will give the necessary end-of-life (EOL) power.
total system power budget In addition, they must consider the battery, payload, and subsystem
voltage duty cycles, as well as the orbit average power produced.
volts, V
watt, W
Key Equations
. v
I= R
P = Vi
pout = pin 11 COS El
. -1 ( REarlh )
p = sin
· 1,1 + REarth
2p
TE = x P
3600
476
Example 13-2
Problem Statement Operating 30% of the orbit
payload duty= 0.2
As the FireSat program manager, your task is to CDHS power= 8 W
complete preliminary design calculations for the AOCS power = 3 W
electrical power subsystem (EPS). Analysis of the ECLS power = 0 W
spacecraft bus indicates the following power allocation EPS power= 0.5 W
requirements for each subsystem
Array design data
• CDHS: 8W 1lcell = 0.28
• AOCS: 3W hmission = 500 km
• ECLSS: 0 W (passive thermal control) REarth = 6378 km
• EPS: 0.5 W mission life = 5 yrs
3
At this time, we're still completing the final power
~lEarth = 3.986x[Q5k~
requirements for the payload. We know the sensor, s
including CCDs and electronics, will consume 7.5 W.
array degrade = 0.03 I yr
In addition, it will use a solid state thermoelectric
panel width= 0.3 m
cooler, but we haven't selected a final component yet.
You can assume the operating voltage for the cooler panel height = 0.3 m
will be 5V, and you can model the device as a 2.0Q DOD= 0.25
resistor. Fortunately, at most, the cooling system and solar input = 1358 W2
payload will operate 30% of each orbit. m
From Example 11-1, we know to plan for a 5 year Find: Average orbit power required= required end-
mission in a 500-km low-Earth orbit (with a solar input of-life power
of 1358 WI m2). Fortunately, the spacecraft will be able Actual end-of-life power
to use gallium arsenide solar cells at 28% efficiency. Minimum solar array area compared to actual
Assume that at this relatively low altitude solar panels planned area
will lose 3% of their efficiency per year. Given these Battery capacity
system constraints, the payload duty cycle and
assuming other subsystems will operate continuously,
compute the average orbit power required, which will Conceptual Solution
be the same as the mission end-of-life power. From
there, determine if the planned solar array area that 1) Determine the total peak payload operating
will cover four sides of the 0.3 m cubic spacecraft will power, including the solid-state cooler
provide sufficient electrical power for the demand
(assume a maximum of one panel fully illuminated at cooler current = cooler voltage
cooler resistance
any time). Finally, determine the required battery
capacity (in W · hr) to meet only subsystem demands cooler power= (cooler current) (cooler voltage)
(no payload operations) during eclipse at a 25% depth peak payload power= payload power+ cooler
of discharge. power
2) Determine the average payload power required
Problem Summary average payload power= (peak payload power)
(payload duty)
Given: Payload and subsystem power budgets with
duty cycles 3) Determine the continuous subsystem power
payload power= 7.5 W required
cooler voltage = 5 V subsystem power = CDHS power + AOCS power
cooler resistance= 2.0 Q + ECLS power + EPS power
477
Example 13-2 (Continued)
4) Find Earth's angular radius at the mission altitude 15) Check the energy "bookkeeping"
energy input EOL = (array power EOL) (TS)
. ( REarth )
p = asm energy output= (subsystem power) (P) + (peak
hmission + REarth
payload power) (P) (0.2)
5) Find the orbit's semimajor axis and period
arnission = REarth + hrnission Analytical Solution
3
amission 1) Determine the total peak payload operating
P = 2n power including the solid-state cooler
6) Find the maximum time of eclipse (TE) and the cooler voltage 5 V
coo 1 er curren t = .
time in sunlight (TS) cooler resistance 2Q
cooler current = 2.5 A
2p
TE = 360 degp cooler power= (cooler current) (cooler voltage)
= (2.5 A) (5 V)
TS =P-TE cooler power= 12.5 W
peak payload power= payload power+ cooler
7) Find the energy needed during eclipse
power = 7.5 W + 12.5 W
energy eclipse= (subsystem power) (TE) peak payload power = 20.0 W
8) Find the required battery capacity 2) Determine the average payload power required
it _ energy eclipse average payload power= (peak payload power)
b a tt er capao y - DOD (payload duty)= (20.0 W) (0.3)
average payload power= 6.0 W
9) Determine the actual solar array area exposed to
sunlight 3) Determine the continuous subsystem power
array area= (spacecraft width) (spacecraft height) required
subsystem power= CDHS power+ AOCS power
10) Determine the beginning-of-life peak array power + ECLSS power+ EPS power= 8 W + 3 W+ 0 W
array power BOL = (sunlit array area) (11cell) (solar + 0.5 W)
input) subsystem power= 11.5 W
11) Determine the end-of-life array power 4) Find Earth's angular radius at mission altitude
array power EOL = (sunlit array area) (11cell) . ( REarth )
p = asm
[(LO - array degrade)mission life] solar input hmission + REarth
12) Determine the orbit's average power produced . ( 6378 km )
= asm 500 km+ 6378 km
. (array power EOL)(TS) p = 68.0 deg
array orbit average power = -~~------ p
5) Find the orbit's semirnajor axis and period
13) Determine the required orbit average power
arnission = REarth + hrnission = 6378 km+ 500 km
required orbit average power= average payload
amission = 6.878 x 103 km
power + subsystem power
(6878 km/
14) Determine if the planned array size is sufficient for p 2n 3
the mission 3.986 x 105k~
Compare if the array power EOL ~ orbit average s
power P = 94.6 min
478
Example 13-2 (Continued)
6) Find the maximum time of eclipse (TE) and the 14) Determine if the planned array size is sufficient for
time in sunlight (TS) the mission
TE = 2p p 2(68.0°)(946 . ) array orbit average power - required orbit
360 deg 360° · mm
average power= 18.3 W - 17.5 W = 0.8 W
TE =35.7 min
TS= P - TE= 94.6 min - 35.7 min Our array size gives us a 0.8 W margin, so the
planned array size is sufficient.
TS= 58.9 min
7) Find the energy needed during eclipse 15) Check energy "bookkeeping"
energy eclipse = (subsystem power) (TE) =
(11.5W)(35.7 min) energy input EOL = (array power EOL) (TS) =
60 min/hr
(29.4 W) (58.9 min) (6~ ;~n)
energy eclipse= 6.84 W ·hr= 2.463 x 104 J
8) Find the required battery capacity energy input EOL = 28.9 W ·hr= 1.04 x 105 J
. energy eclipse 6.84W · hr energy output= (subsystem power) (P) + (peak
battery capacity = DOD
0.25 payload power) (P) (0.2) =
battery capacity= 27.4 W · hr . 1 hr
(11.5 W · 94.6 mm· -60 . )+
mrn
9) Determine the actual solar array area exposed to
sunlight . 1 hr
(20.0 W · 94.6 mm · . · 0.3) =
6-0mrn
sunlight array area= (spacecraft width)
(spacecraft height) = (0.3 m) (0.3 m) 18.1 + 9.46
sunlight array area= 0.09 m2 energy output= 27.56 W ·hr= 9.92 x 104 J
10) Determine the beginning-of-life peak array pavver Energy input is greater than energy output. The
array power BOL = (sunlight array area) (11c~11) bookkeeping checks and the array's sizes are
(solar input)= (0.09 m2) (0.28) (1358 WI m=) confirmed to be sufficient.
array power BOL = 34.2 W
11) Determine the end-of-life array power
array power EOL = (sunlight array area) (11ce11)
[(1.0 - array degrade)mission life] solar in:Rut = Interpreting the Results
(0.09 m2) (0.28) (1.0 - 0.03)5 (1358 WI m )
array power EOL = 29.4 W By using body-mounted arrays, the available
12) Determine the array orbit average power pro- surface area on our cubical spacecraft will be sufficient
duced to provide adequate end-of-life power for our
assumed payload duty cycle and subsystem power
(array power EOL)(TS) requirements. We are left with about 0.8 W additional
array orbit average power p power margin to allow for extra payload operations or
(29.4 W)(58.9 min) other contingencies, as needed. The batteries will need
94.6 min at least 27.4 W · hr capacity to handle the load during
array orbit average power= 18.3 W eclipse at 25% DOD.
13) Determine the required orbit average power
required orbit average power= average payload
power+ subsystem power= 6.0 W + 11.5 W
required orbit average power= 17.5 W
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Chapter ·13 Spacecraft Subsystems
13.3 Environmental Control and
Life-support Subsystem (ECLSS)
1111111111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
·.- Explain the primary function of the environmental control and life-
support subsystem-thermal control and life upport
.- List the primary sources of heat for a spacecraft
,.- Describe the three basic means of heat transfer-conduction,
convection, and radiation-and how to use them on a spacecraft
_. Describe the various ways to control heat outside and inside a
spacecraft
,.- Explain how, from the standpoint of the life support, we view
humans as systems with inputs a.nd outputs
• Apply the space systems engineering process to the design and
testing of the ECLSS
As we know from Chapter 3, space is a rough place to live and work-
for humans and machines. For spacecraft to survive, and even thrive, we
need some way to keep the payload and all the subsystems onboard
(including the crew) healthy and happy, as shown in Figure 13-31.
Providing a livable environment in the harshness of space is the function
of the environmental control and life-support subsystem (ECLSS).
We can divide the tasks of the ECLSS conceptually into two
problems-thermal control and life support. In this section, we'll focus
primarily on the thermal control problem, the major concern for
unmanned spacecraft. Then we'll introduce some of the additional
complications caused by placing fragile humans onboard. Finally, we'll
look at some of the major systems engineering issues of ECLSS design.
Figure 13-31. Healthy and Happy "Pay-
loads." The job of the environmental control System Overview
and life-support subsystem (ECLSS) is to pro-
vide a comfortable environment for sub-sys- A spacecraft, orbiting peacefully in space, is perhaps the ultimate
tems and payloads, including astronauts, lo example of an isolated system. We can quite easily analyze everything
live and work. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson
Space Center) that goes in and out. One of those things is heat. If more heat goes into a
spacecraft, or is produced internally, than leaves it, then it's temperature
increases. If more heat leaves than goes in, it begins to cool. Because
sensitive equipment and payloads (including humans) can't survive wide
temperature swings, we need to balance the heat flow in, plus the heat
generated internally, with the heat flow out. We'd prefer the spacecraft's
average temperature to stay nearly constant, a condition we call thermal
equilibrium.
480
13.3 Environmental Control and Life-support Subsystem (ECLSS)
The primary job of the thermal control portion of the ECLSS is to
regulate and control the amount of heat that gets in, out, and moves
around inside of a spacecraft. Just as the furnace and air conditioner do in
our homes, the thermal-control subsystem regulates and moderates the
spacecraft's temperature. To maintain thermal equilibrium, the ECLSS
must balance inputs and outputs, as well as internal heat sources. This
means the heat coming in plus the heat produced internally must equal
the total heat ejected.
Heat Out= Heat In+ Internal Heat (for thermal equilibrium)
Figure 13-32 shows a simple view of the thermal control inputs and
outputs, and illustrates the flow of heat between payloads and
subsystems.
Basic Principles of Thermal Control heat heat
input output
Later we'll see what techniques the thermal control subsystem uses to
control this heat flow. But first, we'll review some internal and external
heat sources for spacecraft. Following this, further discussion of thermal
control methods requires an understanding of basic thermodynamics, so
we'll review some of the principles of heat transfer.
Heat Sources in Space
Figure 13-32. Thermal Control. The chal-
Typically, the biggest problem for spacecraft thermal control is lenge ol spacecraft thermal control is to
removing heat. For the most part, we must maintain temperatures inside balance the heat input plus the heat produced
even unmanned spacecraft at normal room temperature (20° C or about internally with the heat output to maintain
thermal equilibrium.
70° F). In some cases, specific payloads may have more demanding
requirements. Infrared sensors, for example, require refrigeration units to
supercool them to 70 K (-193° C or -316° F).
As Figure 13-33 shows, heat in space comes from three main sources
• The Sun
• Earth
• Internal sources
Earth infrared
("Earth shine"):
237±21 W/m2
(12% of total
incident energy)
Figure 13-33. Heat Sources in Space. A spacecraft gets heat from the Sun, Earth
(reflected and emitted energy), and from within itself.
481
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
Near Earth, the big~est source of heat for orbiting spacecraft is the
Sun-about 1358 WI m . We all know how hot we get standing in the Sun
on a summer day. For a satellite in space, the Sun's heat is much more
intense because there is no atmosphere to absorb radiant energy and
moderate the temperature. On the side facing the Sun, the surface of a
spacecraft can reach many hundreds of degrees Kelvin. On the side away
from the Sun, the temperature can plunge to a few degrees Kelvin.
So what is the temperature in space? Earth is about 300 K, while
temperatures in space range from 900-1300 K. Sounds hot, but is it? On
Earth we measure temperature using a thermometer. The fluid in the
thermometer expands when heated by air molecules brushing by it.
Temperature is proportional to the velocity and number of the molecules.
In space, the molecules are traveling faster but there aren't very many of
them. So while the temperature appears higher in space, the effect on
people and materials is much less than the equivalent temperature on
Earth.
For satellites in low-Earth orbit, Earth is also an important source of
heat because of two effects. The first results from sunlight reflecting off
Earth-called albedo. It accounts for as much as 407 WI m2, or 30% of the
direct solar energy on a spacecraft. Another important source is "Earth
shine," or the infrared energy Earth emits directly, as a result of its
temperature. This accounts for another 237 W / m2 or about 12% of the
incident energy on a spacecraft.
Internal sources also add heat. Electrical components running onboard
and power sources such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs)
produce waste heat. If you've ever placed your hand on the top of your
television after it's been on a while, you know how hot it can get. In your
living room, the heat from the television quickly distributes throughout
the room because of small air currents. Otherwise, your television would
overheat and be damaged. Unfortunately, it's not so easy to keep
spacecraft temperatures balanced onboard. We'll see what methods are
available for moving heat around, next.
Heat Transfer
Recall from Chapter 3 that heat transfers from one point to another
through
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
Let's start with conduction. If you hold one end of a long metal rod and
put the other end into a fire, as in Figure 13-34, what happens? You get
burned! The heat from the fire somehow flows right along the metal rod.
When heat flows from hot to cold through a physical medium (in this
case the rod),we call it conduction, and we experience it every day. It's the
Figure 13-34. Conduction. Conduction
occurs when heat flows through a physical reason we put insulation in the walls of our home to prevent heat from
medium from a hot point to a cooler point. the inside being conducted outside (and vice versa in the summer time).
482
13.3 Environmental Control and Life-support Subsystem (ECLSS)
We can describe the amount of heat transfer due to conduction using the
Fourier Law (developed by J.B. J. Fourier (1768-1830]).
q -kA1H (13-8)
~x
where
g = heat energy conducted per unit time (W)
k = thermal conductivity of the material (W /Km)
A = cross-sectional area of the material (m2)
~T = temperature difference between two sides of the material (K)
~X = distance between "hot" and "cold" points in the material
(m)
Similar to the flow of electrons discussed in the last section, this
relationship indicates heat will flow faster if the material is a better heat
conductor (high k), such as metal rather than wood. It will also flow faster
if a larger area is available, if the temperature difference is greater, or if Figure 13-35. Convection. Convection
the distance is smaller. We use this principle to insulate the walls in our occurs when some driving force, such as
homes by building thick walls (large ~X) and filling them with poor heat gravity, moves the medium (usually a liquid or
gas) past a heat source.
conductors (insulators) that have low k.
The second method of heat transfer is convection. If you've ever boiled
water, you've used convection. Let's look at how water boils in a pot on
the stove, as iJlustrated in Figure 13-35. Water on the bottom of the pot,
nearest the heat source, gets hot first, through conduction, directly from
the heat source. As the water gets hot, it expands slightly, making it a bit
less dense than the water above it. At the same time, gravity pulls
heavier material to the bottom of the pot. Thus, the cooler, denser water
at the top of the pot displaces the warmer, less dense water at the bottom.
Once on the bottom, this cooler water also heats, expands, and rises. A
convection current then continues as water flows past the heat source,
driven by the force of gravity, until it reaches thermal equilibrium (heat
boils out the top at the same rate the stove adds heat on the bottom).
Unlike conduction, which relies on heat flow through a solid medium,
convection transfers heat to a fluid medium flowing past a heat source.
Obviously, if the fluid is flowing, something must make it flow.
Convection relies on gravity, or some other force, to push the fluid past
the heat source.
In the free-fall environment of space, there are no forces to cause cooler
water to replace the warmer water (everything free falls together). For
convection to work in space, we must supply the force to move the fluid.
For example, Russian spacecraft have long relied on forced convection to
cool their spacecraft electronics. The components are in a large pressure Figure 13-36. Meteor Spacecraft. The
vessel filled with nitrogen at about 1 bar pressure (14.7 p.s.i.). They use Russian Meteor spacecraft is able to use
convective cooling of onboard electronics by
fans to circulate the nitrogen around the vessel, cooling the electronics.
sealing everything in a large pressure vessel
Figure 13-36 shows one of the Russian Meteor spacecraft that relies on this and using fans to circulate nitrogen. (Courtesy
method of thermal control. of A. Koorbanoff and C. Maag)
483
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
The final method of heat transfer is radiation. If you've ever basked in
the warm glow of an electric space heater, you've felt the power of heat
transfer by radiation. Radiation is the means of transferring energy (such
as heat) through space. More specifically, radiative heat transfer occurs
through electromagnetic (EM) radiation. As we described in Chapter 11,
EM radiation is the waves (or particles) emitted from an energy source.
Recall that a red-hot piece of metal acts as a blackbody radiator, meaning
the intense heat energy causes it to emit EM radiation. In this case, the
frequency of the EM radiation is in the visible (red) portion of the EM
spectrum. We use Stefan-Boltzmann's Law to describe the heat-power
transfer by radiation.
q (13-9)
where
q = heat-power transfer per unit time (W)
a = Stefan-Boltzmann's constant (5.67 x 10-8 W /m2 K4)
£ = emissivity (0 < e < 1)
A = surface area of the body (m')
T =blackbody temperature (K)
This relationship tells us that, as the temperature of a black body
increases, the amount of heat power it emits increases by the fourth
power of the temperature. Thus, if we double the temperature, the
amount of energy emitted will increase sixteen times.
As Figure 13-37 shows, when radiation strikes a surface, the material
reflected reflects, absorbs, or transmits it. Reflected radiation is the same as
radiation reflected light from a mirror. This type of radiation basically bounces off
the surface. We use the symbol, p, to identify the reflectivity of a surface
(don't confuse this p with Earth's angular radius from Section 13.2). We
work with reflectivity as a percentage; that is, p = 0.3 means that an object
reflects 30% of the radiation that hits it.
Absorbed radiation is energy the surface captures, just as a sponge
soaks up water. Absorbed radiation eventually causes the surface
temperature to rise. We use the symbol, a, to identify absorptivity. We
also work with absorptivity as a percentage; that is, a= 0.5 means an object
Figure 13·37. Radiation. Radiation striking absorbs 50% of the radiation that hits it.
a surface is either reflected, absorbed, or
transmitted. Transmitted radiation is energy that passes right through (the same as
visible light passes through a pane of glass). We use the symbol i: to
quantify transmissivity. Trausl/lissivity too is a percentage; that is, i: = 0.2
means an object transmits 20% of the radiation that hits it.
Because of the conservation of energy, all of the radiation must go
somewhere. So the sum of the reflected, absorbed, and transmitted
radiation energy equals the incoming energy. Another way of looking at
this is
i:+a+p 1 (13-10)
484
13.3 Environmental Control and Life-support Subsy tern (ECLSS)
where
t = transmissivity (O < t < 1)
q =OE AT4
c. = absorptivity (0 < c. < 1)
p = reflectivity (O < p < 1)
As an object absorbs energy, the kinetic energy of individual molecules
increases and the object gets hotter. As Figure 13-38 shows, all objects
above absolute zero (0 K) emit radiation. But not all materials emit heat
with the same efficiency. We call a material's ability to emit heat its
emissivity, t:. A pure black body has an emissivity of 1.0. The black tiles on
the Space Shuttle have a very high emissivity (E = 0.8).
Figure 13-38. Emissivity. Any object with a
Methods for SpacecraftThermal Control temperature above O K (meaning basically
everything in the universe) emits (EM) radiation
Now that we've explored the heat transfer options, let's see how we use per the Stephan-Boltzmann relationship. The
greater the emissivity of a material the more
them to maintain spacecraft thermal equilibrium. As we said earlier, we energy it emits at a given temperature.
must manage heat coming into and out of the spacecraft (external thermal
control), as well as heat generated inside (internal thermal control).
There are two basic approaches to thermal control. The easiest method
is passive thermal control. Passive thermal control is an open-loop means of
controlling the spacecraft's temperature, by carefully designing the entire
system to regulate heat input and output, and creating convenient heat
conduction paths. The nice thing about passive thermal control is, once it
gets going, it requires no additional control inputs. Unfortunately, some
systems have too much heat to control or the environment is too
unpredictable. In these situations, we resort to closed-looped, active
thermal control. Active thermal control employs working fluids, heaters,
pumps, and other devices to move and eject heat. Next, we'll look at
methods for external thermal control.
External Thermal Control. The challenge of external thermal control is
to manage the flow of heat into and out of a spacecraft. Let's start with the
problem of heat input.
We know the primary external heat sources are the Sun and Earth. Our
first line of defense is to carefully control the amount of heat absorbed
by spacecraft surfaces. Realize that in the vacuum of space, the side
facing the Sun gets terribly hot and the side facing space gets terribly cold.
One of the simplest ways to balance this temperature differential is to
slowly rotate the spacecraft around an axis perpendicular to the Sun. In
this "barbecue" mode, a spacecraft surface alternately heats when facing
the Sun and then cools when facing the cold of space, maintaining a
moderate surface temperature without hot spots. The Apollo spacecraft
used this method all the way to the Moon and back. This is one method of
active thermal control of heat input.
The barbecue mode can help to equalize the heat hitting the surface.
The next challenge is to control the amount that gets absorbed. As we've
seen, depending on the material, it absorbs, reflects, or transmits incident
radiation. By changing the type of surface coatings on the spacecraft, we
can control its total absorptivity and emissivity, thus its equilibrium
temperature. We can change the ratio of heat absorbed to emitted (o./E)
485
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
by carefully selecting materials to keep the surface temperature at a
desired level.
Instead of actually coating the metallic surface of the spacecraft
structure, we place various types of multi-layer insulation (MU) on top of
the structure. MLI consists of alternating sheets of polymer material, such
as Mylar TM or Kapton '?". Kapton I'" often looks like gold foil and is similar
to the "space blankets" sold in sporting goods stores to keep you warm
during emergencies (another great spin-off from space technology!). We
can apply MLI or simply MylarI'" or Kapton'I'" adhesive tape to surfaces
to vary the amount of heat absorbed by different areas and insulate the
subsystems underneath. Typically, we can meet nearly 85% of a
spacecraft's thermal-control demands through passive means, by simply
choosing the right surface coatings and insulation. Figure 13-39 shows
MLI used for thermal control on the outside of the Upper Atmospheric
Research Satellite (UARS).
We've looked at controlling heat flow into the spacecraft. Now let's
consider how to control the flow out of the spacecraft. In space,
Figure 13-39. Upper Atmospheric Re- surrounded by a vacuum, using conduction or convection to eject heat is
search Satellite (UARS). We can meet nearly possible, but not too convenient. For example, we could transfer the heat
85%-100% of a spacecraft's thermal-control
demands by choosing the right coatings and in-
to some fluid, such as water, and then dump it overboard. The Space
sulation. Here we see foil wrapping used on the Shuttle uses this method to remove excess heat with a device called a Jlnsh
UARS. (Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space euaporator. Water pumps around hot subsystems cool them by convection,
Flighr Center)
and then vent overboard. Unfortunately, this method works only as long
as they have extra water onboard. This is one type of active thermal
control that, for long missions, is impractical.
So the most effective long-term method for ejecting heat is by
radiation. To radiate heat, we must design special surface areas on the
spacecraft with low absorptivity and very high emissivity (low a/ E).
These special areas then readily emit any heat concentrated near them.
These surfaces are called radiators. Radiators are similar to "heat
windows" that allow hot components on the inside of a spacecraft to
radiate their heat into the cold of space. Often a radiator is simply a
section of glass coating over a particularly hot section of the spacecraft.
This greatly increases the emissivity of that part of the spacecraft so more
heat radiates away. The radiators on the Space Shuttle are quite evident
on the inside of the payload bay doors, as shown in Figure 13-40.
Internal Thermal Control. Inside the spacecraft we have different
problems. Often the trouble is not having too much or too little heat, but,
instead, it's having the heat (or lack of it) in the right place. Each
subsystem has different thermal requirements, and we must keep them
all happy. Some components, such as propellant lines and tanks, need to
Figure 13-40. Space Shuttle Radiators. stay warm to prevent freezing. Others, such as high-power payloads,
Radiators, like the ones on the Inside of the need active cooling.
Space Shuttle's payload bay doors, are areas
of low absorptivity and high emissivity that The complexity of the internal thermal control techniques depends on
radiate heat transferred to them. (Courtesy of two things-how fast we need to move the heat and how much heat we
NASA/Johnson Space Center) need to move. To remove modest amounts of heat from spacecraft
components when time isn't critical, the easiest way is simply to establish
a heat-conduction path from the hot component to a passive external
486
13.3 Environmental Control and Life-support Subsystem (ECLSS)
radiator. This path can be as simple as connecting the two with a piece of
heat-conducting metal. This is another form of passive thermal control.
As the amount of heat and the urgency to remove it increases, we need
more complex, active thermal-control methods. One of the simplest of
these is to use heat pipes. Heat pipes are tubes closed at both ends, filled
with a working fluid, such as ammonia, as shown in Figure 13-41. When
one end of the pipe is close to a heat source, the fluid absorbs this heat
and vaporizes. Gas pressure forces the heated vapor to the cold end of the
pipe where the heat passes out of the pipe via conduction. As the vapor
loses its heat, it re-condenses as a liquid. It then flows back to the other
end along a wick-just as liquid flows through a candlewick.
evaporator transport section condenser
vapor flow
capillary wick system
heat pipe wall
heat in heat out
Figure 13-41. Heat Pipe. Heat pipes employ some liquid with a low boiling point inside a
hollow tube. As the liquid absorbs heat at the hot end, II vaporizes and carries the heat to the
cool end. There it re-condenses and "wicks" back lo the hot end.
Heat pipes offer a simple, open-loop active thermal control technique.
The big cooling advantage comes from the latent heat absorbed when
liquids vaporize. What do we mean by this? If you heat water on the
stove, how hot can it get? Only about 100° C (212° F). No matter how long
it's heated, it can reach only this temperature-the boiling point of H20.
When you add more heat to the water, it changes phase (vaporizes) from
a liquid to a gas (steam). Steam is not limited to 100° C; it can get much 100°C
hotter and thus, can store more heat. Latent hea! of vaporization is the
principle of storing additional heat in a liquid as it changes phase. If you
look at the graph of energy input versus temperature for water (or almost
any substance for that matter) in Figure 13-42, you'll see where this latent
heat comes in. As the fluid in a heat pipe vaporizes, it absorbs a large
energy
amount of heat due to this phenomenon. Figure 13-42. Latent Heat of Vaporization.
Another simple method for removing heat is to use paraffin or some As heat is added to a liquid, such as water, its
temperature increases linearly until it reaches
other phase-change material with a relatively low melting point to
the boiling point. Then, the temperature of the
remove heat from a component during times of peak thermal demand. As water stays constant as more heat is added.
the paraffin absorbs heat, it melts. When the component is no longer in This additional heat needed to change the
use and stops producing heat, the melted paraffin conducts or radiates phase of the substance 1rom liquid to steam is
known as latent heat of vaporization.
this heat to other parts of the spacecraft. Eventually, the thermal control
system must eject the heat by radiation. As the paraffin cools, it solidifies
and is ready for use during the next peak demand cycle. This thermal
control method tends to be very reliable because it has no moving parts
and the paraffin essentially never wears out. What makes this method so
efficient is the same principle that makes ice a good thing to put in your
cooler-latent heat of fusion. Latent heat cffusio» is the same basic idea as
487
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
latent heat of vaporization, but uses melting instead of boiling. As the ice
melts in your cooler, it takes heat out of your sodas. We applied this
principle in Chapter 10 to remove heat through ablation from spacecraft
re-entering the atmosphere.
In many cases, heat pipes or paraffin can't do the job, so we must resort
to more complex, closed-looped, thermal-control methods. This is
especially true for infra-red (IR) sensors, used on some remote-sensing
missions, such as the Defense Support Program spacecraft, as shown in
Figure 13-43.To be sensitive to minute changes in background temperature
representing a missile launch seen from 36,000 km (22,370 mi.) away, these
IR sensors must be super-cooled to 70 K (-200° C) or less. Older systems
Figure 13-43. Defense Support Program used liquid helium stored in the equivalent of large Thermos''" bottles
(DSP) Spacecraft. From geosynchronous alti- called Dewar flasks. This method had a limited lifetime. After the liquid
tude the DSP spacecraft needs supercool IA helium evaporated, the mission was over. Modern systems still use liquid
sensors to detect missile launches. (Courtesy of
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center) helium, but actively cool it on the spot, using cryogenic pumps similar in
concept to the pumps found in kitchen refrigerators. Advances in design
and analysis of these components have drastically reduced their size, while
increasing their operational lifetime to over ten years, making long-term IR
remote sensing more practical and cost-effective. We show an example of
an advanced cryo-cooler unit in Figure 13-44.
Basic Principles of Life Support
As we described in Chapter 3, space is a hostile place. Charged
particles, solar radiation, vacuum, and free fall are all potentially harmful,
even fatal, to unprepared humans. A spacecraft's life support system
provides a "home away from home" for space travelers. To understand
its requirements, we can consider humans as just another system (self-
loading baggage), similar to the payload or the electrical power
subsystem. As such, humans have various needs that the life-support
subsystem must provide. In this section, we'll focus on the basic
principles that drive those needs.
In Chapter 3 we introduced the long-term physiological challenges of
living in the space environment from charged particles, radiation, and
free fall. Here we'll focus on the much shorter-term problem of staying
Figure 13-44. Cyro-cooler. Sophisticated
alive (and even living comfortably) in space for days or years at a time.
cryogenic coolers, such as the one shown We already looked at the problem of thermal control. Like any other
here, keep IA sensors at extremely low "payload," humans have their own, specific temperature range, where
temperatures (<20 K). (Courtesy of the U.S.
Air Force Research Laboratory)
they function best. Now we'll look at the basic necessities to keep humans
alive for even a short time in space. These include
• Oxygen-at the right pressure
• Water-for drinking, hygiene, and humidity
• Food
• Waste management
488
13.3 Environmental Control and Life-support Subsystem (ECLSS)
From a systems perspective, we can look at human requirements in
inputs used 348 g outputs
terms of inputs and outputs. Figure 13-45 shows the amount of oxygen,
(4968 g) (46~0 g)
water, and food an average person needs for minimum .life support and
the amount of waste he or she produces. Let's look at each of these
requirements to better see what the life-support subsystem must deliver.
Oxygen
At sea level, we breathe air at a pressure of 101 k.Pa (14.7 p.s.i.). Of this,
20.9% is oxygen (02), 78.0% is nitrogen (N2), 0.04% is carbon dioxide
(C02), and the rest consists of various trace gasses, such as argon. During
respiration, our lungs take in all of these gasses but only the oxygen gets
used. Our bodies use it to "burn" other chemicals as part of our
metabolism. Within the lungs, 02 transfers to the blood in exchange for a
metabolic by-product, C02. By exhaling, we dump C02 back into the air
around us. On Earth, plants eventually absorb this waste C02 and
exchange it for 02, and the process continues. In space, it's not that simple. Figure 13-45. The Human System. Similar to
any other system, humans take some amount of
To provide a breathable atmosphere in space, the life-support Input, process it, and produce output. Here we
subsystem must provide 02 at a high enough partial pressure to allow for see the approximate daily food, water, and
comfortable breathing. Partial pressure refers to the amount of the total oxygen requirements for an astronaut and the
corresponding urine, perspiration, C02, and
pressure accounted for by a particular gas. At sea level, the partial feces produced. (Adapted from Nicogossian, et
pressure of 02 (PP02) is 20.9% of 101 k.Pa (14.7 p.s.i.), or about 21 kPa al and Chang, et al)
(3.07 p.s.i.). After becoming acclimated, people living at high altitudes
(above 2000 m or about 6560 ft.) show little discomfort with PP02 of 13.8
k.Pa (2.0 p.s.i.) or less. The Space Shuttle's life support system maintains a
PP02 close to Earth's sea level standard at 22 ± 1.7 k.Pa (3.2 ± 0.25 p.s.i.).
Besides keeping the PP02 high enough, we must also not let it get too
high. Breathing oxygen at too high of a partial pressure is literally toxic.
This is a problem which scuba divers must also avoid during deep dives.
We consider a PP02 of less than 48 k.Pa (7 p.s.i.) safe.
Besides providing adequate oxygen to breathe, we must consider other
trade-offs. We want the PP02 to be low enough so it doesn't create a fire
hazard in the crew cabin. This was the problem during the Apollo 1
accident, shown in Figure 13-46. At that time, the cabin atmosphere was
pure oxygen. This led to the untimely deaths of three astronauts, when a
wiring problem caused a fire during a routine ground test. The pure
oxygen atmosphere let the fire spread much more rapidly than it would
have in a normal 02/N2 atmosphere. Since then, cabin atmospheres in
U.S. manned spacecraft have contained a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
to decrease this fire hazard.
The correct mixture and pressure of gasses is also important for
thermal control. Convective heat transferred into the cabin atmosphere
also cools electronic components, so atmospheric composition and
circulation must support that function.
A final concern for cabin air is the astronauts preparing to leave the Figure 13-46. Apollo 1 Disaster. The Apollo
spacecraft for an extravehicular activity (EVA or space walk). Because of 1 fire that claimed the life of astronauts
design limitations, Shuttle space suits operate at 29.6 k.Pa (4.3 p.s.i.). To Grissom, White, and Chaffee, was caused by
the use of a pure oxygen environment inside
avoid potential decompression problems, the astronauts reduce the the capsule. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson
Shuttle pressure to 70.3 kPa (10.2 p.s.i.) 12 hours before a planned EVA Space Center)
489
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
Even then, they must breathe pure oxygen for 3 - 4 hours before the EVA,
to purge nitrogen from their bodies. Otherwise, the nitrogen could form
bubbles in the blood, causing a potentially deadly problem known as "the
bends," a condition that scuba divers must also carefully avoid. However,
given the relative infrequency of EVAs, most astronauts consider these
procedures a minor inconvenience.
Where does the air for the life-support subsystem come from? For
Space Shuttle missions, tanks hold liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen. As
liquids, they need much less volume than as gasses. The life support
system warms the liquids and then evaporates them into gases at the
correct partial pressures. This process also replenishes air that vents
during space walks or leaks out.
It is important to realize that astronauts need an efficient, closed-
looped control system to monitor and maintain a safe atmosphere.
Sensors constantly monitor the pressure and composition of cabin air and
alert the crew and ground controllers to any problems before they can
become a health hazard .
.--------Astra FunFact-----
CosmonautsRescue
Crippled Space Station
Power out, life support systems failing, temperature dropping... sounds like an episode of Star Trek. But that's
the situation faced by cosmonauts Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Viktor Savinykh when they blasted off from the
Baikonur Cosmodrome on June 16, 1985, on a mission to rescue the crippled Salyut 7 space station. With the
station's automated rendezvous equipment shut down, the crew had to make a tricky manual docking. Once
attached to the station, they cautiously opened the valve into the station to sample its atmosphere. Luckily, the
station stif/ held pressure, but it was cold! "Ice was everywhere," Dzhanibekov later commented, "on the
instruments, control panels, windows. Mold from past occupations was frozen to the waf/s." Because their suit
thermometers only went down to 0° C, the crew ingeniously decided to spit on the walls and time how long it
took to freeze. Using this crude estimate, they determined the station was at -10° C (14° F). The crew's first
order of business was to recharge the station batteries so heat, light, and ventilation could be restored. Even
bundled up "like babies in a Moscow winter," they found they could stand the cold for only about 40 minutes at
a time before retreating into the refuge of their Soyuz capsule. Other problems plagued them as well. Without
ventilators to circulate the air, carbon dioxide from their breath hung around their heads, causing headaches and
sluggishness. After nearly 24 hours of constant work, they switched on the power and "suddenly the lights turned
on and ventilators started whirring . . the station was saved."
Canby, Thomas Y. Are the Soviets Ahead in Space? National Geographies Vol. 170, No. 4. Washington,
D.C.: National Geographies Society, October 1986.
490
13.3 Environmental Control and Life- upport Subsystem (ECLSS)
Water and Food
With an understanding of the air supply system, we can now turn our
attention to one of the simpler pleasures of life-eating and drinking. We
normally eat and drink without much concern for the total mass that we
consume (we're much more concerned with calories'), For space missions,
every gram taken to orbit represents a huge cost, so we want very little
waste. On the other hand, because we can't call out for pizza, we must
carry enough water and food for any contingency. Thus, we must fully
understand the crew's needs when we design this piece of the ECLSS.
Astronauts need water onboard for many reasons. As a minimum,
humans need about two liters of drinking water per day (about 2 kg or 4.4
lb.) to stay alive. We also need another liter or so of water for food
preparation and re-hydration. Besides this minimal amount of water to
maintain life, astronauts need water for personal hygiene (washing,
shaving, etc.), as well as, doing the dishes and washing clothes. All told,
this can add up to more than 20 liters per person per day.
We also need food. The average human needs about 29 calories per
kilogram of body weight per day, to maintain their present weight. nus
means a typical 70 kg (154 lb.) astronaut needs at least 1972 calories per
day-more for days when strenuous EVAs occur.
Space food has come a long way since astronauts ate peanut butter and
drank Tang from tubes during the Gemini missions. Nowadays,
astronaut food isn't much different from what we're used to on Earth.
Figure 13-47 shows an astronaut "sitting down" to a healthy meal with a
tray strapped to her thigh. Planners use the recommended daily
allowances (RDA) of carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals
that we read about on food labels. To conserve mass and volume, they
dehydrate or freeze-dry much of the food and then rehydrate it on orbit.
For short-term missions, astronauts take fresh fruit and other perishable
items-storage space and mass permitting. Depending on how they
package it and the total calories needed, they must plan as much as 2 kg
of food per person per day.
Where does all this food and water come from? For U.S. manned
flights during Apollo and on the Space Shuttle, ample water comes as a
by-product of the fuel cells used to produce electrical power, discussed in
Section 13.2. Thus, astronauts have had the luxury of using as much
water as they want. They simply dump wastewater overboard into the Figure 13-47. Food in Space. Food astro-
vacuum of space. Menu planners help them order all the necessary food nauts eat isn't all that different from Earth food.
for their mission. For extended missions lasting several months or more, However, to save space, more dehydrated and
freeze-dried foods are often used. Above you
such as those flown on the Russian Mir space station, unmanned re- can see a typical meal tray used on the Shuttle.
supply spacecraft are launched every few months with more groceries. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Waste Management
Humans produce waste in the form of urine, feces, and C02, simply as
a by-product of living. Collecting and disposing of this waste in an
effective and healthy manner is one of the biggest demands on the life-
support subsystem. Urine and feces pose health risks, as well as odor
491
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
problems. C02 poses a subtler problem. Unless they remove it from the
air, its concentration builds up, eventually causing increased heart and
respiratory rates, a change in the body acidity, and other health
complications.
One of the most commonly asked questions of the entire space
program is, "How do you go to the bathroom in space?" Collecting urine
and feces in a free-fall environment is a challenge. In the early days of the
space program, designers subjected those dashing young astronauts with
the "right stuff" to a most humbling experience. They collected urine and
feces using inconvenient and messy methods, euphemistically called
intimate-contact devices. Because all the U.S. astronauts were male at that
time, they collected urine using a roll-on cuff placed over the penis and
connected to a bag. They collected feces using a simple diaper, or, even
more messy, a colostomy-type bag taped or placed over the buttocks.
They either dumped urine and feces overboard (to eventually burn up in
the atmosphere) or returned them to Earth for analysis and disposal.
The Skylab program ushered in a new era in free-fall toilets. For the
first time, intimate contact devices were no longer necessary. An
advanced version of this system is now on the Space Shuttle, as shown in
Figure 13-48. However, the free-fall toilet created (and still creates)
Figure 13-48. Shuttle Toilet. The toilet used considerable challenge to engineers. We tend to take for granted all the
by astronauts on the Space Shuttle compen- work that gravity does for us every time we go to the bathroom. On
sates for the free-fall environment. On Earth,
gravity does all the work; In free fall, forced air
Earth, urine and feces fall away from our bodies; in orbit, it's a different
creates a suction to draw waste away from the story. In free fall, us, our urine, and feces are all falling at the same rate. As
body. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space a result, waste isn't compelled to move away from us, so it tends to float
Center)
next to our body in a smelly blob (or, as one anonymous astronaut put it
"those little guys just don't want to leave home!"). To get around this
problem, engineers use forced air to create a suction, pulling urine and
feces into a waste-collection system for disposal. Unfortunately, this
method doesn't work nearly as well as good ol' gravity, but at least it's a
vast improvement over the older methods.
In comparison, removing C02 from the air is much simpler and far less
messy. On the Space Shuttle, canisters containing charcoal and lithium
hydroxide (LOH) filter the air. The LOH chemically reacts with the C02,
trapping it in the filter. The charcoal absorbs odors and other
contaminants, as well. The crew must change these canisters periodically
during the flight as we show one astronaut doing in Figure 13-49. On
Skylab, for missions lasting up to 84 days, the crew filtered C02 using a
molecular sieve, which they then "baked out" and re-used.
Closed-loop Life Support
Figure 13-49. "Scrubbing C02." Lithium
hydroxide canisters, like the ones being From a systems point of view, astronaut and cosmonaut life support
changed here, remove carbon dioxide (C02)
lrom the air on the Space Shuttle. (Courtesy o/
systems have been largely open loop in nature. Certainly, there are closed-
NASA/Johnson Space Center) loop aspects that monitor temperature and cabin atmosphere, but all of the
system inputs (air, water, food) are eventually thrown away as waste.
For future long-term missions to the Moon or Mars, lasting many
months or years, it probably won't be practical to take along all the
supplies or rely on re-supply missions. Instead, we need to establish a
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13.3 Environmental Control and Life-support Subsystem (ECLSS)
closed system that can reclaim and recycle water and other waste. Such
closed-loop systems could recycle urine, feces, and C02 to provide water output:
and food to the crew, as illustrated in Figure 13-50. While this may not fecal waste
sound appetizing, it prornises to greatly reduce the mass they need to pack urine
along for very long missions. Scientists are investigating life-support co ..
subsystems that can effectively reclaim and recycle water, the heaviest item.
One limited approach to this idea is to reclaim so called "gray" water (used
for washing and rinsing) and reuse it for purposes other than drinking.
Other scientists are looking beyond such limited systems to ones that
will fully recycle nearly everything onboard and provide all the oxygen,
water, and food crew members need for missions lasting for years. Such
systems could eventually make it much easier for astronauts to eat, drink, Figure 13·50. Bioregenerative Life-support
Subsystems. For long space missions to Mars
breath, and even go to the bathroom. Unfortunately, such systems are still or beyond, bioregenerative life support sub-
far in the future. Until then, these pioneers in the high frontier must systems may be needed. These systems allow
accept some austere conditions. us to "close the loop" and recycle all human
waste into food, water, and oxygen.
Systems Engineering
Now that you've warmed up to the concepts of thermal control and life
support, we can return our attention to the systems engineering
challenges of ECLSS design. We'll look briefly at the inputs to the design
process, then review some of the testing requirements spacecraft must
endure before launching into the harshness of space.
Requirements and Constraints
As described in Chapter 11, we kick off the space systems engineering
process by defining mission and system-level requirements and
constraints. Of course, the biggest driver for the ECLSS design is whether
the mission includes a fragile human payload. With astronauts onboard.
we must include all of the necessary life support systems that we
discussed earlier-water, air, food, and waste management. To total these
requirements, we multiply the daily human requirements by the number
of astronauts and the total mission duration. This gives us a starting point
for designing the ECLSS life-support budget.
Without humans to worry about, the "LS" part of ECLSS goes away
and environmental control remains. This system must mainly keep
components at the right temperature. Unlike mission data or electrical
power, the thermal budget is a collection of acceptable operating
temperature ranges for each subsystem. System engineers must look at
component placement, conduction paths, and thermal input and output
to ensure each subsystem stays comfortable.
Analysis and Design
At the beginning of the section, we introduced the concept of thermal
equilibrium. Recall that to maintain this state, the heat output must
balance the heat input plus internal heat. The biggest challenge of the
thermal control system design is meeting this requirement under all
mission conditions. Keeping things warm isn't a problem in full sunlight.
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
Keeping things cool isn't a big problem in the darkness of space. But
keeping them cool in the sun and warm in the shade can be a big problem.
During the design loop, thermal control engineers must stay closely
involved with the other subsystem designers to understand their
requirements and carefully analyze where all the heat will go. One method
for managing heat flow is to create a detailed thermal model of the entire
system, by dividing it into a series of nodes. A thermo! node is any payload,
subsystem or even part of the structure that has unique thermal properties
to consider. We carefully define the thermal properties of each node (heat
input, absorptivity, emissivity, etc.). We then connect all of the nodes, in a
virtual sense, as illustrated in Figure 13-51, and calculate the equilibrium
temperature using a complex computer simulation. We show the output of
one such simulation in Figure 13-52. The results give designers a good
indication of potential thermal problems, and help them design passive
and active thermal control techniques to take care of them.
Figure 13-52. Spacecraft Thermal Analysis
Results. This solar panel shows the distribution
of temperatures (0C) as a result of a computer
thermal simulation. (Courtesy of Surrey Satellite
Technologies, Ltd., U.K.)
heat heat
input output
Figure 13-51. Spacecraft Thermal Analysis Techniques. To model spacecraft thermal
control, engineers define a series of interconnected nodes on the spacecraft. By defining the
Figure 13-53. Thermal Cycling. These tests unique thermal properties of each node and understanding the heat conduction and
screen components to ensure they'll function in radiation between nodes, they can use computer analysis techniques to determine overall
the space environment by subjecting them to a system temperatures.
series of thermal cycles-hot-cold-hot-cold.
Here we show the Picosat microsatellite in a
small thermal cycling chamber. (Courtesy of Testing
Surrey Satellite Technology, ltd., U.K.)
Finally, when we finish a design, we must validate it against the
original requirements. For thermal control, this involves a testing process
that subjects the spacecraft to the simulated vacuum and temperature
conditions of space. To test temperature extremes, we perform thermal
cycling tests (hot-cold-hot-cold, etc.) on individual components, sub-
systems, and the entire spacecraft, as shown in Figure 13-53. These tests
subject components to the wide temperature extremes they'll see on orbit.
These tests also determine if thermal cycling may cause them to fail.
In addition to relatively inexpensive thermal-cycling tests, we add a
Figure 13-54. Thermal Vac Facility. Prior to strong vacuum to the thermal cycling, using large, more expensive
flight, individual subsystems, and entire thermal/vacuum facilities, as shown in Figure 13-54. These "therrnal-vac"
spacecraft, go through thermal cycling tests tests create realistic heat transfer situations by eliminating convective
inside large vacuum chambers to simulate the
effects of the space environment. (Courtesy of cooling processes (no air). If the spacecraft survives these grueling series
Hughes Space and Communications, Co.) of tests, we certify the ECLSS ready to fly!
494
13.3 Environmental Control and Life-support Subsystem (ECLSS)
11!!!!!1 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
absorptivity, a > A spacecraft's environmental control and life-support subsystem (ECLSS) has
active thermal two primary tasks--envi..ronmentaJ control (primarily temperature) and life
control support
albedo
> Thermal control balances heat input, internal heat, and heat output to maintain
conduction
thermal equilibrium
conductor
convection > Sources of heat for a spacecraft include
Dewar flasks • The Sun
emissivity, i;
flash evaporator • Earth (for spacecraft in low-Earth orbits)-from albedo and "Earth shine"
heat pipes • Internal sources-such as electrical components
intimate-con tact
devices
> Heat can transfer between two points in three ways
latent heat of fusion • Conduction-heat transfer through a solid medium, the Fourier Law
latent heat of • Convection-h at transfer to a flowing fluid
vaporization
• Radiation-heat transfer by EM radiation, the Stephan-Boltzmann Law
life-support budg
partial pressure > All EM radiation triking a surface must be ither reflected, absorbed or
passive thermal transmitted. Reflectivity, p, absorptivity, o; and transmissivity, t, describe the
control percentage of each for a given surface. Once absorbed, the energy can re-radiate
radiation based on the surface emissivity, c.
radiators
> Spacecraft thermal control regulates external heat input/ output as well as
reflectivity, p
internal heat flow
thermal equilibrium
thermal node • Passive thermal control uses open-loop methods, such as surface coatings,
transmissivity, -c multi-layer insulation (MU), and conduction paths, to control overall
t mperature.
Key Equations • Active, thermal-control techniques, such as heaters, heat pipes, and cryogenic
coolers use some power and/ or some working fluid to control heat in specific
q -KA/'J.T locations
t:,,.X
> Life support keeps humans alive in space. Humans need
q = OEAT4
• Oxygen at the right partial pre sure
i:+a+p=l • Water and food
• Methods for waste disposal (C02, urine, and feces)
> The ECLSS systems engineering process is driven by life-support budgets and
individual operating temperature ranges for each payload and ubsystern
• Engineers conduct thermal analysis by simulating each component as a series
of nodes with specific thermal properties
• Spacecraft testing involves subj cti.ng components and entire systems to
thermal cycling, as well as combined, thermal-vacuum facilities
495
Example 13-3
Problem Statement Conceptual Solution
Prior to thermal-vacuum-facility testing for FireSat, 1) Find the total area and solar input area of the
engineers want to check their passive thermal design panels
for the spacecraft. The structure is cubic shaped, 0.3 m
total array area= (spacecraft width) (spacecraft
on an edge, with solar panels on the four sides.
height) (no. panels)
Manufacturer specifications for the panels tell us their
transmissivity is zero (T = 0), their reflectivity (p = 0.05), sun lit1 area = total array- area
and their absorptivity (a = 0.95). Panel emissivity is 4
0.85. The top and bottom square sections of the
spacecraft are covered in multi-layer insulation (MU) 2) Find the total sunlit energy input during payload
providing an effective emissivity of 0.0 and operations
absorptivity of 0.0 (perfect insulator). From Example qinput sunlight= (sunlight area) (solar input)
13-2, we know that the spacecraft bus needs 11.5 W of (panel absorptivity)
power to operate. During payload operations, an qinternal sunlight= subsystem power+ payload
additional 20 W peak power is consumed. Determine power
the equilibrium temperature for the spacecraft with gin sun= qinput sunlight+ qinternalsunlight
full sunlight on one solar panel during payload
operations, and in eclipse (no payload operation 3) Set gin equal to qout and solve for the sunlit side's
during eclipse). You can ignore the input of "Earth equilibrium temperature
shine" (237 WI m2) on the nadir-facing panel since it is
covered in MU. qin sun = qout
q0ut = (a) (panel emissivity) (total array area)
(TsunJil
1
T _ q msun
. )4
Problem Summary ( (a)(panel c)(total array area)
sunlit -
Given: spacecraft width= 0.3 m
spacecraft height= 0.3 m 4) Set qout equal to ~nternal eclipse and solve for the
eclipse equilibrium temperature
no. panels = 4
panel p = 0.05 qinternal eclipse= subsystem power
panel a= 0.95 qout = qinternaleclipse
panel £ = 0.85 I
4
MU£= 0.0 T _ ( qout )
solar input= 1358 W / m2 eclipse - (a)(panel E)(total array area)
Stefan-Boltzmann's constant
-8 W
a = 5. 67 x 1 0 -2-4 Analytical Solution
mK
MU o: = 0.0 1) Find the total area and solar input area of the
payload power= 20.0 W panels
subsystem power= 11.5 W total array area = (spacecraft width) (spacecraft
Find: spacecraft equilibrium temperature during height) (no. panels) = (0.3 m) (0.3 m) (4)
full-sun payload operations and in eclipse (no total array area = 0.36 m2
payload) operations.
. total array area 0.36m2
sun 1 it area =
4 4
sunlit area = 0.09 m2
496
Example 13-3 (Continued)
2) Find the total sunlight energy input during 4) Set qout equal to qinternal eclipse and solve for the
payload operations (assuming one side of cube is eclipse equilibrium temperature
in direct sun and ignoring albedo and Earth IR)
qinternal eclipse= subsystem power= 11.5 W
qinput sunlight= (sunlit area) (solar input) (panel
absorptivity) = (0.09 m2) (1358 WI m2) (0.95) qout = qinternal eclipse
1
qinputsunJight= 116.11 W q 4
T . = ( out )
qinternal sunlight= subsystem power + payload eclipse (o)(panel emissivity)(total array area)
power= 11.5 W + 20.0 W
11.SW
i
qinternal sunlight= 31.5 W
qin sun= qinput sunlight+ ~nternal sun.light [
J
= 116.11 W + 31.5 W
qin sun= 147.61 W Teclipse = 160.45 K
T = Teclipse - 273.15 K
3) Set gin equal to qout and solve for the sunlit side's
T = -112.70° C
equilibrium temperature
qin sun= qout
gout= (o) (panel emissivity) (total array area)
(Tsunlil Interpretingthe Results
1
T . = q .,n sun )4 Between full sunlight with payload operations and
sunlit ( (o)(panel emissivity)(total array area) eclipse, the spacecraft will experience a widely varying
equilibrium temperature between 303 K (31 ° C) and
(
[ 147.61 W
l
! 160 K (-113° C). Fortunately, these represent the worst-
case extremes in temperature. In reality, the actual
spacecraft temperature will stay somewhere between
these extremes. However, from the analysis, it would
appear that there may be a tendency for the spacecraft
Tsunlit = 303.71 K to be on the cold side, depending on the actual length
T = Tsunlit - 273.15 K of each eclipse. This may require special attention to
T = 30.56° C specific spacecraft components, particularly those that
are susceptible to extreme cold.
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
13.4 Structuresand Mechanisms
!!!!111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Di cuss the main functions of a spacecraft's structures and
m chanisms
• Discuss and apply basic principles of structural mechanics
.- Apply the space systems engineering process to the spacecraft
structural design
.- Explain the importance of engineering drawings for
communicating the design process
To design the perfect house, an architect must understand the needs
(and budget) of its future occupants and balance these against the
physical demands of the location and its environment. Similarly, space
mission architects must balance all of the requirements and constraints
defined during the space systems engineering process to achieve a final
structural design that supports the mission. Traditionally, we don't th.ink
of a structure as a system, with inputs, processes, and outputs. Instead,
we look at it according to how it holds together the rest of the subsystems
and payloads to create a functional space system.
The structure holds all the other subsystems together during the
stresses, strains, and vibrations of launch and orbital operations. In
addition, the structure supports all the niechanisms that push, pull, extend,
or pivot to do various tasks. Without a strong enough structure, the
spacecraft might collapse before it gets into space. Without well-designed
mechanisms, the spacecraft couldn't function after it gets there.
In many cases, the success of the entire mission may depend on a
single bolt holding (or giving way) at the right time. For example, solar
arrays normally store folded for launch and then deploy after the
spacecraft reaches orbit, as shown in Figure 13-55. If the solar panels
don't extend, the spacecraft won't produce power, and the mission will
-~ fail!
Figure 13-55. Structures and Mecha-
nisms. To deploy solar panels, like the ones In this section we'll explore what structures do, review some basic
shown in this photograph being extended from mechanics to see how they work, and then examine some of the
the Shuttle bay, engineers must carefully design important systems engineering issues associated with their design. We'll
the structure to take the necessary forces, and
hinge mechanisms to ensure smooth opening
show how the structural design serves as the backbone of a spacecraft
at exactly the right point in the mission. (Cour- and as a focal point for integrating all the other subsystems with the
tesy of NASA/JohnsonSpace Center) payload.
System Overview
Typically, the spacecraft structure accounts for about 10%-20% of the
spacecraft's total dry weight. Dry weight is the total spacecraft weight
minus propellant. We can think of the structure as having two parts. The
498
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
primary structure maintains the physical integrity of the spacecraft. It
carries most of the loads the spacecraft must withstand. A load is any force
pushing, pulling, or vibrating the structure. In Figure 13-56 we show
engineers assembling the primary structure of a sensitive instrument. The
secondary structure accommodates the mechanical configuration of the
payload and subsystems. It holds together all the mechanisms, cameras,
wires, pipes, doors, and brackets inside and outside the spacecraft. Figure
13-57 shows engineers installing brackets to hold an antenna.
Figure 13-57. Secondary Structure. Sec-
ondary structure includes all wires, pipes, and
brackets needed to house and connect the
payload and subsystems. Here, we show a
skilled engineer installing the antenna to the
UoSAT-12 spacecraft. (Courtesy of Surrey Sat-
ellite Technology,Ltd., U.K.)
Figure 13-56. Primary Structure. In this photograph, engineers are assembling the primary
structure of the near infrared camera and multi-object spectrometer (NICMOS). The primary
structure carries the majority of loads during launch and operations. (Courtesy of Ball
Aerospace & TechnologiesCorporation)
Although mechanisms account for only a small fraction of the mass of
a typical spacecraft, their success (or failure) usually weighs heavily on
the minds of mission designers and operators. We classify spacecraft
mechanisms generally by the number of times they need to work. Low-
cycle mechanisms must work a few times at most, to separate the
spacecraft from the launch vehicle, deploy antennas or booms, or open
isolation valves. Since most of these actions occur only once in a mission,
designers often use pyrotechnic actuators for these mechanisms because
of their high reliability, relatively low cost, and ease of integration.
Pyrotechnic actuators use explosive charges that can cut bolts and open
(or close) valves. High-cycle mechanisms must work repeatedly
throughout the mission. They include motors that rotate and point
antennas or solar arrays, rocket propellant control valves, as well as
reaction wheels, gyroscopes, and any other moving parts.
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
To understand how structures and mechanisms meet all the various
mission requirements, we can start by looking at a snapshot of the
systems engineering process for a spacecraft structure. As Figure 13-58
illustrates, all of the requirements and constraints-from the mission
level, systems level, and from other subsystems-feed into the structural
design process. This design is a balance betvveen the mechanical
configuration demanded by the subsystems and payloads, and the
sometimes-competing requirements for mechanical behavior imposed by
the launch environment and mission profile.
I requirements & constraints i I
L:
& validation loops •
mechanical design_& mechanical I
configuration analysis behavior
,-----------,
tools
structural
design
Figure 13-58. Systems Engineering and Structural Design. Mission and systems-level
requirements and constraints feed into the structural design process. During the systems
engineering process for the spacecraft structure, we must balance the requirements of
mechanical configuration (mass, volume, layout) imposed by the payload and subsystems
with the equally important requirements for mechanical behavior dictated by the launch
vehicle and mission profile to achieve a final structural design. Analysis and design tools
provide the dialog between these two parallel efforts and help us converge on a final design.
As we learned in the last two chapters, and in this one, after we define
the mission, we identify the requirements and constraints on each
element of the mission architecture. These system requirements flow
down to the spacecraft payload and its subsystems in terms of specific
demands for mass, volume, field of view, and physical layout. In the
structural design process, we must blend these requirements together,
along with the simple need to tie all these components together with
power and data lines, to produce a workable, even elegant, mechanical
configuration.
But that's only half the story. Even a house of cards can have an elegant
mechanical configuration. To perform the mission, a spacecraft's structure
must first survive launch. Launch vehicle requirements, along with the
mission profile, dictate how severely the launch environment pushes,
pulls, shakes, and thermal cycles the structure. Taken together, these
requirements determine the structure's required mecuanicat behaviol'-h.ow
it responds to the mission environment.
The final structural design emerges by trading these sometimes-
conflicting demands of mechanical configuration and mechanical
behavior. To do the trade-offs, designers extensively use analysis and
design tools, as we described throughout the systems engineering
process. As we said, the systems engineering process is iterative. After
they reach a preliminary design, the engineers must go back through the
design loop to ensure it meets the needs of the payload and subsystems
500
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
and back through the "validation loop" to ensure it satisfies overall
mission requirements.
In this section, we'll look at the analysis tools needed to understand
mechanical behavior, by reviewing some basic principles of structural
mechanics. After that, we'll return to the systems engineering process to
see how mission and system requirements and constraints drive
mechanical behavior and configuration.
Basic Principles
Whether we're building a bridge, a car, or a spacecraft, structures work
pretty much the same way. Basically, a structure is anything that carries a
load. For example, our skeleton, muscles, and connective tissue form the
structure of our body. This structure allows us to stand up in the pull of
Earth's powerful, gravitational field. And it has enough built-in safety
factors to allow us to run and jump-sometimes causing loads many
times those due to gravity.
What kinds of loads must we design a structure to deal with? Basically,
we can
• Push, pull, twist, or bend it-causing stress, strain, and shear
• Shake it-causing vibrations
• Change its temperature-causing thermal stress
Any or all of these things put demands on the structure in some way
and can deform or break it, if it's not built strong enough. To understand
this in more detail, let's look at how all of these loads affect a structure.
Types of Loads
Like most things in life, loads can either stay constant or vary with
time. Constant, or relatively constant, loads are static loads. Loads that
vary widely with time are dynamic loads. (There's another definition of
dynamic load that results from lift and drag due to motion through air or
water. Unless stated otherwise, we'll deal with time varying dynamic
loads, here).
We can classify static and dynamic loads based on how they're applied
to a structure's axis of orientation. The load types are axial, lateral, or
torsional. Axial loads are those applied parallel to the longitudinal (long)
axis of a structure. Lateral loads are applied parallel to the lateral (short)
axis of a structure. Twisting loads apply a torque to a structure, so we call
them torsional loads.
To see all of these loads in action, imagine you have a soda can, as
shown in Figure 13-59. If you push on the can at both ends, you're
applying an axial load. In this case, the load is one of compression or a
compressive load. If you pull out on both ends you're again applying an
axial load, but in this case it is one of tension or a tensile load. If you now
attach one end of the can to a tabletop (glue it down) and push or pull on
the side of the can, you're applying a lateral load. Notice that, in this case,
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
one side of the can is in compression, while the other is in tension. Finally,
if you twist the can, as though you were wringing a wet towel, you're
applying a torsional load.
axial
axis
tension
lateral
axis
compression
Figure 13-59. Types of Loads. We classify loads on any structure as axial (compression
or tension), lateral, or torsional.
When a structure receives axial or lateral loads, bending can occur. It's
easiest to visualize bending for the case of lateral loads. Notice in Figure
13-60 that the lateral load causes a bending moment about the attachment
point. A bending moment, M, results from a load applied at a distance
away from the attachment point.
M=Fd (13-11)
where
M = bending moment on an object (N m)
F = force (N)
Figure 13-60. Bending Moment. The lateral
d = distance between the load and attachment points (m)
load applied to the fixed soda can causes a
bending moment, M, about the attachment
Bending moments can be especially dangerous because even a very
point. small load, when applied over a great enough distance, can cause
significant bending.
Stress, Strain, and Shear
Now that we've described a little bit about the types of loads on a
structure, we can look at their effect. The fundamental question of
structural analysis is, "will it break?" To answer this question we look at
three parameters that quantify changes within a structure due to loads:
stress, strain, and shear.
When we hear someone talk about stress, we may think about the
panic before a big project's deadline. But for structures, stress has an
entirely different meaning. When we apply a load to a structure, that load
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13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
essentially spreads over its entire cross-sectional area. We define stress as
the applied load per unit area. We compute it using
(13-12)
where
a = stress (NI m2)
F = applied load (N)
A = cross sectional area (m2)
Notice the units on stress are the same as pressure-force per unit area.
One way to visualize the effect of stress on a structure is to imagine
inflating a car tire. The more air pumped in, the greater the pressure in the
tire. Similarly, the greater the load applied to a given structure, the greater
the stress. Depending on the direction of the applied load, stress is either
compressive (pushing in) or tensile (pulling out).
As a structure undergoes stress, it begins to deform. Imagine pulling
on a hunk of Play-Doh TM_ As you pull (applying an axial, tensile load), it
stretches. This change in length, or deformation, due to an applied load is
known as strain. We determine the strain in a structure by computing the
ratio of a structure's change in length compared to its original length, as
Figure 13-61. Strain. Strain describes how
shown in Figure 13-61. an object changes in length due to stress.
(13-13)
where
£ = strain (m/ m)
~L = change in length (m)
L = original length (m)
All types of loads-axial, lateral, and torsional-can cause a third
effect within a structure, known as shear. When we apply transverse
loads to our soda can, as shown in Figure 13-62, the magnitude of the
internal force that results, we call shear. Shear also results from torsional
loads. The resulting stress generated by a shearing force is shear stress.
You might think that a spacecraft, minding its own business in orbit, Figure 13-62. Shear. When we apply a
would be generally free from external loads. However, stress, strain, and transverse load, as shown above, to a
structure, the resulting shear causes shear
shear can result from a variety of loads, including environmental factors, stress. Depending on how they're applied,
such as heating. torsional or axial loads may also cause shear.
To introduce the effects of heating, we ask, "have you ever wondered
where all those cracks in the sidewalk come from?" As most materials heat
up, they expand. Similarly, as they cool, they contract. This deformation
due to heat is no problem if they have plenty of space to expand into or
aren't constrained from contracting. But in the sidewalk case, or for any
constrained structure (i.e., locked in on both sides), this expansion and
contraction produces stresses that eventually cause it to crack.
Of course, a similar problem can occur in a spacecraft structure. As it
enters and exits Earth's shadow, it almost literally goes from fire to ice.
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
These frequent thermal cycles (remember LEO satellites orbit 16 times a
day) can cause stresses in the structure. For example, when the Hubble
Space Telescope, shown in Figure 13-63, was first put into orbit, engineers
found that thermal expansion and contraction of the solar array structure,
due to thermal cycling through eclipses each orbit, caused a small
vibration in the entire structure. This vibration made focusing on distant
objects more difficult.
We quantify thermal expansion and contraction by using an object's
length and a material property called its coefficient of thermal expansion, a.
We can then find the change in length, Al., from
I LlL = a(Ll T)L I (13-14)
Figure 13-63. Thermal-inducedVibrations
on the Hubble Space Telescope. When the where
Hubble Space Telescope was first deployed, LlL = object's expansion or contraction (m)
operators noticed vibrations each time it went
from eclipse into sunlight. These vibrations a = object's coefficient of thermal expansion (1 /°C)
were caused by thermal contraction and t.T = temperature change (°C)
expansion of the struts supporting the solar
panels. The problem was eventually corrected L = object's original length (m)
during a Shuttle repair mission. (Courtesy of
NASA/Johnson Space Center) Using this change in length, we can find the corresponding strain by
applying Equation (13-13).
Whether a structure breaks as a result of too much stress, strain, or
shear stress depends on its material properties. In other words, the same
amount of strain that breaks a steel girder wouldn't even faze a hunk of
Play-Doh!". We'll look briefly at how we quantify these material
properties later in this section.
Vibrations
So far, the load effects we've described are mainly from static loads. But
getting into space is a very dynamic undertaking! Getting there can get a
spacecraft all shook up. If you've ever ridden on an old wooden roller
coaster or in the back of a pickup going down a bumpy road, you've
experienced dynamic loads similar to launch. Dynamic loads that vary
widely and randomly are called oibraiions. We're concerned with two
effects of these vibrations on a structure. The first effect is the cumulative
load produced by applying random vibrations over time. These vibrations
have the same effect we see if we bend a piece of metal back and forth
many times even if we don't deform it much. Eventually, it breaks due to
fatigue. Fortunately, rides into space are short enough that fatigue isn't
much of a problem. The second concern with vibrations is far more
serious. This effect describes how a given structure responds to vibrations
of a particular frequency.
All objects (even you!) have a natural frequency. A natural frequency is the
rate at which an object vibrates when given one sudden impulse and then
left undisturbed. For example, when we pluck a guitar string, it vibrates at
a particular natural frequency depending on the string's length, thickness,
and other properties. When we vibrate an object at any frequency other
than one of its natural frequencies, nothing interesting happens. It simply
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13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
acts like any other load and we find the cumulative effect by summing all
the individual effects of the vibrations (some positive and some negative).
However, when we vibrate an object at its natural frequency, something
very interesting happens-it begins to resonate. Resonance is the tendency
for an object to vibrate with increased amplitude (higher peaks), due to a
synchronized, applied, periodic force. An object actually has several
natural frequencies. The most important part of resonance is its lowest
natural frequency, called the fundamental frequeno].
To understand resonance, think back to when you played on a swing,
as shown in Figure 13-64. After giving yourself a little push to start, you
pumped your legs at just the right time, gradually increasing your
swing's amplitude. What you did was time your leg pumps to the
frequency at which you were swinging. In other words, you provided a
cyclic force at the same frequency as your effective natural frequency.
This cyclic force allowed you to work with the swing instead of against it
every time, eventually building up a large amplitude arc.
Resonance can be very powerful. Because the frequency of the input
force matches the fundamental frequency of the structure, each vibration
amplifies the structure's oscillation. Even a very small input, over a short
time, can cause a structure to build up very large-amplitude oscillations.
One of the classic examples of resonance is an opera singer who is able to
shatter a glass with just the sound of her voice. Setting the pitch of her Figure 13-64. Resonance. When you play
note to coincide with the fundamental frequency of the glass causes large- on a swing you pump your legs at just the right
amplitude vibrations that eventually cause the glass to break. time to increase the amplitude at which you're
swinging. In this way, the forcing vibration is in
A more dangerous resonance occurs during earthquakes. During the resonance with the natural frequency of the
1985 earthquake in Mexico City, scientists recorded the primary swing, so you go higher.
frequency of the forcing vibration to be about 0.5 Hz. After the quake,
they found some of the most severe damage occurred in buildings
between 10 and 14 stories tall, while taller and shorter buildings were
relatively unaffected. Through some analysis, they discovered that the
fundamental frequency of 10-14 story buildings is about 0.5 Hz!
To estimate the fundamental frequency of a structure we can assume it
acts like a big spring (a pretty close approximation for most structures).
The frequency then depends on its mass and a property called the spring
constant. The spring constant, k, is a measure of the force it takes to
compress a spring, or any structure, by a certain amount. Knowing this
value, we can compute the fundamental frequency using
1 (k
£fund = 2Jt~m (13-15)
where
ffund = object's fundamental frequency (Hz= cycles/ s)
k = object's spring constant (NI m)
m = object's mass (kg)
A structure with a high spring constant, k, (and correspondingly high
fundamental frequency) is stiff. Thus, the spring constant is also a
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
measure of a structure's stiffness. Note that the fundamental frequency is
inversely proportional to mass. So, roughly speaking, the bigger the
structure, the lower the fundamental frequency. For that reason, a
spacecraft's primary structure generally has a much lower fundamental
frequency than the bits and pieces that comprise the secondary structure.
There are two ways to avoid resonance. The first is to ensure that the
fundamental frequency of the structure is different from the frequency of
the forcing vibration. As we'll see, this is a mandatory requirement for
spacecraft design. The second way is to include damping within the
structure. Da111pi11g is a passive or active mechanism to dissipate
vibrational energy, which limits the magnitude and duration of a
structure's response to input forces. The shock absorbers in a car are a
simple example of dampers that dissipate the vibrations caused by speed
bumps and potholes, giving passengers a smoother ride.
Material Properties
The ultimate effect of stress, strain, vibration, bending, and thermal
loading depends on what material we use in the structure-its material
properties. When choosing what material to use to build a particular
structure, we must consider a number of factors
• Mechanical properties- strength and stiffness
• Physical properties-stability in the space environment, magnetic
properties, density, etc.
• Ease of fabrication-how easy is it to bend, cut, and weld?
• Cost
Let's start with mechanical properties. As we all know, different
materials react differently to the same loads. For example, you could
easily pull apart a hunk of Play-DohTM, but only Superman could do the
same thing with a hunk of steel. The ultimate question of structural
design is-will it break? To answer this we need to know a material's
strength.
As we subject different materials to stress and strain, they behave in
predictable ways. As we apply a load to most metals, they first begin to
deform elastically. That is, they stretch but then return to their original size
and shape when we remove the load. In this elastic region, the relationship
between stress and strain is linear, that is, the plot of stress versus strain is
a straight line. This elastic region remains linear until reaching a point
that we call the proportioncl limit. If we remove the load before it reaches
this point, the material will return to its original shape. If the load
increases beyond the material's proportional limit, it will reach a yield
point, where a residual (left over) strain of 0.2% will remain after we
remove the load. That is, the material will be permanently 0.2% longer (or
shorter) than when we started. Applying more load beyond the yield
point eventually leads to the material failing or breaking. This amount of
load is the ultimate failure point. The stress-strain curve in Figure 13-65
illustrates all of these relationships.
506
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
brittle material
ductile material
c
/ A = proportional limit
/
B = yield point
/
/ C = ultimate failure
/
/
-,- /
/
0.002 (residual strain)
£
Figure 13-65. Stress-Strain Curves. Typical stress-strain curves show the difference
between ductile and brittle materials.
We can describe the strength ot a material in one ot several ways,
depending on what point on the stress-strain curve we're using. The
ultimate strength, Fw for example, tells us the stress, beyond which the
material will break. The yield strength tells us the stress at the yield point.
As you can image, this value varies widely between materials. Aluminum
(6061-T6) has an Fu of about 290 x 106 NI m2 (42 x 103 lb. I in.2) while Steel
(17-4PH H1150z) has a value nearly three times larger, at 860 x 106 NI m2
(125 x 103 lb. I in.2). Notice the complex designation after each type of
material (e.g., 6061-T6), this refers to the particular grade. Properties can
also vary widely between grades of the same material.
Any material that can withstand significant strain before failing, we
say is ductile. For example, Play-Doh TM is ductile, because it stretches
pretty far before it breaks. A material that breaks after only a small
amount of strain, like glass, is brittle. (That's why it's called peanut brittle,
not peanut ductile).
Earlier we learned how to determine the fundamental frequency for an
entire structure. This gave us an idea of its stiffness. To determine the
stiffness of a particular material we, once again, treat it like a spring. This
allows us to apply Hooke's Law, named for English mathematician
Robert Hooke (1635-1703), which describes the stress in a material in
terms of its strain and a new parameter-modulus of elasticity, E.
a= EE (13-16)
where
a =stress(N/m2)
E = modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus (NI m2)
£ = strain (m/ m)
The modulus of elasticity, E, also called Young's modulus after English
scientist Thomas Young (1773-1829), is a basic property of any material
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsy terns
and describes the amount of deformation it undergoes for a given
amount of stress. For example, steel has a modulus of elasticity of around
200 x 109 N / m2, but for wood, the value is only about 2 x 106 N / m2,
telling us what we already knew-steel is stiffer than wood (but, now we
know how much stiffer.). We can then use Young's modulus, along with
other material properties, for selecting which material to use to build a
particular structure, depending on the loads it will have.
In addition to mechanical properties, strength and stiffness, we must
also consider a material's basic physical properties. In Section 13-3, we saw
the importance of thermal conductivity for thermal control on a spacecraft.
In this section, we've already used the coefficient of thermal expansion, a,
to determine thermal strain. Understanding how a material behaves under
different temperature conditions is extremely important, before selecting it
for a given application. Failure to do so can have serious consequences. For
example, the poor performance of rubber 0-rings under extremely cold
conditions led to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
Other physical properties are also important to consider. In Chapter 3 we
discussed many problems with living and working in the space environ-
ment. This environment subjects materials to vacuum and radiation. Recall,
a vacuum can create a problem with materials called out-gassing. Out-
gassi11g comes from minute quantities of gas trapped in a material leaking
when vacuum conditions exist. Engineers must carefully screen materials
for their out-gassing properties before selecting them. Otherwise, this leak-
ing gas can damage lenses or cause shorts in electrical equipment. Radia-
tion can also lead to long-term damage to materials, causing them to lose
their mechanical properties, and making them more susceptible to failure.
We must also consider the magnetic properties of a material. Obviously,
for some material applications, such as in electromagnets for magne-
torquers, magnetic properties are a good thing. For other applications, such
as in the tray that holds a magnetometer, magnetic properties are bad.
Finally, density is another basic physical property we must know
before selecting a material. Because mass is usually a premium on space
missions, we like to use the lightest materials possible. That's why
aluminum (about 2800 kg/m3; 174.8 lbm/ ft.3) is often best for primary
spacecraft structures, instead of steel (about 7860 kg/ m3; 490.6 lbm/ ft.3).
In most cases, we assume a material's mechanical and physical proper-
ties are /10111oge11eo1.1s; that is, it has the same properties throughout and in
all directions. This is a pretty good assumption for common spacecraft
materials, such as aluminum, but not all materials are homogeneous.
Wood, the oldest known building material, for example, is generally not
homogeneous. It has a grain and tends to be much stronger along the
grain than across it. Ironically, modern material scientists re-discovered
this ancient material property, or, more precisely, carefully applied it, in
the form of composite materials.
Couipoeite materials (or simply composites) are "designer" materials that
can be carefully tailored to carry a specific load in a specific way. Like
wood, composites can be very strong in a particular direction. What
makes them so attractive for aerospace applications (as well as for cars,
508
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
tennis rackets, and thousands of other everyday items) is that they can
have the same strength as a metal, at a fraction of the weight of aluminum
or other traditional materials. After all, if a structure needs strength only
in one direction, why not build it strong only in that direction and save
the additional weight? Figure 13-66 shows the composite structure used
for the Space Technology Research Vehicle (STRV) spacecraft.
Another important material property to consider is ease of fabrication.
Again, analysis may show one material handles the loads better than
another, but if the better material is too difficult or dangerous to work
with, it's not practical to use. Titanium, for example, is very strong and
has good high temperature properties. However, it is much more difficult
to machine than aluminum. Beryllium also has many advantageous
material properties, but is toxic.
Ultimately, cost is one of the biggest drivers in deciding what type of Figure 13-66. Composite Structures.
material to use. Even if your analysis indicates it would be the best Composites are "designer" materials that are
made to be strong in a particular direction, so
material, it's impractical to build a spacecraft out of solid gold! Thus, we they are lighter for specific applications than
must always try to balance the best material properties with reasonable aluminum or other homogeneous materials.
costs. We'll see how this and all the competing mission requirements The Space Technology Research Vehicle
(STRV) spacecraft, built by the Defense Evalu-
blend together next. ation and Research Agency (DERA) in the
United Kingdom, in cooperation with U.S.
Systems Engineering government agencies, used composite struc-
tures to reduce mass. (Courtesy of Defense
Now that we've described stress, strain, and vibration, we can return Evaluation Research Agency. Farnborough,
UK.)
to the systems engineering problem of putting the spacecraft structure
together. As we saw in Figure 13-58 the challenge is to create a structure
that satisfies all of the mission, system, and subsystem-level requirements
arid constraints. It must have the right mechanical behavior to keep from
breaking, or even deforming during launch. And it needs a smart
mechanical configuration that accommodates all of the payloads and
subsystems within the mass and volume constraints.
One of the first jobs the structural engineers must do is to translate all
of the general requirements and constraints into specific values for
• Strength-minimum necessary to ensure the structure won't break
• Stiffness-minimum necessary to ensure the structure remains stable
and won't bump into the side of the fairing during launch
• Fundamental frequency-avoid resonance with launch vehicle
vibration modes
• Mass properties-compute mass, volume, center of gravity, moments
of inertia
• Mechanical interfaces-what needs to attach where and how
They then use these values as the starting point for the structural
design process. Realize that all of these requirements potentially conflict
with one another. For example, analysis may indicate the structure needs
some additional strength in one area to handle launch loads. This could
dislocate a sensor that would like to be in that location to do its job.
As we've shown, we must design the spacecraft structure with the
necessary mechanical behavior to meet the demands of the launch, and
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
function throughout the entire life of the mission. By far, the most
demanding requirements typically come from the launch environment.
Early in the space systems engineering process, selecting a launch vehicle
defines specific mission requirements and constraints that directly flow to
the structure. We'll briefly review how the launch environment creates
these severe demands on the mechanical behavior of the spacecraft's
structure. Then we'll look at the subtler demands on the mechanical
con.figuration imposed by the rest of the subsystems and payloads.
The LaunchEnvironment
During launch, the spacecraft is subjected to a violent loading
environment, filled with accelerations, shocks, noise, and vibrations. Our
first concern, of course, is to ensure the primary structure doesn't break
during this exciting ride into space. From this standpoint, we're most
concerned about designing a structure to withstand the static load caused
by launch acceleration. These accelerations, or "g-loads," produce a
compressive force on the vehicle and spacecraft through its longitudinal
axis (long axis of the launch vehicle). A load of one-g is normal for the
launch vehicle at Earth's surface. You feel a one-g load pushing you up in
your chair as you read this chapter.
Figure 13-67 shows a typical launch acceleration profile. Notice the
load builds rapidly to 4 g's in the first few minutes, then falls to near zero
before building again. A four g load is a force equal to four times the
weight of the spacecraft. For example, it's the force you'd feel, if your car
could accelerate at nearly 40 m/s2 (130 ft./s2). That's Oto 100 km/hr (60
m.p.h.) in 0.7 seconds! The points on the acceleration profile where the
acceleration drops to near zero are during staging.
launch vehicle acceleration profile
staging engine cut-off,
5.o,--~~~~--f.<.-~~~~~~~~~~...--''--~~~~
4.0
<fl 3.0
-002.0-t-~~,i--++--l---t~~~~~~-t-~~~~~--,c---~~~~--i
1.0
0.0-1-~=-~~~.-----=====,-----+~~====~---.-~----,,,,"""",--~~
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
time from launch (min)
Figure 13·67. Launch Loads. Loads change drastically during a typical ride into space.
Loads build to a peak at staging then drop off to near zero before building again.
Launch vehicles use stages to get to orbit more efficiently. Launch
vehicles consist of a series of sub-vehicles called stages, each with large
rockets and propellant tanks that do their jobs and then drop off to save
weight. We'll discuss more about why launch vehicles use stages in
Chapter 14. When the first stage burns out, the vehicle's acceleration drops
to zero before the second stage ignites and the acceleration builds again.
The launch-load plot shows a 3-stage launch profile. At the end of the third
510
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
stage, the acceleration drops to zero and stays there because the launch
vehicle reached orbit. After this, spacecraft rockets may fire for final orbital
maneuvering, however, the acceleration during these later phases of the
flight are much less than the 4 g's or more experienced during launch.
As the acceleration loads suddenly drop to zero during staging, the
entire structure recoils similar to a spring that has a load released.
Structural engineers statistically combine these low frequency transient
loads with the predicted acceleration loads to produce a qnasi-stntic fond
for the spacecraft structural design. For example, based on analysis for a
new launch vehicle, engineers may compute a quasi-static load of 6.5 g's
in all axes. Thus, the design team must ensure the spacecraft has sufficient
strength that it will not buckle or fracture when attached to the launch
vehicle and subjected to a 6.5 g load in all axes.
As with all structural design problems, engineers like to build in some
extra margin of comfort, or safety factor. A snfehJ factor is a multiplier used
to reduce (but never eliminate!) the chance of failure. For example,
structural analysis may indicate a particular strut needs a minimum yield
stress of 100 x 106 NI m2. However, to give it an extra safety margin,
engineers may use a 1.3 safety factor and specify a yield stress of 130 x 106
NI m2 when selecting the material to use. spacecraft
In addition to strength, the structure must also have sufficient stiffness. fairing
Recall there are two aspects of stiffness dynamic
• How much a structure flexes when subjected to a load envelope
static
• The structure's fundamental frequency envelope
As you can imagine, any structure, no matter how securely we bolt it
down, will flex, back and forth, when subjected to loads and vibrations.
The structure (including solar panels, antennas, and anything else
hanging from it) must be stiff enough that it will not flex so much that it
goes outside the prescribed volume envelope allocated within the launch-
vehicle fairing. Figure 13-68 shows the allowable spacecraft envelope
under the fairing in a typical launch vehicle.
However, the second aspect of stiffness-fundamental frequency-can
be far more troublesome for spacecraft structural design. This trouble
comes from launch vibrations. A ride into space is very bumpy. If not
properly designed, the spacecraft could literally shake apart before it gets
to orbit. During launch, launch vehicles generate random vibrations over
a wide spectrum of frequencies. These vibrations come from the rocket
engine combustion that transfers through the vehicle in the form of Figure 13-68. Launch Vehicle Envelope.
shocks and noise. Engine vibrations generated during normal operation We must carefully design a spacecrah to fit
conduct through the launch vehicle structure, directly to the spacecraft. within a specific launch envelope inside the
These vibrations are present during the entire ride into space. launch vehicle fairing.
Shocks occur during stage separation and other points in the flight,
when pyrotechnic actuators fire to release attachment bolts and other
mechanisms. They usually last only a small fraction of a second but can
produce a load of over a 1000 g's.
And, launches are noisy! If you ever witnessed a launch, even from
miles away, you can actually feel the sound vibrating through your body.
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Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
These acoustic loads can exceed 140 decibels (dB). In comparison, the
loudest rock music ever recorded was only about 120 dB. A decibel is a
logarithmic ratio of sound pressure to a reference. Thus, a 6-dB increase in
sound level represents a 2-fold increase in pressure. So a ride into space
can be more than six times louder than the loudest rock concert! All this
noise is mainly a problem for big spacecraft with large surface areas,
especially solar panels. This noise can actually cause vibration loading on
large spacecraft during lift-off, and as the vehicle goes through the sound
barrier, that is worse than the acceleration loads.
As we discussed earlier, our primary concern with vibrations is
reducing the effects of resonance. Recall that a structure resonates when it
vibrates at or near its fundamental frequency. Resonance causes the
vibration amplitude to increase rapidly, leading to high stress levels and
possibly, failure. To reduce the effects of this resonance problem (we can
never completely eliminate itl), engineers design the primary spacecraft
structure to have a fundamental frequency that is well above or well
below the major forcing frequency of the launch vehicle. Fortunately, we
know the launch vehicle resonance frequency before launch, even for a
new vehicle. For example, the launch vehicle providers may know that, of
all the random vibrations during launch, the most severe ones that
transmit to the spacecraft are about 25 Hz. Thus, the spacecraft designers
must ensure the fundamental frequency of the primary structure is well
above or below this value.
That kind of vibration analysis prevents primary structural damage,
but what about the rest of the spacecraft? Unfortunately, because launch
vibrations cover a wide spectrum of frequencies, some parts of the
secondary structure will resonate. It's unavoidable. To prevent problems,
engineers secure bolts and fasteners with wire locks and other
techniques, so they don't shake loose during launch. Manufacturers coat
sensitive electronic components, such as circuit boards, with a layer of
epoxy or other resin that holds solder joints and other pieces in place and
dampens vibrations.
Mechanical Configuration
Designing a generic structure to survive the well-defined launch
environment is a fairly straightforward engineering exercise. Designing a
spacecraft's mechanical configuration that survives while still satisfying
the competing demands of the payload and subsystems is far more
complicated. The most important requirements for the mechanical
configuration are mass properties and mechanical interfaces.
Mass properties include the mass and volume budgets imposed on the
entire mission by the launch vehicle lift capacity and payload fairing
volume. These system-level requirements then flow down to subsystem
budgets. For example, the mission may require an on-orbit!'>.V of 1000 m/
s. To provide this velocity change, the orbital control subsystem would
need a minimum of 1000 kg of propellant with a volume of 750 liters.
That much mass and volume may compete with other subsystems for
extra spacecraft budget flexibility.
512
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
Another important set of requirements that comes from the mass
properties is the center of gravity and moments of inertia. Optimum
values for both of these are critical for attitude and orbit control. If we
don't know the center of gravity well, then rocket thrusters may produce
unwanted torques when they fire. Without the proper moment of inertia,
the spacecraft won't be stable while spinning.
In addition to mass properties, important mechanical interface require-
ments drive the configuration. Generally speaking, these requirements
tell us what components need to go where and how to attach them.
Specifically, this process can dictate
• Field of view
• Thermal properties
• Assembly, integration, and testing (AIT) needs
Antennas, sensors, solar panels, radiators, and payloads may all
compete for valuable external "real estate" to view space, the Sun, or
Earth. These field of view requirements may conflict with each other, if,
for example, an antenna shades a solar panel, or a radiator can't face into
the cold of space to emit heat.
As we saw in Section 13.2, passive thermal control can depend heavily
on using the structure to conduct heat. Certain subsystems, such as the
batteries, may need to be in one part of the spacecraft to maintain their
desired temperature.
Most important, we must design the mechanical con.figuration with
assembly, integration, and testing in mind. To begin with, all of the space-
craft components must interconnect by a complex toiriug harness, to carry Figure 13-69. Wiring Harness. Here we
power and data, as shown in Figure 13-69. The propulsion subsystem show the wiring harness for a microsatellite.
needs pipes to carry propellant between the storage tanks and engines. Even on very small satellites, the problem of
connecting all subsystems together with power
These harnesses and pipes need brackets to hold them securely during and data can be a major design driver.
launch. Mechanisms must be carefully integrated with structures, such as (Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force Academy)
a boom and the solar panels they must deploy or actuate. While all of this
designing may sound trivial, without careful consideration to harness,
pipe placement, or mechanism integration, the spacecraft may be impos-
sible to assemble.
Throughout the integration and testing process, we may assemble and
disassemble the spacecraft many times (especially if we find problems
during testing). A structure that we design from the start for easy
disassembly and re-assembly can save hundreds of hours in the process.
We must also consider handling the spacecraft and its subsystems during
AIT. Especially for expensive spacecraft, weighing thousands of kilograms,
they need strong, convenient attachment points for handling equipment
and to safely move them around, as shown in Figure 13-70. Finally, we Figure 13-70. Spacecraft Assembly. Dur-
must consider the ease of access for last minute items done only ing the assembly process, handling jigs, like
the one shown here, safely move the space-
immediately prior to flight, such as installing pyrotechnic actuators and craft to allow engineers access lo every part of
loading propellant. We don't want to take the whole spacecraft apart on the the structure. (Courtesy of Defense Evaluation
pad just to fill it with gas! Research Agency, Farnborough, U.K.)
513
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
Design and Analysis Tools
As you may imagine, the trade-offs between mechanical configuration
and mechanical behavior require a number of iterations before engineers
finish the structural design. To make these trade-offs, engineers have a
number of analysis and design tools in their toolbox. Until recently, the
tools they used to design the structure of a spacecraft weren't much
different than the tools used to design the Pyramids-pencil, paper, and
ruler. There are two important aspects of this process that are still used in
modern computer aided design (CAD)-analysis and drawings.
The basic principles we reviewed earlier form the basis for structural
analysis. Whether we do it on the back of a papyrus or with finite element
analysis on a computer, the approach is basically the same-given
specifications for loads, materials, and dimensions; calculate stress, strain,
mass properties, and other design parameters.
By far, the most important design tools are mechanical drawings, and
they can be as simple as a sketch on the back of an envelope or as complex
as a 3-D rendering of the entire system. Either way, drawings communi-
cate the design to the entire team. A picture may be worth a thousand
words, but a good engineering drawing is worth volumes. From the
simplest component to the entire system, drawings tell the analyst what
assumptions to make, tell the machinist how to make the part, and tell the
subsystem engineers where to put their components.
Figure 13-71 shows the manufacturing drawing for a simple box used
to house the FireSat magnetometer. We must specify all the dimensions
and material, and show all the views. Throughout the design process, the
configuration for even this simple box could change many times as we
trade requirements. Thus, another very important function of drawings is
to maintain configuration control by documenting these changes. Notice
that in the lower right-hand corner of the figure, specific details are given
about the project, such as the designer and other in.formation. In contrast,
Figure 13-72 shows an exploded assembly drawing for the entire
magnetometer. Here, details are less important than communicating the
overall configuration for each major component in the sensor. In either
Figure 13-73. FireSat Comes Together. case, mechanical drawings carry out a maxim of design engineers, older
This assembly drawing gives an "exploded" than Stonehenge: "Draw it the way you want to build it, and build it the
view of FireSat showing how all the major
structural components go together. (Courtesy way it's drawn." Figure 13-73 shows the final assembly drawing for the
of Surrey Satellite Technology, ua., U.I<.) entire FireSat structure.
514
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
SURREY SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY LIMITED
UNIVERSITY OF SURREY. CUllOFORO SURREY, CU7 SXH
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Figure 13-71. Manufacturing Drawing of a Simple Box. Manufacturing drawings communicate how individual components should be
fabricated. We must carefully draw and specify details of even a simple box used to house the FireSat magnetometer, such as the one shown
here, to ensure proper manufacturing. (Courtesy of Maarten Meerman, Surrey Sate/Ille Technology.Lid., U.K.)
515
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
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Figure 13-72. Assembly Drawing of a Magnetometer. Assembly drawings communicate how individual components fit
together to make a subsystem. This assembly drawing illustrates how all the individual pieces of the FireSat magnetometer
come together. (Courtesy of Maarten Meerman, Surrey Satellite Technology,Ltd., U.K.)
516
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
Testing
During the design phase, engineers perform rigorous analysis of the
structure to estimate its strength, stiffness, and natural frequency. Once
we build it, we must qualify the entire structure prior to launch.
Structural qunlificatioll is a mandatory set of tests imposed by the launch-
vehicle provider to validate whether the design meets mission
(specifically launch) requirements and constraints.
As part of the qualification test, we put the spacecraft on a large shaker
table, as shown in Figure 13-74, that applies a pre-determined series of
loads and vibrations. The results of these tests tell engineers the
mechanical behavior of the structure (strength, stiffness and fundamental
frequency) and its mass properties. We must compare this information to
our analyses to see if actual values match predictions. We may subject the
entire spacecraft, or large pieces of it, to simulated launch noise by
putting them in front of massive speakers in an acoustic chamber and
blasting them with sound to see how they vibrate. We give the analyses to
the launch provider to verify the structure will survive its trip into space.
In addition to qualifying the structure as a whole "spaceworthy" for
launch, test engineers must test individual mechanisms sufficiently,
under flight conditions, to satisfy mission designers that they will work Figure 13-74. Shaking It Up. Before launch,
when they need to. This testing can be far more difficult than it sounds. we test spacecraft on shaker tables to ensure
they can endure launch vibrations. (Courtesy
For example, if pyrotechnic actuators are necessary, it's impossible to test of Naval Research Laboratory)
the one that must work for the mission, because the test destroys the
actuator. By design, these are "one shot" items. The best we can do is
select one at random from the same factory lot and test it. If it works
during testing, we can assume (and hope) an identical one from the same
lot, installed for launch, will work as well. (Of course, actuator
manufacturers thoroughly test numerous samples and report the success
rate.) We'll examine some of the economic implications of this system
reliability in Chapter 16. Fortunately, we can test, and then reset, most
high-cycle mechanisms prior to launch. But even then, it is often difficult
to simulate free fall conditions on Earth. For example, a mechanism
would need only a tiny force to rotate a massive solar array in free fall.
However, it may be difficult or impossible to simulate these same
conditions under 1-g on Earth. Designers must use a combination of
ingenuity and analysis (and good fortune) to certify that the mechanisms
are ready for launch.
517
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
!!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
axial loads >- The spacecraft structure accounts for 10%-20% of the dry weight of the
bending moment, M ntire spacecraft
brittle • The primary structure carries all the major loads. The most stressful of
coefficient of thermal these are the vibrations and other loads associated with launch.
expansion, a
composites • The secondary structure holds all the subsystems together and attaches
composite materials them to the primary structure
compression • Low-cycle mechanisms operate only once or a few times to deploy
compressive load booms and solar panel or open (or close) propellant valves
configuration control • High-cycle mechanisms operate repeatedly during a mission and
damping include solar array pointing devices, propellant valves, reaction wheels,
decibel and other moving parts
dry weight
ductile >- The structural design process balances requirements and constraints on
dynamic loads mechanical configuration with those on mechanical behavior
elastically >- The loads on a structure are either constant (static) or changing with time
elastic region (dynamic). Static loads can be either
fatigue
fundamental frequency • Pushing (compression) or pulling (tension), which causes stress and
homogeneous strain
lateral loads • Bending-can lead to more stress
load • Changes in temperature-heating causes expansion; cooling causes
mechanical behavior contraction. Both cause stress in the structure
mechanical configuration
mechanisms ),, Dynamic loads primarily cause vibrations
m dulus of elasticity, E • Every structure has a natural frequency of vibration, depending on its
natural frequency mass and inherent stiffness. Designers must ensure the natural
out-gassing frequency of the spacecraft structure is different from the natural
primary structure frequency of the booster; otherwise, dangerous resonance can occur,
proportional limit which could tear the structure apart.
qualification
qua i- tatic load >- Designers choose material for spacecraft structures based on various
resonance qualities
residual strain • Mechanical properties: strength and stiffness
safety factor • Physical properties-density and reaction to the space environment
secondary structure
shear • Ease of fabrication
shear stress • Cost
spring constant, k
stages
>- During the space systems engineering process, we must define structural
requirements and constraint for
static loads
stiff • Strength-mininmm necessary to ensure the structure won't deform or
stiffness break
Continued on next page
518
13.4 Structures and Mechanisms
!111111111 Section Review (Continued)
Key Terms (Continued) Key Concepts (Continued)
strain, s • Stiffness-minimum necessasy to ensure the structure remains stable
strength and won't flex into the side of the fairing during launch
stress, a • Fundamental frequency-avoid resonance with the launch vehicle
structural design vibration modes
tensile load
tension • Mass properties-find the mass, volume, center of gravity, and
torsional loads moments of inertia
ultimate failure point • Mechanical interfaces-what needs to attach where and how
ultimate strength. Fu
> The launch environment is the biggest driver of mechanical behavior
vibrations requirements
wiring harness
yield point • Launch acceleration ("g-loads"), shocks, noise, and vibrations combine
yield strength to produce a total quasi-static load the structure must withstand
Young's modulus • The primary structure's fundamental frequency must be different from
the major forcing frequency of the launch vehicle to prevent resonance
Key Equations
• Some resonance in the secondary structure is inevitable. We must deal
F with it by locking bolts, coating electronics, and other measur s.
a=A > Mechanical configuration comes from requirements for
tiL • Field of view
£ = T
• Thermal properties
tiL = a(L>.T)L • A sembly, integration, and testing (AIT)
>- One of the most important design and analysis tools for structural design
ffund = 2rt~ are mechanical drawings. We use them to communicate and document
configuration, fabrication, integration, and other vital information,
O EE
> During qualification testing, we subject the structure to loads and
vibrations to determine its strength, stiffn ss, fundamental frequency, and
mass properties. We also test mechanisms to ensure they'll function under
flight conditions.
519
Example 13-4
Problem Statement 4) Solve for the minimum bolt diameter
Your mechanical engineering team for the FireSat Amin = n(bolt radius)2
project has developed a structural configuration for the
spacecraft, as shown in Figure 13-72. To accommodate re
bolt radius = ~---;---
the subsystems and payload within the available 0.30 x
0.30 x 0.30 m volume, the FireSat primary structure will bolt diameter = 2 (bolt radius)
be composed of 0.3 m x 0.3 m, 4-mm-thick aluminum
honeycomb panels, connected by a 0.3 m long, 0.15 m Analytic Solution
outside diameter cylindrical "thrust tube" that will
1) Find the maximum launch load on the spacecraft
carry the primary launch loads. The payload sensor, sun
sensors, and magnetometers will attach to the top panel. launch load = (acceleration) (spacecraft mass)
The launch vehicle attach fitting will connect to the base
panel along with the gravity gradient boom and rocket (9.798~]
thruster. Secondary, non-load bearing structures will =(20g)(15kg)l lgs
include the subsystem electronics, which will be
contained in four module boxes placed around the
launch load = 2.939 x 103 N
thrust tube attached to the base panel and the four solar
arrays mounted on thin honeycomb panels. Four 316 2) Find the design load
Stainless steel bolts (F,y = 290 MPa) will hold the space- design load _ (launch load)(safety factor)
craft to the launch vehicle and will be cut for deploy- - no. bolts
ment by pyrotechnic devices. The Falcon launch vehicle
will impart a peak acceleration of 20 g's lateral load (2.939 x 103N)(10.0)
during ascent. Assume the spacecraft will have a total 2
mass at the maximum value of 15 kg, and during peak design load= 1.47 x 104 N
lateral acceleration, 2 of the 4 attadunent bolts will expe-
rience the total tensile load. Designers are proposing to 3) Find the minimum cross sectional area for the
use 10-mm diameter bolts for the job. Determine if these bolts
bolts will be sufficient to provide a safety factor of 10. _ design load 1.47 x 104N
Amin - F
Problem Summary cy 240 x 106Pa
Given: acceleration= 20 g Amin= 61.238 mm2
spacecraft mass = 15 kg 4) Solve for the minimum bolt diameter
no. bolts= 2
F,y = 240 x 106 Pa Amin = :n:(bolt radiusr'
safety factor= 10.0
Find: Minimum diameter for the attachment bolts FA::,
bolt radius = ~---;,--- =
J61.23!mm2
Conceptual Solution bold radius= 4.415 mm
1) Find the maximum launch load on the spacecraft bolt diameter= 2 (bolt radius)
bolt diameter= 8.83 mm
launch load = (acceleration) (spacecraft mass)
2) Find the design load Interpreting the Results
d · d _ (launch load)( safety factor) During launch, two of the four attachment bolts must
esign 1 oa - no. bolts
hold the spacecraft down against 20 g's lateral
3) Find the minimum cross sectional area for the acceleration. For the proposed bolt material of 316-
bolts grade stainless steel, the minimum diameter to
design load provide a safety factor of 10 is 8.83 mm. Therefore, the
proposed use of 10-mm bolts is more than sufficient.
Fey
520
Example 13-5
Problem Statement Analytical Solution
At a temperature of 25° C, a beam forming part of a 1) Solve for expansion, 6
space truss structure is 10.1 m long. As the beam enters 6 = a (6T) Linitial
full sunlight, it reaches a temperature of 100° C. If the
6 = (3 x 10-S /° C) (100° C - 25° C) (10.1 m)
coefficient of thermal expansion is 3 x 10-5 I C, how
O
much strain occurs in the beam? 6 = 0.0227 m
6L= 0.0227 m
2) Solve for strain, E
0.0227 m =
2_2 x 10-3m
Problem Summary E = 10.1 m m
Linitial
Given: Linitial = 10.1 m
Tin.itial = 25° C
a = 3 x 10-5 I cO
Tfinal = 1000 C Interpreting the Result
Find: E
After entering the sunlight the beam will expand by
0.0227 m (almost a full inch). This is a strain of 2.248 x
10-3 m/m.
Conceptual Solution
1) Solve for expansion, 6 and 6L
6 = a (6T) Linitial
6L=o
2) Solve for strain, E
6L
E = --
Linitial
521
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
!!!!!!I!! References Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht,
Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
Science and Technology. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday
and Company, Inc., 1972.
Beer, Ferdinand P. and Russel E. Johnson, Jr. Statics and
Mechanics of Materials. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
== Mission Problems
Inc., 1992.
13.1 Communication and Data-handling
Chang, Prof. I. Dee (Stanford University), Dr. John Subsystem (CDHS)
Billingham (NASA Ames), Dr. Alan Hargen (NASA
Ames). "Colloquium on Life in Space." Spring,
1990. 1 Describe the inputs, outputs, and basic processes
within the spacecraft communication data-
Chetty, P.R.K Satellite Power Systems: Energy Conversion, handling subsystem (CDHS).
EnergiJ Storage, and Electronic Power Processing.
George Washington University Short Course 1507.
October 1991.
Chetty, P.R.K. Satellite Technology and Its Applications.
New York, NY: THB Professional and Reference 2 Explain the difference between data and
Books, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. information. Give examples of each.
Doherty, Paul. "Catch a Wave." Exploring. Vol. 16, No.
4, (Winter, 1992): 18-22.
Gere, James M. and Stephen P. Timoshenko. Mechanics
of Materials. Boston, MA: PWS Publishers, 1984.
3 We can build a rudimentary communication
Gonick, Larry and Art Huffman. The Cartoon Guide to system using two tin cans connected by a string.
Physics. New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 1991. What is the carrier signal for this system? What is
Gordon, J.E. Structures: \11/hy Things Don't Fall Down, the modulator? The demodulator?
New York, NY: Da Capp Press, Inc., 1978.
Gunston, Bill. Jane's Aerospace Dictionary. New Edition.
London, U.K.: Jane's Publishing Co., Ltd., 1986.
Holman, J.P. Thermodynamics. New York, NY: McGraw- 4 What is the difference between AM and FM? Draw
Hill Book Company, 1980. a simple graph to illustrate what each would look
MacElroy, Robert D. Course Notes from AA 129, Life in like.
Space, Stanford University, 1990.
Nicogossian, Arnauld E., Huntoon, Carolyn Leach,
Sam L. Pool. Space Physiology and Medicine. 2nd
Edition, Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger, 1989.
5 Draw the input/ output diagram for a simple data-
Pitts, Donald R. and Leighton E. Sissom. Heat Transfer. handling subsystem and define all of its compo-
Schaum's Outline Series. New York, NY: McGraw-
nents.
Hill, Inc., 1977.
Poole, Lon. "Inside the Processor," Mac World. October
1992, pp. 136-143.
Sarafin, Thomas P. Spacecraft Structures and Mechanisms.
Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academy 6 Define CPU, RAM, and ROM, and give examples
Publishers, 1995. of each in a common personal computer.
522
Mission Problems
7 Define bit, byte, and processing speed. 14 Designers are looking at the data-handling
subsystems for two different spacecraft. One will
orbit Pluto to take high-resolution photographs of
this cold, mysterious planet and transmit them at
a low data rate to the operations center on Earth.
8 What are the two types of software in a data- The other will be in low-Earth orbit to detect forest
handling subsystem? What does each do? Give fires and transmit their location to ground stations.
examples in a desktop personal computer. Discuss the trade-offs in complexity for the CDHS
for each of these spacecraft.
9 Explain the difference between analog and digital
data. Give examples of each. 13.2 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)
15 What are the basic inputs, outputs, and processes
within a spacecraft EPS?
10 Chamber pressure in a rocket engine is varying at
a frequency of 100 Hz. What is the minimum
digital sample rate needed to capture this analog
data?
16 Define charge, voltage, current, resistance, and
power.
11 What five factors determine the requirements for
the communication and data-handling subsystem
(CDHS) design? What determines each of these?
17 What is Coulomb's Law?
12 What two budgets are critical to the CDHS design?
Define each.
18 What is Ohm's Law?
13 A new high resolution remote-sensing mission
will use advanced 2048 x 2048 pixel CCD arrays.
19 A 30-amp circuit has a 10 Q resistor in it. What is
Mission users would like to capture images every
the voltage drop across the resistor?
15 seconds along its 90 min polar orbit and
downlink all of them for ground analysis through
a single grollild station. If 10 bits per pixel are
needed to encode the spectral data, and the pass
time at the ground station is 12 min, what is the
required data rate to return one orbit's worth of 20 A spacecraft designer wants to supply 500 W of
data? power at 28 V. What will be the current?
523
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
21 What are the three basic energy sources available 29 A spacecraft with a requirement for 500 W of
to spacecraft? continuous power is in an orbit with a maximum
eclipse time of 32 minutes. If the maximum depth
of discharge (DOD) for its batteries is 30%, what
battery capacity does it need? (Give your answer
in W ·hr).
22 What is the basic function of a photovoltaic cell?
Describe the significance of the IV curve.
30 Give an example of a mission which would need an
Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator. Discuss
23 A spacecraft in Earth orbit has its solar panels at a
some of the issues associated with their use.
15° angle to the Sun. If the efficiency of the solar
cells is 22%, what is the power output per square
meter? (Assume the average incident solar power
density for Earth is 1358 WI m2).
31 Within the EPS, what are the two stages that
prepare the electrical power for the payload and
bus?
24 What three environmental factors can degrade
solar cell's performance?
32 Explain the difference between direct energy
transfer and peak power tracking.
25 A spacecraft is in a low-Earth orbit at an altitude of
350 km. What is the maximum time of eclipse for
this orbit?
33 Explain the difference between centralized versus
decentralized power conditioning.
26 What types of chemical-power systems are used
onboard spacecraft?
34 What EPS concerns do rrussion planners have
when they determine the end-of-life power
27 What is the difference between primary and requirements?
secondary batteries?
35 What is the difference between peak power and
28 Define depth of discharge. How does it affect orbit average power? Explain the trade-offs
battery life? between designing to the one versus the other.
524
Mission Problems
36 As a follow-on to the successful Magellan mission, 42 You're holding a 0.1 m long metal rod that is 0.01
scientists are thinking about launching another min diameter in a pot of boiling water (100° C). If
SAR spacecraft to map the surface of Venus (R = the thermal conductivity of the rod is 100 W /Km,
6051 km). The spacecraft will orbit at an altitude of and your hand is at normal body temperature (37°
500 km. The total planned bus power is 120 W. The C), what is the rate of energy transfer along the
SAR payload will need an additional 500 W but rod?
will only operate 20% of each orbit while in
sunlight. Compute the orbit average power,
minimum battery capacity at 30% DOD, and
eclipse time. Use µVenus= 3.249 x 10\km3 /s2)
43 A section of Space Shuttle tile is exposed to 1200 K
on re-entry. If the tile is 0.1 m thick with an area of
0.01 m2, what is the rate of heat transfer through
the tile? The thermal conductivity of shuttle tile is
about 0.108 W /Km.
13.3 Environmental Control and Life-support
Subsystem (ECLSS)
37 What two primary functions does a spacecraft's
environmental control and life-support subsystem
44 A 1 m2 spacecraft radiator with an emissivity of
perform?
0.85 will eject 100 joules of heat per second. What
temperature must it be?
38 Define thermal equilibrium.
45 A cube 1 m on a side is in interplanetary space, the
same distance from the Sun as Earth is from the
Sun. If the absorptivity, a, of the surface is 0.3 and
the emissivity, e. is 0.7, what's the thermal-
39 Describe the potential sources of heat for a equilibrium temperature of the cube? Assume no
spacecraft. internal heat.
40 Describe the three mechanisms of heat transfer. 46 What is the difference between active and passive
Give examples of each from everyday life. thermal control?
41 Describe the difference between reflectivity, 47 List the various ways a spacecraft can transfer heat
transmissivity; absorptivity, and emissivity. in tern a II y.
525
Chapter 13 Spacecraft Subsystems
48 Discuss ways a spacecraft can eject heat. 55 Discuss analysis and testing issues for spacecraft
thermal control subsystems.
49 Cars have "radiators," but do they really radiate? 56 Mission analysts are thinking about adding one-
Explain. half of a solar panel to one of the facets of the
FireSat spacecraft described in Example 13-3
currently covered in multi-layer insulation (MU).
Assuming all other data and assumptions remain
the same, how will this change affect the equilib-
rium temperature in sunlight and eclipse?
50 How does multi-layer insulation protect a space-
craft from external heat sources?
13.4 Structuresand Mechanisms
57 Approximately what percentage of a typical
51 Define latent heat of fusion and describe how we spacecraft's mass is structure?
can use this principle onboard a spacecraft.
58 What is the difference between primary and
52 List the inputs and outputs of the human secondary structures?
"system."
53 Why do Shuttle crews reduce the cabin pressure
59 What two types of mechanisms can we use on
twelve hours before an Extra Vehicular Activity? spacecraft? Give examples of each.
54 What variables go into the life-support budget for 60 List the loads that a spacecraft structure may be
a manned space mission? subjected to. Give examples of each.
526
Mission Problems
61 Suppose we subject a cylindrical rod 10 m long 67 An Earth-observation satellite will launch on a
with a diameter of 0.1 m to a 1000 N axial tensile vehicle with high-amplitude ascent vibrations at a
load. What is the stress in the rod? frequency of 25 Hz. If the mass of the spacecraft is
1000 kg, what spring constant must the structure
avoid to prevent resonance?
62 If the rod in Problem 61 deforms by 0.001 m, what
is the strain? 68 What factors do engineers consider in choosing a
material for a structure?
63 If we bolt the rod in Problem 61 to the side of the
69 A 5-m beam is subjected to a 100 NI m2
spacecraft on one end and subject it to a 200 N compressive stress. If the Young's modulus of the
lateral force on the other end, what is the bending material is 50 x 109 NI m2, what is the strain in the
moment? beam?
70 Why are composite materials so popular for
certain structural members?
64 The rod in Problem 61 has a coefficient of thermal
expansion of 0.01 I C. If the 10 m length was
O
measured at room temperature (21 ° C), what will
the strain be if the temperature is 41 ° C? If the
temperature is 1 ° C?
71 What significant loads affect a spacecraft during
launch?
65 What is natural frequency? Why must engineers
be concerned with it? 72 How does a spacecraft's structural design affect its
assembly, integration, and testing?
66 What is the natural frequency, in Hz, of a 10 kg 73 Describe the importance of engineering drawings
spring with a spring constant of 0.1 N /m? to communicate design issues in a project.
527
Mission Problen
528
MissionProfil---c -HST===~
Earth's atmosphere has always been a problem for
astronomers-it distorts and attenuates incoming
light. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was designed
to provide a remarkable new view of the galaxy and
beyond. Placed above Earth's atmosphere, Hubble can
detect objects 25 times fainter than any visible from
Earth's surface. Thus, astronomers see a universe
almost 250 times larger than what is visible on Earth.
Mission Overview
Hubble's mission is to provide an orbiting platform for
space-based astronomy, avoiding the interference of
Earth's atmosphere. HST was designed with three
main abilities
./ High angular resolution to provide fine image Hubble's faint-object camera captured this image of a rare cosmic
sight-gravitational lens G2237 + 0305-sometimes called the
detail
"Einstein Cross." This photograph shows four false Images around a
single quasar approximately eight billion light years away. The
./ Ultraviolet performance to provide ultraviolet multiple images are caused by an aspect of the theory of relativity.
images and spectra The mass of the galaxies between us and the quasar (the fuzzy
image in the middle) distorts space, causing the light to refract as if
./ High sensitivity to detect very faint objects it passed through a big lens. (Courtesy of the Association of
Universities for Research in Astronomy, lnc.!Space Telescope
Science Institute)
Mission Data
For Discussion
./ Circular orbit at 607 km (377 mi.) altitude and 28.5°
inclination After it was launched, users noticed HST's mirror
./ Pointing accuracy of 0.00000278° (0.01 ± 0.007 had a flaw reducing its effectiveness (which was
arcsec) for up to 24 hours. This means it could focus eventually fixed during a Shuttle mission). What
on a penny at a distance of more than 200 km. lesson does this teach us about the design and
management of space projects?
./ Large aperture mirror built using honeycornb-
sandwich, reducing weight by a factor of four over How do we justify the cost of purely scientific
solid glass missions like HST?
./ Internal structure holds optical components
aligned within 2.54 x 10-4 cm (1 I 10,000 in.) through Contributors
extreme temperature changes
Mari D. Brenneman and John D. Slezak, the U.S. Air
Force Academy
MissionImpact
At the start of this 15-year NASA mission, Hubble's References
thousands of observations have lent substantial
credibility to its creators' claims. It has made many National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
outstanding new discoveries and will continue to Hubble Space Telescope Update: 18 Months in Orbit.
make observations that place the HST program at the Washington: Government Printing Office, 1992.
forefront of astronomy. With future servicing missions
Hubble's usefulness will continue to improve. It will National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
remain on the cutting edge of science and technology Hubble Space Telescope, Media Reference Guide.
for years to come. Sunnyvale, CA: Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., Inc.
The Space Shuttle Discovery rockets into the sky, powered by its two mighty, solid-rocket boosters and three main engines. (Cour1esyof NASAi
Johnson Space Center)
Rockets and
Launch
Vehicles
!111111! In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... - Outline
.,.. Explain some of the basic principles of rocket science 14.1 Rocket Science
.,.. Discuss the various types of rocket systems and their operating Thrust
principles The Rocket Equation
• Describe launch-vehicle subsystems and their key design issues Rockets
.- Discuss the principles of rocket staging and how to determine the
velocity change from a staged launch vehicle 14.2 Propulsion Systems
Propellant Management
Thermodynamic Rockets
!111111! You Should Already Know ... Electrodynamic Rockets
Newton's Laws of Motion, the conservation of linear momentum, System Selection and Testing
and th definition of kinetic energy (Chapter 4) Exotic Propulsion Methods
O The functions of spacecraft subsystems (Chapter 11)
14.3 Launch Vehicles
O The definitions of charge and electric field (Chapter 13) Launch-vehicle Subsystems
Staging
Mn11kind will not re111ai11 011 Earth forever, but i11 its quest for light and space will
at first timidly penetrate beyond tlie confines of tile atmcepnere, and Inter will
conquer for itself all the space near tire 51111.
Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky
fatiter of Russian cosmouautics
Chapter 14 Rocket and Launch Vehicles
R
ockets take spacecraft where they need to go in space. Rockets
form the core of the propulsion subsystems found on everything
from fireworks to Space Shuttles to the Star Ship Enterprise.
Propulsion subsystems
• Get spacecraft into space
• Move them around after they get there
• Change their attitude (the direction they're pointing)
Figure 14-1 characterizes all of these propulsion-system functions. In
Chapter 9 we saw how much velocity change, !!> V, a launch vehicle needs
to get from Earth's surface into orbit. Launch vehicles rely on their
propulsion subsystems to produce this huge velocity change. After a
spacecraft gets into space, its propulsion subsystem provides the
necessary A V to take it to its final mission orbit, and then provides orbital
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter corrections and other maneuvers throughout the mission lifetime.
deals with the Launch Vehicles segment of the
Space Mission Architecture, introduced In
Figure 1-20.
Figure 14-1. Rocket Functions. Rockets take spacecraft into orbit, move them around in
space, and help control their attitude.
Propulsion is also essential for attitude control. In Chapter 12 we
learned how spacecraft use thrusters as attitude actuators. These
thrusters are either the sole method of attitude control (similar to the
Shuttle's reaction-control system), or they complement the primary
system for large slewing maneuvers or to provide a means for
momentum dumping. In this chapter we peel back the mysteries of rocket
science to see how rockets work and how rocket scientists put together
propulsion subsystems for spacecraft and launch vehicles.
532
14.1 Rocket Science
14.1 Rocket Science
== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
..- Explain the basic operating principles of rockets from a systems
perspective
.- Define and determine important parameters describing rocket
performance-thrust, specific impulse, density specific impulse,
and velocity change
.,.. Explain how rockets convert stored energy into thrust
.,.. Explain basic trade-offs in rocket design
You can't be a real rocket scientist until you can explain how a rocket
works. In this section, we'll dissect rockets to see how all that noise, rocket
smoke, and fire can hurtle a spacecraft into space. Let's start with the big
picture. A rocket is basically a system that takes mass plus energy and
converts them into a force to move a vehicle. The input mass for a rocket
is generally called propellant. The force produced by a rocket we call
thrust. Figure 14-2 shows the block diagram for this simplified version of ene11gy
a rocket system.
Our examination of rocket systems begins by looking at the output-
thrust. This requires us to dust off Newton's Laws to see how high speed Figure 14-2. The Simplest Version of a
exhaust going in one direction, pushes a vehicle in another. Next we'll see Rocket System. The rocket's basic function is
to take mass, add energy, and convert them
how this thrust, over time, produces a velocity change for the vehicle, into thrust, a force large enough to move a
and-most important for mission planning=-how to calculate this effect vehicle.
and ensure we have enough propellant to get our vehicle where we want
it to go. We'll then turn our attention to the process at the heart of a
rocket: how it converts stored energy plus some mass into the high-speed
exhaust. We'll tie all these concepts together by looking at the simplest
example of a rocket-cold-gas thrusters-to see how varying some of the
inputs and design variables changes the thrust and the overall system
efficiency.
Thrust
A rocket ejects mass at high speed in one direction so a vehicle can go
in the other. The simplest example of this is a balloon. All of us have
blown up a toy balloon and let go of the stem to watch it fly wildly
around the room, as shown in Figure 14-3. What makes the balloon go?
Recall from Chapter 4 where we introduced Newton's Third Law
For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction. Figure 14·3. An Inflatable Rocke!. A toy
balloon is a simple example of a rocket. When
When you blow into a balloon, you force air into it, making the rubber we let go of the stem, "rocket propulsion"
skin tighten, increasing the internal air pressure, and storing mechanical causes it to fly wildly around the room.
533
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
energy like a spring. When you let go of the stem, the air pressure has an
escape route, so the skin releases, forcing the air out under pressure.
Following Newton's Third Law, as the air, which has mass, is forced out
in one direction (the action), an equal force pushes the balloon in the
opposite direction (the reaction).
Let's look at this action/reaction situation in a bit more detail to see
where the force comes from. Consider a rocket scientist perched in a
wagon armed with a load of rocks, as shown in Figure 14-4. If he's
initially at rest and begins to throw the rocks in one direction, because of
Newton's Third Law, an equal but opposite force will move him (and the
wagon load of rocks) in the opposite direction.
To throw the rocks, the scientist has to apply a force to them. This force
is identical in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the force applied to
the scientist and thus, the wagon. However, remember the concept of
conservation of linear momentum we discussed in Chapter 4. It tells us
the change in speed of the rock (because it has less mass) will be greater
than the change in speed of the wagon.
The rock's mass leaves at a rate we call the mass flow mte, t:,,m/ t:,,t = m
(kg/ s). Recall from Chapter 4 that linear momentum is mass times
Figure 14-4. A One-person Rocket. A velocity. If the speed of the rocks is Yexit, the ejected mass has a change in
person throwing rocks out the back of a wagon
illustrates the basic principles of a rocket. momentum of m Yexit· But remember, momentum is always conserved!
Muscles apply force to the rock, accelerating it So as the momentum of the ejected mass (rocks) goes in one direction, the
in one direction, causing an equal but opposite momentum of the rocket (or wagon in this case) goes in the other
force on the person and the wagon, pushing
them in the opposite direction. direction, as shown in Figure 14-4. This is the basic principle that
produces rocket thrust. A rocket expends energy to eject mass out one
end at high velocity, pushing it (and the attached vehicle) in the opposite
direction.
Dropping the vector notation to look at magnitudes only, we can say
p rocket = p exhaust Pp (14-1)
p. rocket = mV exit.
where
P rocket = time rate of change of the rocket's momentum (N)
p 1 = time rate of change of the exhausted mass' momentum
ex 1aust (N)
m = mass flow rate of the exhaust products (kg Is)
Yexit = exit velocity of the exhaust (m/ s)
Notice this momentum change has the same units as force. This is the
force on the rocket we defined to be the thrust. As we'll see later,
depending on the type of rocket used, the effective thrust delivered may
be slightly different than m Vexit· For this reason, we define a more
comprehensive term called effective exhaust velocity, C, so we can express
rocket thrust as
I Fthrust mC (14-2)
534
14.1 Rocket Science
where
Fthrust = rocket's total thrust (N)
C = effective exhaust velocity (m/ s)
m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
This relationship should make sense from our wagon example. The
scientist can increase the thrnst on the wagon by either increasing the rate
at which he throws the rocks (higher m ) or by throwing the rocks faster
(higher C). Or he could do both. For example, if he threw bowling balls,
he could produce a high m but with lower velocity than if he were
throwing small pebbles.
Of course, exhaust velocities for typical rockets are much, much higher
than anyone can achieve by throwing rocks. For typical chemical rockets
similar to the Space Shuttle's, the exhaust velocity can be as high as 3 km/ s.
Because these high velocities are hard to visualize, it's useful to think about
the raw power involved in a rocket engine. Recall from Chapter 4 that
kinetic energy is
KE=~ mV2 (14-3)
We define power as energy expended per unit time. Thus, the power in the
jet exhaust of a rocket is
(14-4)
where
P1 = Jet power in a rocket (JI s = W)
At lift-off, the Space Shuttle's three main engines plus its solid-rocket
boosters produce 26.6 billion watts of power. That is equivalent to 13
Hoover Dams! We'll see the effect of all that power next.
The Rocket Equation
To better understand how we use the thrust produced by rockets to get
a vehicle where we want it to go, we first need to introduce a new
concept-impulse. Impulse will help us understand the total velocity
change rockets deliver.
Impulse
So a rocket produces thrust that pushes on a vehicle. Then what
happens? If you push on a door, it opens. If you hit a ball with a bat, it
flies out to left field. Returning to our scientist in the wagon, realize that
to give the rocks their velocity, he has to apply a force to them over some
length of time. Force applied to an object over time produces an impulse.
We explain impulse using Newton's Second Law, also introduced in
Chapter 4. Dropping vector notation, we express this law as
535
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
F = ~
M
If we multiply both sides by M, we get
FM= Ap
The left side of this equation represents a force, F, such as the force we
would generate if we hit a baseball with a bat over some time, M. When
our bat hits that fast ball speeding over home plate, it seems like the
impact is instantaneous, but the bat actually contacts the ball for a
fraction of a second, applying its force to the ball during that time. We see
the result of that force acting over time on the right side of the equation,
where ~p represents the resulting change in momentum.
From this relationship we realize that to change momentum, we can
apply a large force acting over a short time (like a bat hitting a ball) or a
smaller force acting over a longer time (like an ant moving a bread
crumb). We define total impulse, I, to be force (assumed constant here)
times time, or change in momentum
(14-5)
where
= total impulse (N s)
F = force (N)
M = time (s)
~p = momentum change (N s)
Impulse works the same way for rockets as it does for baseballs. We
want to change the velocity and hence the momentum of our rocket, so
we must apply some impulse. This impulse comes from the thrust acting
over a time interval. But as we showed, we can produce the same impulse
for a rocket by applying a small thrust over a long time or a large thrust
over a short time.
Although total impulse is useful for telling us the total effect of rocket
thrust, it doesn't give us much insight into the rocket's efficiency. To
compare the performance of different types of rockets, we need a new
parameter we call specific impulse. Specific impulse, /5p, is the ratio of the
total impulse to the propellant's mass required to produce that impulse
(how much "bang for the buck").
I
Isp=----- (14-6)
~mpropellant go
where
I5P = specific impulse (s)
I = total impulse (N s)
Arn = change in the propellant's mass (kg)
536
14.1 Rocket Science
g0 = gravitational acceleration constant= 9.81 ml s2 (We use this
value for g0 so we can compare one rocket's performance
with anothers.)
Substituting for total impulse
F thrustt,.t
(14-7)
i r')l:,i-,..,..s"'r
~ 5 f' / ------------
NL>< do
where
I5p = specific impulse (s)
Fthrust = force of thrust (N)
rn = propellant's mass flow rate (kgls)
g0 = gravitational acceleration constant= 9.81 ml s2
I5P represents rocket efficiency, the ratio of what we get (momentum
change) to what we spend (propellant). So the higher the l5p, the more
efficient the rocket.
Earlier, we found the force of thrust in terms of the mass flow rate and
the effective exhaust velocity. By substituting Equation (14-2) into
Equation (14-7), we get another useful expression for Isp-
E] (14-8)
where
C = effective exhaust velocity (m Is)
Notice g0 is a constant value representing the acceleration due to gravity
at sea level, which we use to calibrate the equation. This means no matter
where we go in the universe, we humans will use the same value of g0 to measure
rocket performance.
As a measure of rocket performance, l5P is like the miles per gallon
(m.p.g.) rating given for cars. The higher the I5P is for a rocket, the more ti. V
it will deliver for a given mass of propellant. Another way to think about
I5P is that the faster a rocket can expel propellant, the more efficient it is.
Realize that we express l5p in terms of propellant mass. For some space
missions, especially those involving small satellites, such as the UoSAT-12
spacecraft shown in Figure 14-5, conserving volume can be just as Figure 14-5. Small Satellites and Rocket
Efficiency. Small satellites, such as UoSAT-12
important, or even more important, than conserving mass. Therefore, shown here, can be as much volume
comparing only the I5P of two systems may not tell us the whole story. For constrained as mass constrained. Therefore,
this reason, we define another useful term called density specific i111p11/se, density specific impulse, ldsp• becomes another
important measure of rocket performance.
ld,p, which we find by multiplying the rocket's I5P times the specific (Courtesy of Surrey Satellite Technology, Lid.,
gravity of the propellants at nominal storage conditions, <'.!av· U.K.)
537
Chapter 14 Rockets and Laurich Vehicles
(14-9)
where
Idsp = density specific impulse (s)
Oav = average specific gravity of propellants at nominal storage
conditions
[Note: Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to
water (e.g., specific gravity of water= 1.0, specific gravity of
kerosene= 0.8)]
By comparing the mass and volume between different system options,
mission planners can do more realistic trade-offs. We'll see the trade-off
between l5p and Idsp in Example 14-1. In Section 14.2, we'll review other
important factors to consider when selecting a rocket for a given mission.
Velocity Change
When we take a long trip in our car, we have to make sure we'll have
enough gas in the tank to get there. This concern is even more important
for a trip into space where there are no gas stations along the way. But
how do we determine how much "gas," or propellant, we need for a
given mission?
Naturally, some rockets are more efficient than others. For example,
one rocket may need 100 kg of propellant to change velocity by 100 m/s
while another needs only 50 kg. To figure how much propellant we need
for a given trip, we must have a relationship between the velocity change
and the amount of propellant used. We find this relationship by setting
the thrust equal to the momentum change.
6 P rocket
F thrust = m C = 6t
where
Fthrust = effective thrust from the rocket (N)
111 = propellant's mass flow rate (kg/ s)
C = effective exhaust velocity (m/ s)
6 Procket
= rocket's time rate of change of momentum (N)
From this relationship we can derive the ideal rocket equation. (See Appendix
C.9 for the complete derivation.) It tells us how much 6 V we get for a
certain amount of propellant used.
(14-10)
where
6V = velocity change (m Is)
C = effective exhaust velocity (m/s)
Jn = natural logarithm of the quantity in the parentheses
538
14.1 Rocket Science
minitial = vehicle's initial mass, before firing the rocket (kg)
mfinal = vehicle's final mass, after firing the rocket (kg)
Equation (14-10) is one of the most useful relationships of rocket
propulsion. Armed with this equation, we can determine how much
propellant we need to do almost anything, from stopping the spin of a
spacecraft in orbit, to launching a satellite to another solar system. Notice
that we're taking the natural logarithm of the ratio of initial to final mass.
rocket
The difference between initial and final mass represents the amount of propellant
used. 6. V is also a function of the effective exhaust velocity. This
relationship should make sense because, as the propellant moves out of
the nozzle faster, momentum changes more, and the rocket goes faster.
We can substitute the definition of l5P into the rocket Equation (14-10) energy
to compute the 6. V for a rocket, if we know the lsp, as well as the initial
and final rocket mass.
Figure 14·6. A Simplified Rocket System.
Rockets take in propellant and energy to
6.V (14-11) produce a high speed exhaust. Conservation
of momentum between the exhaust and the
rocket produces thrust.
where
6.V = vehicle's velocity change (m/s)
l5P = propellant's specific impulse (s)
g0 = gravitational acceleration at sea level (9.81 ml s2)
In = natural logarithm of the quantity in the parentheses
minitial = vehicle's initial mass, before firing the rocket (kg)
mfinal = vehicle's final mass, after firing the rocket (kg) rocket
In Example 14-1 we'll see how useful this equation can be for space I energy
mission planning. I transferred
· to propellant
Rockets
high-energy
Now that we've seen what rockets do-expel high speed exhaust in propellant
one direction so a space vehicle can go in the other-let's take a closer converted to
look at how they do it. Figure 14-6 illustrates this simplified view of a
high-speed
rocket system. For purposes of discussion, we can break this process into
exhaust
two steps. First, energy must be transferred to the propellant in some form.
Second, the energized propellant must be converted into high speed
exhaust. Figure 14-7 shows this expanded view of a rocket system.
There are only two basic types of rockets currently in use. Their
classification depends on the form of energy that is transferred to the
propellant and converted to high speed exhaust. These are
• Thermodynamic rockets-rely on thermodynamic energy (heat and Figure 14-7. More Detailed View of
pressure) Rockets. Energy Is first transferred to the
incoming mass. This high-energy mass is then
• Electrodynamic rockets-rely on electrodynamic energy (electric converted to high-speed mass, producing
charge and electric and magnetic fields) thrust.
539
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Thermodynamic energy is in the form of heat and pressure. This is some-
thing we're all familiar with. A covered pot of water on the stove reaches
high temperature and produces high pressure steam. Most of us have
seen how the thermodynamic energy in steam drives trains or produces
electricity in power plants. In a thermodynamic rocket, thermodynamic
energy transfers to the propellant in the form of heat and pressure. A
propellant can produce heat through a chemical reaction or from external
sources such as electricity, solar, or nuclear energy. Gaseous or liquid
propellants are delivered to the rocket under pressure, supplying addi-
tional thermodynamic energy. However, for now, the result is the most
important thing. Once energy transfers to the propellant, we have a high
temperature, high pressure gas, or in other words, a gas with lots of ther-
modynamic energy. Air in a toy balloon or high-pressure gases from
burning liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen inside the Shuttle main
engines are two extreme examples.
Later in this section, we'll look at the simplest type of rocket, a cold-gas
thruster, that relies on gas under pressure alone as its source of
thermodynamic energy. In Section 14.2 we'll look at other, more complex
and efficient types of thermodynamic rockets.
Electrodynamic rockets rely on electrodynamic energy. Electrody11a111ic
energy relates to the energy available from charged particles moving in
electric and magnetic fields. This is the energy that makes our hair stand
on end when we get a shock and makes magnets stick to some metals. To
understand this, we need to go back to the concept of charge introduced
in Chapter 13.
Recall, charge is a fundamental property of matter, like mass, and can
electron "stripped off"-(:)
be either positive or negative. Like charges repel each other and opposite
charges attract. Typically, a molecule of propellant has the same number
of protons and electrons making it electrically neutral. However, if one or
more electrons can be "stripped off," the resulting molecule will have a
net positive charge, making it an ion, as illustrated in Figure 14-8. To
create the ion, the electrical-power subsystem (EPS) must supply some
electrodynamic energy. Unlike a thermodynamic rocket, where the
inherent energy of the energized propellant is quite high, the inherent
energy of an ion is relatively low. However, once a particle is charged,
additional electrodynamic energy can easily accelerate it to very high
velocities. Later in this section, we'll look at how we do this inside an
lithium ion with electrodynamic rocket.
a net positive charge The form of energy transferred to the propellant determines how it can
Figure 14-8. An Ion. We create an ion when be converted to high speed exhaust. In the rest of this section, we'll look at
we "strip off" outer shell electrons from a the two ways of doing this
neutral atom or molecule, leaving a net positive
charge. Electric or magnetic fields can then • Thermodynamic expansion-using nozzles
accelerate this ion.
• Electrodynamic acceleration-using electric and magnetic fields
540
14.1 Rocket Science
Thermodynamic Expansion-Nozzles
By far, the most commonly used types of rockets rely on nozzles.
Nozzles convert the thermal energy produced by chemical, nuclear, or
electrical sources into kinetic energy through thermodynamic expansion.
In Figure 14-9, we show the huge nozzles used by the Saturn V F-1
engines that propelled astronauts to the Moon. To understand how
nozzles do this, we must first understand a bit about fluid mechanics.
After we understand how fluids behave, we can look at nozzles to see
how they convert low-speed, high-temperature gasses into high-velocity
exhaust. We'll then look at how we can predict and measure the
performance of thermodynamic rockets and look at a simple example of a
cold-gas rocket to see how all these principles fit together.
Fluid Mechanics. Fluid mechanics is the science of fluid (gasses or
liquid) behavior. Let's start by looking at one of the simplest examples,
the air in a balloon, as shown in Figure 14-10. Assuming the air in the
balloon behaves as a "perfect gas," we can relate the pressure, density,
and temperature of the air using the perfect-gas law
P = pRT (14-12) Figure 14--9. Saturn V Nozzles. Most rockets
rely on nozzles lo convert thermal energy into
kinetic energy through thermodynamic expan-
where sion. We show the huge nozzles for the Saturn
V F-1 engines here. (Courtesy of NASAi
P = pressure (NI m2) Marshall Space Flight Center)
p = density (kg I rrr')
T = temperature (K)
R = specific gas constant (J /kgK) = Ru/M
P = pressure
Ru= universal gas constant= 8314.41 (J /kmole K)
T = temperature
M = molecular mass of the gas (kg/kmole)
p ~ density
As we did in Chapter 4, we must review some basic assumptions that
will make our discussion valid. We assume that it behaves as a perfect gas P=pRT
and has the following properties
• No heat transfer into or out of the fluid-this is known as an adiabatic Figure 14-10. A Balloon and Fluid
Mechanics. Basic principles of fluid mechanics
flow are at work in a simple balloon. The air inside
obeys the pertect gas law, so its pressure,
• The flow is reversible-meaning total energy is conserved. (A flow temperature, and volume are all related, based
that is adiabatic and reversible is called an isentropicfiou: ) on the properties of the gas inside.
• Flow in one dimension, because changes in the other two dimensions
is negligible
• "Frozen flow" -meaning all chemical reactions occur inside the
combustion chamber
• Steady flow-meaning mass flow rate is constant. (Remember that
energy and momentum are conserved.)
These same assumptions will apply throughout this chapter in our
discussion of thermodynamic rockets. Because these refer to ideal
conditions, we often say the results apply to an "ideal rocket."
541
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Earlier we discussed mechanisms for transferring energy to the
propellant. In most cases, the propellant arrives in the combustion chamber
under pressure so it already has some mechanical energy. The most
common means of adding energy is through heat, such as that produced in
chemical reactions (combustion). To track the total energy contained in the
exhaust products, we need to introduce a new concept. We describe the
total energy in fluid systems in terms of their specific enthalpy, It.
(14-13)
where
h = specific enthalpy (J /kg)
u = internal energy (J /kg)
P = pressure P = pressure (NI m2)
A= cross v = specific volume (m3 /kg)
T = temperature sectional area
Computing enthalpy allows us to separate the energy in the exhaust
p = densi~ r;=:;:.=:::::;:;:--:-
-nal due to the internal energy (heat) from the mechanical energy (pressure).
To understand the usefulness of this concept, we need to put some fluid
~ into motion. Let's connect our balloon to a pipe and watch the gas flow, as
shown in Figure 14-11. We can compute the mass flow rate by
multiplying the density of the exhaust by the flow velocity and the cross-
sectional area of the pipe
I m = pVA (14-14)
Figure 14-11. Fluid in Motion. As gas
escapes a balloon and flows through a pipe. where
the mass flow rate depends on the fluid's
velocity and density, and the pipe's cross- m = fluid's mass flow rate (kg/ s)
sectional area.
p = fluid's density (kg/m3)
V =fluid's velocity (m Is)
A = pipe's cross-sectional area (m2)
P = pressure
Now what happens when we vary the pipe's cross-sectional area? If
T = temperature we reduce the pipe's area, as shown in Figure 14-12, the flow velocity
must increase to maintain a constant mass flow rate. We can imagine this
concept by considering a garden hose. When we hold our thumb over the
outlet, decreasing the area, the flow rate increases. This increase in flow
velocity to maintain constant mass flow rate due to a constriction in area
is called the uenturi effect (Figure 14-12). Looking at it the other way, if we
increase the pipe's cross-sectional area, the flow velocity decreases to
maintain the same mass flow rate.
These effects are common ones, so they're fairly intuitive. However, it
only works for low-speed flows. For very high-speed flows, the opposite
effect takes place. As the area increases, the flow speeds up! How can this
Figure 14-12. The Venturi Effect. Due to the happen? For the case of steady, incompressible flow, with no heat transfer
venturi effect, when a fluid hits a constriction in to or work done by the system (called an isenfropic process) the sum of the
area, the flow velocity increases to maintain
constant mass flow rate. Likewise, if the area specific enthalpy, h, and one half the square of the flow velocity, l / 2 V2, is
increases, the flow rate decreases. constant, due to conservation of energy.
542
14.1 Rocket Science
1 2
h + V = constant (14-15)
2
where
h = u + Pv, specific enthalpy from Equation (14-13)
V = flaw's velocity (m/ s)
Note the second term is the same as the specific kinetic energy (inde-
pendent of the mass) of the flow. Thus, the internal energy and gas pres-
sure can be traded for kinetic energy. In other words, the velocity of the flow
can increase at the expense of enthalpy and vice versa. This relationship is the
Bernoulli Principle, named after its discoverer, Italian mathematician,
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782). This is one of the most important concepts
in science. It helps us explain the dynamics of weather and how birds and
planes fly.
But this still doesn't immediately explain how the flow speed increases
when the cross-sectional area expands for very high-speed flow. To
understand this, we need to delve a little deeper into the behavior of high
speed gasses by looking at the speed of sound.
In 1947, Chuck Yeager piloted the Bell X-1 rocket plane and became the
first person to "break the sound barrier" by traveling faster than the
speed of sound. The speed of sound represents the velocity at which a
pressure disturbance moves through a medium. In other words, if this
book falls on the floor, it'll create a pressure disturbance (sound) that will
travel out from the source at a specific speed that depends on
characteristics of the air in the room. You'll hear the sound a fraction of a
second before someone on the other side of the room. For short distances
like these, it seems almost instantaneous. But if you've ever witnessed a
thunderstorm, you've seen flashes of lightning in the distance and heard
the thunder a few seconds later. By counting the seconds between seeing
the lightning and hearing the thunder, and by knowing the speed of
sound, you can get a good estimate of the distance to the storm. We can
find the speed of sound, a0, from
(14-16)
where
a0 = speed of sound (m/ s)
y = ratio of specific heats (dimensionless)
R = specific gas constant O I kgK)
T = temperature (K)
Notice in Equation (14-16) we introduce the ratio of specific heats, y. This
parameter is constant for a particular gas (or gas mixture) at a given tem-
perature and pressure and depends on the molecular make-up of the gas.
We can compute it using various gas modeling techniques that are
beyond the scope of our discussion here, or we can measure it experimen-
tally. As we'll see later, y is an extremely useful parameter for calculating
543
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
rocket efficiency and other characteristics. Applying Equation (14-16) to
air at 20° C, we get a speed of sound of 346 m/ s. Therefore, if we count 3
seconds between a flash of lightning and hearing its thunder we know the
Ma< 1 storm is only 1.0 km away (head for cover!).
(subsonic) The ratio of the velocity of the flow (or the velocity of the Bell X-1) to
converging nozzle (d A < 1) the speed of sound is the Mnc/1 Number, M,r
velocity increases (dV > 1)
-- ~
~
(14-17)
- Using Equations 14-16 and 14-17 and applying some additional
thermodynamic analysis, we can develop a relationship between Mach
Number, Ma, the change in area, dA, and change in flow velocity, dV.
diverging nozzle (dA > 1)
velocity decreases (dV < 1) dA
( M2a - l)dV
V (14-18)
A
where
dA = infinitesimal area change (m2)
A = pipe's cross-sectional area (m2)
Ma = Mach Number
Mu>l dV = infinitesimal velocity change (m Is)
(supersonic) V = flaw's velocity (m/s)
converging nozzle (d A < 1) Looking closely at this relationship, we can see that for subsonic flow
velocity decreases (dV < 1)
(Ma< 1) a positive change in area (expansion) leads to a negative change
in velocity (decrease). However, for supersonic flow (Ma> 1) the opposite
must occur, a positive area change (expansion) leads to a positive velocity
change (increase). Figure 14-13 illustrates these relationships. This flip-
flop in relationships between area and velocity above and below the
speed of sound is due to conservation of energy (the trade-off between
enthalpy and velocity) and conservation of mass.
diverging nozzle (dA > 1) Without this effect, rockets as we know them wouldn't be possible. We
velocity increases (dV > 1) take advantage of this principle to convert the enthalpy of gasses, in the
form of heat and pressure in the combustion chamber, into kinetic energy
using nozzles. Just as with our balloon example, the process begins in the
combustion chamber where high pressure (and usually high tempera-
ture) exhaust products are created with little or no velocity (Ma<< 1).
From the combustion chamber, the products flow first into a converging
section of the nozzle where we now know the velocity of the flow
increases. The narrowest portion of the nozzle is the throat. By design, in
Figure 14-13. Changing Mach Number the throat, the flow velocity reaches the speed of sound (Ma = 1) and we
Versus Changing Area. For subsonic flow say the flow is "choked." As the nozzle expands beyond the throat, the
(Ma < 1) the flow velocity increases when area velocity continues to increase to supersonic speeds before being
decreases along the nozzle. For supersonic
flow (Ma> 1) the flow velocity increases when exhausted at the nozzle exit. Figure 14-14 shows a simplified combustion
the area increases. chamber and nozzle diagram.
544
14.'J Rocket Science
Nozzles. TI1e more we expand the exhaust through the nozzle, the
higher the exit velocity. But there are practical limits. Equation (14-15)
showed us that the increase in velocity comes at the expense of the
enthalpy of the gasses. Recall, enthalpy is a measure of the gasses' internal
energy (heat) plus mechanical energy (pressure). Therefore, as the gasses
gain velocity through expansion in the nozzle, they lose enthalpy, both
temperature and pressure. Theoretically, we would need an infinitely long
nozzle to expand the exhaust to zero exit pressure (vacuum) under ideal
conditions, as we'll see later. In practice, of course, this isn't possible.
Instead, rocket scientists design nozzles that are long enough for the
conditions in which they operate. As we'll see next, the most important
condition to consider is the outside air pressure.
Earlier, we used our rocket scientist in the wagon example to show that Figure 14·14. Standard Combustion Cham-
rocket thrust equals the mass flow rate, m , times the effective exhaust ber and Nozzle Configuration. A standard
velocity, C. thermodynamic rocket has two main parts-a
combustion chamber (where energy transfers to
F=mC a propellant) and the nozzle (where high energy
combustion products convert to high-velocity
However, this represents only the thrust produced from momentum exhaust).
change, or momentum thrust. But for rockets using nozzles to convert
thermal energy into kinetic energy, the thrust due to the momentum of
the exhaust is only part of the story.
As we learned, unless a nozzle is infinitely long, the exhaust will have
some exit pressure, P exit· This pressure also contributes to the rocket's pabnosphen,
thrust. To see this, consider an imaginary "control volume" drawn
around a rocket, as shown in Figure 14-15. Acting on the boundaries of
this volume, we've drawn the atmospheric pressure Patmosphere on all
sides except at the nozzle exit. At the nozzle exit, the pressure is Pexit, patmosphere
drawn inward for consistency. Notice that due to symmetry, Patmosphere
cancels everywhere except in the direction parallel to momentum thrust
over an area equal to the nozzle exit area, Aexit· The net force exerted on
the rocket from this pressure differential is the pressure thrust. It equals the
Figure 14·15. Pressure Thrust. Pressure
difference between exit pressure, P exit, and atmospheric pressure, thrust on a rocket results from the difference
P;itmosphere, times the exit area, Aexit· It's magnitude is between the exit pressure and atmospheric
pressure at the nozzle exit. Here we show a
Fpressure thrust= Aexit (Pexit - P atmosphere) (14-19) standard rocket in a "control volume" to
where illustrate this pressure difference.
Fpressure thrust = pressure thrust (N)
Aexit = nozzle's exit area (m2)
P exit = exit pressure (NI m2)
Patrnosphere = atmospheric pressure (NI ni)
By adding together momentum thrust and pressure thrust, we express
the magnitude of the total thrust on a rocket, using the total rocket thrust
equation
Fthrust = ill V exit+ Aexit (P exit - P atmosphere) (14-20)
where
Fthrust =rocket's total thrust (N)
m = mass flow rate (kg Is)
545
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Yexit = exit velocity of exhaust products (m Is)
To further simplify this equation, we can now fully define the effective
exhaust velocity, C, to be
ideally expanded nozzle
C V Aexit(P p ) (14-21)
= exit +~ exit - atmosphere
pexit = patmosphere where
C = effective exhaust velocity (rn Is)
So we're back to where we started with
F=mC
Only now we know a lot more about where C comes from and how nozzle
over-expanded nozzle expansion affects it.
A casual glance at the total rocket thrust in Equation (14-21) may lead us
pexit< p atmosphere to conclude we'd want to make Pexit >> P atmosphere to maximize total
thrust. Although this would appear to increase the amount of thrust
generated, a big loss in overall efficiency would actually reduce the total
effective thrust. Recall that for supersonic flow, as the gasses expand they
increase in velocity while, due to the Bernoulli Principle, they decrease in
pressure. Thus, the higher the Vexit, the lower the P exit· For the ideal case,
the pressure thrust should be zero (P exit - P atmosphere = 0), which means the
exit pressure exactly equals the atmospheric pressure (Pexit = Patmosphere)·
In this case, we maximize the exit velocity and thus the momentum thrust.
But what happens when P exit "' P atmosphere? When this happens, we
under-expanded nozzle have a rocket that's not as efficient as it could be. We can consider two
possible situations
• Over-expansion: Pexit< P atmosphere· This is often the case for a rocket at
pexit > patmosphere lift-off. Because many launch pads are near sea level, the atmospheric
pressure is at a maximum. This atmospheric pressure can cause shock
waves to form at the nozzle's lip. These shock waves represent areas
where kinetic energy turns back into enthalpy (heat and pressure). In
other words, they rob kinetic energy from the flow, lowering the
exhaust velocity and thus decreasing the overall thrust.
• Under-expansion: P exit > P atmosphere· In this case, the exhaust gasses
Figure 14-16. Nozzle Expansion. To effec- have not expanded as much as they could have within the nozzle and
tively convert all the enthalpy available in the
combustion products to high-velocity flow, we thus, there's a "loss" in the sense that we've not converted all the
need the nozzle exit pressure (Pa,u) to equal enthalpy we could have into velocity. This is the normal case for a
the outside atmospheric pressure (Pa,mospt,orel· rocket operating in a vacuum, because P exit is always higher than
When P0.,1 < Pa,mosphere• the flow is overex-
panded, causing shock waves that decrease Patmosphere (Patmosphere = 0 in vacuum). Unfortunately, we'd need an
flow velocity. When P0,;1 > P atmosphere, the flow is infinitely long nozzle to expand the flow to zero pressure, so in
underexpanded meaning not all available
enthalpy converts to velocity. Here, we show all
practice we must accept some loss in efficiency.
three expansion cases. In practice, we need an
infinitely long nozzle to achieve perfect expan- Figure 14-16 illustrates all cases of expansion. In Section 14.3, we'll see
sion in a vacuum. how we deal with this problem for launch-vehicle rocket engines.
546
14.1 Rocket Science
The total expansion in the nozzle depends, of course, on its design. We
define the nozzle's expansion ratio, e, as the ratio between the nozzle's exit
area, Ae, and the throat area, At
~ (14-22)
L2J
where
E = nozzle's expansion ratio (unitless)
Ae = nozzle's exit area (m2)
At = engine's throat area (m2)
Later in this section, we'll see how varying expansion ratio can also
affect engine performance.
Characteristic Exhaust Velocity. We know rocket thrust depends on
effective exhaust velocity, C, the rocket's output. But how do we measure
C? Unfortunately, we can't just stick a velocity sniffer into superheated
rocket exhaust. Therefore, when we're doing rocket experiments, we need
to have some other, more measurable parameters available. As we'd
expect, we can vary rocket output (thrust) by changing the inputs: m , of
the propellant going into the combustion chamber, and the resulting
pressure in the combustion chamber, Pc- In addition to these dynamic
parameters, there are also important physical dimensions of the rocket
that we can vary, such as the area of the nozzle throat, At, and the
expansion ratio, E. To understand the relationship between these design
variables, we define another important rocket performance parameter
called characteristic exhaust velocity, C* (c-star), in terms of chamber
pressure, Pc, mass flow rate, m , and throat area, At·
(14-23)
where
C* = characteristic exhaust velocity (m/ s)
Pc = chamber pressure (NI m2)
At = engine's throat area (m2)
m = exhaust's mass flow rate (kg/ s)
The nice thing about C* is that not only can we easily measure it
experimentally, we can also compute it by modeling combustion
characteristics. Rocket scientists use a variety of computer codes to
predict the characteristic exhaust velocity. These techniques are beyond
the scope of the discussion here, but for a complete description see Space
Propulsion Analysis and Design [Humble et. al.. 1995]. One of the most
important parameters to find using these modeling techniques is the ratio
of specific heats, y, for the products in the combustion chamber. Knowing
this value, we can compute C* using
547
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
C* (14-24)
where
a0 = speed of sound in the fluid (m/ s)
(y+l)J
2 [ (2y-2)
r = y((y + l)) (unitless)
By comparing C* from experiments with C* from our predictions, we
can determine how efficiently the rocket transfers the available energy to
the propellants relative to an ideal value. This is especially useful as it
allows us to measure the performance of the combustion chamber
(energy transfer) independent from the nozzle (energy conversion).
Typically, no rocket (or rocket scientist for that matter) is perfect.
However, if the measured C* is over 95% of predicted ideal C*, we
consider it good performance.
As we learned earlier, absolute rocket performance is defined in terms
of lsp and ldsp, which are functions of effective exhaust velocity, C. While
it is fairly straight forward to determine delivered lsp experimentally by
measuring delivered thrust and the total mass of propellant used, it is
also important to be able to predict ideal Isp for a given type of rocket.
Fortunately, we can compute it directly from C* and the ratio of specific
heats for a given reaction.
I = Fmeasured (14-25)
SP measured gommeasured
where
Isp measured = measured specific impulse from experiments (s)
Fmeasured = measured thrust from experiments (N)
(14-26)
where
I SP ideal = theoretical ideal specific impulse from prediction (s)
C* = characteristic exhaust velocity (m/ s)
y = ratio of specific heats for the gas (dimensionless)
[Note: This equation assumes infinite expansion of the exhaust,
which is, of course, impossible to do.]
As we'd expect, one of the primary goals of rocket design is to
maximize performance. We express rocket performance most often in
terms of mass efficiency (15p). How do we maximize l5P? We've just seen
that effective exhaust velocity, and hence specific and density specific
impulse are all functions of C*. From Equation (14-24), we know C*
depends on the speed of sound in the combustion chamber, a0, which
548
14.1 Rocket Science
depends on the gas constant, R, and the combustion temperature, T.
Looking at Equation (14-16), we can see that the higher the temperature,
the higher the speed of sound and thus, from Equations (14-24) and (14-
26), the higher the lsp· What about R? Remember from Equation (14-12), R
is inversely proportional to the propellant's molecular mass. Molecular
mass is a measure of the mass per molecule of propellant. Thus, to
improve l5P for thermodynamic rockets, we try to maximize the
combustion temperature while minimizing the molecular mass of the
propellant. We can express this relationship more compactly as
T combustion
M (14-27)
where
lsp = specific impulse (s)
Tcombustion = combustion temperature (K)
M = molecular mass (kg/ mole)
[Note: The symbol "tx" means proportional to]
As a result, the most efficient thermodynamic systems operate at the
highest temperature with the propellants having the lowest molecular
mass. For this reason, hydrogen is often the fuel of choice because it has
the lowest possible molecular mass and achieves high temperatures in
combustion. Unfortunately, the low molecular mass also means low
density. Thus, while hydrogen systems achieve high 15P' they often don't
do well in lctsp· Designers must trade mass versus volume efficiency
depending on the mission requirements.
Finally, we like to know what total thrust our rocket produces. After
all, that's why we have a rocket in the first place! We can relate
characteristic exhaust velocity, C*, to effective exhaust velocity, C,
through yet another parameter called the thrust coefficient, CF.
I CF a Z• I (14-28)
where
CF = thrust coefficient (unitless)
C = effective exhaust velocity (m/ s)
C" = characteristic exhaust velocity (m/ s)
We can also relate the thrust coefficient to the thrust, F, chamber pressure,
Pc, and throat area, At through
(14-29)
where
F = thrust (N)
Pc = chamber pressure (N / m2)
At = throat area (m2)
549
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Using this parameter, we can compare the measured rocket thrust to the
ideal from theoretical modeling, to determine how well a nozzle converts
enthalpy into kinetic energy. Like characteristic exhaust velocity, the
thrust coefficient gives us a way to determine the performance of a
nozzle, independent of the combustion chamber. Again, no nozzle is
perfect. However, a well-designed nozzle, for the correct expansion
conditions, should achieve at least 95% of predicted performance.
Summary. Let's review what we've discussed about thermodynamic
rockets. Figure 14-17 further expands our systems view of a thermody-
namic rocket and summarizes important performance parameters. Recall,
there are two important steps to the rocket propulsion process-energy
transfer and acceleration. These two steps take place in the combustion
chamber and nozzle, respectively. The most important output is the
thrust that moves a vehicle from point A to point B.
[ propellant ]+
combustion chamber: nozzle : converts low-
transfers energy to a velocity, high-enthalpy
propellant to create high- combustion products
enthalpy combustion into high-velocity
products. exhaust.
performance depends on performance depends on
-P, - chamber pressure • E - expansion ratio
• T,. - chamber ternerature • p atmosphere - atmospheric
•y (depends on Tc and M) pressure
[energy ~
Figure 14-17. Expanded Systems View of a Thermodynamic Rocket. In this expanded view of a
thermodynamic rocket system, we can see the various inputs, processes, and outputs. Propellant and
energy combine in the combustion chamber to produce high-enthalpy products. The performance of this
process depends on Ille chamber pressure (P cl, the chamber temperature (Tc), and the molecular mass
of the propellants (M). The ratio of specific heats, y, (which depends on Mand Tc) Is another guide to
performance. The nozzle converts these high-enthalpy products to high-velocity flow. The noz.zle
periormance depends on its expansion ratio, E, and the outside atmospheric pressure (Pal· The final
output is high-speed flow that produces thrust. Total thrust depends on the mass flow rate ( rn ) , and the
exhaust velocity (C).
Now that we've filled your head with the behavior of gasses (or blown
a lot of hot air, depending on how you look at it), let's put all these
principles together by looking at one specific example-the simplest type
of thermodynamic rocket in use, a cold-gas rocket.
Cold-gas Rockets. A cold-gns rocket uses primarily mechanical energy in
the form of pressurized propellant as its energy source, similar to the toy
balloon example we talked about at the beginning of the chapter. While
spacecraft designers don't send balloons into orbit, the basic principles of
cold-gas rockets aren't that different. A coiled spring stores mechanical
energy that can be converted to work, such as running an old-fashioned,
550
14.1 Rocket Science
wind-up watch. Similarly, any fluid under pressure has stored mechanical
energy that can be used to do work. Any rocket system containing fluids
under pressure (and virtually all do) uses this mechanical energy in some
way. As we'll see, usually this energy is a minor contribution to the overall
energy of the propellant. However, for cold-gas rockets, this is the primary
energy the propellant has.
Table 14-1 summarizes basic principles and propellants used by cold-gas
rockets and Figure 14-18 shows a diagram of a simple cold-gas system. armature
Table 14-1. Summary of Cold-gas Rockets.
gas storage tank
Operating Principle Uses the mechanical energy contained in a compressed gas and
thermodynamically expands the gas through a nozzle producing
high-velocity exhaust
gas exhaust nozzle
Propellants Helium (He), Nitrogen (N2), Carbon dioxide (C02), or virtually any
compressed gas
Advantages • Extremely simple
• Reliable
• Safe, low-temperature operation
• Short impulse bit (thrust pulses)
Disadvantages Low 1 5p and ldsp compared to other types of rockets
Figure 14-18. A Cold-gas Thruster. A cold-
Example UoSAT-12 Cold-gas thrusters gas thruster is perhaps the simplest example of
a rocket. In a typical thruster, shown in the cross-
Propellant= N2, Pc= 4 bar, Thrust = 0.1 N, lsp = 65 s sectional drawing (upper), a gas enters from !he
right and stays behind the solenoid seal until it
opens on command releasing the gas through
Cold-gas rockets are very reliable and can be turned on and off the nozzle. (Courtesy of Poly/lex Aerospace,
repeatedly, producing very small, finely controlled thrust pulses (also Ltd., U.K.)
called impulse bits)-a desirable characteristic for attitude control. A good
example of them is on the manned maneuvering unit (MMU) that was
used by Shuttle astronauts. The MMU, shown in Figure 14-19, uses
compressed nitrogen and numerous small thrusters to give astronauts
complete freedom to maneuver.
Unfortunately, due to their relatively low thrust and I5 , we typically use
cold-gas systems only for attitude control or limited orbital maneuvering
on small spacecraft. Even so, they can serve as a good example of trading
some of the basic rocket parameters we've talked about in this section.
Figure 14-20 presents the results of analyzing five variations of the same
basic cold-gas rocket. From the baseline design using nitrogen as the
propellant at room temperature (298 K) and 5 bar (72.5 p.s.i.) chamber
pressure, the figure shows the effects of increasing Pc or Tc, and reducing E,
or lowering the molecular mass (and y) of the propellant by switching to
helium. From this analysis, we can draw some general conclusions about
basic trade-offs in thermodynamic rocket design
• Increasing chamber pressure increases thrust (with little or no effect Figure 14-19. Manned Maneuvering Unit
on specific impulse or density specific impulse) (MMU). The MMU relies on small nitrogen cold-
gas rockets to move astronauts around in
• Increasing chamber temperature increases specific impulse and space. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space
density specific impulse with a slight decrease in thrust Center)
551
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
• Decreasing expansion ratio (under-expanded condition) decreases
specific impulse, density specific impulse and thrust
• Decreasing propellant molecular mass increases specific impulse at
the expense of decreasing density specific impulse and thrust
We'll apply these results to the specific problem of picking a thruster
for the FireSat mission in Example 14-1.
Increase Chamber Pressure: Increase Temperature:
Propellant: 1 itrogen (N2) Propellant: Nitrogen ( 2)
Chamber pressure: I' e= 10 bar (145 psi) Chamber pressure: Pc -5 bar (72.5 psi)
Temperature: T, = 298 K Temperature: Tc= 500 K
Expansion ratior s » 100 Expansion ratio: r = 100
Performance Performance
l5r = 79 s ( + 0%) Idsp ~ 18 s (+ OA:.) l.p = 101 s (+ 28%) ldsp = 23 s (-~ 28%)
C" = 434 m/s (+ 0%) Thrust » 1.42 N (+ ioos» C'=563m/s(+28%) Thrust=0.7 1(-1.4%)
Assumptions:
Propellant stored at 200 bar Baseline:
Propellant temperature = 298 K Propellant: Nitrogen (N2)
Throat diameter= 1 mm Chamber pressure: l'c = S bar (72.5 psi)
Exit diameter= 10 mm Temperature: Tc= 298 K
Expanding to vacuum Expansion ratio:£= 100
(P.itrnusphere = 0) Performance
ON,= 0.23
oH~ = 0.03
Decrease Expansion Ratio:
-: l,p = 79 S ldsp - 18 S
C* = 434 m/ s Thrust= O.TJ N
Decrease Propellant Weight:
Propellant: Nitrogen (N0 Propellant: Helium (Hei.)
Chamber pret;sure: Pe= 5 bar (72.5 psi) Chamber pressure: Pc= 5 bar (72.5 psi)
Temperature: Tc = 298 K Temperature: Tc= 298 K
Expansion ratio: s = 50 Expansion ratio: e = I 00
Performance Performance
l,;p = 77.b S (- 1.8%,) lctsp = 17.8 5 (- t:1%) lsp = 178 s ( I 126%) ldsp = 5.3 S (-7l%)
'=434 m/s (+ 0%) Thmst=0.7 N (+ J.6%) C = 1084 va]« (+ 150%) Thrust = 0.64 N (-10%)
Figure 14-20. Cold-gas Rocket Trade-offs. This figure illustrates various trade-offs in rocket design by looking at the
simplest type of rocket-a cold-gas thruster. From the baseline case using nitrogen as the propellant, the specific Impulse,
density specific impulse, characteristic exhaust velocity, C", and thrust are affected by changing chamber pressure, chamber
temperature, expansion ratio, and the molecular mass of the propellant. (Analysis courtesy of the Johnson Rocket Company)
Electromagnetic Acceleration
We've spent considerable time in this section discussing thermo-
dynamic expansion and acceleration of exhaust using nozzles to convert
propellant with thermodynamic energy into high-speed flow. But there is
a second method for propellant acceleration currently gaining wider use
on spacecraft-electrodynamic acceleration. To take advantage of this
method, we must start with a charged propellant. In Chapter 13 we
presented the force of attraction (or repulsion) between charges. Recall,
this force depends on the strength of the charges involved and the
distance between them. We expressed this as Coulomb's Law
552
14.l Rocket Science
..,.
F (14-30)
where
..,.
F = electrostatic force vector on charge 1 (N)
K = constant (9 x 109) (N m2 I C2)
Q value of charge 1 (coulombs, C)
=
q = value of charge 2 (coulombs, C)
R = distance between charges (m)
R = unit vector in the direction of the force (unitless)
An electric field exists when there is a difference in charge between two
points. That is, there is a large imbalance between positive and negative
charges in a confined region. We call the energy an electric field can
transmit to a unit charge the electrical potential, described in terms of
volts Im. The resulting force on a unit charge is called an electrostatic force.
If you've ever rubbed a balloon through your hair and stuck it to a
wall, then you've seen a simple example of electrostatic force in action. As
you rubbed the balloon through your hair it picked up a net positive
charge. When placed against the wall (initially neutral) the positive
charges on the surface are pushed away leaving a net negative charge.
The opposite charges attract each other creating a force strong enough to
keep the balloon in place, despite the pull of gravity. The strength of the
electrostatic force is a function of the charge and the electric field.
I Fi. ,. = miai. ,.
8
= qiE~ (14-31) 8
where 8
Fi = electrostatic force vector (N) 8
mi = mass of the charged particle (kg)
ai = acceleration vector of the charged particle (m/ s2)
8
qi = charge on the particle (coulombs, C)
electrostatic
force (F) 8
~
E = electric field vector (electrical potential) (VI m)
8
8
Figure 14-21 illustrates this principle. Notice, the direction of the force is
parallel to the electric field. 8
Electrodynamic rockets take advantage of this principle to create 8
thrust. In the simplest application, they only need some charged
propellant and an electric field. As with any rocket, the two key
8
performance parameters are thrust, F, and specific impulse, Isp· From 8
Equation (14-2), we know thrust depends on the mass flow rate, m , and
the effective exhaust velocity, C
Figure 14-21. Electrostatic Force. An
F=m C electric field exists when there is an imbalance
between positive and negative charges in a
From Equation (14-8) we know specific impulse, I5p, directly relates to C by confined region. This field will impart an
electrostatic force on a charged particle within
C = Ispgo the field, accelerating it.
553
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
In an electrodynamic rocket, we achieve high m by having a high density
of charged propellant. High exhaust velocity comes from having a strong
electric field and I or applying the electrostatic force for a longer time. We
can summarize these effects on performance as follows
• Higher charge density- higher m - higher thrust
• Stronger electric field - stronger electrostatic force on the propellant
- higher acceleration - higher exhaust velocity - higher l5P
Thus, by varying the charge density and the applied field, we can create a
wide range of thruster designs. Naturally, there are practical design issues
that limit how high we can increase each of these parameters. Let's start
with charge density.
Charge density is limited by the nature of the propellant and how it is
charged. Earlier, we defined an ion as a positively charged propellant
molecule that has had one or more electrons "stripped off." Ions are
handy in that they are simple to accelerate in an electric field. Unfortu-
nately, when we try to pack lots of positive ions into a small, confined
space, they tend to repel each other. This creates a practical limit to the
achievable charge density.
One way around this density limit is to create a plasma with the
propellant. A plasma is an electrically neutral mixture of ions and free
electrons. Common florescent lamps or neon lights create a plasma when
turned on. When a gas, such as neon, is in a strong electric field, the
electrons become only weakly bound to the molecules creating a "soup"
of ions and free electrons. The glow results from electrons jumping back
and forth between energy states within the molecule. Because it is
electrically neutral, a plasma can contain a much higher charge density
than a collection of ions alone.
So far we've only considered the acceleration effect from an applied
electric field. However, whenever we apply an electric field to a plasma, it
creates (induces) a magnetic field. Charged particles also accelerate by
magnetic fields but at right angles to the field, instead of parallel to it. To
determine the combined effect of electric and magnetic fields on a
charged particle, we must look at the cross product of their interaction.
(14-32)
where
~
Fem = electromagnetic force on a charged particle (N)
mi = charged particle's mass (kg)
aem = electromagnetic acceleration (m/ s2)
~
E = electric field vector (VI m)
~
Vi = particle's velocity vector (m/s)
B = magnetic field vector ( tesla)
554
14.1 Rocket Science
Some types of electrodynamic rockets rely on this combined effect to
produce thrust. However, for most cases, the electrostatic force dominates
and we can ignore the effect of the magnetic field for simple analysis of
performance.
When we consider the second parameter that limits thruster
performance, the strength of the electric field, we can focus mainly on the
practical limits of applied power. From Equation (14-4) the jet power of a
rocket is
PJ _ 1 .
- 2m
c' (14-33)
Thus, for a given charge density, the exhaust velocity increases with the
square root of the power. That is, if we apply 4 times the power, the
exhaust velocity will only double. As we'd expect, there are practical
limits to the amount of power available in any spacecraft, thus limiting
the ultimate performance of electrodynamic rockets.
While exhaust velocity (and l5p) goes up with power, there is a trade-
off between thrust and exhaust velocity, as illustrated by the following
relationship
(14-34)
where
F = thrust (N)
P = power (W)
C = effective exhaust velocity (m/ s)
[Note: The symbol "ex." means proportional to]
Therefore, when designing an electrodynamic thruster, for the same input
power you can have high exhaust velocity or high thrust, but not both at
the same time. In Section 14.2 we'll look at some specific examples of
electrodynamic thrusters and compare their performance. It is important
to note that this relationship is derived from conservation of energy and
applies to electrodynamic rockets as well as thermodynamic rockets that
rely on an external energy source (such as resistojets and arcjets as well,
see in Section 14.2).
555
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
- Section Review
Key Terms Key Equations (Continued)
adiabatic flow Ae
F thrust E
Bernoulli Principle Isp
111 g0 At
characteristic exhaust velocity, C*
charge Isp =
c C*
P,At
111
cold-gas rocket 80
density specific impulse, Idsp
effective exha~st velocity, C
electric field, E
= C\[(-2
g
)(-2 )~::]~
y -1 y + 1
0
electrical potential P pRT
electrodynamic energy Tcombustion
h u+ Pv lsp ex M
electrodynamic rocket
electrostatic force 111 = pV A c
expansion ratio, E CF= C*
1 2
ideal rocket equation h+ V = constant
impulse
2
impulse bits a0 = Jy RT
ion
isentropic
isentropic flow ~ ....:.. ~ ~ ~
Mach Number, Ma dA = (M2 - l)dV Fem = miaem = qi(E +Vix B)
mass flow rate A a V 2P
Fo::-
molecular mass A. C
momentum thrust C = V exit+ t;'1(P exit - p;itmosphcre)
nozzles
plasma Key Concepts
power
~ As a system, a rocket takes in mass and energy and converts them into
pressure thrust
thrust
prop llant
ratio of specific heats, y • Rocket thrust is a result of Newton's Third Law "For every action,
specific enthalpy, h there is an equal but opposite reaction," Rockets eject high-velocity
specific impulse, Isp mass in one direction causing the rocket to go in the other direction.
thermodynamic energy • Total thrust delivered depends on the velocity of the mass ejected
thermodynamic rocket (effective exhaust velocity, C) and how much mass is ejected in a
thrust given time (mass flow rate, 111)
thrust coefficient, CF • You can find the amount of velocity change, t.V, a rocket delivers for
total impulse, I a given amount of propellant using the rocket equation
venturi effect
• Specific impulse, Isp' measures a rocket's efficiency in terms of
Key Equations propellant mass. The higher the I5p, the less propellant mass needed
to deliver the same total impulse. Isp is a function of a rocket's
Fthrust = mC exhaust velocity.
I aa FM = t.p • Density specific impulse, Ids , describes a rocket's efficiency in
I terms of propellant volume. ;he higher the ldsp' the less propellant
Isp aa ------
- t,mpropellant 80 volume needed to deliver the same total impulse.
Continued on next page
556
14.1 Rocket Science
- Section Review (Continued)
Key Concepts (Continued)
> Within a rocket system, there are two main processes at work
• First, energy must be transferred to the propellant (in the form of heat, pressure, or charge)
• Second, the energized propellant must be converted to high-velocity exhaust
> We classify rockets based on the form of energy they use
• Thermodynamic rockets-rely on thermodynamic energy (heat and pressure)
• Electrodynamic rockets-rely on electrodynamic energy from charged parlicles moving in electric and
magnetic fields
> Thermodynamic expansion within a rocket nozzle depends on fluid mechanics
• Hot gasses within a rocket's combustion chamber obey (more or less) the perfect gas law
• Specific enthalpy, h, describes the total energy in the combustion products
• Rockets trade specific enthalpy, h, for kinetic energy (velocity)
• The Bernoulli Principle relates how the Mach Number of the flow changes depending on whether the
area is contracting or expanding
If the flow is initially subsonic (Ma < 1), the flow will increase in velocity as it enters the converging
section of the nozzle
- By design, at the nozzle throat, Ma =1
- As the flow enters the diverging s ction of the nozzle, its velocity continues to increase to Ma>> 1
> Nozzle performance depends on the total expansion and the external atmospheric pressure
• Effective exhaust velocity is a function of momentum thrust plus pressm·e thrust, Momentum th.rust
results from the action/ reaction of expelled mass. Pressure thrust results from the difference in pressure
between the exhaust gases and the atmo pheric pressure. An ideally xpanded nozzle produces no
pressme thrust,
> Experimental rocket development depends on predicting and measuring several important parameters
• Characteristic exhaust velocity, C*, relates the chamber pressure, nozzle throat area, and mass flow rate.
We can predict an ideal value for C* for a given set of propellants using thermodynamic models.
• Ideal specific impulse, l5p, is a function of the combustion temperature and the molecular mass of the
propellants. High I5P results from the highest temperature and lowest molecular mass (e.g., hydrogen).
> Electrodynamic rockets use electric and magnetic fields to accelerate charged particles in a propellant.
Charges can be either positive or negative. Like charges repel and opposite charges attract.
• An electric field applies an electrostatic force to charged particles. The force of acceleration, hence the
thrust and exhaust velocity, depends on the strength of the field and the charge on the particle.
• Higher Charge Density - higher m - higher thrust. We produce ions when we strip electrons from
neutral molecules, leaving a net positive charge. Plasmas can achieve a higher charge density because
they are an electrically neutral mixture of ions and electrons.
• Stronger electric field - stronger electrostatic force on the propellant - higher acceleration - higher
velocity -» higher exhaust velocity - higher lsp- The available power limits the strength of the electric
field.
557
Example 14-1
Problem Statement
The propellant tank for the FireSat spacecraft must fit
within a cylinder 0.15-m in diameter and 0.15-m long. p storage
Designers have selected a cold-gas rocket for the PHe =
RHe T storage
mission to provide station keeping. However, there is
some disagreement over the type of propellant to use. 3) Determine the mass of each propellant available
Helium gas will provide an effective exhaust velocity
of 1766 m/s, while nitrogen will provide only 787 ml mN 2 = tank volume PN2
s. Assuming either gas would be stored at 200 bar and mHe = tank volume PHe
at a temperature of 298 K, which propellant option will
provide the most mission t,.V? Recall that the deployed 4) Determine total t,. V available from each propellant
mass of FireSat will be 15 kg.
Problem Summary
mfinal He= mspacecraft - mHe
Given: mspacecraft = 15 kg
Pstorage = 200 bar t,. VHe = CHeln(mspacecraft)
Tstorage = 298 K mfinal He
bar = 1.0 x 105 Pa
CN 2 = 787 m/s
CHe = 1766 m/s Analytical Solution
tank diameter= 0.15 m
1) Determine total volume of propellant available
tank length= 0.15 m
2
mHe = 4.00 kg I 1000 mole tank vo 1 ume = n ( tank diameter) t a nk 1eng th
2
mN2 = 28.01 kg I 1000 mole
R = 8314.41 J /1000 mole K = 3.1416 (0·1; m) \o.15)
Find: total t,. V for each propellant
tank volume= 2.651 x 10-3 m3 = 2.651 liters
2) Solve Equation (14-12) for the storage density of
Conceptual Solution each propellant
1) Determine total volume of propellant available 8314.41 JI 1000 mole K =
296 8_J_
28.01 kg/1000 mole · kgK
tank diameter) 2
tank volume = rr ( tank length
2 p storage 200 bar
PNz = R T
N2 storage
2) Solve Equation (14-12) for the storage density of ( 296.8k~K) (298 K)
each propellant
200 x 105Pa
R
RN= - 4 J
2 MN 2 8.446 x 10 kg
pstorage
PN 2 = PN2 = 226.1~
RN2T storage m
558
Example 14-1 (Continued)
8314.41 Jl1000moleK Interpretingthe Results
4.00 kg I 1000 mole
Even though helium provides more than twice the
J effective exhaust velocity of nitrogen gas, for a
= 2078.6kgK volume-constrained mission such as FireSat, nitrogen
provides three times the total t,,. V. So, we'll pick
pstorage 200 bar nitrogen because we get more t,,. V for the same volume
PHe = of gas. Thus, for many small satellite missions, density
RHe T storage
( 2078.6 k~K) ( 298 K) specific impulse, IctsP' is more important than specific
impulse, Isp·
200 x 105Pa
6.1942 x 105 Jg
PHe 32.29~
m
3) Determine the mass of each propellant available
mN2 = tank volume (PN) = 2.651 liter (226.1~)
m
mN2 = 0.5994 kg
mHe = tank volume PHe = 2.651 liter ( 32.29~)
m
mHe = 0.0856 kg
4) Determine total t,,. V available from each propellant
mfinal N2 = mspacecraft - mN2 = 15 kg - 0.5994 kg
= 14.40 kg
t,,.VN = C
2 N2
ln(mspacecraft)
mfinal N2 ( 787 m) ( 15 kg )
s ln 14.40 kg
t,,.VN2 = 32.09 mis
mfinal He= mspacecraft - mHe = 15 kg - 0.0856 kg
= 14.91 kg
'-Av
'- He = c Hen
1 (mspacecraft)
mfinal He
( 1766sm) ln ( 14.1591kgkg)
= t,,.VHe = 10.107 mis
559
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
14.2 Propulsion Systems
~ In This Section You'll Learn to ...
,.- D cribe the key components of propulsion subsystems
,.- Explain the basic operating principles for the different types of
rockets currently in use and compare their relative advantages and
disadvantages
..- Discuss future concepts for exotic propulsion subsystems that
produce thrust without mass
Section 14.1 gave us an exhaustive look at rockets as a system. We saw
--------------7'1 how they take two inputs, propellant plus energy, and convert them into
desired thrust. But rockets, as important as they are, comprise only one part of an
thrust entire propulsion subsystem. In this section, we'll concentrate less on
rocket theory and more on propulsion-system technology to learn what
essential components we need, and how they're put together.
Figure 14-22 shows a block diagram for an entire propulsion system.
To design a specific system, we start with the desired thrust, usually at
----------, some very specific time. The propulsion-system controller manages these
propellant I inputs and formulates commands to send to the propellant management
management actuators to turn the flow of propellant on or off. For some systems, the
controller also manages the energy input to the rocket. For example, in an
electrodynamic rocket, the system has to interface with the spacecraft's
electrical-power subsystem (EPS) to ensure it provides the required
power. The controller uses sensors extensively to monitor the tempera-
ture and pressure of the propellant throughout the system.
One of the two key inputs to a rocket is propellant. In this section, we'll
thrust
start by looking at propellant management, how to store liquid or
gaseous propellants, and supply them to the rocket as needed. We'll then
Figure 14-22. Block Diagram of a Com- review in detail most of the thermodynamic and electrodynamic rocket
plete PropulsionSubsystem. A propulsion
subsystem uses the desired end state (spe-
technologies currently in use or on the drawing boards. Following this
cific thrust at a specific time), plus inputs from discussion, we'll look briefly at important factors for selecting and testing
sensors, to determine commands for the pro- propulsion subsystems. Finally, rocket scientists are always striving to
pellant management and the energy control
systems to produce the system output-
improve propulsion subsystem performance, so we'll look at what exotic
thrusl. concepts may someday take us to the stars.
560
14.2 Propulsion Systems
Propellant Management
All rockets need propellant. The job of storing propellant and getting it
where it needs to go at the right time is called propellant management. The
propellant management portion of a propulsion subsystem has four main
tasks
• Propellant storage
• Pressure control
• Temperature control
• Flow control
Let's look briefly at the requirements and hardware for each of these
tasks.
Just as your car has a gas tank to store gasoline, propulsion subsystems
need tanks to store propellant. We normally store gaseous propellants,
such as nitrogen for cold-gas rockets, in tanks under high pressure to
minimize their volume. Typical gas storage pressures are 200 bar (2900
p.s.i.) or more. Unfortunately, we can't make a liquid propellant denser by
storing it under pressure. However, depending on how we pressurize the
liquid propellant for delivery to the combustion chamber, we may need to
design the storage tanks to take high pressure as well. In any case,
propellant tanks are typically made from aluminum, steel, or titanium and
designed to withstand whatever pressure the delivery system requires.
As we presented in Section 14.1, combustion chamber pressure is an
important factor in determining rocket thrust. This pressure depends on
the delivery pressure of the propellants. Pressurizing the flow correctly is - high pressure
gas
another function of propellant management. There are two approaches to
achieving high-pressure flow: pressure-fed systems and pump-fed
systems.
As Figure 14-23 shows, a pressure-fed propellant system relies on either a
gaseous propellant stored under pressure, or a separate tank attached to
the main tank, filled with an inert, pressurized gas, such as nitrogen or
helium, to pressurize and expel a liquid propellant. The high-pressure gas
"squeezes" the liquid propellant out of the storage tank at the same
pressure as the gas, like blowing water out of a straw.
To minimize volume, the storage pressure of the gas is typically much
higher than the pressure needed in the combustion chamber. To reduce,
or regulate the high pressure in the storage tank to the lower pressure for
propellant delivery, we typically use mechanical regulators. As high
pressure gas flows into a regulator, the gas pushes against a carefully
designed diaphragm. The resulting balance of forces maintains a constant
flow rate but at a greatly reduced output pressure. For example, a gas
stored at 200 bar may pass through a regulator that reduces it to 20 bar
before it goes into a liquid propellant tank. Pressure regulators are F1gure 14-23. Pressure-fed Propellant Sys-
tem. In a pressure-fed propulsion subsystem,
common devices, found in most rocket plumbing systems. Scuba tanks
high pressure gas forces the liquid propellant
use regulators to reduce high pressure air, stored in the tank, to a safe, into the combustion chamber under pressure,
lower pressure for breathing. much like blowing liquid through a straw.
561
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
The main drawback of pressure-fed systems is that the amount of
oxidizer liquid propellant in the tank (or tanks) relates directly to the amount of
tank pressurizing gas needed. For very large propulsion subsystems, such as
on the Space Shuttle, the propellant-management subsystem must deliver
enormous quantities of high-pressure propellant to the combustion
chamber each second. To do this using a pressure-fed system would
require additional large, high-pressure gas tanks, making the entire
launch vehicle larger and heavier. Instead, most launch vehicles use
pump-fed delivery systems.
Pump-fed delivery systems rely on pumps to take low pressure liquid and
move it toward the combustion chamber at high pressure, as shown in
Figure 14-24. Pumps impart kinetic energy to the propellant flow,
increasing its pressure. Modern cars use electrical power to turn a small
pump that moves gasoline from the tank to the engine under pressure. On
the Space Shuttle, massive turbo pumps burn a relatively small amount of
H2 and 02 to produce mechanical energy. This energy takes the liquid
Figure 14-24. Pump-fed Propellant Man- propellants normally stored at a few bars and boosts the feed pressure to
agement. In a pump-led system, turbine-driven over 480 bar (7000 p.s.i.) at a flow rate of 2.45 x 105 liters/ s (6.5 x 104 gal. Is).
pumps use mechanical energy to increase the
pressure of the propellants for delivery to the Spinning at over 30,000 r.p.m., the Shuttle propellant pumps could empty
combustion chamber. an average-sized swimming pool in only 1.5 seconds! (Figure 14-25)
Regardless of the propellant-delivery system, the pressure of
SSME powerhcad propellants and pressurizing gasses must be constantly monitored.
Pressure transducers are small electromechanical devices used to measure
the pressure at various points throughout the system. This information is
fed back to the automatic propellant controller and sent to ground
controllers via telemetry channels.
Temperature control for propellant and pressurant gases is another
fuel important propellant-management function. The ideal gas law tells us
turbo-
ptunp ·no7..ZIC" forward
manifold
that a higher gas temperature causes a higher pressure and vice versa.
The propellant-management subsystem must work with the spacecraft's
lfl:== environmental control and life support subsystem (ECLSS) to maintain
Figure 14-25. Space Shuttle Main Engine gases at the right temperature and to prevent liquid propellants from
(SSME). The SSMEs use turbine pumps to
feed the liquid hydrogen and oxygen to the freezing or boiling. In the deep cold of outer space, there is a danger of
combustion chamber. (Courtesy of NASA! propellants freezing. For instance, hydrazine, a common spacecraft
Marshall Space Flight Center)
propellant, freezes at 0° C. Usually, the spacecraft ECLSS maintains the
spacecraft well above this temperature, but in some cases exposed
propellant lines and tanks may need heaters to keep them warm.
On launch vehicles, propellant thermal management often has the
opposite problem. It must maintain liquid oxygen (LOX) and liquid
hydrogen (LH2) at temperatures hundreds of degrees below zero,
centigrade. Using insulation helps control the temperature, however,
some boil off of propellants prior to launch is inevitable and must be
planned for, as shown in Figure 14-26.
Finally, the propellant-management subsystem must control the flow
Figure 14-26. Keeping Things Cool. Cryo-
genic propellants, such as liquid oxygen and liq· of gases and liquids. It does this using valves. Valves come in all shapes
uid hydrogen on the Shuttle, must remain and sizes to handle different propellants, pressures, and flow rates.
hundreds of degrees below zero. The cap on the
top of the main tank helps control propellant boil Technicians use fill and drain valves to fill (and sometimes, drain) the
off. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center) tanks prior to launch. Tiny, electrically controlled, low-pressure valves
562
14.2 Propulsion Systems
pulse cold-gas thrusters on and off to deliver precise, micro-amounts of
thrust. Large pyrotechnic valves mounted below liquid-propellant tanks
keep them sealed until ignition. When the corrunand arrives, a pyrotechnic
charge fires, literally blowing the valve open, allowing the propellant to
flow. Of course, these types of valves are good for only one use. Propellant
control valves and pyrotechnic isolation valves are examples of high-cycle
and low-cycle mechanisms we discussed in Chapter 13.
To protect against over pressure anywhere in the system, pressure-relief
valves automatically release gas if the pressure rises above a preset value.
Check valves allow liquid to flow in only one direction, preventing back-
flow in the wrong direction. Other valves throughout the system ensure
pressure
propellant flows where it needs to when the system controller sends the
relief valve
command. Some of these other valves lead to redundant lines that ensure
thruster
the propellant flows even when a main valve malfunctions.
control
Let's briefly review the components needed for propellant manage- valv
ment. Propellants and pressurant gas are stored in tanks. Below the tanks,
valves control the flow throughout the system and regulators reduce the
pressure where needed. Transducers and other sensors measure pressure Figure 14-27. FireSat Propulsion Sub-
system. Even a relatively simple system such
and temperature at various points in the system. Figure 14-27 shows a as a cold-gas thruster for a small satellite like
possible schematic for the FireSat propulsion subsystem, based on using a FireSat requires tanks, valves, and sensors to
single, cold-gas thruster. Now that we've shown how propellant gets to measure and control the propellant flow.
the rocket, let's look at various types, shapes, and sizes of rockets.
-----Astra FunFact-------
LostinSpace
Mars Observer was a NASA mission to study Mars, including its surface,
atmosphere, interior, and magnetic field from Martian orbit. The mission
was designed to operate for one full Martian year (687 Earth days) to
permit observations of the planet through its four seasons. The spacecraft
also carried a radio relay package designed to receive information from
the planned Mars Balloon Experiment carried on the planned Russian
Mars '94 mission for retransmission to Eatth. Observer was launched
successfully on September 25, 1992, by a Titan 11/e-TOS from Cape
Canaveral, Florida, and cruised well until arriving at Mars. However, for
reasons unknown at the time, contact was lost with Observer just as it
arrived on August 21, 1993, when operators sent a command to ignite its
(Courtesy of NASA/Goddard thrusters to enter Mars orbit. Speculations were that it may have blown up
Space Flight Center) during ignition, been destroyed by a meteorite, or may have simply frozen
after having lost orientation. Later investigation indicated that the problem
was probably due to a propulsion subsystem explosion caused by propellant leaking past a faulty check valve. The
loss of Mars Observer underscores the costs and risl<s of interplanetary exploration.
Wade, Mark. "The Mars Observer." Encyclopedia Astronautica. 10 October 1999.
563
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicle
ThermodynamicRockets
As we described in Section 14.1, thermodynamic rockets transfer
thermodynamic energy (heat and pressure) to a propellant and then
convert the energized propellant into high-speed exhaust using nozzles.
There are a wide variety of thermodynamic rockets currently available or
being considered. We can classify these based on their source of energy
• Cold gas-use mechanical energy of a gas stored under pressure
• Chemical-rely on chemical energy (from catalytic decomposition or
combustion of propellants) to produce heat
• Solar thermal-use concentrated solar energy to produce heat
• Thermoelectric-use the heat produced from electrical resistance
• Nuclear thermal-use the heat from a nuclear reaction
Because we examined simple cold-gas rockets in detail in the last section,
here we'll review the other four types and compare their relative
performances.
Chemical Rockets
The vast majority of rockets in use today rely on chemical energy.
When we strike a match, the match head ignites the wood and the flame
results from a combustion process. The fuel-the wood in the match-is
chemically combining with the oxygen in the air to form various chemical
by-products (CO, C02, water, etc.) and, most importantly, heat. In
chemical rockets, the propellants release energy from their chemical bonds
during combustion. The Space Shuttle relies on chemical rockets, as
shown in Figure 14-28. In the Shuttle main engines, liquid hydrogen (H2)
and liquid oxygen (02) combine in the most basic of chemical reactions
(14-35)
All combustion reactions must have a Juel (such as hydrogen) plus an
oxidizer (such as oxygen). These two combine, liberating a vast amount of
heat and creating by-products that form the exhaust. The heat transfers to
the combustion products, raising their temperatures. This chemical reac-
tion and energy transfer takes place in the combustion chamber. Although
the propellants arrive in the combustion chamber under pressure, deliv-
ered by the propellant-management subsystem, this mechanical energy is
small compared to the thermal energy released by the chemical reaction.
Chemical rockets generally fall into one of three categories
Figure 14-28. Chemical Rockets.Chemical • Liquid
rockets use the energy stored in the propellants.
The Space Shuttle main engines and solld- • Solid
rocket boosters are two examples of chemical
rockets. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space • Hybrid
Center)
Let's briefly review the operating principles and performance parameters
of each.
564
14.2 Propulsion Systems
Liquid-chemical Rockets. Liquid-chemical rockets are usually one of
two types: bipropellant or monopropellant. As the name implies,
bipropellani rockets use two liquid propellants. One is a fuel, such as liquid
hydrogen (LH2) and the other, an oxidizer, such as liquid oxygen (LOX)
(Figure 14-29). Brought together under pressure in the combustion
chamber by the propellant-management subsystem, the two compounds
chemically react (combust), releasing vast quantities of heat and producing
combustion products (these vary depending on the propellants). To insure
complete, efficient combustion, the oxidizer and fuel must mix in the
correct proportions. The oxidizer/fuel ratio (0/F) is the proportion, by mass,
of oxidizer to fuel. 111e optimum O IF is called the stoichiometric (chemically
balanced) combination.
Some propellant combinations, such as hydrogen and oxygen, won't
spontaneously combust on contact. They need an igniter, just as your car
needs a spark plug, to get started. This need, of course, increases the
complexity of the system somewhat. So propellant chemists strive to find
combinations that react on contact. We call these propellants hypergolic
because they don't need a separate means of ignition. The combination of
hydrazine (N2H4) plus nitrogen tetroxide (N204) is an example of
hypergolic propellants.
Figure 14-29. Space Shuttle Main Engine
Another important feature in selecting a propellant is its storability. (SSME). This SSME uses liquid hydrogen and
Although the liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen combination in the liquid oxygen in a test at the Stennis Research
Space Shuttle main engines offers high performance (specific impulse Center. (Courtesy of NASNStennis Research
Center)
around 455 s), they require supercooling to hundreds of degrees below
zero, centigrade. Because of their low storage temperature, we call these
propellants cryogenic. Unfortunately, it is difficult to maintain these
extremely low temperatures for long periods (days or months). When the
mission calls for long-term storage, designers turn to storable propellants
such as hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide that can remain stable at room
temperature for a very long time (months or even years).
The Titan, an early intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), used hyper-
golic, storable propellants, because the missiles stayed deep in under-
ground silos for many years. The Shuttle uses these propellants in it's
orbital-maneuvering engines and reaction-control thrusters. The majority
of spacecraft use storable, hypergolic liquid rockets for maneuvering. The
penalty paid for the extra convenience of spontaneous combustion and
long-term storage is a much lower performance (I5P -300 s) than the
cryogenic option. In addition, current hypergolic combinations are
extremely toxic and require special handling procedures to prevent propel-
lant release. Table 14-2 summarizes key points about bipropellant rockets.
Figure 14-30 shows a a photograph of the LEROS hypergolic, bipropellant
engine that has been used on a variety of missions for final orbit insertion.
As the name implies, monopropellani chemical rockets use only a single
propellant. These propellants are relatively unstable and easily decompose
through contact with a suitable catalyst.
Hydrogen peroxide (H202) is one example of a monopropellant. People
use a low-concentration (3%), drug-store variety of this compound to
disinfect a bad scrape, or to bleach hair. Rocket-grade hydrogen peroxide,
565
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Table 14-2. Bipropellant Rockets.
Operating Principle
A liquid oxidizer and a liquid fuel react in a combustion process, liberating heal and
creating exhaust products that thermodynamically expand through a nozzle.
Typical Propellants
Oxidizers: Liquid oxygen (LOX), HTP = high-test hydrogen peroxide (>85% H200,
nitrogen tetroxide (N204)
Fuels: Liquid hydrogen (LH2), kerosene (RP-1: "rocket propellant-1" C4H6), hydrazine
(N2H4)
Advantages Disadvantages
• High lsp • Must manage two propellants
• Can be throttled • Intense combustion heat creates thermal control
• Can be re-started problems for charnoerand nozzle
also called high-test peroxide (HTP), has a concentration of 85% or more. It
is relatively safe to handle at room temperatures, but when passed through
an appropriate catalyst (such as silver), it readily decomposes into steam
(H20) and oxygen, releasing significant heat in the process. Typical HTP
reactions exceed 630° C. This relatively high temperature, combined with
the molecular mass of the reaction products, gives HTP monopropellant
rockets an I5e of about 180 s. The X-15 rocket plane and Scout launch
vehicle used these types of thrusters successfully.
By far, the most widely used rnonopropellant today is hydrazine
(N2H4). It readily decomposes when exposed to a suitable catalyst, such
as iridium, producing an l5P of about 230 s. The main disadvantage of
Figure 14-30. LEROS Bipropellant Engine.
The LEROS engine, produced by the ARC hydrazine is its high toxicity. This problem means technicians need
Royal Ordnance in the United Kingdom, is just specialized handling procedures and equipment during all testing and
one example of a blpropellant rocket. It uses
launch operations.
nitrogen tetroxide (N204) with hydrazine (N2H4)
to deliver a total thrust of 400 N at 317 s specific The biggest advantage of monopropellant over bipropellant systems is
impulse. This engine has been reliably used on simplicity. The propellant-management subsystem maintains only one set
a Mars mission and other deep space and near-
Earth missions for orbital insertion. (Courtesy of of tanks, lines, and valves. Unfortunately, there is a significant penalty in
British Aerospace Royal Ordnance) performance for this added simplicity (2/3 the I5P of a comparable bipro-
pellant system or less). However, for certain mission applications, espe-
cially station keeping and attitude control on large communication
satellites, this trade-off is well worth it. The benefit grows when we use
hydrazine as the fuel with nitrogen tetroxide in a large bi propellant rocket
for initial orbital insertion, and then by itself in a smaller, monopropellant
rocket for station keeping. Such "dual-mode" systems take advantage of
the flexibility offered by hydrazine to maximize overall system perfor-
mance and simplicity. Table 14-3 summarizes key points about monopro-
pellant rockets. Figure 14-31 shows a typical monopropellant engine.
Figure 14-31. Monopropellant Rocket. This Solid-chemical Rockets. The fireworks we watch on the 4th of July, are
22 N (5 lbf) hydrazine monopropellant engine
built by Kaiser-Marquardt delivers 235 s
a good example of solid rockets at work. Solid rockets date back
specific impulse. Al only 20 cm (8 in.) long by 4 thousands of years to the Chinese, who used them to confuse and
cm (1.5 In.) wide, It can be easily integrated frighten their enemies on the battlefield. In modern times, these rockets
into a variety of spacecraft for attitude control
and small orbital maneuvers. (Courtesy of create thrust for intercontinental ballistic missiles, as well as space-launch
Kaiser-Marquardt) vehicles.
566
14.2 Propulsion Systems
Table 14-3. Monopropellant Rockets.
Operating Principle
A single propellant decomposes using a catalyst, releasing heat and creating by-
encl gram
products that thermodynamically expand through a nozzle.
Typical Propellants
0 (neutral hw.11 ~
Hydrazine (N2H4), HTP = high-test hydrogen peroxide (>85% H202)
Advantages
• Simple, reliable
Disadvantages
• Lower lsp than bipropellant
®
~
internal burning ube
(progressive burn)
internal/external bumirn,g
• One propellant to manage ~ tube (neutral burn)
· Lower temperature reactions means fewer thermal
problems in the chamber and nozzle
@ rod and tube
(neutral burn)
Just as a liquid bipropellant rocket combines fuel and oxidizer to create
combustion, a solid rocket contains a mixture of fuel, oxidizer, along with a @ internal burning
star (neutral burn)
binder, blended in the correct proportion and solidified into a single
package called a motor. A typical composite solid-rocket fuel is powdered
aluminum. The most commonly used solid-rocket motor oxidizer is 0 dog bone
(neutral burn)
ammonium perchlorate (AP). Together, the fuel and oxidizer comprise
about 85%-90% of the rocket motor's mass, with an oxidizer/fuel ratio of
@ slots and tube
(neutral burn)
about 8:1. The remaining mass of the motor consists of a binder that holds
the other ingredients together and provides overall structural integrity.
Binders are usually a hard, rubber-like compound, such as hydroxyl-
@ slotted tube
(neutral burn)
terminated polybutadiene (HTPB). During combustion, the binder also
acts as additional fuel.
@ wagon wheel
(neutral burn]
As we learned in Section 14.1, rocket thrust depends on mass flow 1i111Mll1iiple pe:rtlioratio111s
rate. In a solid-rocket motor, this rate depends on the propellant's burn (!lll'eutiral blJL1'lil.l)
rate (kg/ s) and the burning surface area (m2). The faster the propellant Figure 14-32. Solid-propellant Grain De-
burns and the greater the burning surface area, the higher the mass flow signs. By altering the grain design, engineers
rate and the higher the resulting thrust. The propellant's burn rate cause progressive or neutral burn rates. Shaded
areas indicate propellant and blank areas
depends on the type of fuel and oxidizer, their mixture ratio, and the indicate empty space. (Courtesy of Space
binder material. The total burning area depends primarily on the inside Propulsion Analysis and Design by Humble, et.
shape of the solid propellant. During casting, designers can shape the al.)
hollow inner core (grain design) of the solid propellant to adjust the
surface area available for burning, so they can control the burning rate
and thrust (Figure 14-32). The Space Shuttle's solid-rocket motors, for
example, have a star-shaped core, shown in Figure 14-33, specifically
tailored so the thrust decreases 55 seconds into the flight to reduce
acceleration and the effects of aerodynamic forces.
Because solid-rocket-motor combustion depends on the exposed propel-
lant's surface area, manufacturers must carefully mold the propellant
mixture to prevent cracks. Burning occurs on any exposed surface, even
along undetected cracks in the propellant grain. Investigators linked the
Space Shuttle Challenger accident to an improperly sealed joint between
solid-motor segments. This open seal exposed the motor case to hot gases,
burning it through and causing the accident. Figure 14-33. Solid-propellant Shape. The
The Challenger disaster highlighted another drawback of solid motors- "star" shape of the Space Shuttle SRB controls
the burning rate, hence the thrust profile, of the
once they start, they are very difficult to stop. With a liquid rocket, we can motor. (Courtesy of NASNKennedy Space
command valves to close, turning off the flow of propellant and shutting Center)
567
Chapter 14 Rockets and LaLU1ch Vehicles
off the engine. Solid motors burn until all the propellant is gone. To stop
one prior to that requires blowing off the top or splitting it open along its
side, releasing internal pressure and thus, stopping combustion. These are
not very practical solutions on the way to orbit!
Despite their drawbacks, solid motors are used on a variety of
missions, because they offer good, cost-effective performance in a simple,
self-contained package that doesn't require a separate propellant-
management subsystem. One important use of solid motors is to
augment liquid engines on launch vehicles. For instance, without the
solid-rocket boosters, the Space Shuttle couldn't get off the ground.
Several expendable launch vehicles use various combinations of strap-on
solid motors to give users a choice in payload-lifting capacity, without the
need to redesign the entire vehicle. For example, three, six, or nine solid
motors can be added to the Delta II launch vehicle, shown in Figure 14-34,
depending on the payload mass. Solid motors also provide thrust for
strap-on upperstages for spacecraft needing a well-defined velocity
change (Li V) to go from a parking orbit into a transfer orbit.
A solid-rocket motor's specific impulse depends on the fuel and
oxidizer used. After mixing the propellants and casting the motor,
Figure 14-34. Solid-rocket Boosters. Many
launch vehicles, such as the Delta II shown manufacturers can't change the l5P or thrust. Specific impulse for typical
here, rely on solid-rocket motors to get them off solid motors currently in use range from 200-300 seconds, somewhat
the ground. (Courtesy of NASA/Marshall Space more than a liquid monopropellant rocket but slightly less than a typical,
Flight Center)
liquid bipropellant engine. Their big performance advantage is in terms
of lctsp· For example, the Shuttle's solid-rocket boosters (SRBs), have a lctsp
6% less than the Ictsp of the liquid main engines (SSMEs), even though the
I5P for the SSMEs is almost 70% higher. This makes solid motors ideal for
volume-constrained missions needing a single, large Li V. Table 14-4
summarizes key points about solid-rocket motors.
Table 14-4. Solid Rockets.
Operating Principle
An oxidizer and fuel are blended together in a single, solid grain along with a binder.
Combustion takes place along any exposed surface producing heat and by-products that
are thermodynamically expanded through a nozzle.
selrd Typical Propellants
]Pt'D pe Ila n t Fuel: Aluminum; oxidizer: Ammonium perchlorate (AP); Binder: Hydroxyl-terminated
polybutadiene (HTPB)
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple, reliable • Susceptible to cracks in the grain
• No propellant management needed • Can't restart
• High ldsp compared to bipropellant · Difficult to stop
• No combustion chamber cooling issues · Modest 15p
Figure 14-35. Hybrid Rocket Motor. A
hybrid rocket uses a solid fuel with a liquid Hybrid-chemical Rockets. Hybrid-propulsion systems combine aspects
oxidizer. This offers the flexibility of a liquid of liquid and solid systems. A typical hybrid rocket uses a liquid oxidizer
system with the simplicity and density of a solid
and a solid fuel. The molded fuel grain forms the combustion chamber
motor. Falling In between liquids and solids in
performance, hybrids have yet to see applica- and the oxidizer is injected into it, as illustrated in Figure 14-35. A
tions on launch vehicles or spacecraft. separate sparking system or a superheated oxidizer initiates combustion.
568
14.2 Pr pulsion Systems
The hybrid-combustion process is similar to burning a log in the fireplace.
Oxygen from the air combines with the log (fuel) in a fast oxidation
process and burns. If we take away the air (turn off the flow of the
oxidizer), the fire goes out. If we use a bellows or blow on the fire, we
increase the flow of air, and the fire grows.
A properly designed hybrid rocket offers the flexibility of a liquid
system with the simplicity and density of a solid motor. Hybrids are safe
to handle and store, similar to a solid, but can be throttled and restarted,
similar to a liquid engine. Their efficiencies and thrust levels are compa-
rable to solids. For example, one interesting hybrid configuration uses
high-test peroxide (HTP) oxidizer with HTPB (rubber, the same used as a
binder for solid motors) or with polyethylene (plastic) fuel. At an O IF of
8:1 this system offers an Isp of around 290 s and Idsp of around 3.8 x 105
kg/ m3 s. It has the added advantage that the HTP can be used alone as a Figure 14·36. Maximum Impulse! The
Gillette Mach 3 Challenger used HTP/HTPB
monopropellant making it a "dual-mode" system. Unfortunately, at this hybrid motors producing over 10,000 N (2248
time hybrid-rocket research and applications lag far behind liquid and lb.) thrust to reach a peak speed of 365 m.p.h.
solid systems and have yet to see operational use on launch vehicles or in an effort to set the world two-wheeled speed
record. (Courtesy of Ric/Jard Brown, Project
spacecraft. Their most dramatic, recent application has been on the world Machinery)
2-wheeled speed record attempt vehicle shown in Figure 14-36. Table 14-5
summarizes key points about hybrid rockets.
Table 14-5. Hybrid Rockets.
Operating Principle
Hybrid rockets typically use a liquid oxidizer with a solid fuel. The oxidizer is injected into
a hollow port (or ports) within the fuel grain where combustion takes place along the
boundary with the suriace.
Typical Propellants
Oxidizers: Liquid oxygen (LOX), nitrous oxide (N20), high-test hydrogen peroxide (>85%
H202)
Fuels: HTPB = hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (rubber), PE = polyethylene (plastic)
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simpler than a bipropellant system with similar performance • Limited heritage
• Safer, more flexible than solids • Modest 15p
• No combustion-chamber cooling issues
Chemical-rocket Summary. Table 14-6 compares the I5p and Idsp of the
thermodynamic rockets we've discussed in this section and compares
their performance and key features.
Solar-thermal Rockets
In chemical rockets, the heat is a by-product of a chemical reaction. But
rockets can produce heat in other ways, then transfer it directly to the
propellant using conduction and/ or convection. We discussed these heat-
transfer mechanisms in Chapter 13. One convenient source of heat is the
Sun. If you've ever played with a magnifying glass on a sunny day you've
seen the power of solar energy to produce heat. By concentrating solar
energy using mirrors or lenses, a rocket can create extremely high temper-
atures (up to 2400 K) on a focused point. By passing a propellant, such as
hydrogen, through this point, it can directly absorb the heat, reaching
569
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Table 14-6. Thermodynamic Rocket Comparison. LH2 =
liquid hydrogen; kerosene, RP-1 =
"rocket propellant-1;" N204 = nitrogen
tetroxide; N2H4 =
hydrazine; HTPB =
hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (rubber); PE =
polyethylene (plastic); HTP = high-test
hydrogen peroxide (>85% H202)-
Propellant
Combinations (0/F) ldsp
Type [Specific Gravity] lsp (s) (s) Advantages Disadvantages
Liquid • High lsp • Must manage two propellants
• Can be throttled • Intense combustion heat creates
• Can be re-started thermal-control problems for
chamber and nozzle
---
Bipropellant L02/LH2 477 462 • High lsp • Cryogenic fuel and oxidizer difficult to
(5: 1) • Environmentally friendly store
(1.15: 0.07] propellants
L02/Kerosene (RP-1) 370 385 • Storable fuel • Cryogenic oxidizer
(2.25: 1) (1 .15 : 0.8] • Good ldsp
N204/N2H4 334 429 • Storable propellants • Toxic propellants
(1.9 : 1) (1.43 : 1.00) • Good lsp
Mono- • Simple, reliable • Lower lsp than bipropellant
propellant • One propellant to manage
• Lower temperature reactions
means lewer thermal problems in
chamber and nozzle
N2H4 (hydrazine) 245 246 • Large flight heritage ·Toxic
(N/A) (1.00]
H202 (90% hydrogen 181 247 • Environmentally friendly propellant • Little flight heritage
peroxide) (NIA) [1.37]
Solid NH4CI04 (AP)/AI 300 539 • Simple, reliable • Susceptible to cracks in the
(Includes a binder • No propellant management needed propellant grain
e.g. HTPB) (3.5 : 1) • High ldsp compared to bipropellant • Difficult to stop
[1.95: 1.26] • No combustion-chamber cooling • Can't re-start
issues · Modest lsp
Hybrid H202 (90%)/PE 333 437 • Simpler than a bipropellant system • Limited heritage
(8: 1) with similar performance • Modest lsp
(1.37 : 0.90] • Safer, more flexible than solids
• No combustion-chamber cooling
issues
• Restart
very high temperature before expanding through a nozzle to achieve high
exhaust velocity. In this way, solar-thermal rockets use the limitless power
of the sun to produce relatively high thrust with high Isp-
The natural advantage of a solar-thermal rocket is the abundant source
of solar energy, eliminating the need to produce the energy on the spot or
carry it along as chemical energy. It can use virtually any propellant. The
best I5P' of course, comes from using hydrogen. Theoretical and
experimental results indicate a liquid-hydrogen, solar-thermal rocket
could achieve a specific impulse of more than 800 s. Basic engineering
problems limit thrust levels, due to inefficiencies in transferring heat
between the thermal mass that absorbs solar energy and the propellant.
However, thrusts in the several-newton range should be achievable.
570
14.2 Propulsion Systems
Another important operational challenge for solar-thermal rockets is
deploying and steering large mirrors to collect and focus solar energy.
Naturally, they would not be effective in eclipse or for interplanetary
missions far from the Sun. Several concepts for solar-thermal rockets have
been proposed, such as the one shown in Figure 14-37. However, up to
now, none have been tested in orbit. Table 14-7 summarizes key features
of solar-thermal rockets.
Table 14-7. Solar-thermal Rockets.
Operating Principle
Lenses or mirrors concentrate solar energy onto a heat-transfer chamber. A propellant,
such as liquid hydrogen. flows through the chamber, absorbs heat, and then expands
through a nozzle.
Figure 14-37. Solar-thermal Rocket. This
Typical Propellants solar-thermal rocket concentrates solar energy
Virtually any propellant can be used, but hydrogen produces the best lsp on a thermal mass that reaches very high
temperature (up to 2400 K). In this concept,
Advantages Disadvantages liquid hydrogen flows through the thermal mass,
• Limitless energy supply, can be refueled • Needs intense, direct sunlight absorbing the energy and then expanding
and re-used • Must carefully point a large mirror or lens through a nozzle, producing a thrust of over 6 N
• Potentially very high lsp (-800 s with H2) • No flight heritage (1.6 lb!) at an lsp of 750 s. (Courtesy of NASA/
Marshall Space Flight Center)
Thermoelectric Rockets
Of course, solar energy is only available when the Sun is shining. A
spacecraft in eclipse, or far from the Sun, needs another heat source. On
Earth, we commonly use electrical energy to produce heat-to heat our
homes or toast our bread. This heat comes from electrical resistance
(friction) of the current flowing through a wire. If you hold your hand
next to a conventional light bulb, you'll feel the heat produced by the
resistance of the filament in the bulb. For space applications, the energy
source is the electrical energy provided by the spacecraft's electrical-
power subsystem (EPS). By running electricity through a simple resistor,
or by creating an arc discharge, similar to a spark plug, we can create
heat. Tuermoeiectric rockets transfer this heat to the propellant by
conduction and convection.
One of the simplest examples of a thermoelectric rocket is a resistojet.
This type works much like an electric tea kettle. As we show in Figure 14-
38, electrical current flows through a metal-heating element inside a
combustion chamber. The resistance (or electrical friction) in the metal
causes it to heat up. As propellant flows around the heating element, heat
transfers to it via convection, increasing its temperature before it expands
through a nozzle.
This simple principle can be applied to virtually any propellant (NASA
even investigated using urine on the Space Station as a propellant'). The
resistojet concept can significantly increase the specific impulse of a Figure 14-38. Resistojet. A resistojet uses
conventional cold-gas rocket, making it, in effect, a hot-gas rocket with electrical resistance to produce heat inside a
thrust chamber. This heat transfers to the
increased l5P (recall our cold-gas rocket trade-off example in Section 14.1 propellant via convection to the propellant
where we increased Isp from 79 s to 101 s by increasing temperature from flowing through the chamber which then
298 to 500 K). Resistojets also improve the performance of conventional expands through a nozzle.
571
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
hydrazine monopropellant rockets by heating the exhaust products, thus
boosting their l5P by about 50% (from 200 s to over 300 s). The direct benefit
of a resistojet rocket comes from adding heat to the propellant, so the hotter
it gets, the higher its I5P and Idsp· Hydrazine resistojets are gaining wide
use, as mission designers become increasingly able to trade extra electrical
power for a savings in propellant mass. Astronauts on the International
Space Station, for example, rely on hydrazine resistojets, shown in Figure
14-39, to maintain the ISS's final mission orbit and attitude.
Figure 14-39. Resistojets at Work. The
International Space Station uses resistojets, Another method for converting electrical energy into thermal energy is
such as this one, to help maintain its orbit and by using a spark or electric arc. To form an arc, we create a gap in an
attitude. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space electrical circuit and charge it with a large amount of electricity. When the
Center)
electrical potential between the two points gets high enough, an arc forms
(during a thunderstorm we see this as dazzling displays of lightning). An
arciet rocket passes propellant through a sustained arc, increasing its
temperature. Arcjet systems can achieve relatively high l5P (up to 1000 s)
with small but significant thrust levels (up to 1 newton). Like resistojets,
arcjets can use almost any propellant. Current versions use hydrazine,
liquid hydrogen, or ammonia. We show a schematic for an arcjet system
in Figure 14-40. The ARGOS spacecraft, shown in Figure 14-41, was
launched in 1999 to test a 26-kW ammonia arcjet, producing a thrust of
about 2 N with a specific impulse over 800 s.
As expected, the primary limitation on thermoelectric-rocket thrust
Figure 14-40. Arcjet Thruster. An arcjet
thruster works by passing a propellant through and efficiency is the amount of power available. Recall from Section 14.1,
an electric arc, rapidly increasing its tempera- where we saw a simple relationship between input power, thrust, and
ture before expanding it out a nozzle. effective exhaust velocity or specific impulse in Equation (14-34)
F et: 2P (14-36)
c
where
F = thrust (N)
P = power (W)
C = effective exhaust velocity (rn Is)
I5P = specific impulse (s)
g0 = gravitational acceleration= 9.81 m/s2
Figure 14-41. Arcjets at Work. The Argos
spacecraft, shown here, tested a powerful 26- [Note: The symbol "et:" means proportional to]
kW ammonia (NH3) arcjet, setting a record for
the most poweriul electric-propulsion system Using this simple equation, we can fine tune the design of a thermoelectric
ever tested in orbit. Its lsp was 800 s, and its thruster, trading thrust versus power versus specific impulse. For
thrust was 2 N. (Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force) example, if we double the power input we can increase thrust by a factor
of 4 for the same specific impulse. Table 14-8 summarizes key features of
thermoelectric rockets.
Nuclear-thermal Rockets
Another potentially useful heat source in space is nuclear energy. On
Earth, nuclear reactors harness the heat released by the fission of uranium
to produce electricity. Water absorbs this heat, making steam that turns
turbine generators. In much the same way, a nuclear-thermal rocket uses its
572
14.2 Propulsion Systems
Table 14-8. Thermoelectric Rockets.
Operating Principle
Heat comes from an electric resistance or a spark discharge inside a heat transfer
chamber. A propellant flows through the chamber, absorbs heat, and then expands
through a nozzle.
Typical Propellants
Hydrazine, water, ammonia, or virtually any propellant
Advantages Disadvantages
nuclear
• Simple, reliable • Requires large amounts of
reactor
• Can be used as an "add on" to conventional onboard electrical power
monopropellant rocket to boost lsp -50% • Relatively low thrust
• High-power arcjets offer very high lsp (>800 s (<1 N)
with NH3)
propellant, such as liquid hydrogen, to flow around the nuclear core,
absorbing thermal energy. As we show in Figure 14-42, propellant enters Figure 14-42. Nuclear-thermal Rocket. A
nuclear-thermal rocket uses a nuclear reactor
the reaction chamber where it absorbs the intense heat from the nuclear to heat a propellant, such as liquid hydrogen.
reaction. From there, thermod/namic expansion through a nozzle The superheated propellant then expands
through a nozzle.
produces high thrust (up to 10 N) and high I5P (up to 1000 s using
hydrogen).
Because of their relatively high thrust and better efficiencies, nuclear-
thermal rockets offer a distinct advantage over chemical systems, especially
for manned planetary missions. These missions must minimize transit time
to decrease the detrimental effects of free fall, as well as exposure to solar
and cosmic radiation on the human body, as discussed in Chapter 3.
Ironically, future astronauts may escape the danger of space radiation by
using the energy from a nuclear reactor to propel them to their destination
faster. Extensive research into nuclear-thermal rockets was done in the U.S.
in the 1960s as part of the NERVA program, as shown in Figure 14-43.
Additional work was done in the 1980s when great theoretical advances
occurred in heat transfer. Unfortunately, environmental and political
concerns about safe ground testing of nuclear-thermal rockets (let alone the
potential political problems of trying to launch a fully fueled nuclear
reactor) has severely reduced research into this promising technology. Table
14-9 summarizes key features of nuclear-thermal rockets.
Table 14-9. Nuclear-thermal Rockets.
Operating Principle
Heat comes from nuclear fission inside a reactor. A propellant, such as liquid hydrogen,
flows through the reactor, absorbs heat, and then expands through a nozzle.
Typical Propellants
Virtually any propellant can be used, but hydrogen produces the best lsp Figure 14-43. Nuclear Engine for Rocket
Vehicle Applications (NERVA) Rocket. The
Advantages Disadvantages NERVA program tested nuclear-thermal rock-
• Long-term energy supply, can be refueled • Environmental and political problems ets from 1947 until 1972. Future missions may
and re-used with testing and launching nuclear depend on their impressive performance to
• Potentially very high lsp (-1000 s with H2) reactors take humans to Mars. (Courtesy of the Report
of the Synthesis Group on America's Space
• High thrust (-106 N) • No flight heritage
Exploration Initiative)
573
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
ElectrodynamicRockets
While thermodynamic rockets offer relatively high thrust over a very
wide range (10-1 to 106 newtons) basic problems in heat transfer pose
practical limits on the maximum specific impulse (up to 1000 s or so, for
nuclear rockets). To achieve the higher efficiencies demanded by future,
more challenging interplanetary and commercial missions, we need to
take a different approach-electrodynamic rockets.
As we discussed in Section 14.1, electrodynamic rockets rely on electric
and/ or magnetic fields to accelerate a charged propellant to very high
velocities (more than 10 times the exhaust velocity and l5P of the Shuttle
main engines). However, this high l5P comes with a price tag-high power
requirement and low thrust. Recall from Equation (14-34), the relationships
among power, exhaust velocity, and thrust for electrodynamic rockets (as
well as thermodynamic rockets using an external power source)
F (X 2P (14-37)
c
Power, of course, is always a limited commodity on a spacecraft. No
matter how much there is, it's always nice to have more, especially for an
electrodynamic thruster. However, given a finite amount of powe1~ P,
Equation (14-37) tells us we can have higher exhaust velocity, C, only at
the expense of reduced thrust, F. As a result, practical limits on power
availability make electrodynamic thrusters unsuitable for launch vehicles
or when a spacecraft needs a quick, large impulse, such as when it brakes
to enter a capture orbit. Even so, because electrodynamic rockets offer
very high l5p, mission planners are increasingly willing to sacrifice power
and thrust (and the extra time it will take to get a spacecraft where it
needs to go) in order to save large amounts of propellant mass.
As we indicated in Section 14.1, there are several ways to use electric
and/ or magnetic fields to accelerate a charged propellant. Here we'll
focus on the two primary types of electrodynamic rockets currently in use
operationally
• Ion (or electrostatic) thrusters-use electric fields to accelerate ions
• Plasma thrusters-use electric and magnetic fields to accelerate a
plasma
Ion Thrusters
An ion thruster (also called an electrostatic thruster) uses an applied
electric field to accelerate an ionized propellant. Figure 14-44 illustrates
the basic configuration of an ion thruster. To operate, the thruster first
ionizes a propellant by stripping off the outer shell of electrons, making
positive ions. It then accelerates these ions by applying a strong electric
Figure 14-44. Simple Ion Thruster. An ion
thruster is the simplest example of an field. If the engine ejected the positive ions without neutralizing them, the
electrodynamic rocket. A strong electric field spacecraft would eventually accumulate a negative charge due to the
accelerates an ionized propellant to high leftover electrons. To prevent this, as Figure 14-44 illustrates, it uses a
velocity (>30 km/s). To prevent charging of the
spacecraft, negative ions are injected into the neutralizer source at the exit plane to eject electrons into the exhaust,
exhaust, neutralizing it. making it neutrally charged.
574
14.2 Propulsion Systems
The ideal ion-thruster propellant is easy to ionize, store and handle.
Early ion-thruster research used mercury and cesium, because these
metals are easy to ionize. Unfortunately, they are also toxic, making them
difficult to store and handle. Currently, the most popular propellant for
ion thrusters is xenon. Xenon is a safe, inert gas that stores as a dense gas
(1.1052 kg/1) under a moderate pressure of 58.4 bar at room temperature.
This high density propellant also gives ion thrusters excellent density
specific impulse, Idsp·
Ion thrusters offer an electrically efficient propulsion option with very
high specific impulse (as high as 10,000 s). About 90% of the power goes
Figure 14-45. Ion Engines in Space.
to accelerate the propellant. Because of their efficiency, ion thrusters have NASA's Deep Space 1 mission used an ion
been used on a variety of space missions. Perhaps their most exciting thruster for its primary propulsion. The engine
application is on interplanetary missions. NASA's Deep Space 1 mission, operated at 2.3-kw producing a thrust of 0.09
N with a specific impulse of 3100 s. (Courtesy
shown in Figure 14-45, was the first to rely on an ion rocket for the of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
primary propulsion subsystem beyond Earth orbit.
Plasma Thrusters
As we discussed in Section 14.1, there is a practical limit to the number
of ions that we can pack into a small volume inside a thruster. However, a
neutral plasma can have a much higher charge density. Plasma thrusters can
take advantage of this fact to offer slightly higher thrust than ion thrusters
for the same power input at the expense of somewhat lower Isp and
electrical efficiency (we don't get something for nothing when it comes to
rockets). Plasma thrusters use the combined effect of electric and magnetic
fields to accelerate the positive ions within a plasma.
There are two types of plasma thrusters that have been used in space
• Hall-effect thrusters (HET)
Figure 14-46. Hall-effect Thruster (HET)
• Pulsed-plasma thrusters (PPT) Diagram. In a HET, the interaction of an applied
magnetic field with the resulting electric field
Currently, the most widely used type of plasma thruster is the Hn/1- creates the force that accelerates the positive
~ffect thrueter (HET). HETs take advantage of a unique effect called a "Hall ions within the plasma. This diagram shows a
current" that occurs when we apply a radial magnetic field to a conduct- crossaction of the radial chamber.
ing plasma. The interaction of the magnetic field with the resulting elec-
tric field creates a force that accelerates the positive ions in the plasma, as
illustrated in Figure 14-46. Figure 14-47 shows a photograph of an operat-
ing HET. Note the circular-shaped plume that results from using the
radial magnetic field. Russian scientists pioneered many of the modern
advances in HETs, having run them for several years for orbital station-
keeping applications. Because the propellant requirements for plasma
thrusters are the same as for ion thrusters, xenon is also the most widely
used propellant.
A second type of plasma thruster is called a pulsed-plasma thruster
Figure 14-47. Hall-effect Thruster (HET) in
(PPT). Unlike all other types of rockets that operate continuously, pulsed- Operation. Notice the circular shape of the
plasma thrusters (PPT) operate in a noncontinuous, pulsed mode. Unlike ion plasma. HETs take advantage of the unique
and plasma thrusters, PPTs use a solid propellant, usually Teflon (PTFE). A properties of a radial magnetic field to
accelerate a propellant, such as Xenon that has
high voltage arc pulses over the exposed surface of the propellant, been heated to create a plasma. (Courtesy of
vaporizing it and creating an instant plasma. The resulting induced Primex Aerospace Company)
575
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
sollid-sUatie disdiiam-ge magnetic field accelerates the plasma. Figure 14-48 shows a schematic for a
ignitor plug simple PPT. A number of missions have used PPTs for spacecraft station
I keeping. Their advantage is their precisely controlled, low-thrust levels.
Because they operate in a pulsed mode, they don't need continuous high
power. Instead, they can gradually store electrical energy in a capacitor for
release in high power bursts (the same technique used in a camera flash).
This low-power, pulsed operating mode makes them suitable for many
ttetil01n small satellite applications.
µ,vmp.ellm~ t Compared to ion and stationary plasma thrusters, PPTs are relatively
sful!)
low in energy-conversion efficiency (20%). However, the¥ provide
Figure 14·48. Pulsed-plasma Thruster respectable Isp (700 s to 1500 s) but with low thrust (lo-3 to 10- N). Their
(PPT). PPTs create a plasma by pulsing an biggest potential advantage is in ease of integration. Because they don't
electric arc over the surface of a solid
propellant, such as Teflon (PTFE). The induced require any additional propellant management, they can be built as
magnetic field accelerates the plasma. As the simple, self-contained units that, in principle, we can easily bolt onto a
teflon slab shrinks, the negator spring gradually spacecraft. Table 14-10 summarizes key information about the electro-
feeds it into the arc.
dynamic rockets we've discussed.
Table 14-10. Electrodynamic Rockets. (Adapted from Space Propulsion Analysis and Design).
Electrical Thrust
Type Propellant Operating Principle Efficiency (N) lsp (s)
Ion (or electrostatic) Xenon Applied electric field accelerates an ionized 90% 0.1- 2000-
thruster propellant 1.0 10,000
Hall-effect thruster Xenon Combined electric and magnetic fields produce a 60% 0.1- -2000
(HET) "Hall ettect" that accelerates ions within a plasma 1.0
Pulsed-plasma Teflon An electric arc pulses over a solid propellant, 20% ,o-5 _ -1500
thruster (PPT) (PTFE) vaporizing it and creating a plasma. Interaction 10--3
between the applied electric field and resulting
magnetic field accelerates the plasma.
System Selection and Testing
So far, we've looked at all the pieces that make up propulsion
subsystems and many of the various rocket-technology options available.
In Chapter 11, we presented the orbital-control budget, which tells us the
total t,,, V needed throughout the mission, as one important driver of the
propulsion subsystem design. Using the tools from this chapter, such as
the rocket equation, we can translate this into a propellant mass and
volume requirements for a given rocket technology. But many questions
about propulsion-subsystem design and applications remain.
• How do mission planners select the best-technology rocket from this
large menu of available systems? How do researchers decide which
is the best technology to pursue for future applications?
• How are new or improved systems tested and declared fit for flight?
576
14.2 Propulsion Systems
Let's start with the problem of technology selection. As with most tech-
nology decisions, there is rarely one, best answer for any given applica-
tion. Sometimes, as with the case of our FireSat example, the severe
constraints on volume, power, and mass, coupled with the modest ll V
requirements, leaves only a few realistic options-cold-gas thrusters, or
possibly, a monopropellant system. Even when we narrow the field, the
choice of the right propulsion subsystem for a given mission depends on
a number of factors that we must weigh together.
One way to trade various rocket options is to select one with the lowest
total cost. But here, cost represents much more than simply the engine's
price tag. The total cost of a propulsion system includes at least eight other
factors, in addition to the bottom-line price tag, that we must consider
before making a final selection [Sellers, 1998]. These factors include
• Mass performance-measured by lsp
• Volume performance-measured by ldsp
• Time performance-how fast it completes the needed ll V, measured
by total thrust
• Power requirements-how much total power the EPS must deliver
• Safety costs-how safe the system (including its propellant) is and
how difficult it is to protect people working with the system
• Logistics requirements-how difficult it is to transport the system
and propellant to the launch site and service it for flight
• Integration cost-how difficult the system is to integrate and operate
with other spacecraft subsystems and the mission operations concept
• Technical risk-what flight experience does it have or how did it
perform in testing
Different missions (and mission planners) naturally place a higher value
on some of these factors than on others. Example 14.1 showed that for the
FireSat mission, a helium cold-gas system had lower mass cost, but its
volume cost was prohibitive. Other missions, such as a complex-
commercial mission, may place high priority on reducing technical risk.
For them, a new type of plasma rocket, even if it offers lower mass cost,
may be too risky when they consider all other factors. When asking what's
the best option for a given mission, "it depends" is usually the best answer!
After selecting a system, engineers must conduct a rigorous testing and
qualifying process to declare it safe for use. New rocket development
usually progresses from relatively crude, engineering-model testing under
atmospheric conditions, to more elaborate testing of flight models under
high-altitude or vacuum conditions. Of course, for specialized systems
such as electrodynamic thrusters (e.g. ion thrusters or HETs), engineers can
only do tests under vacuum conditions, using highly accurate thrust stands
to measure micronewtons (lo-3 N) of thrust. During experimental testing,
rocket scientists carefully measure mass flow rates, chamber pressures,
temperatures, and other parameters, and compare them to predicted
values based on thermochemical and other models.
577
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Because rockets typically involve high pressures, high temperatures,
high voltages, and hazardous chemicals, safety issues are a primary
concern. These concerns carry through from initial development of new
rockets to servicing of proven systems while preparing them for flight. In
the case of launch-vehicle propulsion, human lives may depend on safe,
reliable operation. As discussed earlier, special loading procedures and
equipment insure safe handling of hazardous propellants. Figure 14-49
shows skilled technicians performing propellant-loading operations.
Figure 14-49. Propellant Loading Opera- Ensuring system reliability involves a complex series of ground tests
tions. Transferring toxic propellants from stor- that measure performance over many conditions. These conditions can
age containers to rocket tanks is dangerous and range from relatively simple tests, to ensure the system doesn't leak at
requires safety suits with breathing apparatus
and special handling equipment. (Courtesy of flight pressure, to complicated tests that require widely varying O /F
British Aerospace Royal Ordinance) ratios and expansion conditions. In addition to performance, all the
typical space-environment testing done for other subsystems, such as
thermal and vacuum testing discussed in Chapter 13, must also be
accomplished for the propulsion subsystem. Figure 14-50 shows an ion-
thruster setup for testing in a vacuum chamber.
Exotic Propulsion Methods
Chemical rockets have given us access to space and taken spacecraft
beyond the solar system. Electrodynamic rockets offer a vast increase in
Figure 14-50. Rocket Testing. From initial mass efficiency, making exciting new missions possible. However, to really
development through flight testing, rockets and open space to colonization, and allow humans to challenge the stars, we
propulsion systems undergo rigorous testing to need bold, new approaches. Exotic propulsion systems are those "far out"
measure performance and ensure safe,
reliable operations. This photograph shows the ideas still on the drawing boards. While there are many exotic variations
NSTAR ion thruster used for the NASA Deep to the rockets we've already discussed (such as using high energy density
Space 1 mission in its test-stand configuration.
(Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
or meta-stable chemicals, nuclear fusion, or antimatter to create super-
heated products), here we focus on even more unconventional types of
propulsion-ones that produce thrust without ejecting mass
• Solar sails
• Tethers
We'll first look at how these far-out concepts may one day give us even
greater access to the solar system. Then we'll go beyond that to look at the
unique challenges of interstellar flight.
Solar Sails
In Chapter 12, we discussed solar pressure as one source of
Figure 14-51. Solar Sail. A solar sail cap- disturbance torque on a spacecraft. Light, when thought of as photons,
tures the minute pressure exerted by solar imparts a tiny force to any surface it strikes. Just as a conventional sail
radiation. Even a very large surface area (1
km2) would only generate about 5 N of thrust. harnesses the force of the wind to move a ship, a very large solar sail can
However, this thrust is essentially "free" as no harness the force of solar pressure to propel a spaceship without ejecting
mass is expended. Thus, the solar sail is free to mass! Of course, the farther it goes from the sun the less solar pressure it
sail around the inner solar system (where solar
radiation is most intense). (Courtesy of NASN can collect, so a solar sail would work best inside Mars' orbit. Figure 14-
Jet Propulsion Laboratory) 51 shows an artist's concept of a solar sail.
578
14.2 Propul ion Systems
How large would a sail need to be? We can determine this force from
Fs
F = -A5(1 + p)cosI (14-38)
c
where
F = force on the sail (N)
F5 = solar constant= 1358 WI m2 at Earth's orbit around the Sun
c = speed of light= 3 x 108 m/ s
A5 = surface area (m2)
p = surface reflectance (where p = 1 for a perfect reflector)
I = incidence angle to the Sun ( deg)
To produce just five newtons (about one pound) of thrust near Earth, we'd
need one square kilometer (0.62 mi. on a side) of sail! To achieve escape
velocity from a low-Earth orbit (assuming a total spacecraft mass of only 10
kg), this force would have to be applied for more than 17 years! Of course, a
solar sail uses no propellant, so the thrust is "free." As long as travellers
aren't in a hurry, a solar sail offers a cheap way to get around. Some
visionaries propose that solar sails can be used to maneuver mineral-rich
asteroids closer to Earth to allow for orbital mining operations.
Tethers
Another imaginative means of propulsion that doesn't need propel-
lant, tethers, uses very long cables. Recall in Chapter 12 that we discussed
the use of gravity-gradient booms to vertically stabilize spacecraft.
Typically, these booms are only a few meters long. By using a small mass
at the end of a very long tether, tens or even hundreds of kilometers long,
we produce the same stabilizing effect. But even more interesting effects
become possible as well.
Picture a large spacecraft, such as the Shuttle, in a circular orbit. Now,
imagine a small payload deployed upward (away from Earth), from the
Shuttle at the end of a very long tether, as shown in Figure 14-52. Recall
from Chapter 4, that when we compute orbital velocities, we assume we
are dealing with point masses, affected only by gravity. From an orbital-
mechanics standpoint, this point-mass assumption is valid only at the
center of mass of the Shuttle I payload system. If the payload mass is
small compared to the Shuttle's mass, the system's center of mass will not
move significantly when it deploys. Thus, the orbital velocity of the
system will stay about the same. What does this mean for the payload?
Secured by the tether, it is pulled along in orbit at the Shuttle's orbital
velocity. But the payload is well above the Shuttle. In Chapter 4, we said
that orbital velocity depends on the distance from Earth's center.
Therefore, because the payload is higher than the Shuttle, its proper
circular, orbital velocity should be somewhat slower than the velocity it
maintains due to the tether. Or, said another way, the tether forces the Figure 14-52. Space Tether Deployment.
This diagram illustrates a payload deployed
payload to travel Jaster than orbital mechanics would dictate for its upward, away from Earth's center, at the end of
altitude. a long tether.
579
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Now, what happens if we suddenly cut the tether? Orbital mechanics
would take over and the payload would suddenly find itself at a velocity
too fast for a circular orbit at its altitude. The situation would be as if its
velocity were suddenly increased by firing a rocket. It would enter an
elliptical orbit with a higher apogee, one-half orbit later. Analysis
indicates this new apogee altitude would be higher than the original
circular orbit by 7 times the length of the tether [Humble et. al., 1995). In
other words, if the payload's original altitude were 310 km and the
tether's length were 10 km, the payload's new elliptical orbit would be
310 x 380 km, as illustrated in Figure 14-53.
If the payload were deployed downward instead of upward, the
opposite would happen. Its orbit would shrink, so that half an orbit after
the tether releases, the payload would reach perigee. This technique was
used by the Small Expendable-tether Deployment System (SEDS)mission
in 1993 to successfully deorbit a small payload [Humble et. al., 1995).
Of course, tether propulsion isn't completely "free." We still need to
add the mass of the tether and its deployment motors and gears to a
spacecraft. And we need extra electrical power to operate the tether-
Figure 14-53. Tether Orbit Boost.A payload deployment mechanisms. However, once we put these systems in place,
deployed 10km higher than the Space Shuttle in
a 300 km orbit will be boosted to a 31 O x 380 km we could conceivably use the tether system repeatedly to boost or de-
orbit when the tether is cut. orbit payloads.
Space Shuttle astronauts have performed a number of experiments to
investigate the exciting possibilities of tethers. So far, these experiments
have focused on the practical problems of deploying, controlling, and
reeling in a small payload at the end of a long tether. Figure 14-54 shows
an artist's concept of a tether experiment. Future applications for tethers
are truly unlimited. A series of rotating tether stations could be used to
"sling-shot" payloads, passing them from one to the other, all the way
from low-Earth orbit to the Moon. Another exiting use of tethers is for
power generation. A conducting tether passing through Earth's magnetic
field could generate large amounts of electrical power. [Forward, SciAm,
Feb. 99).
Interstellar Travel
The ultimate dream of space exploration is to someday travel to other
star systems, as depicted in TV shows like Star Trek and Babylon 5.
Actually, the first human-built "star ships" are already on their way out of
the solar system. Launched in 1972 and 1973, NASA's Pioneer 10, shown
in Figure 14-55, and Pioneer 11 probes became the first spacecraft to leave
Figure 14-54. Tether Experiment. This our local planetary neighborhood and begin their long journey to the stars.
artist's concept shows a small mass deployed Unfortunately, at their present velocities, they're not expected to pass near
downward on a long tether. (Courtesy of NASAi
Marshall Space Flight Center) another stellar body in over 2 million and 4 million years, respectively!
Obviously, these travel times are far too long to be useful for scientists
who want to be around to review the results from the mission.
Hollywood's version of rocket science can take advantage of hyperspace
and warp drive to allow round-trip times to nearby stars during a single
episode. Unfortunately, real-world rocket science is far from using these
amazing means of propulsion.
580
14.2 Propulsion Systems
Assuming we could develop efficient, onboard energy sources, such as
fusion or antimatter, and rely on ion or other extremely efficient types of
rockets to achieve very high specific impulse, there is still the limit
imposed by the speed of light. If a rocket could thrust continuously for
several years, even at a very low-thrust level, it would eventually reach a
very high velocity. However, as its speed approached a significant
fraction of the speed of light, interesting things would begin to happen.
One aspect of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity says that, as an
object's velocity approaches light speed, its perception of time begins to
change relative to a fixed observer. This time adjustment leads to the so-
Figure 14-55. Pioneer 10 Boldly Goes.
called "twin paradox," illustrated in Figure 14-56. To visualize this NASA's Pioneer 1 O spacecraft became the first
concept, imagine a set of twins, two sisters. If one sister leaves her twin interstellar probe when it left the solar system
and departs on a space mission that travels near the speed of light, when to start a million-year journey to the stars.
(Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
she returns, she'll find her twin much older th.an she is! In other words,
while the mission may seem to have lasted only a few years for her, tens
or even hundreds of years may have passed for her twin on Earth.
We express this time dilation effect, sometimes called a tau (r) factor,
using the Lorentz transformation
tstarship
(14-39)
tEarth
where
t5tarship = time measured on a starship (s)
tEnrth = time measured on Earth (s)
V = starship's velocity (km/s) Figure 14-56. Twin Paradox. Einstein's
c = speed of light= 300,000 km/ s theory of relativity tells us that if one twin leaves
Earth and travels at speeds near the speed of
The tau [actor, r, tells us the ratio of time aboard a speeding starship light, when she returns she'll find her twin will
have aged more than she.
compared to Earth time, as demonstrated in Example 14-3. As the
spacecraft's velocity approaches light speed, ,: gets very small, meaning
that time on the ship passes much more slowly than it does on Earth. While
this may seem convenient for readers thinking about a weekend journey to
the star Alpha Centauri (4.3 light years away), Einstein's theory also places
a severe "speed limit'' on would-be space travelers. As a spacecraft's
velocity increases, its effective mass also increases. Thus, as the ship's
velocity approaches light speed, it needs more thrust than it did at lower
speeds to get the same velocity change. To attain light speed, it'd need an
infinite amount of thrust to accelerate it's infinite mass. For th.is reason
alone, travel at or near the speed of light is well beyond current technology.
But who knows what the future holds? For years, scientists and
engineers said travel beyond the speed of sound, the so-called "sound
barrier," was impossible. But in October 1947, Chuck Yeager proved them
all wrong while piloting the Bell X-1. Today, jet planes routinely travel at
speeds two and three times the speed of sound. Perhaps by the 23rd
century some future Chuck Yeager will break another speed barrier and
take a spacecraft beyond the speed of light.
581
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Equations
arcjet rocket
bipropellant rockets
check valves
chemical rockets
tslarshio
,:=....::.===
t[arlh
H 1--
c2
2
combustion chamber
Key Concepts
cryogenic
electro tatic thruster :,.. All propulsion subsystems have the same basic elements
exotic propulsion ystems
• Controller-to control and manage all the other element
fuel
Hall-effect thruster (HET) • Energy source-either "built-in" to the propellant (in cold-gas or
hybrid-propulsion systems chemical systems), supplied by the electrical-power subsystem (in
hypergolic the case of electrotherrnal, electrostatic, or electromagnetic
ion thruster thrusters), or supplied from other sources, such as solar or nuclear
monopropellant energy
motor
• Propellant-management subsystem-to regulate and control the
nuclear-thermal rocket
propellant flow
oxidizer
oxidizer I fuel ratio (0 IF) • Sensors-to monitor temperature, pressure, and other important
plasma thrusters para.meters
pressure-fed propellant system • Rocket-to pr duce thrust
pressure-relief valves
pressure transducers > Chemical rockets are the most common rockets currently in use.
propellant management Three basic types are
pulsed-plasma thrusters (PPT) • Liquid
pump-fed delivery system
regulator • Solid
resistojet • Hybrid
solar sail
solar-thermal rockets :,.. Table 14-1 compares the various types of chemical systems
solid rocket :,.. Solar-thermal rockets use concentrated solar energy to heat a
stoichiometric propellant to high temperature
storable propellants
tau factor. r :,.. uclear-th rrnal rockets use the heat produced by a nuclear reaction
tethers to produce high-temperature propellant
thermoelectric rockets >- Thermoelectric rockets use heat produced by electrical resistance to
time dilation create l1igh-tcmpcrature propellant These include
• Resistojets
• Arcjets
> Electrodynamic systems include
• Ion (also called electrostatic) thrusters-> applied electric field
accelerates an ionized propellant, such as xenon
Continued on next page
582
14.2 Propulsion Systems
== Section Review (Continued)
Key Concepts (Continued)
• Plasma thrusters
- Hall-effect thrusters (HETs)-combine electric and magnetic fields to produce a "Hall-effect" current
that accelerates ions within a plasma (such as xenon)
- Pulsed-plasma thrusters (PPTs)-a pulsed electric arc discharges over a solid prop llant, vaporizing
it and creating a plasma. The interaction between the applied electric field and the resulting magnetic
field accelerates the plasma.
> Exotic propulsion methods allow fort:,.V without expending propellant. These ideas include
• Solar sails=-capture the minute pressure of solar photons to produce thrust just as conventional sails
capture the force of the wind
• Tethers-take advantage of gravity-gradient differences to raise and lower spac craft orbits
> Exotic systems may one day propel spacecraft at near light speed. When this happens, we'll have to
worry about time dilation and other problems predicted by Einstein's theory of relativity.
583
Example 14-2
Problem Statement 4) Compute theoretical specific impulse from
Equation (14-26)
Thermochemical modeling for a new hybrid rocket
motor indicates the theoretical characteristic exhaust
velocity, C*, is 1260 ml s with ratio of specific heats of
the combustion products, y of 1.19. During experimen-
tal testing, the total mass flow rate was computed to be
0.15 kg Is, the chamber pressure was measured at 22 5) Compare measured versus theoretical Isp
bar, and the thrust was measured at 400 N. The test
rocket nozzle had a throat diameter of 1.0 cm. Analyze
the combustion efficiency for the test motor. Compare Jsp measured
the measured versus theoretical specific impulse for Jsp theoretical
this motor.
Problem Summary Analytical Solution
Given: C\heoretical = 1260 m/ s 1) Compute the nozzle throat area
m = 0.15 kg/s
g0 = 9.81 m/s2
y = 1.19
D, = 1.0 cm
At= 7.854 x 10-S m2
Pc= 22 bar
F = 400 N 2) Compute the measured characteristic exhaust
velocity, C*, using Equation (14-23) and compare
Find: Theoretical versus measured C*, theoretical
versus measured Isp to theoretical value
* PcAt
C measured = ~
Conceptual Solution 3N/m2 -s 2
(22 bar)( 101 x 10 ~) (7.854 x 10 m )
1) Compute the nozzle throat area
0.15 kg/ s
D 2
At = re( i) C* measured= 1.152 x 103 m/ S
2) Compute the measured characteristic exhaust C* measured 1152 mis
velocity, C*, using Equation (14-23) and compare 0.914
C* theoretical 1260 mis
to theoretical value
* PcAt 3) Compute measured specific impulse
C measured = ~
F 400 N
3) Compute measured specific impulse Isp measured = gom
(9.81 m/s2)(0.15 kg/s)
Jsp measured
Isp measured = 271.831 S
584
Example 14-2 (Continued)
4) Compute theoretical specific impulse from Interpretingthe Results
Equation (14-26)
Comparing theoretical analysis to measured perfor-
mance, the experimental hybrid-rocket motor is
achieving only about 92% of predicted characteristic
exhaust velocity, C*, and a similar proportion of theo-
retical Isp- This represents good but probably not the
-
(1260 m/s)
- 9.81 m/s2
(119)
·
2
[
(i.19-1)
·
2
(1.19+1)
~]~
1.19-1
best achievable performance. While 100% is usually
unobtainable, 96% or better should be possible. Rocket
scientists on the project should continue to look at
ways to improve combustion efficiency.
Isp theoretical = 293.925 S
5) Compare measured versus theoretical l5P
lsp measured = 271.831 S = 0_925
Isp theoretical 293.925 S
585
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
14.3 Launch Vehicles
In This Section You'll Learn to ...
..- Discuss the various subsystems that make up a launch vehicle
..- Discuss the advantages of launch-vehicle staging
,.. Determine the velocity change staging can achieve
Now that we've seen the types of rockets available, and how
propulsion subsystems fit together, let's see how they're used to solve
perhaps the most important problem of astronautics-getting into space.
Launch vehicles come in many different shapes and sizes, from the
mighty Space Shuttle to the tiny Pegasus, as shown in Figure 14-57. In this
section, we start by examining the common elements of modern launch
vehicles. Looking at launch vehicles as systems, we'll review the various
subsystems that work together to deliver a payload into orbit and focus
on the unique requirements for the massive propulsion subsystems
needed to do the job. Finally, we'll look at staging to see why launch
vehicles come in sections that are used and discarded on the way to orbit.
Launch-vehicle Subsystems
In Chapter 11 we introduced the subsystems that comprise the space-
craft bus. A launch vehicle needs most of the same subsystems to deliver a
Figure 14-57. Comparing Launch-vehicle payload (the spacecraft) from the ground into orbit. The two biggest dif-
Sizes. Launch vehicles come in all shapes and ferences between a launch vehicle and a spacecraft are the total operation
sizes, from the massive Space Shuttle with a
time (about 10 minutes versus 10+ years) and the total velocity change
total lift-off mass of 2,040,000 kg to the tiny
Pegasus (XL) at a mere 24,000 kg. (Courtesy needed (>8 km/ s versus 0-1 km/ s). Let's start by looking at the challenges
of NASA/Johnson Space Center and Orbital of launch-vehicle propulsion to see how we must adapt the technologies
Sciences Corporation)
discussed earlier in this chapter to the challenging launch environment.
Then we'll briefly review the other subsystems needed to support these
large rockets to safely deliver spacecraft (and people) into space.
Propulsion Subsystem
The launch-vehicle propulsion subsystem presents several unique
challenges that sets it apart from the same subsystem on a spacecraft.
These include
• Thrust-to-weight ratio-must be greater than 1.0 to get off the ground
• Throttling and thrust-vector control-may need to vary the amount
and direction of thrust to decrease launch loads and to steer
• Nozzle design-nozzles face varying expansion conditions from the
ground to space
Let's go through each of these challenges in more detail.
586
14.3 Launch Vehicles
Thrust-to-weight ratio. To get a rocket off the ground, the total thrust
produced must be greater than the vehicle's weight. We refer to the ratio
of the thrust to the vehicle's weight as the thrust-to-weight ratio. Thus, a
launch-vehicle's propulsion system must produce a thrust-to-weight ratio
greater than 1.0. For example, the thrust-to-weight ratio at lift-off for the
Atlas launch vehicle is about 1.2, and for the Space Shuttle it's about 1.6.
Even though chemical rockets aren't as efficient as some rocket types
discussed in the last section, they offer very high thrust and, more
importantly, very high thrust-to-weight ratios. For this important reason,
current launch vehicles only use chemical rockets, specifically cryogenic
(LH2 + L02), storable (hydrazine+ N204) bipropellant, or solid rockets.
Throttling and thrust-vector control. For virtually all spacecraft
applications, rocket engines are either on or off. There is rarely a need to
vary their thrust by throttling the engines. However, launch vehicles often
need throttling, greatly adding to the complexity (and costl) of their
propulsion subsystems.
One reason for throttling has to do with the high aerodynamic forces on
a vehicle as it flies through the atmosphere. Within the first minute or so of
launch, the vehicle's velocity increases rapidly while it is still relatively low
in altitude, where the atmosphere is still fairly dense. Passing through this
dense atmosphere at high velocity produces dynamic pressure on the
vehicle. Without careful attention to design and analysis, these launch
loads could literally rip the vehicle apart. During design, engineers assume
some maximum value, based on their extensive analysis of expected
launch conditions, that the vehicle can't exceed without risking structural
failure. Prior to each launch, they must carefully measure and analyze the
winds and other atmospheric conditions over the launch site to insure the
vehicle won't exceed it's design tolerances. In many cases, they must
design in a specifically tailored thrust profile for the vehicle, which
decreases, or "throttles down" during the peak dynamic pressure. The
Space Shuttle, for example, reduces the main engines' thrust from 104% to
65%, during this phase of flight, and the burn profile of the solid-rocket
boosters' propellant grain is specifically tailored to reduce thrust a similar
amount to keep dynamic pressure below a predetermined, safe level.
Another reason for throttling is to keep total acceleration below a
certain level. Astronauts strapped to the top of a launch vehicle feel the
thrust of lift-off as an acceleration or g-load that pushes them back into
their seats. From Newton's laws in Chapter 4, we know the total
acceleration depends on the force (thrust) and the total mass of the vehicle.
If the engine thrust is constant, the acceleration will gradually increase as
the vehicle gets lighter due to expended propellant. This means the
acceleration tends to increase over time. To keep the overall g-load on the
Space Shuttle under 3 g's, the main engines throttle back about six minutes
into the launch to decrease thrust to match the burned propellant. Figure 14-58. Throttle Back for Landing.
Some vehicles also need throttling for landing. The decent stage engine The Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) used a
throttleable bipropellant engine, allowing the
in the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM), shown in Figure 14-58, used during astronauts to control their descent to the lunar
the Apollo missions, allowed astronauts to throttle the engine over a range surface. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space
of 10%-100%, so they could make a soft touch down on the lunar surface. Center)
587
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
Finally, launch-vehicle rockets often have the unique requirement to
vary their thrust direction for steering. This thrust-uector control (TVC) can
gimbal the entire engine to point the thrust in the desired direction. The
Space Shuttle, for example, can vary the thrust direction for each main
engine by ±10 degrees. Of course, the mechanical gears and hydraulic
actuators needed to move massively thrusting rocket engines can be quite
complicated. Earlier rockets used simpler methods of thrust-vector
control. The V-2 rocket, for example, used large, movable ablative vanes
stuck directly into the exhaust stream to change the vehicle's direction.
Other launch vehicles use separate steering rockets or direct injection of
gasses into the exhaust flow to change the thrust direction.
Nozzle 'design. In Section 14. I, we discussed the importance of the
external atmospheric pressure and the nozzle expansion ratio to overall
engine performance. We prefer not to have a rocket nozzle either over-
expanded or under-expanded, but instead designed for ideal expansion.
In comparison, spacecraft rocket engines always work within a vacuum,
so designers simply use the greatest expansion ratio practical for the best
performance. For launch-vehicle rocket engines, the choice of expansion
ratio isn't so simple.
During launch, the external pressure on the first stage engines goes
from sea level (1 bar or 14.5 p.s.i.) to near zero (vacuum) in just a few
minutes. Ideally, we want the nozzle to increase its expansion ratio
throughout the trajectory to change the exit pressure as atmospheric
pressure decreases. Unfortunately, with current technology, the hardware
to do this weighs too much. Instead, the nozzle is typically designed to
reach ideal expansion at some design altitude about 2/3 of the way from
the altitude of engine ignition to the altitude of engine cutoff.
For example, if we design a rocket to go from sea level to 60,000 meters,
a reasonable choice for the design exit pressure would be the atmospheric
pressure at about 40,000 meters altitude. As a result, our rocket would (by
design) be over-expanded below 40,000 meters and under-expanded
above 40,000 meters. As we see in Figure 14-59, a nozzle designed in this
way offers better overall performance than one designed to be ideally
expanded only at sea level.
One ingenious way around this nozzle design problem is to use a
completely different kind of nozzle. During our discussion of nozzle
expansion issues in Section 14.1, we focussed on conventional "bell-
shaped" nozzles for simplicity. However, another, more versatile design
may one day be used on launch vehicles-an aerospike. An old idea, the
aerospike nozzle has only recently become the focus of large-scale
development to support NASA's X-33 program. Unlike a conventional bell
Figure 14-60. An Inside-out Nozzle. Unlike nozzle, where all exhaust-gas expansion takes place inside the nozzle, the
a conventional bell-shaped nozzle, the linear
aerospike nozzle, being developed by Boeing/
aerospike allows expansion on the outside. In the linear aerospike design
Rocketdyne for NASA's X-33 program allows being developed by Boeing/Rocketdyne, shown in Figure 14-60, the throat
expansion to take place outside. This offers the is at the edge of a sloping "ramp" that forms the nozzle. The total
advantage of near ideal expansion from lift-off to
orbit adding up to 10% efficiency, crucial for the
expansion is determined by the atmospheric pressure, as well as the shape
goal of a single-stage-to-orbit rocket. (Courtesy and length of the ramp. The big advantage of this design for a launch
of NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center) vehicle is that it offers near ideal expansion from lift-off to orbit, adding up
588
14.3 Launch Vehicles
60,000 -,--------------r----------e.,_......----
50,000 -
ideal
g 40,000 expansion
J
at 40,000 m
(lJ
-o 30,000
ideal
expansion
-~ ideal at all altitudes
~ 20,000 expansion
at sea level
10,000
sealevel-+-~~--i~~~-1----'~-+~~~+-~~-+~~~-1-~-'
200 210 220 230 240 250 260
thrust (k.N)
Figure 14-59. Thrust Versus Altitude for Different Nozzle Designs. Because we can't
build an ideally expanded nozzle for all altitudes, we typically design them for Ideal expansion
213 of the way up. In this example, we design a nozzle that must work from sea level to 60,000
m altitude for ideal expansion at 40,000 m. This design offers better overall performance than
a nozzle designed for ideal expansion at either sea level or 60,000 m.
to 10% efficiency-crucial for the goal of single-stage-to-orbit vehicles.
We'll see what makes single-stage-to-orbit so challenging later in this
section.
Navigation, Guidance, and Control Subsystem
In Chapter 12, we discussed the control problems handled by the
spacecraft's attitude and orbit control subsystem (AOCS). A launch
vehicle must deal with these same problems in a much more dynamic
environment. The navigation, guidance, and control (NCC) subsystem
keeps the launch vehicle aligned along the thrust vector to prevent
dangerous side loads, keeps the thrust vector pointed according to the
flight profile, and ensures the vehicle reaches the correct position and
velocity for the desired orbit.
As with all control systems, the NCC subsystem has actuators and
sensors. The primary launch-vehicle actuators are the main engines, that
make use of TVC and throttling to get the rocket where it needs to go.
NCC sensors typically include accelerometers and gyroscopes to measure
acceleration and attitude changes. Even though the accuracy of these
sensors drifts over time, they are usually sufficiently accurate for the few
minutes needed to reach orbit. New launch vehicles are starting to rely on
the Global Positioning System (CPS) for additional position, velocity, and
attitude information.
Communication and Data Handling
Throughout launch, the vehicle must stay in contact with the Launch
Control Center. There, flight controllers constantly monitor telemetry from
the launch-vehicle subsystems to ensure they're functioning nominally. To
do this, the vehicle needs a communication and data-handling subsystem
to process onboard data and deliver telemetry to the control center. Data-
handling equipment for launch vehicles is very similar to the equipment
589
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
used on spacecraft as we discussed in Chapter 13. Computers process
sensor information and compute commands for actuators, as well as mon-
itor other onboard processes. On expendable vehicles, these subsystems
can be relatively simple because they need to work for only a few minutes
during launch and won't be exposed to long periods of space radiation.
However, the vibration and acoustic envirorunents require these systems
to be very rugged.
Communication equipment is also very similar in concept to those
found on spacecraft. However, for safety reasons, operators need an
independent means of tracking a launch vehicle's location on the way to
orbit. In the Launch Control Center, Range Safety Officers monitor a
launch vehicle's trajectory using separate tracking radar, ready to send a
self-destruct command if it strays beyond the planned flight path to
endanger people or property.
Electrical Power
Electrical power requirements for launch vehicles are typically quite
modest compared to a spacecraft's. Launch vehicles need only enough
power to run the communication and data-handling subsystems, as well as
sensors and actuators. Because of their limited lifetimes, expendable launch
vehicles typically rely on relatively simple batteries for primary power
during launch. The Space Shuttle uses fuel cells powered by hydrogen and
oxygen, as explained in Chapter 13.
Structure and Mechanisms
Finally, we must design the launch vehicle's structures and mecha-
nisms to withstand severe loads and perform the numerous mechanical
actuations and separations that must happen with split-second timing. A
typical launch vehicle can have 10's or even 100's of thousands of individ-
ual nuts, bolts, panels, and load-bearing structures that hold the sub-
systems in place and take the loads and vibrations imposed by the
engines' thrust and the atmosphere's dynamic pressure. In Chapter 13,
we discussed some of the unique challenges of designing a spacecraft to
survive the launch envirorunent. The challenges for a launch vehicle are
even more severe.
Because the majority of a launch vehicle's volume contains propellant
tanks, these tend to dominate the overall structural design. Often, the
tanks become part of the primary load-bearing structure. For example,
the Atlas launch vehicle, shown in Figure 14-61, uses a thin-shelled tank
that literally inflates with a small positive pressure to create the necessary
structural rigidity.
In addition to the problem of launch loads and vibrations, lOO's of
Figure 14-61. Atlas Inflated for Launch. To individual mechanisms must separate stages and perform other dynamic
provide structural rigidity on the Atlas launch
vehicle, the thin aluminum skin of the
actions throughout the flight. These mechanisms are usually larger than
propellant tanks were inflated like balloons. similar mechanisms on spacecraft. During staging, large sections of the
(Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force) vehicle's structure must literally break apart, usually by explosive bolts.
590
14.3 Launch Vehicles
Gimbaling the massive engines to change their thrust direction requires
large hinges, hydraulic arms, and supporting structure.
Launch-vehicle designers have the challenge of carefully integrating
all of these structures and mechanisms with the engines, tanks, and other
subsystems, to create a compact, streamlined vehicle. Sadly, for expend-
able vehicles, all the painstaking design and expensive construction and
testing to build a reliable launch vehicle burns up or drops in the ocean
within 10 minutes after launch! Figure 14-62 shows a cut-away view of
the Ariane V launch vehicle. As you can see, the majority of the structure
is propellant tanks and engines. All the other subsystems squeeze into
storable vehicle
small boxes, tucked into the secondary structure. Notice there are several propellant equipment
stage bay
sets of engines on this, and all launch vehicles currently in use. Each set
comprises a separate stage. Next, we'll see why all these stages are
needed to get a spacecraft to orbit. cryogenic
solid tank
booster
stage
Staging
solid rocket
motor
Getting a payload into orbit is not easy. As we showed in Section 14.2,
the state-of-the-art in chemical rockets (the only type currently available
with a thrust-to-weight ratio greater than 1.0) can deliver a maximum l5P of main
propellant --,-..-~
about 470 s. Given the velocity change, l'N, needed to get into orbit, as we tanks
determined in Chapter 9, and the hard realities of the rocket equation,
designers must create a launch vehicle that is mostly propellant. In fact, vulcain engine
-r-11:--11~..-propul,ion
over 80% of a typical launch vehicle's lift-off mass is propellant. Large pro- system
pellant tanks, that also add mass, contain all of this propellant. Of course,
the larger the mass of propellant tanks, and other subsystem, the less mass Figure 14-62. Ariane V Cut-away. Most of
the mass and volume of this giant booster
is available for payload. One way of reducing the vehicle's mass on the consists of propellant tanks. (Courtesy of
way to orbit is to get rid of stuff that's no longer needed. After all, why Arianespace/European Space Agency/Centre
carry all that extra tank mass along when the rocket engines empty the National D'Etudes Spaliales)
tanks steadily during launch? Instead, why not split the propellant into
smaller tanks and then drop them as they empty? Fighter planes, flying
long distances, use this idea in the form of "drop tanks." These tanks pro-
vide extra fuel for long flights and can be dropped when they are empty, to
lighten and streamline the plane. This is the basic concept of staging.
Stages consist of propellant tanks, rocket engines, and other supporting
subsystems that are discarded to lighten the launch vehicle on the way to
orbit. As the propellant in each stage is used up, the stage drops off, and the
engines of the next stage ignite (hopefully) to continue the vehicle's flight
into space. As each stage drops off, the vehicle's mass decreases, meaning a
smaller engine can keep the vehicle on track into orbit. Figure 14-63 shows
an artist's concept of the Saturn I vehicle staging on the way to orbit.
Table 14-11 gives an example of how staging can increase the amount
of payload delivered to orbit. For this simple example, notice the two- Figure 14-63. Saturn I during Staging.
stage vehicle can deliver more than twice the payload to orbit as a When a launch vehicle, such as the Saturn I
similar-sized, single-staged vehicle with the same total propellant mass- shown here in an artist's concept, stages, it
shuts off the lower-stage rocket, separates it,
even after adding 10% to the structure's overall mass to account for the and ignites the rocket on the next stage to
extra engines and plumbing needed for staging. This added payload-to- continue into orbit. (Courtesy of NASAi
orbit capability is why all launch vehicles currently rely on staging. Kennedy Space Center)
591
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
In Table 14-11, for both cases, the mass of the payload delivered to orbit
compared to the mass of the entire launch vehicle is pretty small-5% or
less. About 80% of a typical vehicle is propellant. The other 15% or so
includes structure, tanks, plumbing, and other subsystems. Obviously,
we could get more payload into space if the engines were more efficient.
However, with engines operating at or near the state-of-the-art, the only
other option, as the examples show, is to shed empty stages on the way
into orbit.
Table 14-11. Comparing Single-stage and Two-stage Launch Vehicles.
Launch Vehicle Parameters Payload to Orbit
Single Stage t.V design = 8000 mis mpayload = 84 kg
mpayload = 84 kg lsp = 480 S
mstruclure = 250 kg
mpropellanl = 1500 kg
ms1ruc1ure = 250 kg
mpropellant = 1500 kg
engine lsp = 480 s
Two Stage I',Vdesign = 8000 mis mpayload = 175 kg
mpayload = 175 kg Stage 2
15p = 480 s
ms,ructure = 140 kg
mpropellant = 750 kg mpropellan1 = 750 kg
mstruclure = 140 kg Stage 1
engine lsp = 480 s lsp = 480 s
mstructure = 140 kg
mpropellant = 750 kg mpropellant = 750 kg
mstruclure = 140 kg
engine lsp = 480 s
Now let's see how we use the rocket equation to analyze the total fl V
we get from a staged vehicle. We start with
fl V = I spgo1 n (min.itial)
m
final
Recognize that, for a staged vehicle, each stage has an initial and a final
mass. Also, the Isp may be different for the engine(s) in different stages. To
get the total fl V of the staged vehicle, we must add the fl V for each stage.
592
14.3 Launch Vehicles
This gives us the following relationship for the 11V of a staged vehicle
with n stages.
11V total= 11 Vstage 1 + 11Vstage 2 + ··· +11Vstage n {14-40)
AV _ I 1 ( minitial stage 1)
u total - sp stage 1 go n m
final stage 1
+I l (minitial stage 2) (14-41)
sp stage 2go n
• mfinal stage 2
+I l (minitial stage")
sp stage ngo n
mfinal stage n
where
11Vtotal = total /1V from all stages (m/s)
Isp stage n = specific impulse of stage n (s)
g0 = gravitational acceleration at sea level (9.81 m/ s2)
minitial stage n = initial mass of stage n (kg)
mfinal stage n = final mass of stage n (kg)
What is the initial and final mass of stage 1? The initial mass is easy; it's
just the mass of the entire vehicle at lift-off. But what about the final mass
of stage 1? Here we have to go to our definition of final mass when we
developed the rocket equation. Final mass of any stage is the initial mass
of that stage (including the mass of subsequent stages) less the propellant
mass burned in that stage. So for stage 1
mfinal stage 1 = minitial vehicle - mpropellant stage 1
Similarly, we can develop a relationship for the initial and final mass of
stage 2, stage 3, and so on.
minitial stage 2 = mfinal stage 1 - mstructurestage 1
mfinal stage 2 = minitial stage 2 - mpropellantstage 2
Example 14-4 shows how to compute the total /1V for a staged vehicle.
Overall, staging has several unique advantages over a one-stage vehicle. It
• Reduces the vehicle's total mass for a given payload and 11V
requirement
• Increases the total payload mass delivered to space for the same-
sized vehicle
• Increases the total velocity achieved for the same-sized vehicle
• Decreases the engine efficiency Osp) required to deliver a same-sized
payload to orbit
593
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
But, as the old saying goes, "There ain't no such thing as a free lunch" (or
launch)! In other words, all of these staging advantages come with a few
drawbacks. These include
• Increased complexity because of the extra sets of engines and their
plumbing
• Decreased reliability because we add extra sets of engines and the
plumbing
• Increased total cost because more complex vehicles cost more to build
and launch
Another interesting limitation of staging has to do with the law of
diminishing returns. So far, you may be ready to conclude that if two
stages are good, four stages must be twice as good. But this isn't
necessarily the case. Although a second stage significantly improves
performance, each additional stage enhances it less. By the time we add a
fourth or fifth stage, the increased complexity and reduced reliability
offsets the small performance gain. That's why most launch vehicles
currently in use have only three or four stages.
As we'll see in Chapter 16 in more detail, getting into space is
expensive. In some cases, the price per kilogram to orbit is more than the
price per kilogram of gold! In an ongoing effort to reduce the cost of
access to space, researchers are looking for ways to make launch vehicles
less expensive. One of the most promising ways is to make the entire
vehicle reusable. One company, Kistler Aerospace, is attempting to do
this with a two-stage vehicle design (see the Mission Profile at the end of
this chapter).
However, the ultimate goal would be a single-stage-to-orbit vehicle that
could take off and land as a single piece, offering airline-like operations.
However, the technical challenges in propulsion and materials to
overcome the limitations of a single stage are formidable. The goal of
NASA's X-33 program, shown in Figure 14-64, is to push the state of the
Figure 14·64. Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO). art in rocket engines (the aerospike design described earlier), materials,
The X-33 is a prototype SSTO vehicle that
promises to revolutionize access to space. computer-aided design and fabrications, and operations. One day, the
(Courtesy of NASA/Marshall Space Flight successors to this pioneering program may give all of us the ability to live
Center) and work in space routinely.
594
14.3 Launch Vehicles
-----Astra FunFact-----
It's a Rocket! It's a Plane!
Nol It's a Combined Cycle!
Launch vehicles using conventional rockets must carry along fuel and oxidizer to reach orbit. But during the
early part of the trajectory, they're blasting through the atmosphere, which is about 30% oxygen already.
Carrying along their own oxidizer through the atmosphere is like taking their own sand to the beach! Of course,
jet engines already take advantage of this fact. Jets are called "air breathing" because they burn oxygen from
the atmosphere with their onboard fuel. Unfortunately, conventional jet engines can only operate at speeds up
to about three times the speed of sound (Mach 3). Supersonic-combustion ram jets (or "scramjets") promise to
push this envelope to Mach 7 or beyond, but still not fast enough to reach orbital speed (Mach 25). However,
by combining the best of both worlds-jets and rockets-we may be able to significantly increase the overall
propulsion subsystem efficiency and make single-stage-to-orbit a reality. Engineers and rocket scientists are
researching combined-cycle propulsion subsystems that use jets, scramjets, and rockets to deliver launch
vehicles into orbit. In practice, these systems would use jets and/or scramjets while low and relatively slow in
the atmosphere, then gradually transition to conventional rocket engines to accelerate to orbital velocity. Such
an approach promises to deliver an overall system-specific impulse of 600 s or greater and may one day pave
the way for cheap access to space.
Czysz, Paul A. "Combined Cycle Propulsion-ls it the Key to Achieving Low Payload to orbit Costs."
/SABE paper No. 99-7183, 14th International Symposium on Air Breathing Engines, Florence, Italy, Sept. 5-
10, 1999.
595
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
!!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
dynamic pressure >- Launch-vehicle subsystems are similar in many ways to spacecraft
g-load subsystems, discussed in Chapter 13. The primary differences
stages include
throttling
• Total lifetime (minutes rather than years)
thrust-to-weight ratio
thrust-vector control, TVC • Propulsion subsystem requirements (see the next bullet)
Key Equations
>- Launch-vehicle propulsion subsystems must be designed for
• Thrust-to-weight ratio greater than 1.0
Av total _-
'--'
I
sp stage lgo
l
n
(n1initiul stage I) • Throttling and thrust-vector control
In final stage 1
• Optimum nozzle expansion ratio
+I tn('ninitial ~tage2) >- By staging launch vehicles, we can
sp stage 2go
. rn final stage 2 • Reduce the total vehicle mass for a given payload and aV
requirement
+I l ( nl initial stage")
• Increase the total mass of the payload delivered to space for the
sp stage ngo n
mfinal stage n same-sized vehicle
• Increase the total velocity achieved for the same-sized vehicle
• Decrease the engine efficiency (l5p) required to deliver a same-
sized payload to orbit
> But staging also has several disadvantages
• Increased complexity, because th vehicle needs extra engines
and plumbing
• Decreased reliability, because we add extra sets of engines and
the plumbing for the upper stages
• increased total cost, because a more complex vehicle costs more
to build and launch
596
Example 14~3
Problem Statement 4) Determine the mass propellant in stage 1
mpropellant 1 = minitial -
Imagine you are preparing the new Falcon launch
vehicle for its first mission from Kennedy Space ( mstucture 1 + mstructure 2 + mpropellant 2 + mpayload)
Center. The vehicle must deliver a total t:i. V (t:i. V design)
of 10,000 ml s. The total mass of the second stage, Analytical Solution
including structure and propellant, is 12,000 kg, 9000
kg of which is propellant. The payload mass is 2000 kg. 1) Determine
The Is of the first stage is 350 seconds and of the
t:i. V stage 2 = Isp 2gox
second stage is 400 seconds. The structural mass of the
first stage is 8000 kg. What mass of propellant must be In (mstructure 2 + mpropellant 2 + mpayload)
loaded on the first stage to achieve the required mstucturc 2 + mpayload
t:i. V design? What is the vehicle's total mass at lift-off?
= (400 )(9 81 I 2) I 11 ( 12, OOOkg + 2000kg)
s · m s 3000kg + 2000kg
t:i. V stage 2 = 4040 m / S
Problem Summary
2) Determine the required t:i. V of the first stage
Given: 2 stages t:i. V stage 1 = t:i. V design - t:i. V stage 2
mpayload = 2000 kg = 10,000 m/ s - 4040 m/ s
mstrncture-2 + mpropellant-2 = 12,000 kg
t:i.Vstage 1 = 5960 m/s
mpropellant-2 = 9000 kg
mstructure-1 = 8000 kg 3) Determine the initial mass of stage 1
Isp-l = 350 s t:i. V stage 1 = Isp 1 gox
lsp-2 = 400 s
in initial )
ln (
t:i. V design = 10,000 m / s mstructure 1 + mstructure 2 + mpropellant 2 + mpayload
Find: mpropellant-1 minitital = (8000 kg+ 3000 kg+ 9000 kg+ 2000 kg)
mjnitial
[
5960m/s J
( 350s )(9.81 m /s2)
e
minitial = 124,821 kg
Conceptual Solution 4) Determine mass of propellant in stage 1
1) Determine the t:i. V stage 2 mpropelli\Jlt 1 = minitial -
t:i. V stage 2 = lsp 2gox ( mstructure 1 + Insh·ucture 2 + mpropellant 2 + mpayload)
= 124,821 -(8000 kg + 3000 kg + 9000 kg + 2000kg)
In (mstructure 2 + mpropellant 2 + In payload)
mstructure 2 + mpayload mpropellant-1 = 102,821 kg
2) Determine the required t:i. V of stage 1
t:i. V stage 1 = t:i. V design - t:i. V stage 2 Interpreting the Results
The total mass of this launch vehicle at lift-off is
3) Determine the initial mass of stage 1
124,821 kg (113 tons). About 82% of this mass is
propellant in the first stage alone (102,821 kg/ 124,821
kg). Less than 2% of the total lift-off mass is payload
I ( minitial ) (2000 kg/ 124,821 kg).
n mstructure 2 + mpropellant 2 + Il1payload + mstructure 1
597
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
= References 5 A small experimental rocket engine delivers an
effective exhaust velocity of 1800 m/ s with a mass
Einstein, Albert. Relativity: The Special and the General flow rate of 800 gm/ s. What is the effective jet
Theory New York, NY: Bonanza Books, 1961. power of the exhaust?
Distributed by Crown Publishers, Inc. for the estate
of Albert Einstein.
Forward, Robert L. and Robert P. Hoyt. "Space
Tethers." Scientific American. pp. 86-87. February, 6 A major league batter can swing his bat with force
1999. of 1000 N. If the bat is in contact with a ball for 0.1
s, what is the change in momentum of the ball?
Humble, Ronald., Gary N. Henry, and Wiley J. Larson.
What is the total impulse imparted?
Space Propulsion Analysis and Design. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995.
Isakowitz, Steven J. International Reference Guide to
Space Launch Systems. Washington, D.C.: American
7 Define specific impulse? What are its units?
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA),
1999.
Sellers, Jerry J. et. al., "Investigation into Cost-Effective
Propulsion System Options for Small Satellites."
Journal of Reducing Space Mission Cost. Vol. 1, No. 1, 8 During mission analysis, engineers determine a
1998. communications spacecraft will need a total
impulse of 10,000 N-s during its lifetime for orbit
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission maintenance. How much total thrust time would
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht, be needed, if the spacecraft uses a single 10 N
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999. thrust engine? If it uses a 2- or a 1-N thrust engine?
mm Mission Problems
14.1 Rocket Science 9 Imagine a 100-kg astronaut is stranded in space
with only a large bag (50 kg) of Moon rocks (0.5 kg
1 What three things are rockets used for on launch each). To get back to the space shuttle, she'll have
vehicles and spacecraft? to throw the rocks in one direction to move in the
other. If she can throw 1 rock per second at a
velocity of 30 m/ s, what is the specific impulse of
her makeshift rocket? What is her thrust? What
total t,;.V can she generate?
2 Describe the inputs and outputs of the simplest
version of a rocket system.
10 What is the ideal rocket equation? Define each term.
3 Define rocket thrust and explain where it comes
from in terms of Newton's Third Law of Motion.
11 While on its way into orbit, the Space Shuttle, with
an initial mass of 100,000 kg, burns 1000 kg of pro-
pellant through its orbital maneuvering system's
4 Describe the relationship between rocket thrust, engines (C = 2000 m/ s). How much t,;.V does it
propellant mass flow rate and exhaust velocity. achieve?
598
Mission Problems
12 A remote-sensing spacecraft needs to correct its 20 Define specific enthalpy.
orbit by 10 ml s. If the effective exhaust velocity of
the orbital-maneuvering thruster is 1000 ml s, and
the spacecraft's initial mass including propellant is
1000 kg, how much propellant will the maneuver 21 Water (1 gm/ cc) is .flowing through a 1-cm
require? diameter hose at a rate of 3 kg/min. What is the
.flow velocity? If a kink in the hose reduces the
effective diameter to 0.5 cm, to what velocity will
the .flow increase to maintain the same mass .flow
rate?
13 Describe the two separate processes that take place
within a rocket?
22 The Mach-1 Challenger rocket bike is attempting
to break the sound barrier on the Utah salt .flats. If
the ratio of specific heats for air is 1.4, what will be
14 What are the two main categories of rockets in
the speed of sound at noon with the air
current use and how are they classified?
temperature at 36° C? What velocity will the rocket
bike need to reach Mach 1.3? Use Mair= 28.97 kg/
kmole.
15 What are the two forms of thermodynamic energy?
What forms do electrodynamic energy take?
23 What is the venturi effect? Give an every day
example. Why is it important for thermodynamic
rockets?
16 What is charge? What is an ion?
24 During deployment, the rocket nozzle for an
u pperstage was damaged, causing the effective
exit area to decrease. What effect will this have on
17 What basic function does a nozzle serve for a the effective exhaust velocity? On the pressure
thermodynamic rocket? thrust?
18 Nitrogen gas (molecular mass 28 kg I krnole) for a 25 Describe the difference between momentum
cold-gas thruster is being stored in a tank at 100 thrust and pressure thrust. What is the ideal
bar at temperature of 290 K. What is the density of pressure?
the propellant?
26 Describe the difference between over-expanded,
under-expanded, and ideally expanded rocket
19 What two conditions must be satisfied for nozzles. What is the exit pressure for an ideally
isentropic .flow? What is "frozen .flow?" expanded nozzle?
599
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
27 An upperstage for an interplanetary spacecraft has 33 Engineers are analyzing the effect of replacing the
a nozzle with an exit diameter of 0.25 m. If the regulators used in the astronaut's MMU that take
expansion ratio is 200:1, what is the nozzle throat the tank storage pressure from 200 bar down to the
diameter? chamber pressure of 5 bar. If a new regulator will
reduce the pressure only to 10 bar, what will be the
expected impact on thrust and system specific
impulse? (Hint: Refer to the test results in Figure
14-20)
28 An improved upperstage solid-rocket motor has a
nozzle throat diameter of 0.5 cm. If the theoretical
characteristic exhaust velocity, C*, for the new
propellant combination is 1400 m/ s. and the
operational chamber pressure will be 20 bar, how
long will it take to use the 10 kg of propellant? 34 Discuss the effect of replacing nitrogen (M = 28
kg/ kmole) in a cold-gas system with carbon
dioxide (M = 44 kg/kmole).
29 Thermochemical analysis for a new rocket engine
design using LOX and RP-1 predicts the
combustion temperature will be 3415 K with a
ratio of specific heats, y, of 1.225. If the molecular 35 Describe how we can use an electric field to
mass of the combustion products is 21.79 kg/ accelerate ions.
kmole, what is the theoretical characteristic
exhaust velocity, C*, and specific impulse, Isp, for
this new engine?
36 Describe the relationship between charge density
and thrust. Between electric-field strength and
specific impulse.
30 What two qualities of a thermodynamic rocket
engine affect the Isp it can produce? How do we
choose these qualities to produce the highest l5P?
37 Define plasma and give an every-day example of
one. What is the main advantage of using plasma
31 Describe the basic process that takes place within a for electrodynamic propulsion?
rocket combustion chamber. What does the
performance of this process depend on? Describe
the process that takes place within the nozzle.
What does its performance depend on?
38 Mission designers are hoping to double the power
available for an electrodynamic rocket on a deep-
space probe. Assuming thrust for the engine
32 Explain the basic operating principle of a cold-gas remains constant, what will be the effect on
rocket. Give an example of their application. specific impulse?
600
Mission Problems
39 Engineers are evaluating two different thrusters 45 Describe the functional difference between bipropel-
for a new communication satellite. System 1 has an la.nt and monopropellant liquid-chemical rockets.
l5P of 100 s and system 2 has an lsp of 150 s. If the Compare their relative advantages and disadvan-
total Ii V the system must deliver over the life of the tages.
spacecraft is 500 ml s, how much propellant will
they save by using system 2 instead of system 1?
Assume the initial mass in both cases is 1000 kg.
46 Give an example of a hypergolic propellant combi-
nation. What is the advantage of hypergolics over
14.2 Propulsion Systems non-hypergolics?
40 List the key elements of any propulsion subsystem
and describe how they relate to each other?
47 A sub-orbital launch vehicle powered by a hybrid-
rocket motor has a stoichiometric oxidizer-to-fuel
ratio, 0/F of 8:1. If the rocket equation predicts a
total propellant mass of 900 kg will be needed,
41 What are the four main tasks of propulsion-system what mass of this will be oxidizer?
propellant management?
48 Describe the basic operating principle for solid-
42 What are the primary differences between pressure- rocket motors and list some of their advantages and
fed and pump-fed propulsions systems? What are disadvantages. Give examples of their applications.
some of the advantages and disadvantages of each?
49 Explain how the shape of the propellant grain can
affect the thrust profile for a solid-rocket motor.
43 Using the proposed propulsion subsystem for the Give an example of how this can be used to
FireSat mission presented in Figure 14-26, go operational advantage.
through each component and describe its function.
50 Describe the basic operating principle of a hybrid
44 List the five basic types of thermodynamic rockets rocket. Compare their advantages and disadvan-
and describe their basic operating principles? tages to chemical bipropellant systems.
601
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
51 Describe the basic operating principle for solar- 57 List the various factors that we must consider when
thermal rockets. Compare their advantages and determining the total "cost" of a particular propul-
disadvantages to chemical bipropellant systems. sion subsystem option. Describe how the relative
importance of these factors would differ between
an experimental-science mission conducted by uni-
versity students and a communication mission con-
ducted by a commercial aerospace company.
52 List the two main types of thermoelectric rocket
thrusters, describe their basic operating principles,
and compare their performances. Describe the
fundamental design trade-offs engineers have 58 What is the basic operating principle of a solar
among power, thrust, and specific impulse. sail? Where does its thrust come from?
59 Ambitious asteroid miners plan to use a large solar
53 Explain the operating principle for nuclear-thermal sail to maneuver an asteroid closer to the orbital
rockets and discuss the technical and political issues processing facility. What thrust will a sail 10 km x
associated with their future applications. 10 km generate at 1 AU? What acceleration will
this impart to a 106 kg asteroid? Assume the
reflectivity, p, is 0.9.
54 What are the two main types of electrodynamic 60 Describe how we could use a tether to de-orbit a
rockets currently in use? What is the primary
spacecraft upperstage. Is the ti V provided by the
difference between the two? tether completely "free?"
61 A small satellite is being deployed from the
55 List the two primary types of plasma thrusters and International Space Station (currently in a 300 km
describe their basic operating principles. circular orbit) upwards at the end of a 20-km
tether. What will be the approximate new apogee
of the satellite after it releases the tether?
56 Discuss future applications of electrodynamic
rockets on interplanetary, communication, and 62 The starship Endeavour travels at 80% of the
remote-sensing missions. What are advantages and speed of light for one year (relative to the crew.)
disadvantages of these systems versus chemical- How much time will pass relative to those of us on
propulsion options? Earth?
602
Mission Problems
14.3 LaunchVehicles 69 Rocket scientists are testing a new three-stage
rocket for delivering small payloads to low-Earth
orbit. It has these characteristics
63 What are the two biggest differences affecting the
design of launch vehicles versus spacecraft? • Isp stage 1 = 300 s
• Isp stage 2 = 350 s
• Isp stage 3 = 400 s
• Payload mass= 1500 kg
• Structure mass stage 1 = 10,000 kg
64 What unique challenges are presented by launch-
vehicle propulsion subsystems versus spacecraft • Structure mass stages 2 and 3 = 7500 kg each
propulsion subsystems? • Propellant mass stage 1 = 50,000 kg
• Propellant mass stage 2 = 40,000 kg
• Propellant mass stage 3 = 35,000 kg
a) What is the initial mass of the entire vehicle?
65 Give examples for why a launch vehicle may need
to throttle its rocket engines.
b) What is the final mass of stage 1?
c) What is the A V of stage 1?
66 The first stage for a launch vehicle is designed to
burn out at an altitude of 50,000 m. What would be d) What is the initial mass of stage 2?
an optimum design altitude for the rocket nozzle?
e) What is the final mass of stage 2?
f) What is the z,V of stage 2?
67 Describe the differences and similarities between
launch vehicles and spacecraft in these subsystems:
g) What is the initial mass of stage 3?
NGC, communication and data-handling, electrical
power, and structure and mechanisms.
h) What is the final mass of stage 3?
i) What is the !':,. V of stage 3?
68 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
staging? j) What is the total A V of the booster?
603
Chapter 14 Rockets and Launch Vehicles
70 A two-stage rocket with the following character- For Discussion
istics must produce a total !'!.V of8000 mis.
72 What would be the best rocket technologies, or set
• l5P stage 1 = 400 s of technologies, to use for a manned Mars mission?
• Isp stage 2 = 450 s
• Payload mass = 100 kg
73 Given the current state-of-the-art in rocket
teclmology, what other launch-vehicle design
• Structure mass stage 1 = 8000 kg options could offer lower cost access to space?
• Structure mass stage 2 = 6000 kg
If the !'!. V for stage 2 is 3000 m Is, what is the
vehicle's total mass at lift-off?
71 NASA is working on a new two-stage rocket. The
lsp of stage 1 is 300 s. The I5P of stage 2 is 400 s. The
structural mass of stage 1 is 1000 kg and of stage 2
is 800 kg. Propellant loading is 75,000 kg for stage
1 and 50,000 kg for stage 2. Engineers want to place
a 1200 kg payload into a circular orbit at an
altitude of 200 km. The proposed launch site is
Kennedy Space Center (L0 = 28.5°) with an
inclination of 28.5°. Assume A Y1osses are 800 ml s.
Can this rocket do the job? [Hint: You may need to
review Example 14-3 and the A V design calculations
from Chapter 9.]
604
MissionProfi/...-c-K-1====
Kistler Aerospace Corporation, based in Kirkland, Mission Impact
Washington, is developing the K-1 reusable aerospace The K-1 is designed to significantly reduce the cost of
vehicle. Kistler engineers and operators will conduct delivering payloads to low-Earth orbit (LEO) by reusing
flight tests and commercial operations from Woomera, each vehicle up to 100 times. The K-1 is also designed to
South Australia. Kistler is developing the K-1 entirely provide launch-on-demand capability and schedule
with private capital and plans to build a fleet of five flexibility, with a nine-day turnaround between consec-
vehicles operating from sites in Woomera and utive launches of the same vehicle. Kistler is targeting
Nevada. A team of contractors, including Lockheed the market for LEO corrunercial corrununication satel-
Martin Michaud Space Systems, Northrop Grumman lites as well as government customers.
Corporation, GenCorp Aerojet, Draper Laboratory,
Allied Signal Aerospace, Irvin Aerospace, and
Oceaneering Thermal Systems is manufacturing the
vehicle.
Mission Overview
The two-stage K-1 launches vertically. After stage
separation, the first stage, or Launch Assist Platform
(LAP), reignites its center engine for return to the
launch site, landing with parachutes and airbags. The
second stage, or Orbital Vehicle, continues into orbit
and deploys its payload. It then enters a phasing orbit
for 22 hours before deorbiting and returning to the
launch site using parachutes and airbags.
MissionData
./ The overall K-1 vehicle is 36.9 m (121 ft.) long and Artist's concept of the K-1 during stage separation at 43.3 km or
142,000 ft. (Courtesy of Kistler Aerospace Corporation)
weighs 382,300 kg (841,000 lbm.) at liftoff .
./ The LAP is 18.3 m (60 ft.) long, 6.7 m (22 ft.) in For Discussion
diameter, and weighs 250,500 kg (551,000 lbm.) at
launch. • What other advantages or disadvantages will fully
reusable systems like the K-1 have over expendable
./ The OV is 18.6 m (61 ft.) long, has a cylindrical launch vehicles?
diameter of 4.3 m (14 ft.), and weighs 131,800 kg
(290,000 lbm.) fully fueled. • How can mission designers benefit from the
launch-on-demand capability resulting from reus-
./ Both stages use liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene able launch vehicles?
propellants
• Should the government continue to fund develop-
• The LAP is powered by two AJ26-58 and one
ment of completely expendable launch vehicles, or
AJ26-59 engine
should it move towards more use of commercially
Isp = 331 s (vacuum)
available, reusable launch services?
Thrust= 4540 kN (1,020,000 lb£.)
• How should the government license reusable
• The OV is powered by an AJ26-60 engine launch vehicles?
Isp = 346 s (vacuum)
Thrust= 1760 kN (395,000 !bf.) Contributor
./ The K-1 will initially service inclinations between Debra Facktor Lepore, Manager, Payload Systems.
45° and 60°, and between 84° and 99° Kistler Aerospace Corporation.
• 4600 kg (10,140 lbm.) into a 200 km (110 nmi.)
circular orbit at a 45° inclination References
• 2800 kg (6,170 lbm.) into a 200 km (110 nmi.) Kistler Aerospace Corporation. K-1 Payload User's
circular orbit at a 98° inclination Guide. May 1999.
605
·.• --;;.-r:""':e••--rr-..-.,...-:::=~-.::--~·- - , --• - _,. - -r- •
• - c1" ---a:.-......!... '£--------Ii....: • - ~ .:.
Space operations experts work "behind the scenes" at the Mission Control Center of NASA's Johnson Space Center, which supports the Space
Shuttle while it's in orbit. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
Space
Operations
== In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... !!!!!!!!! 0 u t Ii n e
..- Describe the major functions of space operations systems
15.1 Mission Operations Systems
,.- Identify the main parts of a space mission's communication network Spacecraft Manufacturing
,.- Explain basic commurucation principles and determine key Operations
parameters of system. design Communication
.- Describe key tasks performed by teams throughout the mission Satellite Control Networks
lifetime
15.2 Mission Management and
.- Explain the use of basic tools for effective team and project
management Operations
Mission Teams
Mission Management
Spacecraft Autonomy
!!!!!!!!! You Should Already Know ...
O Elements of a space mission arch.it ctu re (Chapter 1)
O The space systems engineering process (Chapter 11)
O Electromagnetic spectrum and black-body radiation (Chapter 11)
Astrouau! Swigert: "Okay Houston, we've iind n problem here."
Mission Coutroi Capcom: "This is Houston, say again please."
Fnteful words iha! began
tile dmmatic Apollo '/3 ordeal
Chapter 15 Space Operations
hroughout most of the space age, whenever a U.S. manned
T spacecraft reaches orbit, world attention switches from the launch
site to Houston, Texas, the hub of U.S. manned space programs.
On TV we see a bunch of people seated at consoles, staring at computer
monitors. But what are all these people doing? Why does it seem to take
so many of them to support just one mission? Here we'll explore how a
mission really happens. Throughout the book, we've referred to the
operations concept for a mission-the unifying principles that describe
the relationships among hardware systems, mission data and services,
and their ultimate users-people. Here, we'll turn our attention to what
this concept involves, who does it, what they do, and how. We'll explore
the entire breadth of space mission operations, from mission design, to
launch, to collecting data on orbit.
Space operations is how we really get a mission off the drawing board
Space Mission Architecture. This chapter and into space. These activities include everything, from "cradle to grave,"
deals with the Mission Operations Systems for a given mission. Remember the Space Mission Architecture icon we
segment of the Space Mission Architecture, introduced in Chapter 1. In this chapter, we'll look at the remaining
introduced in Figure 1-20.
elements of this architecture to see how the final pieces of the mission
puzzle fit together. As we'll see, mission operations systems support the
entire mission and serve as the "glue" that ties the other elements together.
Space Mission Management and Operations wraps all the various
elements-the mission, orbits, spacecraft, launch vehicles, and operations
systems-into a single, well-integrated package.
To organize, design, assemble, integrate, test, launch, and operate a
mission, we need lots of tools. Everything from simple personal computers
to massive launch complexes go into getting missions off the ground-and
keeping them there. We'll start by looking at some of the tools that make up
these critical operations systems. We'll focus on the "big ticket" items
including assembly, integration, and test (AIT) facilities, launch sites, and
the far-flung communication networks that bind managers, operators, and
astronauts into an efficient team. Then we'll turn our attention to the true
stars of the show-people.
People are the most important part of any space mission. While most of
our attention in this book has been on systems and orbits, it is people who
plan, support, direct, and even risk their lives to complete a mission. With
the seven simple words quoted at the beginning of this chapter, the crew
of Apollo 13 set in motion a heroic effort by the ground-control team at
the Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas. Hundreds of engineers
and operators worked around the clock to devise a plan to save three
Figure 15-1. Mission Control Center astronauts facing death 384,400 km (238,862 mi.) from home (Figure 15-1).
(MCC). NASA engineers and operators needed The resourcefulness of these dedicated men and women and the cool
all of the MCC capabilities to rescue the reactions of the crew ensured their safe return to Earth. We'll see how
stranded Apollo 13 astronauts. Here, !light
controllers see and talk to one of the astronauts. mission managers and operators organize the space systems engineering
(Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center) process to produce the hardware and software a mission depends on.
608
15.1 Mission Operations Systems
15.1 Mission Operations Systems
== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
..- Identify important operations systems needed during spacecraft
manufacturing, launch, and operations
..- Explain basic principles of communication and identify the
elements of a communication architecture
..- Apply basic principles of radio communications to understand link
design
.- Describe components of major NASA and DoD satellite-control
networks
Lucky for us, when we decide to build a house, we can take for granted
that all the tools we need are on hand or readily available. Otherwise, our
first step in the process would be to design a mill to cut the lumber to
build the house. And we'd need a shop to make the saws, hammers, and
other tools, to create the mill to make the lumber to build the house. And
before that we'd . . well, you get the idea.
When the first space missions began, operators faced a situation almost
this frustrating. They had to invent nearly everything to make the
mission possible-launch vehicles, computers, space suits, and even
Velcro!". Fortunately, today's missions build on more than 40 years of
space heritage and can leverage many of the existing tools.
In this section, we'll look at some of these tools and see how important
they are for making space missions possible. We'll use the term mission
operations systems to include any facilities or infrastructure needed to
design, assemble, integrate, test, launch, or operate a space mission
(Figure 15-2). For the most part, operations systems stay in the
background of any mission, quietly doing their jobs. But without them,
space missions couldn't generate the products the designers had in mind.
We don't want to take for granted the unsung operator heroes of the
space program. However, we can't present all of the thousands of
separate operations systems that support even a simple mission, such as
FireSat, in a single chapter. Instead, we'll look at some of the critical
operations systems that function during the three basic phases of a
spacecraft's life-building, launching, and operating. We'll focus on
• Spacecraft Manufacturing-the systems that support design,
assembly, integration, and testing
• Launch-the systems that bring the spacecraft and launch vehicle
together and get them safely off the pad
• Operations-mainly communication systems, such as the web of
radio links that track and relay data to and from the spacecraft
609
Chapter 15 Space Operations
Figure 15-2. Schriever Air Force Base. At this satellite control center, operators send
commands and receive telemetry from most of the Defense Department satellites. The white
"golf-ball" building on the right houses a dish antenna for transmitting and receiving signals.
(Courtesy of tile U.S. Air Force)
Spacecraft Manufacturing
In Chapters 11-14 we presented the space systems engineering process
and applied it to the basic design challenges for individual spacecraft
subsystems. Now we can turn our attention to the operations systems
needed to support this process from a blank sheet of paper through final
testing.
Figure 15-3. Computer-aided Manufac-
turing. Computer-aided manufacturing equip- Throughout the systems-engineering process, spacecraft design teams
ment, such as the 3-axis Knee Mill shown here, rely on a wide variety of design and analysis tools. Some of these, such as
allow designers to turn electronic drawings off-the-shelf orbital simulation software, we described in Chapter 11.
directly into hardware. (Courtesy of CNC
Automation, Inc. at www.cncauto.com) Increasingly, in an effort to cut mission costs, smart mission managers look
for such versatile hardware or software tools that they can re-use
throughout the mission lifetime, and for subsequent missions. For
example, the same program used during preliminary spacecraft design to
estimate propellant consumption during a critical maneuver could also be
used to perform the final calculations prior to the real maneuver on orbit.
After the spacecraft design has been scrutinized during several
detailed technical reviews, assembly and integration begins. Technicians
fabricate structural components using conventional machine tools, such
as lathes and drill presses, or computer-aided manufacturing equipment,
such as the ones shown in Figure 15-3. These computer-driven tools allow
the technicians to turn electronic drawings directly into finished pieces.
Other specially trained technicians assemble electronic components by
hand on electronic work benches using soldering guns and other
Figure 15-4. Clean Room. Clean rooms conventional tools from the electronics industry.
provide a dust free environment for assembling To insure the highest possible quality, most spacecraft components are
sensitive spacecraft components and help to assembled and integrated in dedicated clean rooms. A clean room, such as
enforce a careful, rigid discipline during the
assembly process to ensure the highest quality the one shown in Figure 15-4, is a specially designed space with a
of workmanship. Workers shown here are carefully controlled level of particulate in the air. How clean is clean
wearing standard clean room uniform ilems- depends on the rating for a given room. For example, a Class 1000 clean
coats, hats, etc. Queen Elizabeth retains her
prerogative in headgear. (Courtesy of Surrey room has fewer than 1000 particles that are less than 0.01 mm in size per
Satellite Technology, Ltd., U.K.) cubic meter of volume (in comparison, a typical home may have billions
610
15.1 Mission Operations Systems
or more particles of this size or bigger per m3-so start dusting!). Clean
rooms serve two primary purposes. The first, and most obvious, is that
they limit the exposure of sensitive components, such as sensor lenses, to
particulate that could damage them or reduce their performance in space.
The second purpose of a clean room is psychological. Arguably, some
spacecraft components could be safely assembled in a garage and
probably function quite well in space (and, for some missions, have).
However, the discipline imposed by working in a clean room creates a
carefully-controlled work environment that helps to prevent carelessness
and mistakes. When technicians wear crisp, new white smocks with
disposable booties, a hair net, and rubber gloves they tend to be far more
conscious of the importance of the task at hand and more likely to make
careful, deliberate moves near expensive equipment and spacecraft parts.
Within the clean room, other specialized ground support equipment
(GSE) helps during subsystem and system assembly, integration, and
testing. Custom-built mechanical-handling equipment, or "jigs," hold,
rotate, and move the spacecraft structure and individual components.
This type of machinery is especially important when we're dealing with
very large structures. Figure 15-5 shows the Space Shuttle orbiter being
moved into position over the external tank prior to mating, using a
massive overhead crane. Other dedicated CSE provides power,
communications, and other support to individual subsystems during
AIT. For example, in Chapter 14 we discussed the need for dedicated
propellant handling equipment for loading fuel and oxidizer prior to Figure 15-5. Specialized Ground Support
Equipment (GSE). The photograph shows a
flight. This type and other CSE accompany the spacecraft during final
specially designed crane used to move the
checkout prior to launch. 100,000 kg Space Shuttle Orbiter into place
After we assemble and integrate the spacecraft, integrated testing can over the external tank. Spacecraft of all sizes
need specialized ground support equipment
begin. Prior to this time, individual components and subsystems typically for AIT and during launch preparation.
undergo their own testing. These tests can be as simple as screening and (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
functional checkout or include most of the same tests done during
integrated testing. We discussed most of these tests in Chapter 13.
Functional testing, as the name implies, determines how well the
subsystems, as well as the complete integrated spacecraft, work as
required under a range of operational scenarios. Environmental testing
ensures the spacecraft can survive the heat, cold, vacuum, radiation,
vibration, and g-loading it will experience throughout the mission.
Typically, functional and environmental tests go hand in hand. We
naturally want to ensure our spacecraft works before we subject it
expensive thermal/ vacuum cycling. After the thermal/ vacuum tests, we
must repeat the functional tests to determine if anything broke. If
something did, we must fix it and then test again.
In addition to thermal/vacuum facilities, other operations systems
used during the testing phase include
• Shaker table-subjects the spacecraft structure to the dynamic
loading environment it will experience during launch
• Acoustic chamber-subjects the spacecraft structure to the high
acoustic, launch loads (noise)
611
Chapter 15 Space Operations
• Anechoic chamber-tests onboard radio equipment to ensure
antennas are functioning and produce the correct signal strength
(Figure 15-6)
• Solar simulation chamber-simulates the solar radiation input to test
solar cell output, as well as thermal-control-system design
Even for a very small-scale mission, such as a our FireSat example, we
need to have access to most of the AIT operations systems we've
discussed. We need clean rooms for assembly, integration, and testing of
subsystems, especially the sensitive lenses of the payload sensors. We
Figure 15·6. Anechoic Chamber. The
unusual chamber walls absorb radio frequency subject subsystems, as well as the entire spacecraft, to thermal and
energy to prevent stray reflections from thermal I vacuum cycling to ensure components will function in the harsh
interfering with the sensitive instruments that
space environment. We may need an anechoic chamber to test and verify
record the transmitted energy levels. Here the
AFRISTAR satellite, built by Worldspace, Inc., the transmitter antenna patterns. Finally, the launch provider would
undergoes antenna testing in the Mistral test require us to subject the entire structure to simulated launch loads,
range in Toulouse, France. (Courtesy of Maira
vibrations, and g forces, to ensure it won't fall apart on the way to orbit.
Marconi Space)
This last test is most important from the standpoint of the launch vehicle
provider, especially when a spacecraft travels as a secondary payload at
the behest of the main payload. As a "guest" passenger, a spacecraft can't
do anything that may jeopardize the main mission. (No one, other than
us, may care if FireSat actually works after it gets into orbit, but the
people paying for the main mission don't want FireSat to break their
expensive spacecraft on the way!)
Launch
The launch can sometimes account for nearly 30% of a mission's cost.
Not only is the launch vehicle expensive, but we also pay for the complex
operations systems that provide the infrastructure to get it and our
spacecraft safely off the ground and into space. These systems include
• The launch site and its associated range
• The launch pad
• Payload and vehicle processing facilities
• Launch operations centers
Launch sites are typically chosen based on geography and safety. As
we discussed in Chapter 9, launch site latitude determines the minimum
orbital inclination available from a given site. For example, Space Shuttle
launches from the Kennedy Space Center (Figure 15-7), located at 28.5
deg latitude, can reach a minimum inclination of 28.5 deg. Therefore,
from the standpoint of geography, the ideal location for a launch site is on
the equator. The Kourou Launch Site, used by the Ariane launch vehicles,
Figure 15·7. Kennedy Space Center is located at 4 deg north latitude. This latitude gives Ariane a distinct
(KSC). NASA officials chose this site along the
advantage over launch sites with a higher north or south latitude for
eastern Florida coast for launch safety and the
added velocity from Earth's rotation rate. launching large communication spacecraft bound for geosynchronous
(Courtesy of NASA/Kennedy Space Center) orbit, while still allowing for launches into polar orbits.
612
15.1 Mission Operation Sy terns
With any site is an associated range. The rn11ge refers to the large area
around the site that extends underneath the launch vehicle's trajectory. All
of this area does not have to actually be on the site, but it must be clear of
population centers and under the control of the launch site authority. For
example, the Vandenberg Air Force Base launch site in California includes
a large area along the coast, north of Santa Barbara. For safety reasons,
launches from Vandenberg must go toward the south and the Western
Range is responsible for monitoring all launches from Vandenberg and
keeping the area downrange of the launch site clear and safe. Figure 15-8
shows the available launch inclinations for the Vandenberg and Kennedy
launch sites. Notice that due to range safety concerns, not all inclinations
that are physically possible are allowed operationally.
Kennedy Space Center
38 32,--~~--~---------,
orbital launch
i'1clination 35 azimuth
d~ / deg
57 70
34. .>
~:::.....,..-29--90
inclination
1
orbital .•,) 04 Tl 56\.
817
\ '\
39
<,
120
deg \ 140
201 1 ~o l60 laJnch
azimuth
deg
30~~~-~~~-~~~ 24.__....._____.____,.__.....____,____,_..___,
124 122 120 118 116 84 82 80 78 76
longitude, deg W longitude, deg W
Figure 15-8. Available Inclinations. While physical limits constrain the range of available
inclinations (see Chapter 9), politics and safety also play a part. Here we see the range of
available inclinations and corresponding launch azimuths for launches from Kennedy Space
Center, Florida, and the U.S. Air Force's launch facility al Vandenberg AFB, California.
One way around the problem of a fixed launch site is to build a mobile
one. The Sea Launch platform, shown in Figure 15-9, designed and built
by an international consortium led by Boeing in the U.S. and Krounechev
in the Ukraine, is a large, converted oil rig that they can tow to any
location for launch. This mobility allows the mission planners to place
their booster and payload right on the equator to take maximum
advantage of Earth's rotation and launch directly into an equatorial orbit,
Figure 15-9. Sea Launch. The sea launch
saving important mass for on-orbit operations at geostationary altitude. complex, built by a consortium of Boeing
For the FireSat mission, recall that we assumed that our spacecraft Aerospace, U.S.A., and Krounechev Aero-
space, Ukraine, gets around the inherent limita-
would travel as a secondary payload on the hypothetical Falcon Launch tions of a fixed launch site by loading all the
Vehicle. As a secondary payload, it takes the role of a "hitchhiker," necessary operations systems onto a single,
dependent on the primary payload to set the specific requirements for large floating platform. They can then move this
mobile platform to a favorable location, such as
launch and launch-vehicle interface. Essentially, it gets to go along for the directly over the equator for launches into
ride, taking advantage of most of the launch infrastructure already in geostationary orbits. (Courtesy of The Boeing
place for the primary payload. Company)
613
Chapter 15 Space Operations
Operations
The final phase of a mission is operations-the time when a spacecraft
finally gets down to business. Another set of operations systems support
this phase, perhaps the most important of which is the spacecraft tracking
and communication network.
Even before the launch vehicle lifts off the pad, this complex
communication network sends health and status data to eager controllers
in the mission operations center. This network also tracks the trajectory of
the vehicle into orbit. Throughout the mission lifetime, teams of people
on the ground depend on these vital radio communication links to keep
them in contact with the spacecraft and to deliver the all-important
mission data (Figure 15-10).
Recall that for the FireSat example, we assumed we'd rely on a single
ground station located in Colorado Springs, Colorado. FireSat would
communicate directly with this station whenever it came into range. The
Figure 15-10. Defense Support Program
(DSP) Control Site. All space missions mission success depends on this single link. Fortunately, we can distribute
require some type of ground site with antennas mission data to users through the Internet, a complex communication
to maintain radio contact with orbiting system already in place. Other, more complex, missions depend on other,
spacecraft. This site links the DSP facility at
Buckley Air National Guard Base, Colorado, more complex, operations networks. All of these networks depend on the
with its geostationary satellites. Large, process of radio communication.
directional antennas operate under the "golf- We looked at the spacecraft side of communication, performed by the
balls" that protect them from the elements.
(Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force) communication and data-handling subsystem (CDHS) in Chapter 13.
Now let's step back to look at the overall problem of linking the ground
system to spacecraft. In general, communication is the exchange of
messages and information. For space missions, co111111t-1.11icntio11 is the
exchange of commands and engineering data between the spacecraft and
ground controllers, as well as the processing and transmitting of payload
data to users. In this section we'll focus on the different ways spacecraft
communicate-the communication architecture. Figure 15-11 shows an
example of a communication architecture. The communication architecture
is the configuration of satellites and ground stations in a space system
and the network that links them together. It has four elements
• Spacecrnft-the spaceborne elements of the system
• Ground stntio11s-Earth-based antennas, transmitters, and receivers
that talk to the spacecraft
• Control ce11fer-the command authority that controls the spacecraft
and all other elements in the network
• Relay satellites-additional spacecraft that link the primary spacecraft
with ground stations
Information moves between these elements on various links
• Doumlink=cuu» sent from the primary spacecraft to a ground station
• Upli11k-data sent from a ground station to the primary spacecraft
• Forward link-data sent from a ground station to the primary
spacecraft through a relay satellite
614
15.1 Mi sion Operations Sy sterns
• Return link-data sent from the primary spacecraft to a ground
station through a relay satellite
• Cross/ink-data sent on either the forward link or return link
cross link {return link)
I ..
. crosslink
I
(forward link)
Figure 15-11. Communication Architecture. A communication architecture for space
missions consists of ground- and space-based elements tied together through different
communication paths or links.
Data received via the downlink is also known as telemetry. Telemetry
literally means "far measurement" and includes information on the
health and status of the spacecraft and its payload, as well as the
communication network that transmits the telemetry to the control center.
After launch, telemetry monitoring by operators moves into high gear.
The telemetry system takes thousands of separate measurements-rocket
engine temperature, tank pressure, battery voltage, attitude, and many,
many more.
Operators view all of this data on displays in the operations center and
stand poised to react if something goes wrong in real time. Real time refers
to reacting second-by-second to events as they happen during the
mission. Operators use this term to distinguish real-time operations from
simulated or post-flight operations. For example, on deep space missions
to Jupiter, the time delay between an event happening and receiving the
telemetry from the event in the control center could be hours. In this case,
operators don't have the luxury of reacting in real-time and must
carefully plan ahead and build in capability for the spacecraft to function
on its own, without human intervention.
To receive mission data, antennas on the ground must point at the
spacecraft whenever it's within range. This means ground stations must
know where the spacecraft is at all times. One of the ways they do this is
to rely on world-wide tracking networks (Figure 15-12). In Chapter 8 we
Figure 15-12. Iridium Tracking Site. This
discussed the problem of tracking and predicting a spacecraft trajectory. ground station in Yellowknife, Canada, is one of
This process relies on ground- or space-based parts of the communication several that tracks the Iridium constellation ol
network to take measurements in one of three ways 66 satellites. (Courtesy of Motorola, Inc.)
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Chapter 15 Space Operations
• Receiving and analyzing a spacecraft's telemetry signal
• Using radar to measure the range, azimuth, and elevation similar to
air traffic control radars that track airplanes
• Sending the spacecraft a signal that an onboard transponder receives
and retransmits, so the ground system can measure the spacecraft's
range, azimuth, and elevation
The operations team uses this tracking data to determine position and
velocity vectors for the spacecraft. From there, they can derive the
spacecraft's classic orbital elements, as we explained in Chapter 5, and
predict its path as we showed in Chapter 8. (So that's what all that was
for!)
Throughout every phase of the launch and on orbit, operators send
commands to the launch vehicle or spacecraft via the uplink. Co111mn11ds
are instruction sets telling the onboard computers to take some specific
action or update some critical part of the software. Commands can tell the
spacecraft to charge batteries, fire rockets, or reorient a sensor to point at a
new target.
Commands can either be real-time or stored. The computer implements
real-time co111111m1ds immediately upon receipt. Operators send stored
co111111a11ds with a time tag so the computer will carry it out some time in the
future or after some future mission event, such as an antenna deployment.
Most important commands are sent in two stages. This means the
command travels to the spacecraft through an uplink and the communica-
tion subsystem echoes it back to the operators through the downlink. After
operators confirm that the command received by the spacecraft is the one
sent, they send a second command to enable it in the onboard software.
Two-stage commands ensure that important information doesn't get
garbled during transmission and provide a measure of security from
outside interference (we don't want someone else taking control of our
spacecraft'). Because the spacecraft communication links are so important
to mission performance, most spacecraft have built-in commands to
follow if the communication link is lost. A simple timing switch, or
"watch-dog timer" onboard keeps track of the time a spacecraft goes
without communication. If this exceeds a certain preset amount, the
spacecraft will put itself into a "safe mode" to ensure the communication
link can be more easily restored and the mission resumed.
Because this communication process is so important, in this section
we'll examine the basic principles of radio communication in greater
detail. In Chapter 13 we examined the communication and data-handling
subsystem within the spacecraft. There we described the process of data
manipulation needed to send and receive radio signals. Here we'll look at
the radio-frequency signals to better understand how we stay in contact
with our spacecraft. We'll start by looking at the communication process,
then examine the basic principles of communication links.
616
15.1 Mission Operations Systems
Communication
Each of us communicates every day. We talk to our friends in the
hallway. We talk to our family over the phone. Let's take a moment to
dissect the communication process, so we can better understand the
problems faced in building communication systems for spacecraft.
Imagine that you go to a friend's house to talk about your French
homework. What conditions are necessary for you and your friend to
communicate? We need to consider
• Distance
• Language
• Speed
• Environment
First of all, you should be within hearing distance so your words reach
your friend. The farther away you are from your friend, the louder you
must talk to be heard. If you're too far away to hear each other, you can't
communicate. Another issue to consider is language. You and your friend
must be able to understand and speak the same language. If she knows
French much better than you do, it will be difficult to communicate. Next,
there is the speed at which you talk. Have you ever listened to someone
who speaks very fast? If you have, you know that it's hard to catch every
word. If they speak too rapidly, you can't process the words fast enough
to understand their message.
So, if you and your friend are within range and speaking the same
language at a reasonable rate, you should communicate, right? Wrong!
You also need to consider the environment. Imagine that, as you and your
friend are talking, her little brothers and sisters run into the room
screaming loudly. Their screaming represents noise. If the screaming is
too loud, you'll need to raise your voice so your friend can still hear you
above the noise. In other words, your sigHnl -the volume and content of
your message-must be louder than the noise. That is, to be heard, your
signal-to-noise ratio must be greater than 1.0. The important quantity for
communication is the ratio of the volume of your speech to the volume of
their noise.
Now let's see what all this has to do with spacecraft communications.
To communicate effectively from one spacecraft to another or to a ground
station, we must consider the distance or range between the speaker-
called the transmitter=eav) the listener-called the receiver. We must also
have a transmitter and receiver that understand the language or code that
each other uses. Recall, in Chapter 13 we discussed techniques, such as
amplitude modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM) for overlaying
a message onto a carrier signal. The transmitter and receiver must be using
the same language or modulation scheme. Furthermore, the receiver must
handle the transmitter's message speed or dat« rate. Finally, the volume or
sig1111/ strength at the receiver must be higher than the overall noise in the
system. To see all these concepts in practice, we can now focus on some
basics of spacecraft communication.
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Chapter 15 Space Operations
Communication Links
As we described in our discussion of the communication and data-
handling subsystem (CDHS) in Chapter 13, spacecraft communications
use the radio frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. Your car stereo
illustrates the basic principles of radio, as shown in Figure 15-13. When
you turn on your radio, you receive signals from the radio station in the
form of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Remember, EM radiation comes
from an accelerating charge. As charges accelerate in the radio station's
transmitter antenna, an electric field forms and induces a magnetic field,
which induces an electric field, and so on. James Maxwell (1831-1879)
first developed this concept. The frequency at which this charge
accelerates determines the frequency of the EM radiation. The faster the
charge accelerates, the higher the frequency.
frequency of signal
depends on how
transmitter
acc/tes charge
accelerating
charge
accelerating charge
in antenna due to
received EM radiation
\
Figure 15·13. Basic Principle of Radio. A radio station produces a signal by accelerating a charge in the antenna. The
signal then travels out as EM radiation until it's received by your car antenna, where charges again accelerate to produce
the music you hear.
The station broadcasts a carrier signal at a specified frequency,
regulated and licensed by the Federal Communication Commission
(FCC) in the U.S. The transmitter then super-imposes the message being
sent-music, news, or mission data-on top of the carrier signal, using
some type of modulation scheme. The schemes we're most familiar with
are amplitude or frequency modulation (AM and FM, see Figure 13-9).
Spacecraft applications use other schemes as well. This signal travels
outward from the station's antenna and hits your radio antenna. There,
618
15.1 Mission Operations Systems
more charges accelerate. Your receiver detects this charge movement in
the antenna and re-translates it to the original signal. The receiver
demodulates the AM or FM signal to separate the message from the
carrier signal and, suddenly, you're listening to tunes while cruising
down the road.
Now we want to take a closer look at communication systems to
understand some of the basic principles and limitations. Let's use a light
bulb to demonstrate some of these key principles. Similar to a radio
\ I
transmitter, a light bulb emits EM radiation, but at a different frequency-
visible light. If we put a light bulb in the center of a room, as shown in
Figure 15-14, light radiates outward in all directions (assuming it's a
perfect bulb with no light blockage). The intensity or brightness of the
light at some distance from the bulb is called the power-flux density, F. Of
course, the farther we get from the light bulb, the dimmer it appears. In
other words, the power-flux density, which we perceive as brightness,
decreases as we move farther away. From test measurements, we know I \
the brightness actually decreases with the square of the distance, because
all the output is distributed over the surface of a sphere surrounding the
source. We express this as
Figure 15-14. Power-flux Density. An ideal
F = Power (15-1) light bulb radiates equally in all directions. The
Surface area of a sphere brightness, or power-flux density, F, at any
given distance, R, depends on the bulb's
where output, P.
F = power-flux density (W / m2)
P = power rating of the light bulb (W)
R = distance from the bulb (m)
We know that visible light, like that of a light bulb, is simply electro-
magnetic radiation. Radiation, moving equally in all directions, similar to
our light bulb example from Figure 15-14, is called omnidirectional or
isotropic. Now, what if we wanted to increase the brightness or power-flux
density in only one direction using the same bulb? As Figure 15-15 shows,
that's just what a flashlight does. This time we're still using our ideal light
bulb, but we've put a parabolic-shaped mirror on one side of it. Thus,
most of the light in one direction reflects off the mirror and heads in the
opposite direction, and we have a directed beam of light-a spotlight-
rather than an omnidirectional source. Doing this, we effectively concen-
trated most of the light energy into a smaller area. As a result, we get a
brightness in that one direction that is much, much greater than it was
when the bulb emitted light isotropically. We've "gained" extra power
density by using the parabolic mirror.
The flashlight example illustrates the basic principle of an antenna.
Instead of broadcasting in all directions, wasting all that energy, specially
designed "dish" antennas allow us to focus the energy on a particular
point of interest, such as a receiving antenna. Spacecraft often rely on
directional antennas that point toward the receiver at the ground station,
making more efficient use of their transmitter's power. Ground stations
usually employ another directional (dish) antenna to better receive the
619
Chapter 15 Space Operations
spot beam
Figure 15-15. Directed Output from a Light Bulb. A parabolic mirror can direct the bulb
output to give us an effective spot light. The mirror allows us to focus the bulb's energy in one
direction, thus increasing the gain.
signal, as well as transmit commands back to the spacecraft. Similar to
our flashlight's mirror, these dish antennas are often parabolic-shaped to
transmit and receive the radio energy efficiently.
An important antenna parameter is its gain. The gni11 of an antenna is
the ratio of the energy it transmits in its primary direction to the energy
that would be available from an omnidirectional source. In other words,
the gain for an omnidirectional antenna is 1, whereas the gain for a
directed antenna is greater than 1. The general expression for gain is
G = Energy on target with a directed antenna
Energy on target with an omnidirectional antenna
We can relate these two values for energy to an antenna's area, its
efficiency, and the wavelength of the energy it's transmitting by
G = 4n: A11
--:;y- (15-2)
where
G = gain (unitless)
A = physical area of the antenna (m2)
11 = antenna's efficiency (0.55-0.75 for parabolic antennas)
Ae = antenna's effective area(= A11, m2)
A = signal's wavelength (m)
This relationship tells us that if we want to increase the gain of an antenna
(and transmit our message more efficiently), we can either increase its
effective area or decrease our signal's wavelength. We use the same
expression for the gain of transmitting and receiving antennas.
If we multiply the transmitter's power output by its antenna gain, we
get an expression that represents the amount of power an isotropic
transmitter would have to emit to get the same amount of power on a
target. We call this the effectioc isotropic radiated power (EIRP).
EIRP = Pt Gt (15-3)
where
EIRP = effective isotropic radiated power (W)
Pt = transmitter's power output (W)
Gt = transmitter's antenna gain (unitless)
620
15.1 Mission Operations Systems
How much of the transmitter's power does the receiver collect? Think
about collecting rainfall in a bucket. The amount of rain water collected
depends on how hard it's raining-the rain's density-and the bucket's
size or cross-sectional area. Similarly, the signal strength at a receiver is a
function of the power-flux density at the receiver and the area of the
receiver's antenna. The resulting expression for the signal gathered by the
receiving antenna is then
(15-4)
where
s = received signal strength (W)
PtGt) = transmitter's effective power spread over a sphere of
(
4nR2 radius, R (W)
A ereccivcr = receiving antenna's effective area (m2)
Solving the right-hand expression in Equation (15-2) for Ae""'''" and
substituting into Equation (15-4) results in
(15-5)
where
s = received signal strength (W)
pt = transmitter's power output (W)
Gt = transmitter's antenna gain (unitless)
2
= space loss term (0 < space loss< 1.0) (unitless)
(4:R)
G.- = receiver's antenna gain (computed the same way as the
transmitter's antenna gain) (unitless)
Notice we have a term representing space loss. Space loss is not a loss in
the sense of power being absorbed in the atmosphere; rather, it accounts
for the way energy spreads out as an electromagnetic wave travels away
from a transmitting source. As distance increases, this term becomes
smaller, which means space losses get worse. This situation makes sense.
The greater the distance between a transmitter and receiver, the greater the
total space losses (smaller space loss term). When this term is multiplied
by the transmitter's powe1~ and the receiver's and transmitter's antenna
gains, the total signal strength, S, gets smaller for longer distances.
So we now have several ways to increase the received signal
• Increase the transmitter's power-Pt
• Increase the transmitter's antenna gain, concentrating the focus of the
energy-Gt
• Increase the receiver's gain so it collects more of the signal-Gr
• Decrease the distance between the transmitter and receiver-R
621
Chapter 15 Space Operations
A few pages back we discussed the concept of signal-to-noise (S/N)
ratio in communication systems. So far in this discussion we've talked
about the received signal, S. Earlier, when we discussed communicating
across a room, noise came from some rambunctious kids. But where does
noise come from for a radio signal? One important source of radio noise is
heat. Recall from our discussion of black-body radiation in Chapter 11
that any object having a temperature greater than absolute OK emits EM
radiation. While a receiver is running, just like your TV set, it gets hot and
produces EM radiation as noise. The amount of noise power is given by
N=kTB (15-6)
where
N = noise power (W)
k = Boltzmann's constant= 1.381 x 10-23 joules/K
T = receiver system's temperature (K)
B = receiving system's bandwidth (Hz)
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies the receiver is designed to
receive. For example, the range of human eyesight, or the bandwidth of
our eyes, is about 3.90 x 1014 Hz to 8.13 x 1014 Hz, which is a bandwidth
of 4.23 x 1014 Hz. This represents the small portion of the EM spectrum
we can see-visible light. Note that the noise in the receiver increases as
the bandwidth increases. This should make sense, because the more
information a receiver attempts to receive, the more likely it'll pick up
noise. Ideally, we try to reduce the receiver temperature as much as
possible and restrict the bandwidth of interest to minimize the noise.
Combining Equation (15-5) and Equation (15-6), we get the signal-to-
noise ratio for a radio signal
s (15-7)
N
where
S/N = signal-to-noise ratio (unitless)
Pt = transmitter's power (W)
Gt = transmitter's gain (unitless)
k = Boltzmann's constant= 1.381 x 10-23 joules/K
B = receiving system's bandwidth (Hz)
A = signal's wavelength (m)
R = range between the transmitter and receiver (m)
Gr = receiver's gain (unitless)
T = receiver system's temperature (K)
Remember, for effective communication, the signal-to-noise ratio must be
greater than or equal to 1.0. (The voice you hear must be louder than the
background noise in the room.) To improve the S/N we can
622
15.1 Mission Operations System -
• Increase the strength of the signal using the methods outlined above
• Reduce the signal's bandwidth-B
• Reduce the receiver's temperature-I
So far we haven't said much about changing the signal's frequency or
wavelength. What effect does this have? Looking at Equation (15-7), we'd
expect that increasing the wavelength would improve the S /N ratio, but
remember the relationship for gain, given in Equation (15-2). The
transmitter and receiver gains are inversely related to wavelength. That
is, as wavelength increases (lower frequency), gain decreases. This means
the net effect of increasing wavelength (decreasing frequency) is to
decrease the antenna gains and thus reduce the S/N ratio. In other words,
all other system parameters being equal, higher frequency gives us
improved S/N. We show all these relationships in action in Examples 15-
2 applied to our FireSat scenario.
Satellite Control Networks
Now that we've looked at the theoretical aspects of communication
networks, let's look at some examples of control networks in place to
support NASA and the DoD space missions. NASA has two networks for
tracking and receiving data from space. The Spaceflight Tracking and
Data Network (STDN) mostly tracks and relays data for the Space Shuttle
and other near-Earth missions. The STDN includes grOLmd-based
antennas at White Sands, New Mexico (Figure 15-16), as well as space-
based portions using the Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRS) in
geostationary orbits. The deep-space tracking network (DSN) includes Figure 15-16. Tracking and Data Relay
Satellite's (TORS) Second Terminal. This
very large antennas (more than 70 m in diameter), used for tracking and ground station controls NASA's TORS constel-
receiving data from interplanetary space missions. These antennas are lation and receives telemetry and mission data
located in Madrid, Spain; Canberra, Australia (Figure 15-17); and from many satellites, Including the Space
Shuttle. (Courtesy of NASA/White Sands)
Goldstone, California.
The U.S. Space Command is responsible for tracking and controlling
all DoD spacecraft. To do this, the DoD has two networks. The Space
Surveillance Network (SSN) is a world-wide network of high-power
radars (Figure 15-18) that track approximately 8100 objects in Earth orbit.
These objects range from the Space Shuttle orbiter to Astronaut Ed
White's glove, lost during a Gemini mission. The radar data passes to the
Space Surveillance Center in Cheyenne Mountain AFB, Colorado, where
orbital analysts maintain the space catalog. This catalog contains the
current classic orbital elements of all the stuff in orbit large enough to
track (anything bigger than about 10 cm (3.9 in.] long).
The Air Force uses other networks to control spacecraft, the largest Figure 15-17. Deep Space Network (DSN).
being the Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN). It consists of This complex of giant antennas at Canberra,
Australia, keeps a constant watch for radio
spacecraft communication sites in such interesting locations as Guam, signals from NASA's interplanetary satellites,
Diego Garcia, and Hawaii. These stations connect with control centers at such as Galileo and Cassini. (Courtesy of
Schriever Air Force Base, Colorado, and Onizuka Air Force Base, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center)
Sunnyvale, California, where Air Force engineers and space operators
command and control almost all Department of Defense satellites. We
623
Chapter 15 Space Operations
Figure 15-18. Space Surveillance Network (SSN) Radar. This phased array radar at
Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, tracks thousands of orbiting objects that make up the space
catalog. (Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force)
talked about the missions of these spacecraft in earlier chapters; each type
(communication, navigation, etc.) requires a team of specialists. Some
missions, such as early warning, require so much ground support that
they have their own dedicated control stations. Control of these Defense
Support Program (DSP) satellites, which provide early warning of enemy
missile launches, requires special ground stations in the U.S.
Fortunately, the operational requirements for our FireSat mission are
simple enough that we don't have to rely too heavily on the AFSCN or
the NASA STDN. It may be necessary to compare the position and
velocity information computed onboard using GPS with the independent
values determined by the SSN. Recall, the U.S. Space Command uses the
SSN to track and catalog the whereabouts of thousands of satellites and
pieces of space junk in orbit. However, we still need a dedicated ground
station for our spacecraft operations.
Recall that we plan to use a single primary ground station located in
Colorado Springs, Colorado. This simple station will need only a single
transmit I receive antenna and the necessary communication gear to
operate them and communicate with the spacecraft. Our operators can do
Figure 15-19. A Simple Ground Station. A other operations, such as monitoring subsystem performance, generating
simple ground station to control small satellites
can be assembled from personal computers commands and collecting mission data, and distributing it to users, using
and off-the-shelf communications gear. This off-the-shelf personal computers running some specialized software.
photograph shows the ground station used to Figure 15-19 shows a similar, simple ground station used to operate
control the FalconSAT spacecraft at the U.S.
Air Force Academy. (Courtesy of the U.S. Air microsatellites at the U.S. Air Force Academy. In the next section we'll
Force Academy) delve into the specific responsibilities of the dedicated operations team.
624
]5.1 Mission Operations Sy tems
!!!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
bandwidth >- Mi sion operations systems includes the facilities and infrastructure to
carrier signal design, assemble, integrate, test, launch, and operate a space mission
dean room > Spacecraft manufactming-systems used to support design and AIT
commands
• Design and analysis software tools
communication
communication • Clean rooms
architecture • Ground support equipment
control center
• Test facilities, such as thermal/vacuum chambers, shaker tables,
cross link
acoustic chambers, anechoic chambers, and solar simulation chambers
data rate
downlink >- Launch-systems needed to bring the spacecraft and launch vehicle together
effective isotropic radiated and get them safely off the ground, such a
power (EIRP) • The launch site and its associated range
environmental testing
• The launch pad
forward link
functional testing • Payload and vehicle processing facilities
gain • Launch operations centers
ground stations
ground support
> Operations-the communication architecture, the web of radio links that
track and relay data to and from a spacecraft, and ground-based operators
equipment (GSE)
isotropic > Communication architecture is the configuration of satellite and ground
mission operations stations in a space system and the network that Links them together. It has
systems four major elements-spacecraft, ground stations, a control center, and relay
satellites.
omnidirectional
power-flux density, F • Information moves between elements of the communication
range architecture on various links-uplink, downlink, forward link, return
real time Link, and cross link
real-time commands • Commands are instructions sent by ground controllers to the spacecraft
receiver telling it what to do and when to do it. Real-time commands execute
relay satellites immediately. The spacecraft's data-handling subsystem stores other
return link commands in memory for later execution
signal
> To communicate effectively, whether talking to a friend aero s a noisy room
signal strength
or to a spacecraft at the dge of the solar system, we must meet four
signal-to-noise ratio
requirements
space loss
spacecraft • Transmitter and r ceiver must be close enough to one another
stored commands • The language or code used for the message must be conunon to the
telemetry transmitter and receiver
transmitter • The speed or data rate of the message must be slow enough for the
uplink receiver to interpret
• The volume or strength of the signal must be greater than any noise.
That is, the signal-to-noise ratio must be greater than 1.
Continued on next page
625
Chapter 15 Space Operations
- Section Review (Continued)
Key Equations Key Concepts (Continued)
> The basic principle of radio involves accelerating charges in a transmitter's
antenna to generate electromagnetic radiation. The receiver's antenna
detects this radiation, which accelerates charges there. The receiver's
antenna passes the received signal into the receiver for demodulation and
s preparation for use.
> Electromagnetic energy from any source, represented by the power-flux
s density, decreases in strength with the square of the distance
N > An antenna can focus electromagnetic energy in one direction. The increase
in power-flux density achieved using an antenna is the antenna gain.
> To increase the received signal strength, we can
• Increase the transmitter's power
• Increase the transmitter or receiver antenna's gain
• Decrease the distance between the transmitter and receiver
>- oise in a radio signal can come from the black-body radiation, which the
rec iver temperature emits; it's a function of the receiver bandwidth (range
of frequencies)
> To increase the signal-to-noise ratio we can
• Increase the signal's strength
• Reduce the signal's bandwidth
• Reduce the receiver's temperature
• Increase the carrier frequency
> NASA and the DoD depend on worldwide satellite-control networks
• NASA us s geostationary Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TORS) along
with ground based Spacecraft Tracking and Data Network (STD ). For
planetary mis ions they use the Deep Space Tracking Network (DSN).
• The U.S. Space Command is responsible for tracking and controlling all
DoD spacecraft. They rely 11 the Air Force Satellite Control Network
(AFSCN).
626
Example 15-1
Problem Statement Conceptual Solution
We can think of the Sun as a "perfect light bulb" 1) Solve the power-flux density relationship for
radiating isotropically. If the Sun's power-flux density, power output
F, on the Earth is 1358 WI m2, what is the Sun's power
F = Power P
output? Distance to the Sun is about 1.496 x 1011 m.
Surface area of a sphere 4n:R 2
P = (F) 4n:R2
Problem Summary
Given: F = 1358 WI m2, R = 1.496 x 1011 m
Find: P output
Analytical Solution
1) Solve the power-flux density relationship for
power output
P = (F) 4rrR2
Problem Diagram P = (1358 W /m2) (4n:) (1.496 x 1011 m)2
= 3.819 x 1026 W
R = 1.496 x 104 m
F = 1358 W /m2
Interpretingthe Results
The Sun puts out a lot of power-millions of times
greater than the outputs of all the power plants on
Earth. Even at a distance of almost 150 million km (93
million mi.), its intensity is still about 1358 W per
square meter.
627
Example 15-2
Problem Statement 3) Solve for the required receiver-antenna area and
diameter
Engineers are designing the communication system 2
for FireSat to ensure vital Telemetry, Tracking, and GgroundA
Commanding data gets through to our operators. The 4Jt YI ground
communication frequency they've chosen is 2 GHz (2 x
109 Hz, which is in the S-band) with a bandwidth of fAr
2000 Hz. The spacecraft transmit and receive antenna Dgrounct = 2~n
will be an omnidirectional dipole with a gain of 1.0.
Transmitter power output is 2 W. The link will operate 4) Solve Equation (15-7) for the ground transmitter
over a maximum distance of 4000 km. If the receiver power
temperature is 800 K, with the receiver antenna kB 11. -2 T
efficiency of 0.75, what receiver-antenna diameter do p ground = SIN(-G-) (-R) (-G -)
we need to have a signal-to-noise ratio of 10? What is ground 4Jt FireSat
the corresponding ground transmitter power needed
to have the same S/N at FireSat for uplink?
Analytical Solution
Problem Summary 1) Find the communication wavelength
8
Given: PFireSat = 2 W A=~=3xl0m/s
S/N = 10 f 2 x 109Hz
f = 2 x 109 Hz A=0.15m
R =4000 km
2) Solve Equation (15-7) for the required ground
T = 800 K
receiver's gain, Gground
B = 2 x 103 Hz
k = 1.381 x 10-23 J /K = SIN( kB ) (4nR) \
GFireSat = 1.0 p FireSat GFireSat A
Ylground = 0.75 = 10(1.381 x 10-23JIK 2 x 103Hz)
(2W)(l.0)
Find: Diameter of the receive antenna, Dground and
6 2
the ground transmitter's power, P zround 4n 4 x 10 m) (800 K)
0
( 0.15 m
Gground = 12.397 (unitless)
Conceptual Solution 3) Solve for the required receiver-antenna area and
diameter
1) Find the communication wavelength
2 2
GgroundA 12.397(0.15 m)
A = ~ Aground = 4 1lground 4n(0.75)
f Jt
Aground= 0.03 m2
2) Solve Equation (15-7) for the required ground
receiver's gain, Gground ~
2
D ground = 2~~--- 2 J(o.o~ m2)
Gground = SIN ( kB ) (4nR)
-- T
pFireSatGFireSat A Dground = 0.194 m
628
Example 15-2 (Continued)
4) Solve Equation (15-7) for the ground transmitter Interpretingthe Results
power
Even with a relatively small transmit power and low-
p ground = SIN(~)
Gground
(_!:__)-
2
4:rrR
(-T-)
GFireSat
gain omnidirectional antennas, the FireSat ground
station will only need a 20-cm diameter dish antenna
to receive with a S/N of 10. The ground transmitter
= lO( 1.381 x 10-23J IK 2000 Hz) will need the same transmit powe1~ 2 W, to achieve the
12.397 same S/N for the uplink.
0.15m6 )-2(800K)
(
4:rr 4 x 10 m 1.0
Pground = 2 W
629
Chapter 15 Space Opera hons
15.2 Mission Management
and Operations
(with Julie Chesley, the
U.S. Air Force Academy)
m= In This Section You'll Learn to ...
...- Discuss important responsibilities of various management and
operations teams during each phase of a mission
.,.. Describe ba ic principles of team management and some useful
management tools
.- Discuss advantages of spacecraft autonomy
Recall from Chapter 1, the "sections" of the space mission architecture
wheel include orbits and trajectories, spacecraft, launch vehicles, and
mission operations systems. So far, our focus has been on these technolo-
gies. It's easy to glamorize a billion-dollar spacecraft and streamlined
rockets thundering into the sky. But behind all this hardware are ordinary
people like you and me: people who design the spacecraft, order the parts,
assemble the components, keep track of the budgets, and ensure all the
mission computers run. People make space missions happen.
In this section, we'll turn our attention to the people-centered activities
of running a space mission. While technologies form the sections of the
mission-architecture wheel, with the mission at the hub, mission manage-
ment and operations pulls the circle together. It's where the "rubber meets
define mission the road" and the day-to-day work of the mission really gets done.
design &
requirements analysis Collectively, mission monagemen! and operntions involves all activities,
& constraints tools from "cradle to grave," needed to take a mission from just an idea in
someone's head to useful mission data on the owner's desk. This boils
requirements down to the formidable task of spending minimum resources (labor,
loop
derive system money, and time) to achieve maximum result (data returned, company
requirements profit, or other success metric). One of the biggest challenges of mission
& constraints management and operations is to control the space systems engineering
process. Recall from Chapter 11, this process, shown again in Figure 15-
design loop
20, takes us from a basic mission need, through definition of system and
subsystem requirements and constraints, to eventually arriving at a
-validation loop design completely designed, assembled, and tested space system. Along the way,
subsystems
mission managers must
Figure 15-20. Space Systems Engineering • Define mission objective(s)
Process. We introduced the space systems • Define mission requirements and constraints
engineering process in Chapter 11 . One of the
primary purposes of Mission Management is • Define and derive system requirements and constraints
to "drive" this process to achieve the highest
possible periormance with the minimum risk • Actively manage the "requirements loop" to trade mission and
and time. system requirements and constraints
630
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
• Create analysis and design tools needed to effectively trade among
options
• Establish any necessary operations systems to support the mission
• Actively manage the "design loop" to trade requirements and
constraints to develop a final design
• Oversee the "validation loop" to make sure we pay for what we want
and we get what we pay for
All th.is must be done while juggling the often-competing dernands of
mission sponsors (bosses or customers) and mission implementers (space-
craft engineers, operators, project scientists, technicians, and support
personnel). Mission managers and operators must carefully spend scarce
resources-time, money, and people-while monitoring the eternal trade-
offs among cost, schedule, and performance. How can they manage all
this? By being skilled at managing large, sometimes geographically
dispersed teams, while keeping track of a thousand and one technical and
administrative details, all critical to the final product.
We'll start by looking at the various teams that make up a typical space
project to see the challenges and responsibilities they face during each
phase of a mission. Then we'll look at the challenge of managing the most
precious mission resource-people. Finally, we'll return to the problem of
managing these far-flung teams and some of the tools that are available
for keeping large projects on track.
Mission Teams
If it's difficult to list all the operations systems that go into supporting
a mission, then it's impossible to list all the teams of people who use these
systems to get the mission off the ground. Some teams or individuals,
such as the project manager and his or her team, may be intimately
involved with nearly every detail of the mission from the initial concept
through the end-of-life operations. While other teams or individuals,
such as the launch team, may only show up to do their critical part for a
short period, and then go off to support another mission.
Table 15-1 lists the major types of tasks that teams must perform
throughout the mission lifetime and gives some examples. As you can
imagine, during the various mission phases, some of these tasks require
more attention than others. For example, during mission design and
manufacturing, the focus is on systems engineering and system assembly,
integration, and testing (AIT), with less emphasis on flight control (because
the system isn't built yet). On the other hand, during the operations phase,
AIT tasks are complete and the emphasis is on flight control. Other tasks,
such as mission management, span the life of the mission.
As we did with operations systems in the previous section, here we'll
divide the important personalities and responsibilities that make a
mission possible into three basic teams-manufacturing, launch, and
operations-and go through some of the important characteristics and
functions for each.
631
Chapter 15 Space Operations
Table 15-1. Major Mission Tasks and Examples. This table lists major tasks that mission personnel perform throughout the
life of a mission and gives some examples of each. During various phases of a mission, some of these tasks
receive more attention than others.
Mission Tasks Examples
Mission Management • Tracking and controlling a project's cost, schedule, and performance
• Juggling money, time, facilities, people, and other resources
• Managing teams and project morale
Mission Planning and • Planning mission timellnes and sequencing events
Analysis • Analyzing trade-offs between competing technical options
• Defining flight rules to govern actions during nominal and off-nominal flight conditions
Systems Engineering • Defining and validating system and subsystem-level requirements
• Applying analysis and design tools to define system architectures
• Designing subsystems and constituent components
System Assembly, • Screening components for form, fit, and function
Integration, and Testing • Assembling components to build subsystems and integrating subsystems to build systems
(AIT) • Testing subsystems and systems to ensure they perform under flight conditions
Simulations and Training • Developing computer software to simulate major mission events
• Practicing operational procedures using simulations
Flight Control • Monitoring and interpreting telemetry to determine a spacecraft's health and status
• Tracking a spacecraft's or launch vehicle's position and velocity
• Sending commands to spacecraft to change operating conditions or fix problems
System Maintenance • Performing routine maintenance to clean rooms, thermal/vacuum chambers, and other
and Support operations systems
• Updating ground software to enhance performance or correct problems
Data Processing and • Distributing mission data to users
Handling • Analyzing and archiving spacecraft engineering data
Mission Design and Manufacturing Teams
Broadly speaking, design and manufacturing teams get the mission
started. They take it from simply stated user needs to a gleaming new
spacecraft, with all the necessary operations systems, ready for launch.
From the initial concept through flight readiness, the focus of the
Manufacturing Team is on
• Systems engineering-Defining system and subsystem requirements
and constraints and taking them through the complete design of the
spacecraft and other operations systems
• Mission planning and analysis-Planning mission timelines and
analyzing engineering performance data to determine operational
scenarios and training requirements
• System AIT-Assembling subsystems from individual components,
integrating the entire spacecraft, and performing environmental and
functional testing
632
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
In Chapters 11-14 we presented the space systems engineering process
and described its application to designing a spacecraft. As you can
imagine, a large team of engineers, scientists, technicians, and support
personnel must work together to translate basic user requirements into a
fully designed spacecraft. The design team must work closely with the
manufacturing team to ensure that their design can actually be built.
Design-for-manufacture techniques focus on reducing overall mission costs
by making hardware easier to fabricate and assemble. These efforts can
support an overall program of design-to-cosr, on which budget-strapped
programs increasingly must focus.
In parallel with this spacecraft design effort, other teams must apply the
same systems-engineering process to create critical mission operations
systems, as discussed in Section 15.1. As we described in Chapter 11, the
mission-operations concept drives the entire system design. This concept
describes how users will get their data or use the mission services-what
they need and when. To be most effective, the design and manufacturing
teams must work hand in hand with the launch and operations teams, as
we'll discuss next, to bring a real-world perspective to this process. For
example, throughout the FireSat systems-engineering process, the whole
team must work to refine how the spacecraft, ground controllers, and the
various Forest Services will work together to conduct the mission. Many
of their suggestions will be critical to the design of all the systems, from
the spacecraft bus and payload, to the communication network, and the
launch-site' s ground-support equipment.
The second task that design and manufacturing teams focus on is
mission planning and analysis. Part of this planning involves construct-
ing a mission timeline. The mission timaiine is a detailed script clearly
defining all major events that occur during the mission, and when they
must occur. From the rollout of the launch vehicle to the mission's end,
the sequence of events must be carefully organized, to ensure that one
action doesn't get ahead of another and cause trouble. For example, we'd
like to keep the spacecraft running on ground power until the last
possible minute before launch to save onboard batteries. The mission
timeline would lay out exactly when in the countdown sequence to cut
off external power.
Another important focus of planning and analysis is understanding
personnel training requirements. Operators on the launch- and orbital-
operations teams spend lots of time training. When it's time for launch
they need to be intimately familiar with every aspect of the mission and
what to do when something goes wrong. The best way they can do that is
the same way a musician gets to Carnegie Hall-practice, practice,
practice. For operators, practice involves complex dress rehearsals,
Figure 15-21. Shuttle Simulation. Years
known as simulations. During mission planning and analysis, the whole before their first flight, astronauts work through
team must decide how they will train for the actual mission and define every phase of a mission, using simulators
simulator requirements to support that training. Figure 15-21 shows such as this motion-based simulator housed at
the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston,
Space Shuttle astronauts rehearsing procedures in one of the Shuttle Texas. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space
simulators in Houston, Texas. Center)
633
Chapter 15 Space Operations
While these training requirements for a small mission, such as FireSat,
are relatively modest, for complex missions, such as a Space Shuttle
Mission to service the Hubble Space Telescope, hundreds of operators
must carefully rehearse with the astronauts practicing their job to ensure
everyone can react to any contingency. Operators working with dedicated
engineering teams must define hardware and software requirements to
conduct simulations and plan coordinated training programs. For
completely new missions, the process of designing, building, and testing
complex simulators can take months or even years to complete.
Finally, after the mission team sets requirements and designs the
Figure 15-22. SpacecraftAssembly.During systems, it's time to start "bending metal" and build something. In
assembly, skilled technicians, such as the ones
shown here, perform delicate touch labor to Chapters 11-14 we touched on some individual subsystem requirements
manufacture circuit boards and other critical for assembly, integration, and testing (AIT). AIT is a coordinated team
components. (Courtesy of Surrey Satellite effort by assembly technicians, system integrators, test conductors, and
Technology, ua.. U.K.)
appropriate engineers and scientists, backed by administrative support
personnel.
During assembly, skilled technicians, such as the ones shown in Figure
15-22, perform delicate touch labor to populate circuit boards and weave
long wire harnesses. Throughout integration, they connect together
individual components and subsystems to form the finished system.
Figure 15-23 shows an engineering team performing final integration of
the FalconSAT microsatellite.
Testing takes place throughout AIT, not just at the end. Technicians test
Figure 15-23. Spacecraft Integration. Pull- individual components for functionality at each stage of the AIT process.
ing together components into completed After the entire spacecraft is integrated, highly trained test conductors
systems is part of the spacecraft assembly take the spacecraft through dedicated test campaigns in vibration and
process. Here, an engineer performs final inte-
gration of the FalconSAT spacecraft. (Courtesy thermal/vacuum facilities. Figure 15-24 shows test conductors preparing
of the U.S. Air Force Academy) a spacecraft for thermal/vacuum testing. After AIT is complete, the
mission design and analysis team performs one final, detailed review of
the spacecraft status. During this formal process, sometimes called a
flight-readiness review, senior engineers and managers go through
technical data and test reports with a fine-toothed comb to ensure nothing
has been over looked, all procedures have been followed (all i's dotted
and t's crossed), and the spacecraft is finally ready for flight. With that
review completed, the spacecraft gets shipped to the launch site, where
the launch teams take over to prepare it for its ride into space.
Launch Teams
The launch teams' job starts long before the spacecraft arrives at the
Figure 15-24. Spacecraft Testing. From pad. Composed of hundreds or even thousands of people, they focus on
components to subsystems to entire space- getting the launch vehicle and its precious payload into orbit safely.
craft, testing is vital to ensure that everything
will function in the harsh space environment. In While the tasks of the launch teams span the whole range of those listed
this photograph engineers are preparing the in Table 15-1, their primary focus is on two major tasks
Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility space-
craft for thermal/vacuum testing. (Courtesy of • System AIT-integrating the spacecraft to the launch vehicle and
NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center) performing a final check-out
• Flight Control-monitoring the launch vehicle telemetry and
trajectory and sending commands to make corrections as needed to
deliver the payload to the promised orbit
634
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
Even before the spacecraft arrives at the launch site, the first of the
launch teams is busy preparing clean rooms for the final spacecraft
checkout, and assembling the launch vehicle and its payload interface.
After the spacecraft arrives, a dedicated launch campaign swings into
action. Usually consisting of lead engineers who've lived with the
spacecraft from its conception through AIT, along with launch-vehicle
experts, the launch-campaign team integrates the spacecraft with the
launch vehicle, servicing it for flight (charging the batteries and filling the
propellant tanks), and performing final tests and checkouts. After the
launch teams finish these tasks and before lift-off, they begin loading
millions of gallons of propellant into the launch vehicle.
Finally, everything is in place. The launch vehicle, with the spacecraft
safely tucked inside the nose fairing, waits on the pad, and all that
remains is to give the "go" for launch. At this point, the true business of
flight control takes over. The flight-control team for launch (also called
the launch-control team), composed of operators who monitor the launch
vehicle and spacecraft systems, follow the lead of their launch director. In
addition, dozens or even hundreds of support personnel run the tracking
stations worldwide, ensure the range is clear of stray airplanes and ships,
and keep a critical eye on the weather.
This last task can stop a launch more easily than a hardware problem
or software glitch. Weather forecasters at the launch site carefully watch
the skies for thick clouds, rain, or lightning, and they send weather
balloons high above the launch area to measure upper-level winds. If
these winds are too high, the launch vehicle may not survive the
excessive dynamic pressure as it accelerates into orbit.
When everything and everybody is in place, the launch vehicle and
spacecraft are happy and healthy, and the weather is cooperating, launch
controllers take part in the final Iaunch-readiness review. Similar to the
flight-readiness review that happens before the spacecraft leaves the
manufacturing facility, the launch-readiness review is a formal process
that includes spacecraft manufacturers, users, and mission managers, who
go through technical data, telemetry, test procedures, weather, and day-of-
launch analysis before deciding to launch. Only when everyone on the
team is completely satisfied that all risks have been minimized (they can
never be completely eliminated), do mission managers give the final GO
for launch.
3 ... 2 ... 1...Ign.ition ... Lift-off! (Figure 15-25) While crowds of people
applaud the thunderous launch, flight controllers are busy watching
telemetry and tracking data to take action if something goes wrong.
One of the most attentive people monitoring this tracking data is
someone with a thankless job-the m11ge-safe~y ~fficer (RSO). The RSO sits
wuh.one finger poised over a button that can send a destruct signal to the
launch vehicle as soon as it leaves the pad. Why would anyone do such a
thing? Recall in Chapter 9 that we discussed the inclinations physically
attainable from a given launch site. In Section 15.1 we discussed other Figure 15-25. Titan IV Liftoff.At Vandenberg
Air Force Base, California, a Titan IV launch
constraints that further limit the orbits we can use from a certain site. Chief vehicle roars off the launch pad, headed for
among these constraints is safety. Because most launch vehicles drop stages space. (Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force)
635
Chapter 15 Space Operations
on their way into orbit, it isn't safe to launch them over populated areas.
That's why most launch sites are located along a coast, so the launch
trajectories go over the water and avoid population centers. The RSO must
carefully monitor a launch vehicle's trajectory into orbit and send
commands to destroy it if it veers off course or threatens life or property.
If all goes well, the launch vehicle follows its planned trajectory, and the
RSO doesn't have to push any buttons. But other flight controllers on the
launch team keep busy during the entire launch. During Space Shuttle
launches, the Booster Officer ("Booster") monitors the solid-rocket motors'
performance through burnout and separation, as well as the main engines
from ignition to cutoff, 8.5 minutes into the flight. Booster has to be ready
to override a faulty engine sensor or other problem at a moments notice to
avert a premature engine shutdown or catastrophic failure. The Flight
Dynamics Officer ("FIDO") monitors the trajectory as carefully as the RSO
and prepares to recommend abort options to return to the launch site or
land at a downrange landing site in Africa, if performance is less than
predicted. The Guidance and Procedures Officer, ("GUIDO") tracks the
health of the onboard navigation and guidance system to ensure the
Shuttle steers correctly into orbit and stands ready to assist the crew with
off-nominal procedures. In addition to these flight controllers, dozens
more in the control center monitor every possible subsystem and stand
ready to recommend courses of action in case of problems.
After the launch vehicle is safely in orbit, the job of the launch team is
done for that mission. Months and years of training must meet the test in
a few minutes from lift-off to orbit. Then it's up to the operations team to
take over and run the mission until it ends.
Operations Teams
Finally, after years, or even decades, of planning, designing, building,
running simulations, and enduring the dramatic events of launch, the
spacecraft is ready to do its job. Operating the spacecraft is the
responsibility of the mission-operatious team. Members of this team are also
called flight controllers, the jlight-co11frol ten 111, or simply, operators.
At the head of the flight-control team is a team leader, called the
operations director (or flig/1t director for Space Shuttle missions), who
coordinates the input from other team members. The operations director
sits in the "hot seat." He or she must make the final decisions on what to
do throughout the mission.
Under the operations director, team members hold positions that
follow the spacecraft's functional lines. Subsystem specialists are experts on
individual parts of the spacecraft. For example, one person may monitor
the electrical-power subsystem, while another watches the propulsion
Figure 15-26. Mission Operators. Mission subsystem. The final members of the team are the payload specialists.
operators, shown here at the Space Shuttle's
Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, send They're responsible for the payload-its health, status, and operation. It's
commands to their spacecraft and receive up to them to point cameras or antennas to collect valuable mission data.
health and status telemetry, as well as mission
They process and deliver this data to users quickly and efficiently. Figure
data. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space
Center) 15-26 shows some Shuttle mission operators at their consoles.
636
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
Because the job of the operations team may last months or even years,
at some point they get involved with nearly every major mission task
described in Table 15-1. However, their main focus is on four key
responsibilities
• Simulation and training-preparing for launch and on-orbit
operations, as well as contingency procedures
• Flight control-monitoring the spacecraft telemetry and trajectory
and sending commands to make corrections or other adjustments to
deliver the payload data to mission users
• Data processing and handling-receiving, analyzing, storing, and
distributing mission data to engineers and users
• System maintenance and support-maintaining and supporting all
the hardware and software operations systems to keep the mission
flying
Typically, the flight-control teams assemble months or even years before
a flight. Until the launch, the team focuses on rehearsing for the mission by
taking part in detailed simulations. During a simulation (or "sim" for
short), devious trainers feed simulated mission data and anomaly scenarios
to operators at their consoles. Throughout this training, the operators see
almost every problem that could conceivably occur during the mission. By
learning to deal calmly and efficiently with "worst on worst" cases,
operators develop the skills and confidence to deal with routine anomalies
that inevitably occur. Figure 15-27 shows an astronaut practicing in the
Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory for an upcoming flight.
And training never ends until the mission ends. Especially for long-
running mission operations, team members transfer in and out. As Figure 15-27. Astronaut Practices. Shuttle
operators move on to other jobs, they must train their replacements and astronaut, Tamara Jernigan, practices her on-
orbit procedures floating in a deep pool of
document how well their procedures worked. The simulations used water to simulate free-fall conditions on orbit,
before the mission started help in training new operators and rehearsing while mission operators practice their duties in
support. (Courtesy of NASA./Jolmson Space
contingencies.
Center)
Operations teams really earn their wages performing flight operations.
For Space Shuttle missions, the flight-control team headquartered in
NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, officially takes over
after the Shuttle clears the launch tower. For other missions, the
operations team may not officially assume responsibility until the launch
vehicle places the spacecraft into the desired parking orbit. After the
spacecraft arrives in its parking orbit, the operators must monitor the
transfer to the final mission orbit, if required.
With the spacecraft safely in its mission orbit, the operators must verify
that all subsystems are working normally during a period of on-orbit
checkout, often called commissioning. During commissioning, operators
carefully check each subsystem to determine if it can support the
payload. Years before, operators and mission engineers worked out
detailed procedures, called fligl1t rules, telling them how each subsystem
should work and what to do during any contingency to save the mission.
637
Chapter 15 Space Operations
After the spacecraft is fully commissioned and ready to start performing
its mission, the operations team moves into normal operations. Normal
operations is as close as a space mission ever gets to "routine."
For Space Shuttle missions, "routine" operations involve working
around the clock to ensure mission performance and safety. Commands
go directly to the Space Shuttle's computers, or sometimes, in the form of
the Shuttle's teletype instructions, to the astronauts. For less complex and
more mature missions, such as the Global Positioning System (GPS)
shown in Figure 15-28, controllers may take only a "snap-shot" of
telemetry from most of the satellites in the constellation and send
commands once a day or so.
The third, and perhaps the most important task performed by the
operations team (at least from the standpoint of mission users), is
collecting, processing, and distributing payload data. (After all, the
spacecraft was built and launched to satisfy a user's need.) To do this task,
operators may need to oversee antenna pointing and the data traffic
through communication satellites, or they may need to process large
amounts of data sent from remote-sensing spacecraft, such as the Satellite
Figure 15·28. Telemetry Monitoring. For
relatively routine missions, such as the Global Pour l'Observation de la Terre (SPOT), shown in Figure 15-29. For the first
Positioning System (GPS) spacecraft shown example, operator intervention may be fairly routine and requires very
here, the operations team only needs to take a little work. For the SPOT example, operators may spend hundreds of
daily "snapshot" of telemetry to make sure
everything is working correctly. hours processing volumes of data that rival the amount stored in the entire
Library of Congress!
Finally, in addition to their training, commanding, and data-handling
duties, the operations team must also maintain the operations systems
that support them, such as the complex-communication networks that
keep them in touch with their spacecraft. This effort involves routine
maintenance at remote-tracking sites, upgrades to control-center
hardware and software, and even new relay-satellite links. One vital
member of the operations team that oversees all these systems on a day-
to-day basis throughout the mission is the ground-systems specialist
(called the Integrated Commun.ications Officer or "INCO" on Shuttle
missions). The gro1111d-syste111 specinlist links the operations team and the
Figure 15·29. Satellite Pour !'Observation spacecraft. This team member maintains the computers in the control
de la Terre (SPOT). This small constellation
takes Earth observations and sends them center and ensures the complex communication network, which links the
through numerous downlink sites to the ground systems to the spacecraft, is connected and running. He or she
operations center at Toulouse, France. also gathers data from the spacecraft and tracking sites, delivers it to the
(Courtesy of French Space Agency CNES)
control center, and relays commands from operators to the spacecraft.
Mission Management
Notice in our discussion of design and manufacturing, launch, and
operations we didn't specifically mention mission management. However,
this task receives attention throughout the mission lifetime. Because of the
vital importance of coordinating the efforts of hundreds or even thousands
of individuals scattered around the world on various teams, while juggling
billion-dollar budgets and national resources, we'll focus on two problems
of team and project management.
638
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
Team Management
Although the technical aspects of designing and building space systems
are extremely challenging, managing the people on the teams that do it
creates other unique challenges. Project team leaders must ensure the team
clearly understands the mission objectives, their individual roles in the
success of the mission and the interrelationships among the various
organizational tasks. Early on, team leaders must establish an effective
communication and decision-making process that works in the specific
project envirorunent. Since before the Pyramids, many projects have
failed, not because they didn't have the necessary resources, but because
of poor communication or conflict between team members. Team leaders
can address many of the potential problem areas by paying attention to
the norms set for the team, the level of team cohesion, and the method of
conflict resolution.
Team norms are standards of conduct that guide team member
behavior. They typically aren't written down, but are understood
throughout the team as accepted means of behaving. They can help a
team by letting members know what is okay to do, and what is
considered wrong. For example, on a design team, a norm could be that
the group respects everyone's ideas, regardless of their title or expertise.
This idea can be helpful to the team, because good ideas often come from
people who have less experience on a project. The norm allows them to
speak out and have their ideas considered.
The level of cohesiveness on a team can also enhance team
effectiveness, because team members of highly cohesive teams are
typically very committed to team success. Team leaders can enhance
cohesiveness by establishing common goals and by increasing team
interaction. Research has shown that if a team spends a lot of time
together, and can agree on the goal they are working towards, typically
the team becomes cohesive and committed to mission success.
Finally, the methods a team uses to manage conflict can also impact it's
effectiveness. While a lot has been written about methods of conflict
resolution, the important thing for a team leader to consider is that one
style is not appropriate in all situations. Many times, the appropriate
response is to compromise or accommodate others to reach an agreement.
At other times, competition or collaboration is the preferred method. It's
the team leader's job to help team members examine the issues and
choose the appropriate resolution techniques.
Management Tools
As we've described, managing a team takes a combination of
leadership, management, and psychology skills. But even the best leader
or, most skilled manager, can be easily overwhelmed by the number of
details generated by even a moderately sized project. For multibillion
dollar international space programs, such as the International Space
Station (ISS), shown in Figure 15-30 the number of details to track is
staggering. Fortunately, astute project managers have a number of useful
639
Chapter 15 Space Operations
tools available in their kit to help them keep things on schedule and
within budget. In this section we'll look at just of few of the most
commonly used project-management techniques and the principles
behind them.
Figure 15-30. Big Project Management. For large multibillion dollar projects, such as the
International Space station (ISS), shown here in an artist's concept, the number of details
project managers must keep track of is staggering. To do this, they use a number of helpful
management tools. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson Space Center)
A large part of project management reduces to one thing-planning.
Abraham Lincoln once said that if he had only six hours to chop down a
tree, he'd spend five hours sharpening the ax. Detailed, thorough
planning, done early, saves time, effort, and frustration later in the
project. There are a variety of tools available to systematically plan nearly
every aspect of a project. We'll start by looking at the work breakdown
structure (WBS), then see how we can use the WBS for more detailed
timeline planning using PERT and/ or Ghant Charts.
Work Breakdown Structures. After we define the overall project
objective-build FireSat within three years for two million dollars-we
must specify the particular tasks that need to be accomplished. One tool
we can use is the work breakdown structure. Simply put, a work
breakdoum structure (WBS) separates a project into manageable pieces for
estimating what we need to do to complete the whole project. We can also
use it to determine the resources required (people and dollars), as well as
the time needed for each piece.
For example, at the project level, we can break the tasks for building
FireSat into the following four major areas
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15.2 Mission Management and Operations
1) Project Management
2) Systems Engineering
3) Subsystem Design and Fabrication
4) Subsystem and System-level Testing
We can refine each of these areas into sub-tasks and sub-sub-tasks until
we've completely defined the project. Figure 15-31 shows an example of
how we can look at one of the major project areas, AOCS, one of its sub-
tasks, fabrication, and five of its sub-sub-tasks. To fully define the
complete WBS for even a relatively small project, such as FireSat, would
take considerable time and fill many pages. For very large projects, such
as the multibillion dollar, DoD Milstar satellite system shown in Figure
15-32, the WBS alone fills volumes of documentation'
FireSat
management system integration
AOCS
Figure 15-32. Mi lstar Satellite. For major
space projects, such as the DoD Milstar
fabrication satellite shown here, the work breakdown
structure (WBS) becomes amazingly complex
and fills volumes of documentation. But this
procure write assembly level of detail is essential for efficient project
kit parts as embly verification management. {Courtesy of the U.S. Air Force}
components procedures
Figure 15·31. Example Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) for the FireSat Project. The
WBS allows us to systematically divide an entire project into a set of major tasks, sub-tasks
and sub-sub-tasks. For example, this figure illustrates how we can divide fabricating the
attitude and orbit control subsystem (AOCS) into five sub-tasks. We could separate each of
these sub-tasks even further until we've defined the entire project in detail.
After breaking down all the activities that comprise the project, our
next step is to determine how long each activity will take. While there are
a number of ways to estimate task duration, prior experience is our best
gauge. If we have done a task before, we have a much better idea of how
long it will take in the future. When historical data is not available,
estimating techniques are available to help us with task-duration
estimates.
Network Modeling. After we have decided on the activities and have
a reasonable estimate of how long each activity will take, we can begin
scheduling the tasks. Although there are a number of popular methods
for network scheduling, the Program Eoaluation and Re-view Tecunique
(PERT) and the Criticat-path Metlwd (CPM) have received widespread use
in project management. Despite conceptual differences between these
641
Chapter 15 Space Operations
two methods (based primarily on the method used to estimate activity
durations), for practical purposes, most managers use them interchange-
ably. The principal benefits of these methods are that they
• Allow us to visually examine the interrelationships among the
activities
• Show us which activities we can do simultaneously
• Help us focus on the tasks that are most critical to completing the
project on time
To begin the CPM scheduling process, we need to look at each of our
activities (developed in the WBS) and determine logical relationships
among them to determine precedence requirements by asking ourself
these questions
• Which activities should we finish immediately before we start this
activity?
• Which activities can we do at the same time as this activity?
• Which activities can't we start until after finishing this activity?
Table 15-2 gives an example of simplified precedence requirements for
the fabrication step in developing the FireSat attitude and orbit-control
subsystem, as well as the approximate duration of each activity.
Table 15-2. FireSat Project Data. As part of the Critical-path Method of project
management we need to list each activity in the WBS, determine which ones
come before it, and estimate the task duration.
Duration
Activity Predecessors (Months)
A -Procure components None 6
B- Kit parts A 4
C - Assemble sun-sensor components B 6
D - Assemble GPS components B 9
E - Verification C,D 3
Total 28
Table 15-2 indicates that Activity E (Verification) will take three months
to complete and cannot start until activities C and D are completed. This
analysis would seem to tell us that it will take 28 months to complete this
part of the project. But realize this analysis assumes that each activity is
done one at a time. How many total months will the project take to
complete if we can do some of the activities at the same time? Also, how
do we determine what tasks we should give priority to, so the entire
project won't be delayed?
642
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
Drawing a network diagram can help answer these more complex
questions, by illustrating project data graphically. Figure 15-33 shows a
network diagram for these FireSat tasks.
~
D
Figure 15-33. FireSat Network Diagram. This figure shows the sequencing of activities
for the FireSat attitude and orbit-control subsystem.
To draw a network diagram, we imagine the project as a "roadmap" of
predecessor and successor activities. The A and B roads (known as arcs)
each begin at a common starting point (called a "node," which denotes
the beginning or ending of an activity). Activity C must begin at the same
node where activity Bends, because it is a successor to B. Activity E must
begin at the node where C and D end, because C and D must be complete
prior to starting E. More complex programs require many more diagrams,
but we draw them similarly, taking great care to insure the network
reflects the information in the project's data table.
Drawing the project activities in a network diagram simplifies the
remaining analysis considerably and helps provide us with valuable
information such as: when we can schedule each activity, how much we
can delay an activity (without affecting the overall completion time), and
the earliest-start and finish times for each activity. We can compute these
times using the CPM rules for the "forward pass" and "backward pass."
The forward pass finds the earliest-start (ES) and earliest-finish (EF)
times for each activity by moving from left to right on a project diagram.
All activities that do not have a predecessor (in our example, activity A)
can start immediately, so they have an earliest-start time of zero. Then we
add the project duration times to the project-start time and that sum is the
earliest-finish time for that activity. In our example, the earliest-finish
times for A and Bare 6 and 10 months respectively.
The earliest-start time (ES) for subsequent activities should use the
longest, earliest-finish (EF) time coming into the node. For example, the
earliest-start time for activity E is 19 months, because activities C and D
must be complete before E can start (the EF for C is 16, the EF for Dis 19).
By completing the forward pass, we find that the project duration is only
22 months and not the sum of the durations of all the activities (28
months).
We now know the earliest we can expect to start and finish each of the
activities, however, we may also need to know what is the latest time we
can start and finish each activity without delaying the overall project. We
obtain such information using the backward pass. The backward pass is
643
Chapter 15 Space Operations
the opposite of the forward pass-it works from right to left, as we find
the latest-start (LS) and latest-finish (LF) time for each activity. To begin
the backward pass, we start at the last node on the network diagram that
identifies the project duration of 22 months. This time is the latest we can
finish the final activities and not delay the project. So in our example, the
latest-finish for activity E is 22 months. To find the latest start, we simply
subtract the activity duration (3 months for E) from the latest-finish time
(22 months). Therefore, the latest-start for activity Eis at 19 months (22-3).
Figure 15-34 shows the earliest-start, earliest-finish, latest-start, and
latest-finish times of all activities for the FireSat attitude and orbit-control
subsystem example.
c
(0,6) (19,22)
[0,6] [19,22]
o~o OEO
~9)
D [10,19]
Figure 15-34. FireSat Network Diagram. This diagram illustrates earliest-start and
earliest-finish limes (in parentheses) and latest-start and latest-finish limes [in brackets]
found by using the forward-pass and backward-pass approaches. For this example of the
FireSat attitude determination and control subsystem, all tasks proceed in series, with the
exception of C and D which proceed in parallel. Of these, only task C can slip as much as six
months without delaying this entire part of the project.
Now that we know the earliest-start, earliest-finish, latest-start, and
latest-finish times for each activity, as well as the project duration, the next
question is what activities are the most important to monitor to prevent
project delays? The answer to that question is we should monitor the
activities on the critical path, activities that we can't delay without delaying
the project. Any activity on the critical path will have zero slack. Slack is
the amount of time we can delay an activity without delaying the overall
project. By identifying the activities that have zero slack (A, B, D, E), we
have identified the critical path for this part of the project. We may delay
all other activities (in this case, only activity C) by the amount of slack that
they have, without serious effect on the overall project.
In this section, we have illustrated some of the uses of network
modeling. One of the more powerful aspects of CPM is the ability to
accurately control a project by shifting resources as needed. If one activity
is taking longer than expected, we can find another activity that has slack
and move resources from the one activity to the other to keep it on
schedule. Although this example is simple, this modeling technique is
especially useful on large, complex projects. For example, the purchase,
construction, and launch of DoD satellites involve literally thousands of
activities-all of which program managers must track to prevent costly
delays.
644
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
Project Control. One of the more challenging questions we can ask a
mission manager in the midst of a complex project is, "how is it going?"
Without some previously developed performance indicators, the best
answer we may get is a gut feeling, but "gut feeling" doesn't go over well
with worried stock holders or mission sponsors. To address this, the
mission manager must develop a control plan, one that highlights
problem areas and gives the team a sense of their progress. Table 15-3 lists
key characteristics for effective program performance indicators.
Table 15-3. Characteristics of Effective Program Perlormance Indicators.
Aligned with Performance indicators need to tie to project objectives so that our
goals measures are only measuring mission-critical areas
Simple and easy We can't act on information If we don't understand what a measure
to understand is telling us about the project
Actionable We must do something about the measure. if there is a deviation,
otherwise, the information is of little use
Timely The indicator must provide information in enough time for us to
make changes, if there is a problem
Flexible Measures should be changeable, if necessary, depending on
external circumstances
While there are several indicators that we can use to control a project,
one indicator that is gaining wide attention in government and industry
projects is called earned value. Basically, earned oalue tells us the value of
the work that is completed at any time. For example, let's assume we
budgeted $500,000 and 24 months for developing the first FireSat
spacecraft. If, after 12 months (half the time allocated for the task), we
find that we've spent $250,000 using only schedule and budget data, we
can assume we are tracking perfectly-half the time spent should equal
half the budget spent. However, what if we are only 25% complete with
the spacecraft? Schedule and budget numbers alone won't tell us that.
Somehow we need to compare the resources spent to the progress made.
Earned value lets us see whether the work done is keeping up with the
spending rate. Computing earned value involves converting the percent
complete on each activity to a dollar amount by multiplying the total
budgeted cost for the activity with the percent complete. This measure
now gives us a better idea of our progress, in addition to tracking costs
and schedules.
Spacecraft Autonomy
This overview of mission management and operations shows that
many people work to get a spacecraft off the drawing board and into
space. Supporting this army of people, along with the intricate
communication network that ties them together, is expensive. It's easy to
see why operations alone often account for as much as one-third of a
large program's cost. For this reason, engineers and operators are
constantly looking for new ways to streamline operations and cut costs.
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Chapter 15 Space Operations
One way to do this is to place more functions onboard the spacecraft,
reducing the need for costly operations-team members. Mission nuto110111y
refers to the ability of a spacecraft to perform some or all of its functions
without human intervention. Commercial missions, ever focused on the
bottom-line budget, turn to autonomy as a way to cut costs by decreasing
the number of control centers and operators.
For certain missions, some degree of autonomy is essential. Interplane-
tary missions, for example, must operate with long time delays because of
the extremely long distances. Their onboard software needs to deal with
any contingency without waiting for advice from Earth-bound operators.
Finally, there is another strong argument for increased spacecraft auton-
omy. Human errors have been a source of mission failure. The Russian
Phobos mission and the NASA Mars Climate Orbiter (Figure 15-35) are two
Figure 15-35. Mars Climate Orbiter. This prominent examples of human error leading to a mission's end.
interplanetary mission ended abruptly when
operators sent an erroneous command to fire
Increased onboard computer power, coupled with the desire to drive
the orbital-insertion rocket engine too long. down costs while enhancing mission reliability, all point toward greater
The spacecraft was never heard from again autonomy on spacecraft and even on launch vehicles. Someday, as one
and presumably burned up in Mars' atmo-
sphere or crashed into the suriace. (Courtesy
NASA engineer suggested, we may send probes on their merry way to
of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory) the planets with simple instructions to phone home if they find anything
interesting!
646
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
1111111111111 Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
autonomy > Mission Management and Operations involves all activities from
conunissioning "cradle to grave" needed to take a mission from concept, through
critical path launch, through mission end. Major mission tasks throughout the
Critical-path Method (CPM) mission life are listed in Table 5-1 with examples. Different teams
design-for-manufacture focus on different tasks during the mission
design-to-cost
• Mission-design and manufacturing teams focus on system
earned value
engineering, mission planning and analysis, and system
flight-control team
assembly, integration, and testing (AIT)
flight controllers
flight di rector • Launch teams focus on system AIT (integrating the launch
flight rules vehicle and spacecraft) and flight control (duri.ng countdown
ground-system specialist and launch)
launch director • Operations teams consist of an operations director (called a flight
launch-readiness review director for the Space Shuttle) supported by subsystems,
mission management and payload, and ground-system specialists. Their focus is on
operations simulation and training, flight control, data processing and
mission-operations team handling, and system maintenance and support.
mission timeline
operation director > Mission management covers the personnel and project control
operators tools needed to get a mission started and keep it moving on
payload specialists schedule and within budget
Program Evaluation and Review • Team management includes
Technique (PERT)
- Establishing effective team communication and decision-
range-safety officer (RSO)
making proce ses
simulations
slack - Developing the norms for the team, the level of team
subsystem specialists cohesion, and the methods for conflict resolution
team norms • Management tools include
work breakdown sh..icture (WBS)
- Work breakdown structures-systematic hierarchy of system
elements
- Network modeling-determining the relationship between
elements in the work breakdown structure. This includes the
Critical-path Method (CPM) which helps managers see which
tasks are most critical for keeping a project on schedule.
- Project control involves tracking effective performance
indicators, described in Table 15-3
> Spacecraft autonomy refers to having routine and off-nominal
decisions made by spacecraft using onboard software, instead of
by ground-based operators, to decrease cost, reduce human error,
and provide for more rapid response
647
Chapter 15 Space Operations
!!!!!!!!!!! References 3 List and describe four types of test facilities used
for spacecraft integration and tests.
Boden, Daryl G. and Wiley J. Larson. Cost-Effective
Space Mission Operations. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill, Inc., 1996.
Feldman, Daniel C. and Hugh J. Arnold. Managing 4 What four pieces make up a launch complex that
Individual and Group Behavior in Organizations. New prepares and boosts a payload into orbit?
York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1983.
Hackman, J. Richard. (ed. M. Dunnette) "Group
Influences on Individuals." Handbook of Industrial
and Organizational Psychology. New York, NY: John 5 For a space mission, what communications must
Wiley & Sons, 1976. take place? Describe the four pieces of a Space
Communication Architecture.
Morgan, Walter L., Gary D. Gordon. Communications
Satellite Handbook. New York, NY: John Wiley &
Sons, 1989.
Pratt, Timothy and Charles W. Bostian. Satellite 6 For space missions, what are real-time operations?
Communications. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, If real-time communication isn't possible, what are
1986. the alternative types of operations?
Rockwell International Space Systems Group, Space
Shuttle System Summary, 1980.
Shaw, M.E. Group Dynamics. 3rd ed. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1981. 7 What is a spacecraft "safe" mode and how can it
Thomas, Kenneth. (ed. M.D. Dunnette) "Conflict and save a mission?
Conflict Management." Handbook of Industrial and
Organizational Behavior. New York, NY: John Wiley
& Sons, 1976.
8 What four conditions must be compatible for two
!!!!!!!!!!! Mission Problems people or two spacecraft to communicate? What
does it mean to have a signal-to-noise ratio greater
than 1.0?
15.1 Mission Operations Systems
1 Describe what goes into the mission operations
systems. Why do we say mission operations is
often in the background for a space mission? 9 Describe the steps a radio signal must take to get
from a radio station to your car speaker in a form
you can enjoy?
2 What's the purpose of a clean room during
spacecraft manufacturing? What does it mean to 10 Compute the average power-flux density from the
have a Class 10,000 clean room? Is that cleaner Sun at Mercury's orbital radius, 57.9 x 109 m. The
than a Class 1000 clean room? total radiance from the Sun is 3.826 x 1026 W.
648
Mission Problems
11 How does a directional antenna increase the 17 List three ways to increase the signal-to-noise ratio
radiated power over an omnidirectional antenna? in a communication signal.
Define the gain of an antenna. How efficient is a
parabolic antenna?
18 Why would it be a bad idea to use the U.S. Air
Force's Satellite Control Network to uplink
12 What does an antenna's effective isotropic commands to our FireSat satellite? Could we ask
radiated power depend on? the Space Surveillance Network to track our 0.3 m
x 0.3 m x 0.3 m spacecraft?
15.2 Mission Management and Operations
13 Satellite A and B have the same communication
equipment (transmitter, antenna, etc.) onboard to
19 To create a completelydesigned, assembled, and
communicate with the same ground station. If
tested space system, what eight things must
satellite A is in an orbit 1000 km higher than
mission managers do?
satellite B, which will have a poorer signal-to-noise
ratio? Why"
20 List eight operations tasks that must be performed
during the life of a space mission.
14 Engineers plan to use a 2 x 109 Hz link with a 300
Hz bandwidth to communicate with a remote-
sensing spacecraft in an orbit at 400 km altitude.
The transmitter-antenna gain is 300 and the
receiver-antenna diameter is 30 m. Transmitter
power will be 13 W. If the receiver temperature is 21 What is design for manufacture? How does
300 I<, compute the signal-to-noise ratio for the design-to-cost help mission managers plan a space
uplink signal. Will this be an effective link? mission?
15 List four ways to increase the amount of 22 Describe a mission timeline and how managers
transmitted-signal strength that a receiver collects. use it to script a space mission.
16 Where does noise come from in a communication 23 What tests lead to the flight-readiness review?
signal? What happens at this review?
649
Chapter 15 Space Operations
24 Describe the roles of the launch director and 29 For the FireSat Network Diagram, Figure 15-33,
range-safety officer in getting a launch vehicle why did we need the earliest-start and earliest-
with its spacecraft safely into orbit. finish times? How and why did we compute the
latest-start and latest-finish times?
25 What positions comprise an operations team?
Which one takes charge of the team for the Space 30 How does spacecraft autonomy save mission
Shuttle? costs? Why aren't all spacecraft totally autono-
mous?
26 Describe the job of an operations-team leader.
What tools are available to assist them in their For Discussion
management tasks?
31 Why are mission operations so expensive? Suggest
some ways to decrease their costs.
27 List three benefits to network scheduling methods,
such as the Program Evaluation and Review
Technique and the Critical-path Method. 32 What type of communication network would we
need to support the human exploration of Mars?
Describe the number and type of elements needed
and the various links.
28 What five characteristics of effective program
control help the program manager gain confidence
with owners and users that a successful mission is
underway?
650
Mission Proiile- -Apollo 13
Apollo 13 was the thirteenth in the Apollo series Mission Impact
missions beginning with A polio 1 in January, 1967, and
ending with Apollo 17, December, 1972. Previous Although none of the primary mission objectives was
Apollo missions successfully accomplished many accomplished, the Apollo 13 mission can be called a
"firsts," including the first lunar orbit, and first "successful failure." It was the first in the Apollo
manned lunar landing. Apollo 13 was planned as the Program requiring an emergency abort. The excellent
third lunar landing attempt. performance of the lunar-module system in a back-up
capacity and the training of the flight crew and
Mission Overview ground-support personnel resulted in the safe and
efficient return of the crew.
This mission was planned with the primary objectives
of exploring the Moon, surveying and sampling the
Imbrium Basin, deploying and activating the Apollo
Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP), further
developing human's capability to work in the lunar
environment, and photographing candidate explora-
tion sites. The mission was abandoned due to a rupture
in the service module's oxygen tank.
Mission Data
./ Launch: Saturday, April 11, 1970, at 13:13 CST
./ Crew: James A. Lovell, [r., John L. Swigert, [r., and
Fred W. Haise, Jr.
Damaged Apollo 13 Service Module. This photo shows the side
./ Milestones: 46 hours 43 minutes Joe Kerwin, the panel blown away from the Service Module. (Courtesy of NASN
Johnson Space Center)
CapCom on duty, said, "The spacecraft is in real
good shape as far as we are concerned. We're bored
to tears down here."
Contributor
./ 55 hours 55 minutes Oxygen tank No. 2 exploded,
Nathan Kartchner, the U.S. Air Force Academy
causing No. 1 tank also to fail. The Apollo 13
command module's normal supply of electricity,
light, and water was lost. References
./ Astronauts used the lunar module as a lifeboat in
space NASA/ Goddard Space Flight Center. National Space
Science Data Center website. http:/ /nssdc.gsfc.
./ Astronauts and ground support manually nasa.gov I cgi-bin /data base/ www-nmc?70-029 A.
navigated Apollo 13 to a safe re-entry
NASA/Johnson Space Center. Apollo 13 website .
./ Landing: 17 April, 1970 http: I I cass.jsc.nasa.gov I pub I expmoon/
./ Mission Duration: 142 hrs 54 mins 41 s Apollo13/ Apollo13.html.
The Accident Review Board concluded that wires NASA/Johnson Space Center. Images website. http:/
which had been damaged during pre-flight testing in I images.jsc.nasa.gov /iams/html/ pao I as13.htm
oxygen tank No. 2 shorted and the teflon insulation NASA/Kennedy Space Center. Apollo 13 website.
caught fire, causing the explosion. With the oxygen http:IIwww.ksc.nasa.gov/history I a polio I apollo-
stores depleted, the command module was unusable, 13 I apollo-13.html.
so the mission had to be aborted. The crew transferred
to the lunar module (named Aquarius) and powered NASA/Langley Research Center. Abstracts website.
down the command module (named Odyssey) until it http: I I lava.larc.nasa.gov I ABSTRACTS/LV-1998-
was time to use the re-entry capsule for landing. 00042.html.
65"1
Retrieving and repairing broken satellites for later reuse is one of many potential space businesses of the future. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson
Space Center)
Using Space
Wiley J. Larson
the U.S. Air Force Academy
== In This Chapter You'll Learn to ... 1111111111111 Outline
...- Appreciate the balance between the political, economic, and technical
16.1 The Space Industry
dimensions 0£ space missions
Globalization
" Explain current trends in govemm nt and commercial space activities Commercialization
..- Discuss the political reasons that nations pursue space activities, and Capital Market Acceptance
the legal and regulatory environment for thes missions Emergence 0£ New Industry
Leaders
" Discuss the economic factors that drive space missions and affect their
cost from beginning to end 16.2 Space Politics
Political Motives
== You Should Already Know ... Laws, Regulations, and Policies
16.3 Space Economics
Nothing. You need no specific tools to understand this chapter, but
it will make more sense if you're familiar with the rest of the book. Life-cycle Costs
Cost Estimating
Return on Investment
The FireSat Mission
There is just one thing I can promise you about the outer space program -your tax
dollar will go farther.
Werner vonbraun
Chapter 16 Using Space
S o far, our primary focus in this book has been on the technical
aspects of space. We've looked at each element of the space
mission architecture and how they' re designed and integrated
into a cohesive whole. But technology, no matter how advanced, is only
part of the story. In the real world, two other factors-politics and
economics-can be just as important (and often more important) in
getting a mission off the ground. If you imagine the space mission
architecture, as shown, to be the "wheel" around which a mission turns,
economics provides the power to turn that wheel, and politics determines
the direction it will go. Technology, economics, and politics form three
legs of a space mission triad, illustrated in Figure 16-1. Like the legs of a
three-legged stool, any mission must have each of these, of equal
strength, to have a firm base to build upon.
In this chapter, we'll take a step back to look at the big picture of space
missions from the perspective of government and industry. Our goal is to
understand some of the key forces that drive the space industry and how
they're related to current trends. For NASA and DoD missions, politics,
including international politics drives much of what is done. But more
and more, economics, or cost-effectiveness, determines what missions
governments can do and how they're done. Technology facilitates these
missions, and often, new technology helps make missions possible or
more cost-effective. Unlike government, industry is in business to make a
profit. Industry will use whatever technology it can to achieve that goal,
but industry is subject to political and economic pressures, as well, that
must be carefully factored into any sound business plan.
We'll start by analyzing important trends in space and how they're
shaping the face of the industry. Then we'll tum our attention to space
Figure 16-1. Space Mission Triad. Tech-
nology, economics, and politics form the three
politics to see why countries pursue space activities and how they control
legs of the space mission triad. Any mission them through laws, regulations, and policies. Finally, we'll look at the
must have strong support on all three legs to bottom line of space-economics. We'll review important factors that
stand.
drive up the cost of doing business in space and the issues that current
and future space entrepreneurs must consider.
654
16.l The Space Industry
16.1 The Space Industry
I!!!!!! In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- List and describe emerging trends in the space industry today
.- Explain important markets for commercial space activities
Space has become an integral part of all our lives. Space assets form an
invisible infrastructure that most people take for granted. Recent surveys
show that the average person in the U.S. uses space assets about nine ti.mes
per day, usually without realizing it! Space provides television, radio,
weather information, location or navigation capabilities, information and
pictures for newspapers, internet and web sites, and telephony to name a
just a few.
The way we perceive these space activities has changed dramatically
over the last 40 years. Before 1957, space travel was something that only a
few people, science fiction writers, and technologists, even dreamed
about. The launch of the tiny Sputnik spacecraft, which did nothing but
broadcast electronic "beeps," stunned the world and changed our
perception of space forever. At that time, going into space was an
experimental journey into the great unknown. It was truly a mysterious
entity and we had a lot to learn about its environment and the technology
needed to get us there.
Looking at a snapshot of 1969, when the manned space program was at
its climax, reveals a totally different picture after only 12 years of effort.
Primarily two nations, the former Soviet Union and United States, were
in a struggle to see who would be preeminent in space. Space enjoyed
special status, and funding for space projects was plentiful. The result
was the rapid development of propulsion, electronics, materials, and
other technologies that made grandiose missions such as Apollo and the
Mariner planetary probes possible. But spacecraft were hand built, one at
a time using technologies not widely available, thus space missions were
stil1 an expensive undertaking and remained the exclusive domain of the
super powers.
Thirty years later, at the dawn of a new millennium, many people think
space is a routine endeavor. In addition to many hand-built systems,
constellations of mass produced spacecraft, using off-the-shelf hardware,
exist. Computer processing capability and memory is readily available for
space systems. Many countries have space-related capabilities, and there
are a wide variety of launch options available. International cooperation is
a necessity, and competition and profit drive many of the activities. Many
people dream of careers in space-related areas. Over the span of about 40
years, space activities have blossomed.
As of the year 2000, there were about 500 functional spacecraft orbiting
Earth. But the demand for space services continues to grow and plans for
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Chapter 16 Using Space
many new systems are in various stages of development. By some
predictions [Via Satellite], this number could double or triple by 2010!
What will all these missions do? Who will build them? Who will pay
for them? According to projections, the majority of these new spacecraft
will be for telecommunications, and the U.S. industry and government
will sponsor about 60% of them. But what about the rest? To understand
these we need to look deeper into the state of the global space industry,
In his draft manuscript, Space Power [Sullivan, 1998], Dr. Brian Sullivan
identifies several recent trends that provide insights to our next decade in
space. These trends include
• Globalization
• Commercialization
• Capital market acceptance
• Emergence of new industry leaders
In this section, we'll examine each of these trends in turn, to see how they
will shape the face of the 21st century space industry.
Globalization
Space has always provided a global perspective of Earth. But during the
early days of the Space Age, that perspective was only available to a few
super-power nations. Today, space is truly a global activity. Th.is
proliferation of space activities to many countries around the world is
called globalization. More than 20 countries now have active national
programs related to developing space infrastructure, with the United
States, Europe, Russia, China, and Japan leading the way.
As of 2000, the U.S. Government or industry owned about 50% of the
existing spacecraft in orbit. Ten years from now, when the total number of
spacecraft has potentially tripled, that fraction is expected to decline to
35% or 45%, due to the growth of international space activities.
A number of factors have fueled this globalization of space. Increased
accessibility of space technology, caused by the explosion in the
microelectronics industry, has made the task of designing and building a
spacecraft far cheaper and simpler than it was 30 years ago. This
accessibility, coupled with the wide availability of relatively low-cost
launch opportunities, has made it possible for almost any country to
undertake their own dedicated space program for a relatively small
investment. Figure 16-2 shows FASat-A, the first national spacecraft of
Ch.ile.
-·
Figure 16-2. Chile in Space. The increased
globalization of the space industry has made it
possible for developing countries lo undertake
their own dedicated space programs. The
In addition to their own indigenous programs, many developing
nations have become significant purchasers of space-related products and
services such as space-based telecommunications systems and remote-
sensing data. Emerging markets in Central Europe, Russia, Africa, South
America, and the Pacific Rim represent significant opportunities for the
FASat-A micro satellite, shown here with its space-based telecommunication industry. These opportunities have Jed to
project team, is the first national spacecraft of
Chile. (Courtesy of Surrey Satellite Technology, a number of firms expanding internationally through mergers, acquisi-
Ltd., U.K.) tions, and strategic-partner arrangements.
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16.1 The Space Industry
Commercialization
Twenty years ago space was primarily a government's endeavor.
Today, the trend slants more toward commercial ventures-
commercialization. By the end of 1997, a total of about $100 billion had
been spent on commercial space activities since their inception. But this
number is growing rapidly. Experts predict that private industry will
invest an estimated $125-$150 billion more over the next three to five
years. [Via Satellite, July, 1999] Between the years 2000 and 2010, they
expect continuing high levels of profit to bring an estimated $650-$800
billion in revenue to the space industry worldwide. By 2010, cumulative
U.S. corporate investments in space alone could reach $500-$600 billion.
That same year, revenues from global commercial space activities are
estimated at $500-$600 billion. By 2020, the U.S. space industry could be
producing 10%-15% of U.S. Gross Domestic Product. We'll have to wait
and see.
In comparison, in 1996, global government (civil and military) space
expenditures totaled about $50 billion, about 70% of that was U.S.
Government, civil and military, space-funding profiles are interesting to
note. NASA's funding has been relatively stable and is projected to
remain at $13-$14 billion in present dollars, per year, over the next five to
ten years. From Congressional estimates for U.S. defense funding, the
U.S. military is expected to spend about $35-$40 billion per year on space.
Wow! This means that the total funding by the U.S. Government could be
as much as $54 billion per year on space activities in the 2010 timeframe,
while, the U.S. space industry is projecting revenues of 10 times that
amount during the same period!
The key point here is that commercial spending on space is beginning
to overshadow government spending. Industry will lead the way and the
government will become a follower in many applications. Obviously, the
government will still be the key player in national security-related
technologies and systems, but much of the infrastructure for space will
become commercially driven.
Part of the reason for this trend is government policies toward industry
and space activities. The global trend toward deregulation of the telecommu-
nications industry has created a large number of new competitors, services,
and markets for the space industry. Additional space-related opportunities
come from commercializing many traditional government-run space activ-
ities. For example, Europe has established private marketing organizations
for launch vehicles (Arianespace) and remote-sensing spacecraft data (Spot
Image). In the U.S., much of the public-domain remote-sensing data is
virtually free for the taking, while Europeans establish clearinghouses for
data that they sell to the public. In the U.S., government-owned national
launch ranges are now licensed to private concerns, and many suppliers of
defense-related space infrastructure, who formerly sold exclusively to the
government, are now permitted to compete commercially. Mission opera-
tions for the Space Shuttle and many unmanned spacecraft missions are
gradually being handed over to industry on a commercial basis.
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Chapter L6 Using Space
Another reason for the increased commercial space activities is that
space activities for their own sake are becoming profitable. The globnl
space industry can be divided into four primary market areas
• Space-related services (the real money maker)
• Spacecraft design and manufacturing
• Space operations systems design and manufacturing
• Launch services
Of these, space-related services is by far the most lucrative-and
growing-area. In 1997 alone, space services generated $19.4 billion in
revenue, compared to $13.5 billion, $11.0 billion, and $7.5 billion for the
other three areas respectively. Let's look at three of the most important
areas of space-related services, telecommunications, navigation, and
remote sensing.
Telecommunications currently is the largest portion of commercial space
activities. This area was the first and continues to be the most significant
money maker for the space industry. Hundreds of government and
commercial organizations worldwide own, operate, and use space systems
to support a variety of critical communication needs. Spacecraft, as an
integral part of the world's telecommunications infrastructure, provide
long-distance data transmission, television broadcasting, telephony, and
Figure 16-3. Commercial Communication other services. In the developing world, spacecraft are delivering basic
Missions. The Iridium satellite, shown here, is telephone service to millions of people for the first time. These countries are
part of a constellation of commercial space-
craft providing worldwide telephone services.
using this communication boon to support rapid economic growth. In the
(Courtesy of Motorola, Inc.) U.S. and Europe, space-based assets are enabling exciting new services,
such as personal communications systems, distance learning, tele-
medicine, and private networks.
Competition is fierce and the risks are high in the telecommunications
industry-vast fortunes are at stake. Corporations that invested in ground-
based infrastructure compete fiercely with other companies, trying to
provide basically the same services using space-based systems. Th.is
competition is evident in the mobile-telephone market and in the distribu-
tion of television and radio programming. Figure 16-3 shows an Iridium
satellite that forms part of a constellation of small satellites competing to
provide worldwide telephone services.
Navigation is the next most profitable space-related service area. This
entire market niche has been a direct spin-off of the Globn/ Poeitioniug
System (CPS). The GPS allows a user with a small handset to receive lughly
accurate location, velocity, and time information, virtually anywhere on or
above Earth. Industry is finding ways to use this basic GPS information
combined with other value-added capabilities to increase profit in
traditional areas and to generate revenue from new markets. For example,
shipping companies are using GPS to locate inventory being transported
Figure 16-4. GPS on the Road. GPS by ship, plane, and truck worldwide, streamlining their tracking systems.
receivers are becoming integral parts or our Automobile manufacturers are now offering GPS systems to provide trip
lives. Here we see a GPS system incorporated
into a car to keep the driver from getting lost. tracking and emergency response assistance as an additional option, along
(Cour(esy of Magellan Corporation) with stereos and sport trim, as shown in Figure 16-4.
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16.1 The Space Industry
The concept of "value added" is especially important in the space-
related service area. Imagine that you are on the golf course and someone
hands you a CPS receiver. You instantly know your exact location. This, by
itself, wouldn't help your game, but what if you could program in the
locations of all 18 holes? Then you could get an exact measurement of the
distance and direction to the next hole-making it easier to select the right
golf club for the shot. Going further, if the CPS receiver incorporated a
wind indicator providing speed and direction, you could better estimate
how to adjust the direction to hit the ball. Value-added features are a very
powerful money maker that can be added to basic services, such as CPS,
making them more accessible and useful to Earth-bound users.
The commercial exploitation of remote-sensing data by adding value
to public domain, governmental data has also proven to be useful and
profitable. Obviously, military remote-sensing missions launched for
national security reasons do not have to be commercially viable. Other
remote-sensing missions, such as NASA's Earth Science Enterprise,
generate incredible amounts of environmental data, paid for by U.S.
taxpayers. Companies have created profitable markets by manipulating
this public domain data in various ways to provide a variety of useful
products and services for customers around the world.
Over the last 20 years, data from Earth remote-sensing spacecraft have
become important in helping to predict the weather, improve public safety,
map Earth's features and infrastructure, manage natural resources, and
study environmental change. In the future, the U.S. and other countries are
likely to increase reliance on these systems to gather useful data about
Earth. Turning remotely sensed data into useful information requires
adequate storage and computer systems capable of managing, organizing,
sorting, distributing, and manipulating the data at exceptional speeds.
Earth remote sensing is now a broad-based international activity. This
fact has transformed the ground rules for intergovernmental cooperation
and offers new opportunities to reduce the costs and improve the
effectiveness of overlapping, national, remote-sensing programs. We' re
already seeing companies generate profits by processing easily accessed
information. Private companies have taken the lead in linking data
sources to data users by turning raw data into productive information. In
addition, several corporations have begun to market raw data from
privately financed, remote-sensing systems. The Orb View system, shown
in Figure 16-5, is a privately-financed mission, aimed at the commercial,
remote-sensing market.
Figure 16·5. Commercial Remote Sensing.
Geograpiuc Information Systems (GlS) using space-based resources The OrbView spacecraft, developed by Orbital
provide detailed terrestrial data needed by a variety of markets (Figure Sciences Corporation, is a commercial remote·
16-6). For example, farmers use GIS tools to analyze and manage their sensing system, aimed at making money from
satellite imagery. (Courtesy of Orblmage)
crops, thereby improving crop yields and enhancing competitiveness in
an increasingly global marketplace. Insurance companies use GIS data to
assess claims following a flood or fire disaster. Timber companies,
government agencies, and environmental groups use GIS data to monitor
forests. Even the fast-food chain, McDonald's, uses remote-sensing data
to estimate population growth patterns in and near cities to determine
where best to locate new stores.
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Chapter 16 Using Space
Figure 16-6. The U.S. Air Force Academy as Mapped Using a Geographic Information System (GIS). A GIS is a computer-based
mapping tool, tying geographic location of features (where things are) to descriptive information (what are things like). This descriptive
information allows us to better model a complex "real world." (Courtesy of Chris Benson, the U.S. Air Force Academy}
Capital MarketAcceptance
Where is all the money coming from to support these exciting new
commercial missions? Fortunately, there is another trend within capital
markets making investments in space ventures more common place.
Financial communities around the world are increasingly aware of the
explosive growth potential of space-related products and services, and are
more willing to invest in these relatively high-risk ventures. When the
Iridium company set out to provide worldwide space-based telephony
services from small handsets, they had to raise billions of dollars from
investors to get their 66-spacecraft constellation off the ground.
Unfortunately, the company declared bankruptcy soon after deployment in
1999, leaving investors, users, and competitors waiting to see their fate.
While the problems with Iridium have made the investment community
more cautious about which space ventures to invest in, they don't seem to
have stopped the availability of capital for new missions. Successful
financial performance in other more traditional, geostationary telecommu-
nications missions should continue to attract investors, thereby firmly
establishing the space industry in the capital markets. While capita! market
nccepiauce is still not as widespread as it is for information technology and
Internet ventures, the financial community has begun to recognize that
many ventures with a space component are not as risky as previously
thought and offer a real opportunity for moneymaking.
Driving this acceptance by capital markets has been the continued
convergence of traditional terrestrial technologies with space technologies.
Telecommunications and information (Internet and web TV) technologies
are continuing to merge and fuel commercial growth for advanced infor-
mation and communication products and services for a very mobile,
worldwide community. The inherent "look-down" advantages of space-
based capabilities continues to be an effective means for delivering services
and gathering information on a national, regional, and global basis.
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16.l The Space Industry
Emergence of New Industry Leaders
The final recent trend has been the rapidly changing face of companies
within the space industry. There have been so many changes, that you
almost need a program to recognize all the players.
The small-to-medium-sized firms have generally been on the forefront
of much of the commercial innovation within the space industry. They
often possess the low-cost structures and commercially oriented market
behavior necessary to capitalize quickly on emerging opportunities and
to compete effectively. Given the substantial size of the worldwide space
industry and the emergence of numerous commercially viable niches,
many of these companies can experience ample growth without inviting
significant competition. Orbital Sciences Corporation, makers of the
Pegasus launch vehicle, as shown in Figure 16-7, has built a successful
business by focusing on the launch and operations of small satellites.
On the other hand, we are seeing many mergers and acquisitions
occurring within the U.S. aerospace industry-Lockheed and Martin
Marietta, RCA and Martin Marietta, Ford Aerospace and Lockheed
Martin, Boeing and Rockwell, and Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, to
name a few. Similar actions are taking place within the European
community. The result of all these mergers is that there are now fewer, Figure 16-7. Market Niches. Orbital
Sciences Corporation has built a successful
larger companies competing for the same government space contracts. business by focusing on the launch and
In the next section we'll look at the political environment, in which all operations of small satellites. Here we show a
these emerging trends are taking place. Following that, we'll look at the test flight of their Pegasus launch vehicle, with
the mother plane at the top, a chase plane in
third leg of the space mission triad to understand the role of economics in the middle, and the Pegasus launch vehicle at
governmental and commercial missions. the bottom. (Courtesy of NASA/Dryden Flight
Research Center)
- Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
capital market > Several recent trends give us insight into space mission in the next decade
acceptance • Globalization-increasingly, smaller, emerging nations are joining the
commercialization traditional pace uperpowers to participate in the high frontier
deregulation
Geograpltic Information • Commercialization-commercial missions are beginning to dominate the
Systems (GJS) space industry over traditional military and government space activities
Global Positioning • Capital market acceptance-the growth in commercial space missions
System (GPS) has been helped by capital markets, which recognize that space offers a
global space industry good area for investment with the potential for significant returns at
globalization relatively high, but understandable risk. This growth has been further
fueled by the convergence of terrestrial and space technologies, especially
in the area of telecommunication.
• Emergence of new market leaders-new, small companies have emerged
to take advantage of market nich s of pace services and technology,
while larger, traditional aerospac companies continue to merge
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Chapter 16 Using Space
16.2 Space Politics
11111111111 In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Examine the political motivations for space activities
·.- List and discuss the seven key principles that guide international
space law
,.. Describe the functions of the International Telecommunications
Union
..- Di cuss the impact of national policies on the conduct of space
missi.ons
Politics has dominated space missions from the very beginning. The
"space race" between the U.S. and U.S.S.R., described in Chapter 2, pitted
the two superpowers against each other in a political and technical con-
test to see which side could upstage the other in the new high ground. In
fact, until the early 1960's, the primary motivation for space missions was
political. It wasn't until the first communication spacecraft demonstrated
the value of geosynchronous missions to relay telephone and television
around the world that the commercial space industry took off.
In this section, we'll look at the political dimension of the space triad
that we introduced at the start of the chapter, to see why and how politics
continues to shape the direction of space programs. We'll start by looking
at the some of the political motivations that drive government-sponsored
space missions, then see how governmental laws, regulations, and policies
reach into the market place to affect the environment for commercial
missions as well.
Political Motives
Governments set policies and spend resources to achieve national or
international objectives. Space programs are just one more area of activity,
along with agriculture, education, and economic programs that govern-
ments can pursue (or not pursue) depending on their political will. Space
industry expert Jim Oberg [Oberg, 1999] notes that governments typically
pursue space activities for one (or a combination of) the following reasons
• Promote national image and foreign policy objectives
• Enhance national and regional security
• Advance science and technology
• Support national industries
Let's briefly examine each of these political motivations for space
missions.
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16.2 Space Politics
Promote National Image and Foreign Policy Objectives
A strong space program can enhance a country's national image and
help to promote its foreign policy objectives. This was evident during the
space race, as the U.S. and U.S.S.R. tried to outdo the other to
demonstrate the superiority of their political system. The demonstration
of U.S. technical prowess in its space program, for example, advertises its
overall national competence in systems and technologies related to
military capabilities.
Space programs can also be useful tools for cementing relationships
among friendly nations to further foreign policy objectives. The
International Space Station, as shown in Figure 16-8, is serving to enhance
Figure 16-8. The International Space
foreign relations between the U.S., Russia, the European Community, Station (ISS). As its name implies, the ISS is a
Japan, Canada, and other partners in the program. tool to promote international relations and
foreign policy objectives, while furthering the
goals of science. (Courtesy of NASA/Ames
Enhance National and Regional Security Research Center)
Space has become an integral part of national security. Spy satellites
track enemy troop movements and identify targets. Early warning
satellites watch for missile launches. GPS satellites help to steer planes,
ships, and even bombs to their destinations. Communication spacecraft
provide the infrastructure to link commanders with their far-flung forces
around the globe. Space assets have become a vital "force multiplier"
allowing the modern military to do more with less. The Gulf War and the
Kosovo conflicts brought home to military leaders their near total
dependence on space assets to accomplish their missions.
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) alone spends $26 billion per
year on space missions for national security. While spending in many
other areas within the military has shrunk in the years following the end
of the Cold War, space spending has increased. If anything, the need to
pursue space missions to promote national and regional securiu] will
continue to increase as space grows in importance to the international
economy.
The growing importance of space for national security has also raised
the issue of "space control." In future military conflicts, should countries
look up helplessly while their enemies use space assets to their
advantage, or should the battleground move to the new high ground, as
adversaries attack each other's space assets? As we'll see, these issues
come in direct conflict with international law.
Advance Science and Technology
Another reason for nations to support space activities is to promote
their level of competence in science and technology, projects vital to their
economic and industrial base. Funding for advanced space technologies
goes to universities, national laboratories, and commercial industries. At
the university level, this support attracts students into technical fields
and works to increase the pool of qualified specialists. At national labora-
tories, basic and applied research in space technologies can often transfer
to other domestic needs, such as energy and transportation.
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Chapter 16 Using Space
Support National Industries
The final reason that nations pursue space activities is to enhance the
competitive advantage of their own national industries. In the modern
global economy, nations need vigorous, competitive national industries
to generate exports to offset imports-or risk the stability of their national
economies. "Buy American" summarizes the U.S. policy of only buying
products and services from local, homegrown industries. This policy
creates profits for those companies, which they can use to invest in
research and development, manufacturing, and other assets to increase
their ability to compete with similar companies in other countries in the
world marketplace.
The goal, of course, is to create marketable space-related products and
services-information and information flow, data products, spacecraft,
launch vehicles, ground systems, and associated hardware and software.
But, to remain competitive, national industries must vigorously pursue
space applications for business and profit, and fund their own in-house
basic and applied research to maintain a competitive edge in the
designing, manufacturing, deploying, and operating of space systems.
This includes the innovation of modern and efficient facilities for
producing many spacecraft rapidly at low cost, the ability to operate
space systems economically but safely, and the strategy to leverage other
technologies into space-related applications.
Critics of space programs often complain about "all that taxpayer
money being wasted on space." However, by establishing and funding
national space programs, governments indirectly or directly subsidize
their national industries and help to grow the overall economy. This
creates positive feedback as a strong economy makes it easier to fund a
strong space program.
As we've seen, nations pursue space activities for a variety of reasons.
It's important to note that a broadly supported space program will
support all of these objectives. However, in some cases these objectives
can conflict. For example, the goal of enhancing national security can
directly conflict with the goal of supporting national industries. For
national security reasons, there is an advantage to keeping technological
know-how within a nation's borders. Yet, to be competitive, national
industries need to be able to sell this capability on the world market
place. Attempting to balance these sometimes-competing objectives falls
into the area of laws and public policy, as we'll see next.
Laws, Regulations, and Policies
When they're not pursuing space activities for their own ends as
described earlier, governments work to shape the context in which all
space missions must operate. They do this by developing rules of interna-
tional law that all space-faring nations, and multinational companies,
must follow, and by setting up national and international bodies to
oversee the implementations of those laws and policies. Let's start by
looking at some principles of international space law.
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16.2 Space Politics
Principles of Space Law
We can summarize international space law with seven main principles
that guide our daily use of space [Houston, 1999]. These seven principles
come from five space treaties to which various countries subscribe. They
include the: Outer Space Treaty, Registration Convention, Liability
Convention, Rescue Agreement, and Moon Agreement [UN, 1972].
For the most part these seven principles represent tradition, which, to
some extent, has been overcome by rapidly changing technology, termi-
nology, and concepts. Nonetheless, these seven principles are useful for
gaining insights into our present situation in space.
• International law applies to outer space-everyone should conduct
activities in space in accordance with international law. Space is not a
"lawless" arena. Just because you're on the far side of the Moon,
doesn't mean you can escape the long arm of international law.
• Obligation to use space for peaceful purposes-no nuclear or other
weapons of mass destruction in space. The moon and other celestial
bodies will be used exclusively for peaceful purposes. As space
operations become more and more important to military missions,
this principle will become more contentious.
• Right to use outer space, but not to appropriate-it's possible for all
to use, but not possible for anyone to own. This principle may one
day soon come in conflict with "space prospectors" who want to
stake their own private claim on outer space real estate.
• Register space objects-owners must provide a general indication of
functions, orbit, frequency use, and date of launch for any object put
in space. Every object launched must be registered with the United
Nations, which tracks who owns what.
• State responsibility and supervision for private activities-states (or
nations) should oversee the activities of industry and academia in
space to ensure compliance with treaties. It is up to each nation to
police their own people and industries to ensure they comply with
international law in space.
• Retention of jurisdiction and control-every nation that registers a
space object is responsible for it even if it stops functioning. If you
launched it, it's your responsibility to keep track of it.
• Liability for damage-registered owners of space hardware are
responsible for damage caused in space, on Earth, and in the atmo-
sphere. If you launch it, and it comes crashing down on someone's
head-before it reaches orbit or after 50 years-its your responsibility.
These seven concepts tend to guide the use of space. But keep in mind
that they're typical practices, based on treaties and international under-
standings that are subject to change by a nation if it so deems. One of the
ways the international community works to implement these laws is
through international agencies that oversee and regulate space activities.
One of the most important of these is the International Telecommunica-
tions Union.
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Chapter 16 Using Space
The International Telecommunications Union
The lntemationa! Telecommunications Union (ITW is a specialized agency
of the United Nations that manages, among other issues, the
geostationary orbital-slot assignments, as well as frequency allocation for
its international member states. The ITU is the recognized body that
provides
• Interference-free and equitable access to orbital positions and radio
frequencies
• A first-come, first-served approach to the positions and frequencies,
assuming that the members use the resources allocated to them
responsibly
ITU member states receive the right to use and not to own the
resources, perpetually. They have a limited right to sell or barter the
resources. Member states have the right to replace failed spacecraft in
orbital locations that they have been allocated. Some countries that have
permission to use orbital slots have tried to sell or trade the slots for other
resources. The ITU frowns on that practice.
National Policies
In the U.S., as in many nations, there is a government agency that man-
ages frequency use within its boundaries. The Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) manages frequency allocation for operations over the
U.S. territory. Large, global communication companies must work very
hard and long to obtain permission from the ITU and FCC, as well as other
national agencies in the countries they plan to operate. As you can imagine,
trying to provide global communication coverage may involve hundreds of
countries and their individual agencies and associated politics.
Goverrunents may have a number of different (sometimes competing)
agencies with oversight responsibility for various aspects of space
missions. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), for example, has
responsibility for cars, railroads, ships, and airplanes, plus it also works
with NASA, DoD, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and other
agencies to regulate launch vehicles and launch sites. The proposed new
Kodiak Island launch site in Alaska, as shown in Figure 16-9, will
undergo a variety of reviews by DOT and other agencies before and
during operations.
Administering governmental laws and regulations by these agencies
can have wide-ranging impact on commercial space activities. For
example, the U.S. State Department must approve exports of all space
Figure 16-9. Kodiak Island Launch Site. technology. Preparing the necessary documentation can add cost and
U.S. Government agencies, such as the
Department of Transportation, have oversight create delays on the sale of spacecraft, launch, and other services to
into diverse areas that impact space operations, foreign customers. These policies may restrict or even prohibit the sale of
such as the proposed new commercial launch certain technologies in the interests of national security. Imagery from
site, shown here on Kodiak Island, Alaska.
(Courtesy of Alaska Aerospace Development, commercial remote sensing spacecraft, for example, undergoes careful
Corp.) scrutiny.
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16.2 Space Politics
In some cases, governmental policies to protect and support one
segment of the national space industry may have detrimental effects on
others. For example, to protect national launch capability, the US govern-
ment imposes restrictions on the use of foreign launchers by government
and commercial missions. While this ensures U.S. launch vehicles will be
used, in some cases this means the price of the launch will be higher than
it could have been, increasing the cost of the entire mission.
In the next section, we'll tum our attention to cost and other economic
considerations for space missions. We'll then revisit some of these
political issues to see how they may affect our FireSat mission.
!!!! Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
Department of Transportation >-- Governments pursue space activities for a variety of political
(DOT) motives
Federal Communications • Promote national image and foreign policy objectives
Commission (FCC)
International Telecommunications • Enhance national and regional security
Union (ITU) • Advance science and technology
national and regional security • Support national industries
national image
>- International space law derives from traditions and several space-
related treaties. We can summarize these as seven basic principles
• International law applies to outer space
• Obligation to use space for peaceful purposes
• Right to use outer space, but not to appropriate
• R gister space objects
• State responsibility for and supervision of private activities
• Retention of jurisdiction and control
• Liability for damage
>-- The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), along with
related national agencies, regulates the scarce frequency
allocations to government and commercial space activities
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Chapter 16 Using Space
16.3 Space Economics
=== In This Section You'll Learn to ...
.- Discuss the factors that contribute to the total life-cycle cost for a
space mission
.- Describe the importance of cost estimating for mission planning
.. Explain the concept of internal rate of return and how it effects the
investment climate for commercial space missions
,.- Discuss some of the political and economic issues for the FireSat
mis ions
The final leg of our space mission triad, and the bottom line for any
space endeavor, is economics. No matter how advanced the technology,
or committed the political will, if the organization can't afford it, the
mission won't get off the ground. In this section we'll explore some
important aspects of space economics, starting with cost (How much do
missions cost? Why are they so expensive?). Then we'll review, briefly,
ways of estimating mission costs and look at the challenge of turning a
profit with new space missions by earning a solid return on investment.
Finally, we'll return to our FireSat mission example to see how politics
and economics would shape the course of that mission.
Life-cycle Costs
Imagine that instead of going to buy a car from a dealer, you decide to
create your own car. That's right. You decide to design and build your
own new car, just the way you want it. So you step your way through the
systems engineering process that we introduced in Chapter 11 and have
applied in the last four chapters. You start by defining your requirements
and constraints. Then you create a system design that includes various
drawings and specifications for the car-engine (maybe a little bigger
than normal), transmission (a smooth five speed), drive train, suspension
(using hydraulics so you can raise and lower the car), body features (very
aerodynamic), interior (plush), instrumentation (maybe all digital), safety
features, and more.
You then move to the subsystem specifications, to identify all of the
hardware and software you'll need to build the car, including what
materials to use, and which bolts and lights-all the details, including
where you'll buy all the components.
Next you build the car in a facility-maybe your garage. Along the
way, you test individual subsystems-engines, drive train, power seats-
making sure they meet your original requirements. Finally, the car passes
all the tests and you' re ready to hit the road!
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16.3 Space Economics
Of course, to operate your car, an infrastructure must provide roads,
traffic management, and road maintenance, as well as many other
necessities. You must provide a place to park your car, insurance,
maintenance, and fuel. These items represent the operations cost of your
car. After many years of use, say ten years, you realize that your car is
worn out and you need to haul it to the junkyard. Now you can start all
over again to build a new car!
During this process you've gone through the entire cycle of your car's
life-conceptual design, development, production, delivery or deploy-
ment, operations, and retirement. Together, these phases are called a
product's life cycle. All of the costs associated with each phase equal its
life-cycle cost. If you add all of the costs we just described for your custom-
made car, the total may be hundreds of thousands, if not, millions of
dollars. Ouch! Obviously, it's much cheaper to simply buy a ready-made
car from a dealer. Why? Because the automobile manufacturers have
done the design, development, production and testing work for you. By
spreading, or amortizing, these costs over millions of customers for the
same model, the cost for each individual car is far cheaper than you could
ever make it yourself. Now let's see how these basic economic principles
apply to space systems.
Life-cycle costs for a space mission includes the cost of four key
activities
• Design
• Manufacture
Figure 16-10. Clementine Mission. NASA's
• Launch Clementine mission to take images of the
Moon, held costs down, yet produced great
• Operations results. (Courtesy of the Naval Research
Laboratory)
So what do space missions cost? It depends! Spacecraft costs vary
dramatically. There is a broad range of cost options available today,
ranging from ultra expensive to almost "free." For example, the total cost
of the Apollo Program-tens of flights, landing on the moon, etc.-
inflated to today's dollars (fiscal year 2000), is about $150 billion. Today,
that's the total NASA budget for the next 11-12 years!
In contrast, the DoD and NASA designed the Clementine spacecraft to
fly to the Moon and take images of the lunar surface. The life-cycle cost of
the mission was $85 million (in fiscal year 1994). The spacecraft bus and
payload costs were about $57 million; launch was $21 million on a Titan
II; and ground and mission operations for about 10-12 weeks cost about
$7 million. Clementine was an example of a limited-cost mission (Figure
16-10). In contrast, let's look at the PoSat-1 spacecraft, by Surrey Satellite
Technology Limited, in the United Kingdom, for the Portuguese
government. The PoSat-1 mission costs were as follows: spacecraft and
payload cost about $1.6 million (fiscal year 1994); launch was about $0.27
million; and, mission and ground operations cost about $0.3 million for Figure 16-11. PoSat-1 Mission. This low-
the first year. Total life-cycle costs for one year of operations for PoSat-1 cost mission successfully imaged Earth's
surface and monitored the space-radiation
was about $2.1 million (Figure 16-11). Now, let's take a closer look at environment. (Courtesy of Surrey Satellite
where all this money gets spent. Technology, Ltd., UK.
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Chapter 16 Using Space
Astra Fun Fact
Automobile and Spacecraft
Transportation Costs
We all have a healthy respect for the cost of transportation. The U.S. Government allows business owners to
deduct 31 cents per mile for business travel in an automobile. It costs 12 to 15 cents per mile to fly coast to
coast (in economy, triple that cost in first class). Let's analyze the cost of operating a car. Assume a new car
costs $20, 000 and we intend to use the car for ten years with no residual value. Over the ten years of operation
we spend about $7500 for fuel, $4000 for maintenance, $5000 for insurance, and $1000 for license plates-a
total life-cycle cost of $37, 500. We drive about 150, 000 miles over the ten years-about 25 cents per mile. Not
bad. Now let's look at the same issues for a low-Earth orbiting spacecraft that costs about $200 million. Launch
costs are about $200 million and operations and maintenance costs are about $100 million. The total life-cycle
cost is $500 million-a lot more than our automobile. The spacecraft circles Earth about 15 times per day,
resulting in a total distance traveled during ten years of 2.4 x 109 million miles. The cost per mile of our
spacecraft is a mere 20 cents per mile. What a good deal!
Contributed by Wiley Larson, the U.S. Air Force Academy
Design Costs
Let's start by looking at how economic issues affect the design. First,
realize that spacecraft are very complex beasts-a traditional spacecraft is
electronically equivalent of about 200 color television sets. That's a lot of
components. A failure in many of them could spell disaster.
To ensure the overall system is reliable, the first step is to make sure we
design in reliability and use individual components that are as reliable as
possible. Spacecraft manufacturers usually employ only space-qualified
components. Space q11alification is an exhaustive program that checks
every step in making the component, from the raw materials to packing
and storage. Sounds expensive? It is! A space component typically must
meet a military standard (MIL STD) or NASA standard, which makes it
cost up to ten times more than the commercial version.
The next step in achieving system reliability is often to design in
redundancy. Spacecraft sometimes use duplicate or triplicate compo-
nents, so that, wherever possible, a single failure can't cause a whole
system to fail. If the spacecraft carries a crew, reliability is even more
Figure 16·12. Redundancy in Action. The important and redundancy in all critical systems is built in, as we find on
need to create highly reliable spacecraft otten the Space Shuttle that has 5 identical main computers and 3 identical
leads designers to build redundancy into
critical systems. The folded solar panels shown subsets of most avionics and control subsystems!
on the PanAmSat-5 spacecraft here must be Let's illustrate this with a simple example. Suppose we want to unfold
deployed for mission success, so we use a solar panel from the side of our spacecraft when it's in orbit, such as the
redundant techniques to insure they deploy.
(Courtesy of Hughes Space and Communica- one shown in Figure 16-12. While one spring would be enough, the panel
tions Company) could be hinged with at least two springs to make sure it fully deploys.
670
16.3 Space Economics
A strap with an exploding bolt at each end could be used to hold it in
place during launch. To deploy the panel, we send a signal to both bolts
to make them explode. If either works, the strap is free, and the panel
unfolds.
Exploding bolts are an example of an interesting type of component-
the sort we can't actually test before installing on the flight vehicle.
Instead, through space qualification, we can tightly control the
manufacture of the bolts, so we can safely assume that, if a few bolts
drawn at random from a batch, all go "bang" on command, then they all
should. Exploding bolts tend to be very reliable, but for some missions,
we may still want to duplicate critical systems, in case one fails.
We do all of this in a quest for reliability. Reliability is defined as the
probability that a given component will do a certain job under certain
conditions for a specified amount of time. This enthusiasm for reliability
can lead to over-specification and hence higher system costs. One
example is specifying the ability of electronic devices to resist the effects
of the space environment. As we saw in Chapter 3, radiation and charged
particles can harm spacecraft components. Government and industry
have developed special computers to survive the space environment, but
because so few are needed, they are very expensive and can lag about ten
years behind the Earth-bound state-of-the-art. Result-in some cases Figure 16-13. Commercial Off-the-shelf
(COTS) Components in Space. The UoSAT-2
spacecraft costing hundreds of millions of dollars with computers no micro satellite, built completely with COTS
better than you find in a washing machine! components, was launched in 1983 to perform
In many cases, spacecraft specifications are unnecessarily demanding. store-and-forward communications and space-
environment research. It was still functioning in
They represent a combination of "worst cases" that rarely occur for most 2000, 17 years later, demonstrating the robust-
operational spacecraft in Earth orbit. To cut costs, and increase ness of COTS hardware in space for these
performance, commercial missions, more and more, are choosing to use applications. (Courtesy of Surrey Satellite
Technology,Ltd., UK)
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) computers (such as the ones in your
personal computer and car) and other components, instead of the far
more expensive, "space qualified" versions. This approach has proven to
be cost-effective, especially for ]ow-cost, small satellite missions, such as
UoSAT-2 shown in Figure 16-13.
The main reason for most of the stringent specifications is the quest for
"zero defects" or nearly perfect performance, to protect people and
ensure mission success. For instance, the public furor over the Challenger
accident underscores the widely held belief that any failure is
unacceptable. This demand for "perfect" systems inevitably drives up
cost. In general, cost and reliability have an exponential relationship, as
shown in Figure 16-14. For example, going from 80%-90% reliability costs
significantly more than going from 50%-60%. As reliabilities move to 95% sm 6.CiJ 1@ an ~o OX@.:%
or 98%, the design costs can get excessively high. ~~l)ilhtv
Figure 16-14. Cost Versus Reliability.
Reliability is expensive. As the graph shows,
increasing the reliability for a system, whether
it's a toaster or the Space Shuttle, drives the
costs up exponentially. For example, it may
double the cost to go from 80%-90% reliability.
But the costs may quadruple again to go from
90%-95%. No system can ever be 100%
reliable.
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Chapter 16 Using Space
Manufacturing Costs
Other spacecraft cost drivers occur during manufacturing. Even
though we may want to launch only one spacecraft, we may need to build
four different models! These include
• An engineering model
• A test model
• A flight model
• A flight spare
Usually cost constraints don't allow us to build this many models. We
can afford to build one, or maybe two. Engineering models help us to
ensure all the subsystems work together and are used in non-destructive
tests. Figure 16-15 shows the engineering model of the Apollo Lunar
Excursion Module. We subject the test models to the sort of teshng that
might cause permanent damage, such as vibration and shock, or
exposure to radiation, vacuum, and heat. In Chapters 13 and 15 we
discussed most of the tests spacecraft can undergo. Ideally, designers
would like to subject their spacecraft to as many tests as possible; but
when money is tight, designers may have to rely on analysis alone and
hope that their assumptions and models are correct.
Early problems with the Hubble Space Telescope underscores the
importance of testing. Due to budget constraints, a key end-to-end test of
the Hubble optical system was cut from the program. Soon after launch,
operators learned that Hubble's vision was slightly blurry due to a
Figure 16-15. Engineering Models. As manufacturing defect. While this problem was later corrected during an
many as lour different models are built for
some space programs. The engineering model astronaut repair mission, this Hubble experience illustrates the
is typically used to ensure all subsystems importance of end-to-end testing of the entire spacecraft, to uncover
function together correctly. This Is the problems that may not appear during individual subsystem tests. Of
engineering model for the Apollo Program's
Lunar Excursion Module. (Courtesy of NASA! course, this complete test is easier said than done, especially if the
Johnson Space Center) system's behavior depends on some feature of the space environment we
can't reproduce on Earth, such as free-fall.
The j1ig11t model is the one that launches. We may build an additional
flight spare in case something goes wrong with the flight model just before
launch, and to have a duplicate on the ground for testing and trouble-
shooting. In practice it's sometimes possible to refurbish the engineering
or test models as a flight spare.
As you'd expect, manufacturing and testing procedures are another
important cost driver. Not only are the test articles expensive, and the
procedures labor-intensive, but we must factor in the cost of the facilities.
In Chapter 15, we discussed all the operations systems used during
spacecraft assembly, integration, and testing (AIT), such as clean rooms,
handling jigs, and thermal-vacuum chambers. The cost of establishing
this entire infrastructure for a single mission would normally be
prohibitive. Instead, companies or governments try to amortize these
costs over many missions to drive down the price tag for individual
spacecraft.
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16.3 Space Economics
Launch Costs
What happens to the result of all this tender loving care? We bolt a
spacecraft on the top of a massive rocket, containing hundreds of tons of
explosive propellant, and fire it into space, as Figure 16-16 illustrates. In
fact, we do a bit more than that. Launch, and the spacecraft's operation
and control on orbit, take the same care and attention to detail as design
and manufacturing and, therefore, are also expensive and complicated.
The cost of launching a spacecraft varies greatly, from around $5000
per kg for a proposed advanced launch system, up to $30,000 per kg for a
small, commercial rocket. As with other economic activities, the price per
kilogram appears to be less as we launch more kilograms. But this may be
a false bargain. The cost of assembling several tons of payloads to take
advantage of a large, cheap launch vehicle may exceed the apparent
savings.
In addition to the cost of the launch vehicle, we must consider all the
incidental costs of operations systems to integrate the spacecraft and
launch vehicle, run the launch site, and monitor telemetry before, during,
and immediately after launch. Someone must also pay the capital cost of
the launch site. A site, such as the European Space Agency's launch center Figure 16· 16. As Good as Gold? Launch is
in Kourou, French Guiana, may cost on the order of $1 billion to set up. If one of the most costly phases of a mission.
it's used for ten launches per year, the interest on that money alone is Launch costs, at $5000-$30,000 per kg,
exceed the price of gold! (Courtesy of NASA/
about $10 million per launch! Kennedy Space Center)
Operations Costs
After successfully launching the satellite, someone must pay to operate
it. The cost for mission operations can vary dramatically. Part of the cost
of operations is related to the infrastructure necessary to connect the
operators with their spacecraft and give them the tools that they need to
do their job. But even if the facilities already exist, another large part of
the cost of operations is related to the number of people required. So you
say, "How many people does it take to operate a spacecraft?" As usual, it
depends!
We conducted a survey of several spacecraft operations organizations
and counted all the people involved in operating telecommunications
spacecraft in geostationary orbit. They took into account full- and part-
time people, including people in the control room, people doing mainte-
nance, administrators, and secretaries. Then we estimated the number of
full-time equivalent people. The results were as follows: 27 for DoD, 24 for
NASA, 21 for the European Space Operations Center, and 12 for a
commercial organization. If we assume the total annual cost (includes
salary, benefits, office space, taxes) for each of these people is about
$120,000, we get a range in cost of operations for one geostationary space-
Figure 16-17. Mission Operations Costs.
craft for one year of between $1.5 million and $3.3 million. For a ten-year Maintaining a large, highly trained team of
mission this equates to between $15 million and $33 million. mission operators, such as the ones shown
The famous pictures of "Mission Control, Houston" depicted in Figure here In the Space Shuttle Operation Center in
Houston, Texas, greatly adds to lhe life-cycle
16-17, shows a team of nearly 100 people managing one spacecraft. A cost of a mission. (Courtesy of NASA/Johnson
center like that costs about $100 million per year to run, so we have to Space Center)
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Chapter 16 Using Space
seek more efficient approaches to make missions more affordable. As
discussed in Chapter 15, the more the spacecraft can do for itself, the
more autonomously it can operate, and the less expensive an operations
infrastructure it needs on the ground for support.
Space mission teams go to all that effort and expense to analyze their
spacecraft's design, build it with the best components, test it exhaustively,
launch it, and assemble a well-trained operations team to run it. What if it
still fails? Who pays? For government-sponsored missions, we do!
Government missions are "self-insured," or, in other words, the taxpayer
foots the bill. The Challenger disaster not only caused the irreplaceable
loss of seven brave astronauts, it also destroyed a multi-billion dollar
national asset. The cost of the replacement orbiter, Endeavor, was paid for
out of the national budget.
For commercial missions, the cost of failure impacts their bottom line.
Just as we buy car insurance to cover the cost of repairs and legal liability,
in the case of accidents, companies often buy "space insurance" to protect
themselves from known mission risks. For example, a corporation may
purchase launch insurance for its spacecraft, so that if there is a launch
failure, they will receive enough money to build and launch another one.
Insurance companies cover failure of the rocket or the spacecraft,
typically paying for another launch and a new satellite, as they did in the
case of the FASat-A spacecraft, as shown in Figure 16-18. Of course, this
adds to the overall mission cost. Insurance companies charge a premium
of 15%-30% of the total costs for the satellite and launch. For a $100
million spacecraft that's a $15-$30 million premium. Wow! On orbit, after
everything checks out, the premium may get down to between 2% and
3% per year-only $2-$3 million per year, still a major drain on mission
revenues. Coverage for lost revenue if the satellite doesn't enter service
may be available in addition, but is often prohibitively expensive.
Why is insurance so expensive? Typically one in ten launches fails in
some way; that is, the payload doesn't arrive in the correct orbit or work
after it gets there. The premium charged reflects the insurance company's
confidence in the particular spacecraft and launch vehicle. Just as a 16-
year old driving a new sports car will pay more for insurance than a 40-
year old driving a 10-year old sedan, insurance for an entirely new
spacecraft on a new launch vehicle (or one with a recent history of failure)
could be far more expensive than for a proven design on a well-proven
-~ ...
Figure 16·18. Insurance Claim. The FASat-
launch vehicle.
Given the high cost of insurance, some companies choose to "self-
A spacecraft failed to separate from the
primary payload soon after launch in 1997. insure," similar to the government, and pass the cost of failure on to the
Fortunately, the mission sponsors bought investors. Either way, it's a risky business strategy. If a company pays for
insurance that paid for building and launching insurance, and the mission is successful, the insurance "unnecessarily"
FASat-8 several years later. (Courtesy of
Surrey Satellite Technology,Ltd., U.K.) adds 15%-30% to the cost of the mission, right off the top. But if it doesn't
buy insurance, and there's a failure, it'll have to pay the entire cost of the
spacecraft and launch all over again!
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16.3 Space Economics
Astra Fun Fact
Space Shuttle to the Rescue!
Normally, it's not practical to send a repair team to fix a broken spacecraft. But in 1992 NASA did Just that! They
used the Shuttle to rescue a faulty communications satellite belonging to Intelsat. Although the cost of the
Shuttle flight was approximately $500 million, and the cost of the satellite saved-approximately $50 million.
Although on the surface this may appear to be a poor trade-off, the lifetime value of the spacecraft was much
greater when the potential, cumulative revenues for the corporation and the insurance cost were considered.
Costs in Perspective
For most of us on hamburger budgets, discussions of mission costs in
the millions and billions of dollars simply make our eyes glaze over. Let's
try to put those costs into perspective.
We can compare spacecraft costs to other recognizable items, such as
gold. Today, gold sells for about $14,000 per kg. In comparison, total
spacecraft costs for fairly large, traditional missions range from about
$30,000-$160,000 per kg, 2 to 10 times more costly than gold! The cost to
launch a spacecraft into orbit ranges from about $5000 per kg to about
$30,000 per kg-again, more precious than gold.
So, space is expensive, but many are working to make space more cost-
effective and affordable. Politically, NASA and DoD must reduce the life-
cycle cost of doing their missions, so Congress will continue to support
them. "Faster, better, cheaper" has become the rallying cry to lead that
effort. Economically, the life-cycle cost must decrease so that companies
doing business in space can remain in business and make a profit.
Technically, all players are trying to find technologies that will allow them
to reduce the overall cost of space missions.
Cost Estimating
With space missions so expensive, companies don't want to get too far
into a program unless they know they have enough money in their piggy
bank to pay for it. To protect themselves, and give assurance to program
sponsors and investors, mission managers try to estimate spacecraft and
total mission costs, as early and as often as possible. If you're estimating
the cost to build your custom car that we discussed earlier, at least you
can check the price of most of the parts in a catalog. And you can make a
Figure 16-19. Red Planet Budgets. This
reasonable estimate of the cost of facilities and labor by asking artist's concept shows future astronauts on the
experienced mechanics and comparing it to other industries. surface of Mars. But before the mission gets
onto the drawing boards, sponsors must try to
But to accurately predict the total cost for a completely new mission, estimate total cost using various cost
such as to put humans on Mars, like the one shown in Figure 16-19, is estimating relationships (CERs). (Courtesy of
extremely hard to do. There are no on-line catalogs for Mars landing NASA/Ames Research Center)
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Chapter 16 Using Space
shuttles and no similar missions to compare operations costs! Instead,
mission planners attempt to determine the total mission cost by breaking
a large mission into small pieces and trying to estimate the cost of each.
Over the years, the aerospace industry has developed a variety of cost
estimating relationships (CERs) for individual subsystems and entire
missions. Mission sponsors use these CERs as planning tools prior to
committing large funds to a project.
Most CERs use parametric data to compare apples with apples, as
closely as possible. For example, based on historical data, a spacecraft
propulsion subsystem using conventional chemical rockets may cost
$1000 per 1 m Is t:,. V. Thus, if a mission calls for 1.2 km/ s t:,. V, for planning
purposes the manager could assume the cost for a new propulsion
subsystem will be about $1.2M. By applying similar relationships for
other subsystems based on mass, data rate, and other parameters, we can
gradually add up the cost for a mission.
At best, mission cost estimating is an inexact science. Because the
techniques are based on historical data, they often can't reflect the effects
of new technologies or cost reduction techniques. However, at least they
bound the problems and give a starting point for mission planning. They
also give investors some idea of how to estimate the financial risks for a
mission. We'll examine these investment issues in more detail next.
Astra Fun Fact
It's the Launch Rate,
Not the Technology!
While NASA and industry focuses on newer and better technologies, such as the X-33 single-stage-to-orbit
prototype, to reduce the cost of access to space from the current average of $10,000/kilogram, economic
analysis of the problem indicates they may be barking up the wrong tree. Analysts looked at the total cost of
operating a fleet of Boeing 747 aircraft in the same way as the Space Shuttle fleet. If you assume you had 4
conventional 747s, flying only 8--10 missions per year, and adjusting for payload, you find the cost per pound
(or per kilogram) is nearly the same as flying the Space Shuttle! This indicates that the problem isn't technology,
its launch rate. The more you fly, the cheaper it gets. To reduce the cost per kilogram to orbit to $1000, you
would need a fleet of about 50 vehicles flying over 130 times per year. Of course, this creates a chicken/egg
dilemma for potential entrepreneurs looking at building such a fleet. You can't justify the investment to build
such a fleet until you have the demand for that many flights. And you won't have demand until the cost comes
down. Perhaps one day we'll break this cycle and cheap access to space will be a reality for us all.
Czysz, P.A. "Combined Cycle Propulsion-ls It the Key to Achieving Low Payload to orbit Costs?" 14th
International Symposium on Airbreathing Engines. Florence, Italy: 5-10 September, 1999.
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16.3 Space Economics
Return on Investment
Let's compare and contrast government-funded and commercially
financed missions. Often in government-funded space missions, the goal
is to obtain as much science or other information as possible for the funds
spent. A big challenge for governments is matching the funds available
with the mission requirements and corresponding costs incurred in
developing, launching, and operating a particular mission. The goal has
been to accomplish the mission, and so sponsors go back to congress each
year asking for money until they achieve the goal.
On the other hand, commercial, space-related businesses usually
provide a product or service with the goal of making a profit for their
investors. For example, they may provide telephone or television services
to their customers, who (hope.fully!) are willing to pay a price for the
service. The goal is to have more revenue than expenses when it's all over,
producing profit to be divided among the shareholders.
In a commercial venture, investors provide financing up front to pay
for the design, manufacture, launch, and operation of the system, with
the expectation of earning a good return on their investment. Earlier in
the chapter we discussed the fact that financial markets are becoming
more accepting of space-related projects, where previously they
perceived space as too risky of an investment. The mentality of these
investors is much like ours. For example, we'd probably feel fairly
comfortable putting $100 in a bank where we are 99% sure that in one
year we'll get back $105 (a simple 5% interest rate compounded yearly).
However, if we had the option of investing that same $100 for one year
with a 50% chance of getting back $140 (a simple 40% interest rate
compounded yearly), we would probably be much more cautious. Right?
Investors in space-related businesses are equally cautious. They may be
willing to invest millions of dollars for a period of time, if the chances that
they will get their money back are acceptable, and if the return on their
investment would be high enough. These are both big "ifs!"
One method used to attract these high-roller investors is to offer a high
internal rate of return ([RR). The IRR is the simple interest rate that equates to
the present value of the expected revenues compared to the initial
investment. More simply, it's the interest rate that they'd make if they
added all the revenues and expenses they expect to have over a time
period, taking into account inflation, and then compared that number to
the investment they originally made. Since space-related business is still
considered by many to be somewhat risky, venture capital investors like to
see an internal rate of return of 40% or more, otherwise they'd rather invest
in a new fast-food chain or Internet company. The approach used by many
venture-capital firms is to invest in, say, ten risky ventures with potentially
high rates of return, hoping that two or three of them will pan out.
The IRR calculation depends highly on the amount and timing of
revenues and expenses, as well as the cost of money (loans) to keep the
business flowing. Because of this fact, a commercial mission's design and
development depends largely on the company's business plan. To be
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Chapter 16 Using Space
credible, and attract investors, the plan must carefully analyze the
potential market for the proposed space product or services, assess the
competition, and carefully estimate expected costs and revenues. We'll
look at some of these issues for our FireSat mission example next.
The FireSat Mission
In Chapter 11 we described our hypothetical FireSat mission and
provided the following mission requirements and constraints
• Mission Objective-detect and localize forest fires (>4 hectares)
worldwide and provide information to users within 24 hrs
gro~nd/
station
• Users-National Forest Services in the U.S. and worldwide
• Operations Concept-assume the mission will need a six-satellite
constellation to provide 24-hour notification to users. All operations
will take place from an existing ground station in Colorado Springs,
Colorado. Spacecraft will collect and store mission data onboard and
relay it to the ground station when they pass overhead. The ground
station will notify users via the Internet.
• Mission Constraints
- Life-cycle cost-<$10M
- Schedule-first three spacecraft ready for launch in two years
- Performance-minimum to detect fires >4 hectares from 500-
krn circular, polar orbit, and relay data to the ground station
Throughout Chapters 11-15, we've focused exclusively on the
Figure 16-20. FireSat Operations Concept. technical aspects of the FireSat mission, gradually completing conceptual
This operations concept uses two FireSat designs for the spacecraft's payload and subsystems. We show the
satellites In low-Earth orbit, one ground station,
and an Internet link that passes forest fire
resulting space mission architecture in Figure 16-20. Now let's consider
information to users. some of the potential political and economic aspects of such a mission.
Mission Politics
The political concerns for even a small mission, such as FireSat, would,
of course, vary greatly depending on whether we mean it to be
government-sponsored or purely commercial. As a government program,
we would have to view it in the context of the objectives for national
space programs, as discussed in Section 16.2. For example, by offering to
share its data with international partners, our government could use the
system as a tool to persuade equatorial countries to increase efforts to
preserve rain forests, which are often illegally burned to clear them for
farmlands. Government spending on the program could also help to
support university or national laboratory research, and create jobs within
industry.
A purely commercial FireSat mission would still be subject to interna-
tional, as well as domestic laws and regulations. The company leading
the mission would need approval from the FCC and ITU for uplink and
downlink frequencies. The sharing of mission data and other technical
678
16.3 Space Economics
details may also be restricted by national policies concerning technology
transfer or laws involving trade with "rogue" nations. After these
political hurdles are overcome, mission sponsors then need to consider
how to pay for it all.
Mission Economics
Economic issues would again depend on whether the mission were
government or privately sponsored. Notice within the mission
constraints, we capped the total mission cost at $10M. This means we
have a design-to-cost mission, whereby designers will trade performance
and other requirements to reach the target cost. For a government
mission, as long as political support remains (and there is money in the
budget), the mission will go forward. Even if the costs exceed the cap,
political support may allow it to proceed anyway. (Such cost over runs on
government space programs, especially military, used to be quite
common when political support was strong. However, budget tightening
has forced all government programs to hold the line on costs.)
Another economic difference between a government and commercial
FireSat mission is the approach taken with respect to the cost cap. For a
government program, there is typically little incentive to reduce costs
below some minimum threshold to insure the mission will maintain
support. However, for commercial missions, every dollar saved translates
directly into increased profit for investors (with greater bonuses and stock
options for mission engineers and operators').
As discussed earlier in this section, life-cycle costs for FireSat will come
from design, manufacture, the launch, and the operations. Even though
this is a "bare bones" mission, with the launch opportunities donated,
there are other, hidden costs to consider. "There ain't no such thing as a
free launch," still applies. A "free" launch may be offered because the
Falcon launch vehicle is untested. This will translate into higher
insurance premiums. Or the launch vehicle providers may expect a
financial stake in the business venture in return.
To build a sound commercial business plan, mission entrepreneurs
need to estimate the total mission life-cycle costs based on past
experience with other missions or by using standard industry cost
estimating relationships. For example, using the small satellite cost model
from Wertz, 1999, we expect the spacecraft to cost about $1.5 million.
Budget planners would have to factor in the availability and cost for
critical operations systems, such as clean rooms and test facilities, as well
as the need for hardware and software upgrades at the existing
operations center in Colorado.
They would then need to compare these costs to the expected revenue
from the mission. They could sell subscriptions to their forest-fire
warning service to government and private agencies on an annual-fee
basis, for example, and the trade-off between price and the number of
customers carefully analyzed. Only then could they approach potential
investors with hard data on their expected internal rate of return.
679
Chapter 16 Using Space
We've covered a lot of ground (well, space, actually) in th.is book. The
bottom line is that we need to keep our eyes on the big picture, while we
design new missions or simply try to understand why missions and
systems look the way they do. If we consider, not only the technical
aspects of a mission, but the politics and economics as well, we will better
understand our mission. More and more our space missions are
constrained, not by technology, but by what we choose to do and what is
economically feasible.
== Section Review
Key Terms Key Concepts
cost estimating > Life-cycle costs include costs incurred during all phases of a space mission:
relationships (CERs) design, manufacture, launch, and operations
engineering models • Design costs are influenced by the redundancy and associated comp) xity
flight model of systems
flight spare
internal rate of return • Manufacturing costs are driven by the type and number of models needed
(IRR) (engineering, test, flight, and spare), the total testing and associated
Life-cycle cost infrastructure required
life cycle • Currently, launch costs exceed the cost of gold per kilogram
reliability • Operations costs vary greatly for govermnent and commercial missions.
pace qualification Increased use of onboard autonomy can help to reduce these co ts.
test models Insurance costs are another imp rtant factor contributing to operations
costs.
> Mission planners use cost estimating relationships to provide a starting
point for mission design to determine if their budgets match their
requirements and estimate the possible return on investments
> The FireSat mission illustrates the differences in approaches between
government and comm rcially sponsored missions
680
References
!!!! References 5 Give examples of how we might use space
capabilities to exploit the deregulation of electrical
power utilities in the world.
Oberg, James. Space Power Theory. Government
Printing Office, 676-460, 1999.
Houston, Alice, et al., editor. Keys to Space. (Chapter
12.1 by P. Tuinder). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 1999. 16.2 Space Politics
Sullivan, Brian. Initial manuscript of Space Power. 1998.
6 According to industry expert Jim Oberg, what are
Via Satellite, Vol. XIV, Number 1, Phillips Business the four primary reasons nations pursue space
Information, Inc., July, 1999. activities? Give specific historic examples of each.
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
7 List and discuss the seven key principles that
fashion international space activities.
!!!!!! Mission Problems
16.1 The Space Industry
8 Compare and contrast the Federal Communica-
tions Commission in the U.S. and the International
1 List and describe emerging trends in the space
Telecommunications Union.
industry.
16.3 Space Economics
2 List the four primary market areas for commercial
space activities. Give examples of each. 9 Define the life-cycle cost of a space mission. What
four mission activities is it composed of?
3 What are the three most important areas for space- 10 Explain why space-qualified hardware is more
related services? Give examples of each. expensive than hardware tested on Earth.
11 Define reliability. What is the relationship between
4 Describe what we mean by a value-added service. it and cost?
681
Chapter 16 Using Space
12 Describe the difference between an engineering 18 Study some of the everyday machines you
model, test model, flight model, and flight spare. encounter (automobile, photocopier, toaster,
washing machine, etc.) How would the design and
manufacture be different if no one could service
the machine after it was built?
13 Describe your thought process in deciding to
invest in a fairly risky space venture. What risks
would you take and what return on investment
would be appropriate?
19 Can you think of any other products, like contact
lenses, which are so valuable per kg that it would
be economical to manufacture them in space?
14 Discuss the concept of space mission insurance.
For what types of mission would it be most
appropriate? Least appropriate?
20 How would the planning and execution of a space
project change as you vary the internal rate of
return required by investors?
15 Describe the effects on return of investment of a
launch failure, and subsequent mission delay, on a
business venture in space.
21 Can you think of "users" who could determine the
needs of programs that space agencies are
planning?
16 Describe two key differences between government
and commercially sponsored space missions.
22 Air freight costs around a few dollars per kg. Space
launch costs several thousand dollars per kg. How
For Discussion
might we use space if the costs of launch fell to
approach those of air freight? Since the very first
17 Research information on the NASA budget on the satellite, Sputnik, weighing in at 84 kg (185 lb.),
internet to try to answer the following questions. satellites have grown in size, weight, and corre-
sponding cost. Billion-dollar satellites taking ten
What fraction goes to missions versus administra- years to complete are common. Beginning in 1979,
tion? researchers at the University of Surrey, U.K.,
inspired by advances in computer technology,
decided to buck this trend. They've built and
launched a series of "micro-satellites" (all under
What national priorities emerge from a look at the 100 kg [220 lb.]), proving that spacecraft don't
budget? have to be big and expensive.
682
Mission Proiile- -Iridium~===
The Iridium constellation was the first large system and the system control centers). Notice that the
commercial, orbiting, mobile communication system spacecraft communicate with each other using a very
in the world. From the outset, Motorola's vision and specific K-band frequency, and with the customers
mission statements indicated a very ambitious using very specific, L-band frequency. To use these
project-to provide global, mobile communication absolutely critical frequencies, Iridium System team
services for a respectable return on investment. members had to negotiate with hundreds of organiza-
tions globally to get concurrence-demonstrating
successful negotiations in politics, regulations, and
Mission Overview economics.
Iridium's mission statement is very straightforward
Global Personal Communications
Anyone .. Anywhere .. Anytime
Iridium's business and mission objectives are clear as
well
• Build a global, handheld, mobile, voice communi- Mission Data
cation system
• Maintain Motorola's premier position in mobile ./ The Iridium LLC faced many challenges in the
communications financial and regulatory arenas. For example, the
• Ensure a profitable project reflecting the risk company needed to acquire $3.4 B in financing to
meet the financial needs of the program. They did
• Increase market share for telephones and pagers
this by attracting about 20 corporations located
around the globe
worldwide and managing the large international
• Create a funding approach reflecting the global consortium carefully to keep them in the program.
reach
• Establish a partnership for production, based ./ Obtaining regulatory approval globally was one of
upon high quality their biggest challenges. Working with the U.S.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), they
• Establish a realizable path for frequency
obtained the L-band frequency license necessary for
allocation
launch and operations in the U.S. They also obtained
Notice that the objectives for a commercial enterprise agreement on their approach from the Worldwide
are key to a successful business. These objectives Administrative Radio Conference of 1992. By
provide a clear statement of what the owners want to involving each country in the overall network, and
accomplish, as well as some guidance as to how they sharing in the financial pie, they were successful in
will conduct the business and mission. obtaining authority to use frequencies controlled by
We show the resulting mission concept and mission over 100 countries-an incredible feat!
architecture in the next figure. We emphasize the strong
tie between the customer resources (pagers, phone ./ On the technical side, Iridium System engineers
booths, mobile telephones), spacecraft (connected to designed and implemented a system that virtually
each other via crosslinks), and the terrestrial infrastruc- connects any point on the globe to any other
ture (shown as gateways from space into the ground point-almost instantly. They created a digitally
683
switched telephone network that needed 66 opera- For Discussion
tional spacecraft in LEO, in six near-polar orbital
How do you think the spacecraft manufacturing
planes to provide continuous, real-time coverage approach changes if you're building 70 spacecraft
of the entire Earth. Further, this space-based sys- instead of just one?
tem incorporated sophisticated digital onboard
After researching the Iridium System on the
processing and cross linking between spacecraft.
Internet, describe how they conduct mission
The cross-linked network is the key to the system
management and operations.
and is the primary difference between it and tradi-
tional transponder or "bent-pipe" systems (usually • After researching the Iridium LLC business case,
in geostationary orbits) . why do you think they went bankrupt?
./ Manufacturing is another arena where the Iridium Contributor
LLC shined. With their partners and unique, com-
mercially oriented approach, they manufactured 72 Wiley J. Larson, the U.S. Air Force Academy
spacecraft in only 12 months. Obviously, they
changed the traditional approach in many ways, References
taking cues from existing spacecraft manufacturers
and high-volume manufacturers in the automotive, Swan, Peter A The Iridium Case Study. Teaching
appliance, and cellular-telephone industries. The Science and Technology, Inc., 1999.
result, that will have significant impact on the space-
manufacturing industry, is a spacecraft production
rate of one completed every 4.3 days!
./ The launch campaign for the Iridium LLC is as
impressive as the manufacturing aspect. They had
to launch the 66-spacecraft constellation with
associated spares quickly because they needed to
produce a revenue stream from their customers. So,
they launched 72 spacecraft in 13 months, using
three international launch systems with no launch
failures!
./ The Iridium LLC also established a standard in cost-
effective mission operations as well. Typically, it
takes between 10 and 30 people to operate a single
commercial communication spacecraft. The Iridium
System requires between 2 and 5 operators for each
spacecraft. Granted, because they operate 70-plus
spacecraft, they have a lot of people, but they
conduct some very efficient operations.
MissionImpact
The Iridium LLC has established a standard for the
industry in spacecraft manufacturing, streamli.ned
launch operations and austere mission operations.
Their experience in the marketplace provides
invaluable insights for other companies to heed.
684
Math Review
A.1 Trigonometry !!!!Ill Outline
A.1 Trigonometry
Trigonometric Functions Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions allow us to compute the sizes of angles and Angle Measurements
the lengths of sides in geometric figures. If we have a right triangle ABC, Spherical Trigonometry
as in Figure A-1, with hypotenuse (longest side) of length C and angle 8,
we can find the lengths of the other sides by using the sine and cosine A.2 Vector Math
functions. Basic trigonometric functions define the relationships among Definitions
sides and angles in a right triangle Vector Components
• cosine 8 = cos 8 = BI C Vector Operations
Transforming Vector
• sine 8 = sin 8 = A IC
Coordinates
• tangent 8 = tan 8 = A/B
A.3 Calculus
Definitions
c
A
o
B
Figure A-1. RightTriangle. We can determine the angles and lengths of the sides of a right
triangle using trigonometric functions.
Thus,
• B = C cos 8
• A= C sin 8
One way we remember this relationship is that sine is opposite side over
hypotenuse, cosine is adjacent side over hypotenuse, and tangent is
opposite side over adjacent side. That is, SOH-CAH-TOA.
Appendix A Math Review
Example
Find the length of side A if C = 2 and 8 = 15°
A= C sin 8 = 2 sin (15°) = (2)(0.2588) = 0.5176
Now if we take a different perspective and look at a vector in an ij
coordinate system, as shown in Figure A-2, we can see that A1 = Acos8
and A1 = Asin8.
We can also see that as 8 approaches 0°, sin 8 goes to O and cos 8 goes to
1. Also, as 8 approaches 90°, sin 8 goes to 1 and cos 8 goes to 0. ~ I
A
Summarizing, :Asin8
cos 0° = sin 90° = 1
cos 90° = sin 0° = 0
0
Acos0 -- 1
cos 180° = sin 270° = -1
cos 45° = sin 45° = 0.707
A graph of the cosine and sine functions is in Figure A-3.
cos8 sin 8 Figure A-2. Vector Components_, as ,
Function of AngJe. The vector A he\
components in the I direction (AcosQ} and J
1 1 direction (Asinfl). As O increases, A move
around the circle, similar to the second hand c
a clock in reverse.
-1 I -1
8 360° - 8 180° - 8
Figure A-3. Trigonometric Functions. The cosine and sine functions repeat periodically,
as shown.
Also notice the following important relationships
cos e = cos (360°- e) (A-1)
sin 8 = sin (180° - 8) (A-2)
This means when we take the inverse of a trigonometric function we get two
possible answers! That is
arc cos x = cos " x = 8 and (360°- 8)
arc sin y = sin'" y = 8 and (180°- 8)
Example
Find the angle(s) whose sine is 0.65.
sirr ' (0.65) = 40.54° and (180° - 40.54° = 139.46°)
Find the angle(s) whose cosine is 0.65.
cos " (0.65) = 49.46° and (360° - 49.46° = 310.54°)
686
A.1 Trigonometry
Angle Measurements
Engineers measure angles in one of two units: degrees or radians. Of
course there are 360° in a circle. The measure of radians came about by
looking at the relationship between the diameter and the circumference of
a circle. The constant number (n) is the ratio of a circle's circumference (C)
to its diameter (D).
1t = CID= 3.14159 . .
So, a circle contains Zrt radians.
2Jt rads = 360°
Spherical Trigonometry
The preceding discussion develops from angles and sides measured on
a plane. However, when measuring angles and sides on the surface of a
sphere such as Earth, things are different. For example, the sum of the
angles in a spherical triangle can be greater than 180°, as shown in Figure
A-4.
Oblique Spherical Triangles. (Adapted from Space Mission Analusis
and Design [1999].)
The following rules apply for any spherical triangle
The Law of Sines Figure A-4. SphericalTriangles. To find the
sides and angles of a triangle drawn on the
sin a sinb sine surface of a sphere, we must use spherical
sin A sinB sinC trigonometry.
The Law of Cosines for Sides
cosa = cosb cosc + sinb sine cosA
cosb = cosc cosa + sine sin a cosB
cosc = cos a cosb + sina sinb cosC
The Law of Cosines for Angles
cos A= -cosB cosC + sinB sinC cosa
cosB = -cosC cos A+ sinC sin A cosb
cosC = -cos A cosB + sin A sinB cosc
687
Appendix A Math Review
Right Spherical Triangles. (Adapted from Space Mission Analysis and
Design [1999].)
When one angle of a spherical triangle is 90°, we call the triangle a
right spherical triangle. The previous formulas simplify for a right
spherical triangle
The Law of Sines
sin a sinb
sine
sin A sinB
The Law of Cosines for Sides
cosa = cosb cosc + sinb sine cosA
cosb = cosc cosa + sine sina cosB
Figure A-5. Right Spherical Triangles.
When at least one angle of a spherical triangle cosc = cosa cosb
is 90°, the formulas for computing the sides
and angles are simplified.
The Law of Cosines for Angles
cosA = sinB cos a
cosB = sinAcosb
0 = -cos A cosB + sinA sinB cosc
688
A.2 Vector Math
A.2 Vector Math
Definitions
Scalar. A scalar is a quantity that has magnitude only. Speed, energy, and
temperature are examples of scalars. None of these quantities has a unique
meaning in a particular direction. A single letter, such as E for total
mechanical energy, denotes a scalar quantity.
Vector. A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction. For
example, if we ask you where you went on your hike, you could say, ''I
went north." But this wouldn't tell us much. "How far?" If instead you
answered, "I went five miles," we still wouldn't know much. "Five miles
in what direction?" If, however, you answered "I went five miles north,"
we would know both the distance you hiked (magnitude) and the
direction (north). Position, velocity, and angular momentum are _fXamples
of vector quantities. A letter with an arrow over it, such as R for the
position vector, denotes a vector quantity.
Unit Vector. A unit vector is a vector having a magnitude of one and we
use it to determine direction only. For example, when we define a three-
dimensional coordinate system, we do so using three orthogonal
(mutually perpendicular) unit vectors such as XYZ or IJK. A letter with
a caret or hat over it, such as I for the I unit vector, denotes a unit vector.
Vector Components
We can resolve a vector into components along each of three directions
in an orthogonal coordinate system. If we have the vector A in the lJK
coordinate system, as shown in Figure A-6, we can resolve it into its three
components as AK - - - - nA ~
~ " " "
-J I -I
A = A11 + AJJ + AKK
Vector Operations
Magnitude of a Vector. Magnitude is the scalar part of a vector. We find
it by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of each of its
components. That is,
2 2 2
~
1
~1
A = A = ;
"'Ar + AJ + AK (A-3) -K
Note: We use IAI and A to denote the magnitude of the vector A. Figure A-6. Components of a Vector. Here
we show the three components of a vector.
Example
Find the magnitude of the vector B " "
3I + IJ - 2K
'
689
Appendix A Math Review
To create a unit vector (of magnitude one), we divide each component
by the magnitude of the original vector.
Example
Find a unit vector in the direction of B
,... ,... " ,...
B 0.8 I + 0.27J - 0.53K
J(0.8)2 + (0.27)2 + (-0.53)2 1.0
Vector Addition. The result of vector addition is a vector. To add or subtract
vectors we m.i1st ad<:!, or subtract individual like components. That is, for
two vectors, A and B,
_:i.. _:::.. ... " "
A+ B = (A1 + B1)I +(Ai+ BJ)J +(AK+ BK)K (A-4)
Example
Find the sum of two vectors A and B where
" " " _:::.. " " "
A= 4I-3J+1K and B = 3I+lJ-2K
A+B = (4+3)I+(-3+1)J+(1-2)1< = 71-21-11<
Vector Multiplication. There are two ways to multiply vectors. The first
way results in a scalar and we call it the scalar or dot product. The second
way results in a vector and is the vector or cross product.
~ Scalar or Dot Product. The resul!.c.of a scalar or dot product is a scalar qu3.ntity.
J The dot product of tw_,.o vectors A and B multiplies the amount of A that
is in the dire~ion of_,_B by the magnitude of B. To do this when w~ have
two vectors A and B~ we use trigonometry to find the amount of A that
is in the direction of B, as shown in Figure A-7.
A which is in the direction of B = Acos8
_,. When we multiply this value by theamount of B in the direction of
B ~ B (which is simply the magnitude of B ), we get the value for the dot
!<-~-'--~-+-~~,._~~~--1
product
Figure A-7. The Dot Product. The dot --' ..>.
product of two vectors, A and B , represents
A·B ABcos8 (A-5)
the amount of A in the direction of B. This is also
the "projection" of A onto B .
690
A.2 Vector Math
We can also find this value by multiplying the individual like components
of the two vectors and adding the result, as follows
A· B = (A1B1) + (A1B1) + (AKBK) I (A-6)
By combining these two approaches for the dot product, we can
determine the angle between two vectors. If we know the components of
the two vectors, we can use Equation (A-6) to find their dot product.
Then, by rearranging Equation (A-5), we can get a relationship for the
angle between them.
---' ...
-1A · B
8 = cos AB (A-7)
Example
Find the angle between the two vectors A and B where
A = 41- 3J + lK and B = 31 + lJ - 2K
First we find the dot product of the two vectors using Equation (A-4)
---' ...
A·B = (4X3) +(-3Xl) +(lX-2) = 12-3-2 = 7
Next we need the magnitudes of A and B which we find using
Equation (A-1)
A= jA~+Af+A~ = J42+{-3)2+12 = Jl6+9+1 = Ji6 = 5.1
B = J32+12+(-2)2 = J9+1+4 = M = 3.74
Now we can use Equation (A-5) to solve for the angle between the two
vectors.
---' ...
-1A ·B -1 7 -1 ) ( )
8 = cos AB = cos (S.l)(3.74) = cos (0.37 = 68.5° or 291.5°
(Note the inverse cosine produces two possible results.)
Properties of the Dot Product
• The dot product is commutative: A· B = B·A
• The dot proc!}rct_2f like vectors equals the square of the magnitude of
that vector: A · A = A 2. This implies
I· I = J · J = K · K = 1 (recall cos0° = 1)
• The dot product of perpendicular vectors is zero. This means
I· J = J · K = I· K = 0 (recall cos90° = 0)
691
Appendix A Math Review
Vector or Cross Product. The vector or cross product of two vectors
AxB
results in a vector quantity. Let's assume two vectors lie in the same plane.
The cross product of these two vectors forms a third vector, which is
perpendicular to this plane. We use the "right-hand rule" to find the
direction of this third vector. If we point our index finger along the first
AxB
vector and our middle finger along the second vector, our thumb points in
the direction of the resultant vector, as shown in Figure A-8.
We find the cross product by solving the determinant
-"- -' J K
AxB (A-8)
A1A1AK
A B1 B1 BK
~
B Then, we can evaluate the solution, component by component, as
follows
Figure A-8. The Cross Product. The cross
product of two vectors A and B (both in the • The I component is
plane of the page) results in a new vector that
is perpendicular to both A and B and thus,
comes out of the page. I
• The J component is
[Note the minus sign in front!]
• The K component is
.
K
The result is
-'
AxB
. .
-[(A1)(BK)- (B1)(AK)]J + [(A1)(B1)-(B1)(A1)JK (A-9)
If we know the angle between the two vectors, 8, we can also find the
magnitude of the cross-product vector. That is
IA x Bl = ABsin8 (A-10)
692
A.2 Vector Math
Example
Find the cross product of two vectors A and B where
___.:::.. ,.. " " ....::i. " " ,.
A = 41 - 3J + lK and B = 31 + lJ - 2K
First we set up the determinant per Equation (A-8).
....,. _,. I J K
AxB
4 -3 1
3 1 -2
Evaluating, as in Equation (A-9), we get
_.:::.. ....:!,,. " "
Ax B = [(-3)(-2)-(l)(l)]l-[(4)(-2)-(3)(1)]J
+ [(4)(1)-(3)(-3)]K
___.:::.. ..:::.. " " "
Ax B [(6)-(l)]I-[(-8)-(3)]J + [(4)-(-9))K
..:::.. " " "
AxB = 5I+11J+13K
This allows us to rewrite the cross product as
A.xB=ABsin8n
"'{he~e n is a unit vector formed by the right-hand rule in the direction of
AxB.
• Properties of the cross product
- Cross product is not commutative: Ax B.., Bx A
_,. _,.
Note: (Ax B) = -(Bx A)
_.:::.. ....::i. ....::.. ___.:::.. ....::i. _.:::.. ....::..
- Distributive Law: Ax (B + C) = Ax B +Ax C
- Associative Law: c(A.xB) = (cA)xB = Ax(cB) (where c is
a scalar)
- Because the angle between parallel vectors is zero,
Ix I = JxJ = K xK = 0 sin(0°) = 0
- Because the angle between perpendicular vectors is 90°,
Ix J = K J x I = -K note that sin90° = 1
A A A . . .
JxK = I Kx J = -I
. . . . . .
K xI= J Ix I< = -J
693
Appendix A Math Review
TransformingVector Coordinates
We can write a vector in different coordinate frames to make writing
A equations of motion easier. For example, as shown in Figure A-9, we can
write A as
~ " ,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. "
J' A= xl+yJ+zK = al'+bJ'+cK'
These two descriptions represent the same vector. Therefore, we need a
~ method of rotating or transforming the descriptions from one frame to
JIIC--------- J another (without changing the vector's magnitude or direction). To do so,
we use
• Positive rotation about the I axis through an angle o: (ROTl)
~ '
I' I'
Figure A·9. We can express the vector A in K~~
either the 1 j K system or the 1•}1<• system.
' ~ co~a ., ;
J' [
In either case, the vector A is the same. ~ ~ J 0 -sino. cos;J
'
I, I' K' I<
• Positive rotation about the J axis through an angle B (ROT2)
\J\l&_~
_,,,K
'
I'
J'
=
cos~ 0 -sin~1
0 1 0
1
'
J
~ ~ K K'
' r sirif 0 cosf ,
K
J, J'
• Positive rotation about the I< axis through an angle y (ROT3)
~
J'k:
~.
~ ~
J
y ~
I
K'
l'
J'
=
[ cosy sinv 01
-siny cosy O
0 0 1
J
K
K, K'
• Multiple rotations
For multiple rotations about two or more axes, we find the total
transformation matrix by multiplying the transformation matrices for
each axis. For example, transforming with a RQ-:C:1 ,followed by a
ROT2, the vector from the I J K coordinates to the l"J"K" coordinates,
would be
'
I I"
[ROT 2][ROT 1] j
J"
'
K K"
694
A.3 Calculus
A.3 Calculus
Definitions
Derivative. The derivative represents the rate of change of one parameter
with respect to another. Calculus was developed to analyze changing
parameters. For example, if we're traveling north in our car, our position
vector is changing over time. The rate at which our position changes over
time is our velocity. Thus, if we go 25 miles north (in a straight line) in 30
minutes, our velocity is simply
change in position 25 miles north
velocity = V = -..,.....-'""'--'----
change in time 30 minutes
= 0.83( m.i.) north = 50 m.p.h. north
mm
Note that in mathematics and engineering, we use the Greek letter !:,,
(delta) to represent a change in something. So, we define velocity as the
derivative of position with respect to time. Similarly, the rate of change of
velocity with respect to time (for instance, when you step on the gas) is the
derivative of velocity, which is acceleration.
The derivative is really an instantaneous rate of change rather than a
change over time. For this reason, we use the letter d to represent a
change over a short time interval.
change in velocity
acceleration = a change in time
----'
. 1:,,V
1 1m-
tit-o M
----'
dV ----' ----'
V or "V dot"
dt
Note: In this text we use the "dot" notation to denote a derivative with
respect to time. That is
dy I dt = y for a first derivative with respect to time and
d2y I dt2 = y for a second derivative with respect to time, etc.
Because acceleration is the derivative of velocity and velocity is the
derivative of position, we can say that acceleration is the second derivative
of position.
----' ----'
.,.
a
dV
dt
~(dR)
dt dt
695
Appendix A Math Review
To better illustrate the meaning of the derivative, consider the function
that describes the distance an object travels at constant acceleration
x = 1/2 a t2 (A-11)
where
x = position at time t
a = acceleration
= time
If we let a= 9.798 m/ s2, we can graph the position with respect to time, as
shown in Figure A-10. If we want to know the velocity after five seconds,
we would take the derivative of the function, which is
x = at = (9.798 m/s2)t (A-12)
and substitute t = 5 to get
x (t=5)=48.99m/s (A-13)
500~~~~~~~~~~~~ But the derivative is also the slope of the curve at this point, which is the
450 instantaneous change in position per change in time, as we show in Figure
400
A-10.
6 350 Integral. The integral represents the cumulative effect of one parameter
~ 300 changing with respect to another. On a graph of one parameter vs.
u
~ 250 another, the integral is the area under the curve. For example, if we're
.....,
CfJ 200 traveling in a car at some velocity for some amount of time, our change in
;e position will be the integral of velocity over the period. That is, we're
>< 150
100
50 x(t
-,
= 5) = 48.99 m/ s
adding up all the position changes over time to get the total distance. The
integral is essentially the reverse of the derivative. Because acceleration is
the derivative of velocity over time, we say that velocity is the integral of
OO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 acceleration over time.
time (s)
Velocity= sum of accelerations over time
Figure A-10. Distance Over Time. Here we
see a plot of the function x = 1/2 (9.798) t2. The
derivative of the function at t = 5 represents the
velocity at this time and we see it as the slope
of the curve at that point.
If we want to know our velocity after constantly accelerating over
some time, we simply integrate the acceleration from the initial time (0) to
the final time (t) to get the familiar relationship
t
v = Jadt = a(t-O)+Vo = at+Vo
0
Note that the VO representing the initial velocity appears because a
constant of integration must always be added to the result of the
integration. To get our position after this acceleration, we simply
integrate our result from above one more time (position is the second
integral of acceleration, because acceleration is the second derivative of
position).
696
A.3 Calculus
t 1 2
...>
R= j( at + V O) dt =
2
...>
at + VO t + R0
...>
One way to look at the integral is as if we were adding together tiny little
area slices under a curve. If we can approximate each little slice as a
rectangle, we can easily find the area of each slice and then add them
together to get the entire area under the curve.
Returning to our simple example of a falling object's velocity from
500.-------~~~=-<Fl
Equation (A-12), we can plot this function, as shown in Figure A-11. We
450
can then approximate the distance traveled after five seconds using one-
~ 400
second-wide rectangles, as shown under the curve in Figure A-11, to get VJ
..__ 350
x == (1) (0) + (1) (9.798) + (1) (19.596) + (1) (29.394) + (1) (39.192) s
'--"' 300
== 97.980 m .C'
·o 250
0
To get the exact distance traveled, we take the integral of Equation (A- a:i 200
12) and solve at t = 5 to get >
II 150
5 5 ·x 100
x = Jx dt = j{9.798 m/s2)t dt 1/2(9.798 m/s 2 )t 215O 50
0 0 0o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
= 4.899 (5)2 - 4.899 (0) time (s)
= 122.475 m Figure A-11. Integral. The integral repre-
sents the cumulative effect of something over
The difference between 97.980 m and 122.475 m is a result of the little time. Here the Integral represents the area
bits of uncounted areas under the curve but above the rectangles, in under the curve found by adding together each
little rectangle.
Figure A-11. The integral is exact, so the 122.475 m is correct. Summing
rectangles under a curve approximates the value for the integral, but to
maintain accuracy, we must keep the rectangles' widths as small as
possible.
697
698
Units and
Constants
B.1 Canonical Units =i== Outline
When analyzing spacecraft motion across literally astronomical B.l Canonical Units
distances, using traditional measures (meters and kilometers or feet and Canonical Units for Earth
miles) becomes cumbersome. The gravitational parameter of the central Solar Canonical Units
body, µ, is also an unwiel~ number when expressed in conventional
units (3.986 x 105 km3 / s for example). Therefore, when solving B.2 Unit ConversionsConsta
nts
astronautics problems it's sometimes convenient to use a system of
normalized units called canonical units. B.3 Constants
We'll define canonical units for the Earth and the Sun, but we could
easily do so for any other central body. B.4 Greek Alphabet
Canonical Uni ts for Earth
1 Distance Unit (DU)= Earth's Radius
1 DU= 6378.137 km= 3963.191 mi.
1 Earth Time Unit (TUEarthor TU(±)) = time for a satellite in a circular orbit
of 1 DU radius (just skimming Earth's surface) to travel 1 DU (1 radian of
arc)
1 TU(±)= 13.44685116 min= 806.8110953 s
1 DU/TU(±)(Earth speed unit)= speed of a satellite in a circular orbit
1 DU /TU(±)= 7.90536599 km/ s = 25936.24015 ft./ s
Earth's Gravitational Parameter
All data adapted from
3
DU3
µEarth= 1--2 = 3.986005
TU(±)
X 10
skm3
-?-
s-
f\s
1.4076444 x 1016
Space Mission Analysis and Design
and Fundamentals of Astrodynamics
Appendix B Units and Constants
Solar Canonical Units
1 Astronomical Unit (AU)= Mean distance from Earth to the Sun (radius
of Earth's orbit)
1 AU= 149.59787 x 106 km= 4.908125 x 1011 ft.
1 Solar Time Unit (TUsun) = time for Earth in its (nearly) circular orbit
around the Sun at 1 AU radius to travel 1 AU (1 radian of arc)
1 TUsun = 58.132441 days= 5.0226429 x 106 s
1 AU /TU5lU1 (Solar speed unit)= Earth's speed in its 1 AU-radius circular
orbit
1 AU/TUsun = 29.784692 km/s = 9.7719329 x 104 ft./s
Sun's Gravitational Parameter
3 3
AU3
µSun= 1--2- 1.327124 x 1011kn; = 4.6868016 x 1021\
TUsun s s
700
B.2 Unit Conversions
B.2 Unit Conversions
In this book, we use the metric system of units, officially known as the
International System of Units, or SI, except that we sometimes express
angular measurements in degrees rather than the SI unit of radians. By
international agreement, the fundamental SI units of length, mass, and
time are as follows (see National Bureau of Standards Special Publication
330, 1986):
• The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum over
1 I 299,792,458 of a second
• The kilogram is the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram
• The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium-133 atom
Additional base units in the SI system are the ampere for electric
current, the kelvin for thermodynamic temperature, the mole for amount
of substance, and the candela for intensity of light. Mechtly [1977] neatly
summarizes SI units for science and technology.
The names of multiples and submultiples of SI units take the following
prefixes
Factor by which
unit is multiplied Prefix Symbol
1018 exa E
101s peta p
1012 tera T
109 gig a G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-1s fem to f
10-18 atto a
For each quantity listed below, the SI unit and its abbreviation are in
brackets. For convenient use in computers, we've listed conversion
factors with the greatest available accuracy. Note that some conversions
are exact definitions and some (speed of light, astronomical unit) depend
on the value of physical constants. All notes are on the last page of the list.
701
Appendix B Units and Constants
To convert from To Multiply by Notes
Acceleration [meters/second2, m/s2]
Foot/ second/ m/ s2 3.048 x 10-1 E
Free fall (standard), g ml s2 9.80665 E
Angular Acceleration [radians/second2, rad/s2]
Degrees I second 2 rad I s2 :n: I 180 E
.... 0.01745329251994329577
Revolutions I second/, rev I s2 rad/ s2 2:n: E
.... 6.283185307179586477
Revolutions I minute2 rad/s2 :n:/1800 E
.... 1.745329251994329577 x 10-3
Revolutions I minute2 deg/s2 0.1 E
Radians/ second2, rad/ s2 deg/s2 180/:n: E
.... 57.29577951308232088
Revolutions I second/, rev I s2 deg/ s2 360 E
Angular Measure [radian, rad]. This book uses degree (abbreviated deg)
as the basic unit.
Degree rad :n:/180 E
.... 0.01745329251994329577
Minute (of arc) rad :n:/ 10,800 E
.... 2.908882086657216 x 10--4
Radian deg = 180/:n: E
.... 57.29577951308232088
Second (of arc) rad :n:/ 648, 000 E
.... 4.8481368110954 x 10-6
Angular Momentum [kilogram · meter2/second, kg · m2/s]
Gram · cm2 I second kg · m2 Is 1.0 x 10-7 E
Pound mass · inch2 I second kg · m2 Is 2.926397 x 10--4
Slug · inch2 I second kg· m2 Is 9.415402 x 10-3
Pound mass · foot2 I second kg · m2 Is 4.214011 x 10-2
Inch· pound force· second kg· m2 Is 1.129848 x 10-1
Slug · foot2 I second =
Foot · pound force · second kg · m2 Is 1.355818
Angular Velocity [radian/second, rad/s]
Degrees I second rad/s :n:/180 E
.... 0.01745329251994329577
Radians I second deg/s 180/:n: E
= 57.29577951308232088
Revolutions/ minute, r.p.m. rad/s :n:/30 E
= 0.010471975511965977 46
Revolutions I second rad/s 2:n: E
.... 6.283185307179586477
Revolutions/minute, r.p.m. deg/s 6.0 E
Revolutions I second deg/s 360 E
702
B.2 Unit Conversions
To convert from To Multiply by Notes
Area [meter2, m2]
Acre m2 4.046856422 x 103 E
Foot2,£t2 m2 0.09290304 E
Hectare m2 1.0 x 104 E
Inch2, in2 m2 6.4516 x 10-4 E
Mile2 (U.S. statute) m2 2.58998811 x 106 M
Yard/; yd2 m2 0.083612736 E
(Nautical mile)2 m2 3.429904 x 106 E
Density [kilogram/meter3,kg/m3]
Gram/ centimeter3 kg/m3 1.00 x 103 E
Pound mass/ inch3 kg/m3 2.767990471020 x 104 M
Pound mass I foot3 kg/m3 16.01846337396 M
Slug/foot3 kg/m3 5.153788183932 x 102 M
Energy or Torque [joule= newton· meter= kilogram· meter2/s2,
J = N · m = kg · m2/s2]
British thermal unit, Btu (mean) J 1.05505585262 x 103 M
Calorie (mean), cal J 4.1868 M
Kilocalorie (mean), kcal J 4.1868 x 103 M
Electron volt, eV J 1.60217733 x 10-19 w
Erg = gram · cm2 / s2 J 1.0 x 10-7 E
= pole · cm · oersted
Foot poundal J 4.214011009380 x 10-2 M
Foot lbf = slug · foot2I s2 J 1.3558179483314 M
Kilowatt hour, kW· hr J 3.60 x 106 E
Ton equivalent of TNT J 4.184 x 109 E
Force [newton = kilogram · meter/second2, N = kg · m /s2]
Dyne N 1.0 x 10-5 E
Pound force (avoirdupois),
lbf =slug· foot/ s2) N 4.4482216152605 E
Length [meter, m]
Angstrom, A m 1.0 x 10-10 E
Astronomical unit, (IAU) m 1.4959787066 x 1011 AA
Astronomical unit, (radio) m 1.4959789 x 1011 w
Earth's equatorial radius m 6.37813649 x 106 w
Foot m 0.3048 E
Inch m 2.54 x 10-2 E
Light year m 9.46073047258 x 1015 w
Micron (µm) m 1.0 x 10-6 E
Mil (10-3 inch) m 2.54 x 10-S E.
Mile (U.S. statute), mi. m 1.609344 x 103 E
Nautical mile (U.S.),NM m 1.852 x 103 E
Parsec (IAU) m 3.08567759749 x 1016 w
Yard m 0.9144 E
703
Appendix B Units and Constants
To convert from To Multiply by Notes
Mass [kilogram, kg]
Atomic unit (electron) kg 9 .1093877 x 10-31 w
Metric ton kg 1.0 x 103 E
Pound mass, lbm kg 0.45359237 E
(avoirdupois)
Slug kg 14.59390293721 w
Short ton (2000 lbm) kg 9.0718474 x 102 E
Solar mass kg 1.9891 x 1030 w
Moment of Inertia [kilogram · meter2, kg · m2]
Gram · centimeter2 kg · m2 1.0 x 10-7 E
Pound mass· inch- kg· m2 2.9263965343 x 10-4
Pound mass· foot? kg· m2 4.21401100938 x 10-2 W
Slug· inch2 kg· m2 9.415402418968 x 10-3 W
Inch· pound force· s2 kg· m2 0.1129848290276 W
Slug· foot2 =ft· lbf · s2 kg· m2 1.3558179483314 E
Power [watt= joule/second= kilogram · meter2/second3, W = J/s =
kg· m2/s3]
Foot pound force/second W 1.355817948331 W
Horsepower (550 ft lbf/ s) W 7.456998715823x 102 W
Horsepower (electrical) W 7.46 x 102 E
Solar luminosity W 3.845 x 1026 W
Pressure or Stress [pascal = newton/meter2 = kilogram/(meter · second/),
Pa = N/m2 = kg/m s2]
Atmosphere Pa 1.01325 x ms E
Bar Pa 1.0 x 10s E
Centimeter of mercury (0° C)Pa 1.333223874145x 103 W
Dyne/ centimeter2 Pa 0.10 E
Inch of mercury (0° C) Pa 3.386388640341 x 103 W
Pound force/ foot2 Pa 47.88025898034 W
Pound force/inch2, p.s.i. Pa 6.894757293168 x 103 W
Torr (0° C) Pa l.33322368421052 x 102 W
Solid Angle [steradian, sr]
Degree2, deg2 sr (n:/180)2 E
= 3.046174197867085993x 104
Steradian, sr deg- (180/ n:)2 E
= 3.282806350011743794x 103
Stress (see Pressure)
Temperature [kelvin, K]
Celsius, °C K tK = tc + 273.15 E
Fahrenheit, °F K tK = (5/9) (tF + 459.67) E
Fahrenheit, °F c tc = (5 I 9) (tF- 32.0) E
704
B.2 Unit Conversions
To convert from To Multiply by Notes
Time
Sidereal day s 8.6164100352 x 104 w
Solar day, average s 8.64 x 104 w
Julian century d 36,525 E
Gregorian calendar century d 36,524.25 E
Torque (see Energy)
Velocity [meter/second, m/s]
Foot/ minute m/s 5.08 x 10-3 E
Kilometer I hour m/s (3.6t1 = 0.277777... E
Foot I second m/s 0.3048 E
Miles/hour m/s 0.44704 E
Knot (international) m/s 0.5144444444... E
Miles I minute m/s 26.8224 E
Miles I second m/s 1.609344 x 103 E
Astronomical unit I m/s 4.740388554 x 103 w
sidereal year
Velocity of light, c m/s 2.99792458 x 108 E
Volume [meter3, m3]
Foot3 m3 2.8316846592 x 10-2 E
Gallon (U.S. liquid) m3 3.785411784 x 10-3 E
Liter m3 1.0 x 10-3 E
NOTES
E (Exact) indicates that the conversion is exact by definition of the non-
SI unit or that it came from other exact conversions
M Values from Mechtly
w Values from Wertz
AA Values from Astronomical Almanac
H Values from Weast
705
Appendix B Units and Constants
B.3 Constants
Table B-1. Fundamental Physical Constants.
Relative
Uncertainty
Quantity Symbol Value Units (1 a, ppm)
Speed of light in a
vacuum c 299,792,458 mis (exact)
Universal Gravitational G 6.67259 x 10-11 N. m2/kg2 128
Constant
Planck constant h 6.6260755 x 1 o--34 J·s 0.60
Elementary charge e 1.60217733 x 10-19 c 0.30
Electron mass me 9.1093897 x 10--31 kg 0.59
Proton mass mp 1.6726231 x 10-27 kg 0.59
Proton-electron mass mp/m6 1836.152701 0.02
ratio
Neutron mass mn 1.6749286 x 10-27 kg 0.59
Boltzmann constant, k 1.380658 x 10-23 J/K 8.5
RINA
Stefan-Boltzmann a 5.67051 x 1 o-a W/m2 · K4 34
Constant
Electron volt eV 1.60217733 x 10-19 J 0.30
Atomic mass unit u 1.6605402 x 10-27 kg 0.59
706
8.3 Constants
Table 8-2. SpaceflightConstants.
Quantity Value Units
flEarth = G mEarth 3.986004418 x 105 km3ts2
flsun = G msun 1.327124 x 1011 km3/s2
f'Moon = G mMoon 4.902798882 x 103 km3/s2
ilEarth and Moon 4.035031135 x 105 km3/s2
= G mEarth and Moon
Obliquity of the ecliptic 23.43928111 deg
al Epoch 2000
Precession of the equinox 1.396971278 deg/century
Flattening factor for Earth 1 /298.25642
Earth's equatorial radius 6378.13649 km
1 AU 1.49597870691 x 1011 m
Mean lunar distance 3.84401 x 108 m
Solar constant 1358 W/m2 at 1 AU
Acceleration due lo gravity at 9.798 m/s2
Earth's equatorial radius
Acceleration due to gravity at 9.80665 mts2
standard sea level
1 solar day 1.00273790935 sidereal days
Earth's rotation rate 15 deg/sidereal hr
0.25 deg/sidereal min
0.25068447733746215 deg/solar min
707
Appendix B Un.its and Constants
B.4 Greek Alphabet
Table 8-3. Greek Alphabet. [Adapted from The American Heritage Dictionary)
Symbol Name Symbol Name
Au alpha N v nu
B ~ beta ::: !; xi
r Y gamma O o omicron
/',, 6 delta Il rt pi
E E epsilon p p rho
z t; zeta LO sigma
H 'l eta T, tau
e o theta Yu upsilon
I L iota <() <P phi
K K kappa Xx chi or khi
A,._ lambda lJI 1/J psi
M µ mu Qw omega
= References
American Heritage Dictionary. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
1985.
Cohen, E. Richard and Taylor, B.N. CODATA Bulletin No. 63, Pergamon
Press, Nov. 1986.
Hagen, James B. and Boksenberg, A., eds. Astronomical Almanac.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1991.
Mechtly, E. A. The International System of Units. Champaign, JL: Stipes
Publishing Company, 1977.
Weast, R. C., ed. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press, 1985.
Wertz, James R., ed. Spacecraft Attitude Determination and Control. Holland:
0. Reidel Publishing Company, 1978.
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission Analysis and Design.
Third edition. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1999.
708
Derivations
C.1 Restricted Two-body
Equation of Motion C.1 Restricted Two-body
Equation of Motion
In Chapter 4 we developed the restricted two-body equation of motion C.2 Constants of Motion
Proving Specific Mechanical
(C-1) Energy is Constant
Proving Specific Angular
.... Momentum is Constant
Knowing that R = ~, we can write it as C.3 Solving the Two-body
Equation of Motion
(C-2) C.4 Relating the Energy Equation
to the Semimajor Axis
Several of the following derivations will use this fundamental
relationship. C.5 The Eccentricity Vector
C.6 Deriving the Period Equation
for an Elliptical Orbit
C. 7 Finding Posi ti.on and Velocity
Vectors from COEs
C.8 Vbumout in SEZ Coordinates
C.9 Deriving the Rocket Equation
C.10 Deriving the Potential Energy
Equation and Discovering the
Potential Energy Well
Appendix C Derivations
C.2 Constants of Motion
Proving Specific Mechanical Energy is Constant
We can prove that the specific mechanical energy, s, of an orbit is
constant by beginning with the restricted two-body equation of motion in
Equation (C-2).
~ Ll ~
R + ~R = 0
R
We then take the dot product of both sides with R.
_.;,. (.:.; u --') _.;,.
R· R +~3R =R·O
or
..:,.
O·R 0
__,. -' ..:,.
Note: R V and R v so
v. v + 1:..R. R
R3
= o (C-3)
From the definition of the dot product, we know for any two vectors
..:,.
a
and b
., ..:,.
a· b = ab cos8
where
8 = angle between the two vectors
Thus, to see how to proceed, we use a specific example of a dot product
a· a = a a cos8
If we recognize that a
is parallel to itself, then we know the angle between
them is zero and cos8 = l. Thus, substituting for cos8, we get
., ., 2
a· a = a (C-4)
Proceeding with the proof, we must take the derivative of both sides of
Equation (C-4)
d ., c,
-(a· a)
dt
710
C.2 Constants of Motion
Applying the chain rule from calculus, the derivatives become
a · i + i · a = 2a a
2(a · i) = 2a a
thus
..!>. _;;. •
a·a=aa (C-5)
[Note: Iii ;,! a]
Now, if we recognize that this result is the same as the two expressions on
the left side of Equation (C-3), we can rewrite it as
vv +~RR
R3
= 0
or
vv +~R
R2
= o (C-6)
To recognize this equation as usable, we suppose there are two variables
x and y, such that
v2
X=- (C-7)
2
and
y = -µ (C-8)
R
To get where we need to go, we take their derivatives
dx = VV
dt
and
Now, we substitute these expressions for the corresponding quantities in
Equation (C-6) and get
dx dv d
- + =.L = -(x + y) = 0 (C-9)
dt dt dt
Now, we substitute our expressions for x and y, to get
dv
dl2-iv 2
= o (C-10)
711
Appendix C Derivations
From Chapter 4, we know the term in parenthesis is the specific
mechanicalenergy,E
E
v2 -~ (C-11)
2 R
Finally, if ft ( E) = 0, which we showed, then E = constant, because, when
we integrate this differential equation, we get a constant 0£ integration on
the right side.
Proving Specific Angular Momentum is Constant
We can prove the specific angular momentum, h, 0£ an orbit is
constant by taking the cross product 0£ th_,_e two-body equation of motion,
Equation (C-2), with the position vector, R
...,. (-'-
Rx R + Rµ3R-'-) =
...,.
Rx O
RxR + µ3(RxR) = 0
R
Because the cross product of parallel vectors is zero, the second term goes
to zero, and we're left with
RxR 0 (C-12)
Now realize that
....:::,.
.
....:::,. .....:::,. ~. .
(R x R ) +(Rx R
where R xR = 0, (parallel vectors, again), leaving only
Substituting this quantity into Equation (C-12), we get
d ...,. _:,.
d/RxR)=O
...,. ...,.
but R = V, so we get
d ...,. . . ,.
dt(R x V) = 0
712
C.2 Constants of Motion
Recall from Chapter 4 that the specific angular momentum is
h = Rxv
Thus,
~(h) = 0
dt
When we integrate both sides of this equation, we get
h = constant
which proves that specific angular momentum is constant.
713
Appendix C Derivations
C.3 Solving the Two-body
Equation of Motion
To find a solution that describes satellite motion, we begin with the
two-body equation of motion from Equation (C-2)
(C-2)
....
We can't solve for R as a function of time in closed form, but we can
find an exact solution using variable substitution. We cro~s both sides of
the equation with the specific angular momentum vector, h
~~LL~~ ....:i.
R x h + R)R x h) = 0 x h = 0
using the cross-product identity ax b = - (bx a), we get
(C-13)
Beginning with the left-hand side of Equation (C-13), we take the
derivative using the chain rule to get
~(R
dt
x h) = R x h + R x h
But fi = constant so fi = 0, thus
:t(R x h) = R xi; (C-14)
Now we turn to the right-hand side of Equation (C-13). From the vector
identity
..:::,. ...:::.. .'l,. ~ ..:::,. .'l,. ..:::,. ...:::.. .'l,.
(axb)xc = b(a·c)-a(b·c)
we can say
i; x R = (Rx v) x R = v(R. R) - R(v · R)
From
.... ....
the 2definition of the dot product and Equation (C-4), we know
R. R = R so I
714
C.3 Solving the Two-body Equation of Motion
From Equation (C-5), we know R ·R = RR , so we get
.... ...>. ...>. 2 ...>. .
h x R = VR -R RR
Multiplying both sides by µ/R3, we get
µ/h X R) = µ/VR2-R RR ) (C-15)
R R
Now, from the derivative of a quotient, we realize
µ-d (~...>. d -"""
- =µ-(RR -1
)
dt dt
= µ(R R-1-R R-2R)
We factor out 1 /R3 from the right side, to get
µi.(~) = ~(VR2-R RR) (C-16)
dt R R3
Equating Equation (C-15) and Equation (C-16), we get
...>.
µ .... .....
-(hxR) = µ- d (R)- (C-17)
R3 dt R
Substituting Equation (C-14) and Equation (C-17) into Equation (C-13), we
end up with
d ~ xh)
-(R .... = µ-d - (R)
dt dt R
Integrating both sides, we get
...>.
~ .... R ~
R xh = µ- + B (C-18)
R
where
~
B = constant vector of integration
Now we dot both sides of Equation (C-18) with R
(C-19)
From the vector identity
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
a· (bx c) = (ax b) · c
715
Appendix C Derivations
we have
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
R · (R x h) = (Rx R ) · h
=(Rx v). h
=h·h
=h2
so, when we substitute into Equation (C-19), it becomes
~
h2 = R · (µ~ + B) (C-20)
Expanding the right-hand side of Equation (C-20),we have
µ 2 ~ ~
= R(R) + R. B
= µR+ RBcosv
where
v = angle between R and B
Thus, we end up with
h2 = µR + RBcosv
Solving for the magnitude of the position vector, R, we get
2
R = h /µ
1 + (B/µ)cosv
Now, let h2 Iµ = k1 and BIµ = k2. Substituting for these terms, we have
R = ki (C-21)
1 + k2COSV
which is the solution of the restricted two-body equation of motion in
terms of two constants k1, k2, and angle v, This solution derives purely
from the dynamics of the problem. From geometry, we know the polar
form of the equation for a conic section is also
R = k1
1 + k2COSV
716
C.3 Solving the Two-body Equation of Motion
where
R = magnitude of the position vector (km)
k1 = p = semilatus rectum shown in Figure C-1 (km)
k2 = e = eccentricity (unitless)
v = true anomaly (deg or rad)
so,
p Figure C-1. Semilatus Rectum. We define
R
1 + ecosv the semilatus rectum, p, as the distance from
the center of Earth to the orbit where true
If we use the expression for p, anomaly, v, is 90°.
p = a (1 - e2)
where
p = semilatus rectum or semi parameter (km)
a = semimajor axis (km)
e = eccentricity (unitless)
we get the familiar solution to the two-body equation of motion which
relates dynamics to geometry and shows that all objects moving under the
influence of gravity travel along conic sections.
a(l-e2)
R (C-22)
1 + e cosv
717
Appendix C Derivations
C.4 Relating the Energy Equation
to the Semimajor Axis
We start with the equation for specific angular momentum
h = Rxv = R v cos cj>
When we apply it at perigee, where the flight-path angle cj> = 0, we get
h = Rperigee V perigee
Now, we recall the relationship for specific mechanical energy
£ -
- v'
---
µ
2 R
Because £ is constant everywhere along an orbit, we can examine it at
perigee. We realize from above that
2
V perigee 2
Rperigee
Substituting this squared velocity term into the specific mechanical energy
equation, we have
2
h
------~l- (C-23)
2 R .
2Rperigee perigee
From the polar equation of a conic, Equation (C-22)
2
R = a(l - e )
1 + ecosv
at perigee v = 0, so
a(l-e2) a(l-e)(l + e)
Rperigee = 1 +e l+e
Rperigee = a (1- e) (C-24)
Note that p = a (1 - e2) = h2 Iµ. Thus,
J.2 = ~l a (1 - e2)
Substituting for h2 in Equation (C-23), gives us
2
£ = ~ta(l-e ) µ_
2R~erigee Rperigee
718
C.4 Relating the Energy Equation to the Semimajor Axis
and substituting for Rperigee in Equation (C-24), we get
E = µa(l-e2) --~- µ
2a\1- e)2 a(l - e)
Next, we form a common denominator and add the fractions
2
_ µ(1-e) 2µ(1-e)
- 2a(l -e)2 - 2a(l - e)(l - e)
_ µ(1-e2)-2µ(1-e)
- 2a(l-e)2
Then we simplify the expression to get
E =- . . . :.µ. . .: .[--'2 (,. ._1 _- ---=e )_-......;.(_1 -_e_2..:...:)]
2a(l-e)2
= -µ[2 - 2e - 1 + e2]
2a 1-2e+e2
= -µ[l -2e + e2]
2a 1-2e + e2
(C-25)
This relationship says that specific mechanical energy is inversely
proportional to the orbit's semimajor axis (its size), a. It's valid for all conic
sections.
719
Appendix C Derivations
C.5 The Eccentricity Vector
In deriving the solution to _.the two-body equation of motion, we
developed a constant vector, B. We know the magnitude of this vector
relates to eccentricity, by B ~ µe. We can also define an eccentricity vector,
e, in the same direction as B
.:,. _.:,.
e = B/µ (C-26)
To develop a more useful relationship for we begin with the e I
relationship we developed in solving the two-body problem
_.:,.
R xh = u~ +
'R
13 (C-18)
_.:,.
solving for B, we get
_.:,.
13 (R xh)-µ~
Substituting this expression for B into Equation (C-26), we get
.:,.
[(~ xh)-µ~J
e =
~t
.:,.
e =
Rx h R
---- (C-27)
µ R
Substituting for h = RxV and R = V
.:,.
e =
Vx(RxV) --
R
µ R
Applying the triple cross product identify, ax (bx c) = b(a · c)- c(a · b),
to the numerator of the first fraction, we have
~
e =
R(V·V)-v(v·R) R
µ R
....>. ....>. 2
When we dot a vector by itself, we get V · V = V , so we use this
relationship to get
720
C.5 The Eccentricity Vector
Now we multiply both sides byµ to get
--'
-'
~2 ~~~ R
eµ RV -V(V·R)-µ-
R
We arrange terms to get
Finally, we divide by µ to arrive at the vector equation for eccentricity
e = µ1 [( V 2
- .!:!:.
R)\ R-(--' R
__,. · V)
--' V
--'] (C-28)
How do we know what direction e points? To determine that direction,
we begin with the relationship for e in Equation (C-27)
-'
e
it----x h R (C-29)
µ R
--' --'
We can express R and V in the perifocal coordinate system, PQW,
Q
shown in Figure C-2, where the
• Origin is Earth's center
• Fundamental plane is the orbital plane
w
• Principal direction is toward perigee
R and V then become
Figure C-2. PQW System. The POW
...>. system has its origin at Earth's center. P
R Rcosv:f> + RsinvQ points in the direction of the eccentricity vector,
W is perpendicular to the orbital plane in the
direction of the angular momentum vector, and
....>
V = ~P/µ[ -sinvP A
+ (e + cosv)Q A J 6 completes the right-hand rule.
In terms of Rx V, we start by solving for h
--' --'
RxV Rcosv Rsinv O
/µ /µ
-~p sinv ~p( e + cosv) 0
/µ 2 A
= ~p[Rcosv((e + cosv) + Rsin v)]W
/µ 2 2 A
= ~p[eRcosv+Rcos v +Rsin v]W
721
Appendix C Derivations
Applying the trigonometric identity cos20 + sin20 = 1, we get
~ {µ A
h = ~p[ eRcosv + R]W
Then, factoring out R, gives us
~ {µ A
h = ~p[R(l + ecosv)]W
Now we look at the first cross product in Equation (C-27)
Q w
R xh = v xi; = ~<
~p -sinv ) ~p[µ< e + cosv ) O
0 0 ~[R(l + ecosv)]
= ( ~) { [R(e + cosv)(l + ecosv)]I'-[(-sinv )(R)(l + ecosv)]Q}
From the solution to the two-body equation of motion in Equation (C-22)
and the definition of semiparameter, p
p = R (1 + ecosv)
Substituting p for R(l + ecosv ), we get
Vxh = ~{[(e + cosv)p JP+ [psinv ]Q}
Vxh = µ(e + cosv lf + µsinvQ
Substituting into Equation (C-27), gives us
~ µ(e + cosv lf + µsinvQ RcosvP + RsinvQ
e = ~---~---..!.--=
µ R
= (e + cosv)P + sinvQ- cosvf>- sinvQ
e = ef> + cosvf + sirrvQ> cosvf>- sinvQ
Simplifying this expression yields the result
e = eP
Therefore, e points at perigee.
722
C.6 Deriving the Period Equation for an Elliptical Orbit
C.6 Deriving the Period Equation
for an Elliptical Orbit
The orbital geometry in Figure C-3 shows that the horizontal component
of velocity is
V cos cj>, or simply, Rv
Knowing =lhl IR xvi RV cos cj>, we can express the specific angular
momentum, h, as
Figure C-3. Components of V. We can
h = R2dv ~ dt = R2 dv break <?,UI the components of the velocity
dt h vector, V, as shown.
From elementary calculus we know that the differential element of area,
dA, as shown in Figure C-4, swept out by the radius vector as it moves
through an angle, dv, is
1 1
dA = -R(Rdv) = -R2dv
2 2
dA = ~dv
So, we can rewrite the above equation as Figure C-4. A satellite sweeps out a small
area, dA, per unit time.
dt = ~dA
which proves Kepler's Second Law that "equal areas are swept out by the
radius vector in equal time intervals" because h is constant for an orbit.
Integrating this equation through one period yields the following
p = Zrcab
-h-
where
P = period (s)
a = semimajor axis (km)
b = semiminor axis (km)
nab = total area of an ellipse
From the geometry of an ellipse, we use b = Ja2 -
c2 = )c}(l- e2) =/ap
and because we have h = Jµp, from the definition of specific angular
momentum, we substitute for band h to get
p 2naJap 2n
r-.a
3/2
=
Q
2n{µ
Jµp ""~l
723
Appendix C Derivations
C.7 Finding Position and Velocity
Vectors from COEs
We start by defining a new coordinate system, the Perifoca/ System
(PQW), as shown in Figure C-5, the
• Origin is Earth's center
• Fundamental plane is the orbital plane
• Principal direction is toward perigee
Writing R and V in terms of f> Q W
Figure C-5. The Perifocal Coordinate
System. P points at perigee. 6 is 90° from P , R = Rcosvf> + RsinvQ
in the direction of the spacecraft's motion, W Is
perpendicular to the orbital plane (out of the -"
-" dR
page).
v dt
(R cosv-Rv sinv)P+(R sinv +Rv cosv)Q
. .
What about f> and Q? Answer: PQW is an inertial reference frame, so
the derivatives equal zero. Although we know Rand v , we don't know R
and v . So, we use the solution to the two-body equation of motion
R = p = p(l + ecosvf1
1 + ecosv
To find R, we take the time derivative of the expression, recognizing that
v is the only quantity to vary.
pev sinv
R = -r(-ev sinv)(l + ecosvr2 2
(1 + ecosv)
To find ,, , we must look at orbital geometry
\hi = IR xvi = RV sine = RVcos<j>
The component of V normal to R is R · Rv (tangential velocity, from
... Section C.6),
Figure C-6. R and V in the Perifocal
System.
Rv Vcos e
So, substituting for h gives us
h = R2v
Then, rearranging this equation, we get
h
v =
R2
724
C.7 Finding Position and Velocity Vectors from COEs
Substituting this expression for v into the equation for R, gives us
R = P e h sin v but R = P
R\1 + e cosv)? 1 + e cosv
so, we substitute for R
R = pe sinv{l + ecosv)2 = e,)µpsinv
p2(1 + ecosv)2 p
R 1f',esinv
Now, using the polar equation of a conic for Rand the expression we just
derived for v , we multiply them and have
Rv p E._ _ p h(l + e cos v )2 _ Jµp ( 1 + e cos v)
1 + e cosv R2- p2(1 + e cosv) - p
RV = Jf',(1 + e cosv)
Going back to the equation for V, and substituting for R and v , we get
V = [ 1f',e sin v cos v - Jf',c 1 + e cosv) sin v }'
+ [ 1f',esinvsinv + 1f',c1 + e cosvjcosv Jo
When we distribute the quantities in parentheses, we get
~ {µ A
V = ~p(esinvcosv- sinv- ecosvsinv)P
{µ 2 2 A
+ ~p(esin v + cosv + ecos v)Q
Simplifying this equation by subtracting like terms and applying the
trigonometric identity, sin20 + cos20 = 1, we get
~ {µ {µ
A A
V = ~p(-sinv)P + ~p(e + cosv)Q
Finally, we can write R, V in the perifocal coordinate frame as
~ a{l-e2) A A
Rpow = [cosvP + sinvQJ
1 + ecosv
~
VPQW
{µ[ -sinvP + (e + cosv)Q J
= ~p A A
725
Appendix C Derivations
which are the position and velocity vectors entirely in terms of the Classic
Orbital Elements (COEs).
~ Th~ next step in this problem is to transform the coordinates of the R
Q
and V vectors from the PQW system to the IJK system. This step
requires three separate transformation matrices using the remaining
COEs, i, co, and Q. (For basic vector transformations, see Appendix A.2,
"Transforming Vector Coordinates.") To get a vector from the PQW
system into the IJK frame, we begin with a rotation about the W axis (a
rotation about the third axis, or ROT3) through a negative argument of
perigee angle, -w, to bring :f.> into the equatorial plane, as shown in Figure
C-7. The matrix for this operation is
~I
I n
l
Figure .C-7. Rotation 3 of -w about W. cosw -sinw Oj
(Note: W is out of the page.) ROT3 ( -to) = sin co cos co O
0 0 1
This rotation aligns P with the ascending node vector, Next, we rotate n.
the system about this new P /n
axis through an angle of minus inclination,
-i, to bring Q to the equatorial plane, as shown in Figure C-8. This step
takes a ROTl matrix
ROTl(-i) =
1 0 0
O c~s~ -sin_i
j
[
O sm i COSl
Figure C-8. Rotation 1 of -I about the new This rotation aligns W with I<. Finally, we rotate the system about the
P1ii axis. W /I< axis through a negative right ascension of the ascending node angle,
-Q, to align :f.> with i and Q with j, as shown in Figure C-9. The ROT3
matrix is
l
cosQ -sinQ Oj
ROT3(-Q) = sinQ cosQ O
0 0 1
Putting it all together for this specific transformation, we have
[A JR row
VIJK [A]V PQW
where
RIJK, Rrow = position vectors in the ijK and PQW systems
~
~ J VIJK, Vrow = velocity vectors in the IJK and PQW systems
I n,P
Figure C-9. Rotation 3 of -Q about the [A] = combined transformation matrix from PQW to
new W /K axis. IJK
726
C.7 Finding Position and Velocity Vectors from COEs
A11 A12 A13j
[A] = [ROT3(-Q)][ROT1(-i)][ROT3(-c.o)] = A21 A22 A23
[
A31 A32 A33
where
A 11 = cosQ cosc.o - sinQ siruo cos i
A 12 = -cosQ sinc.o - sinQ cosc.o cos i
A13 = sinQ sini
A21 = sinQ cosc.o + cosQ sinc.o cosi
A22 = -sinQ sinc.o + cosQ cosc.o cosi
A23 = -cosQ sini
A31 = siruo sini
A32 = cosc.o sini
A33 = cosi
We can rotate any vector in the PQW coordinate system to the IJK
system using this [A] matrix, as long as we know the COEs.
727
Appendix C Derivations
C.8 Vburnout in SEZ Coordinates
~ Using the flight-path angle, cp, and the launch azimuth angle, ~, we can
z ~ derive the components for the burnout velocity, Vburnout, as shown in
N
I Figure C-10. We measure cp from the horizon to the velocity vector and B
~
I clockwise from due north to the projection of the velocity vector on the
I vburnout
I horizontal plane. For the zenith component
I
I
vb. u I nou tzcnith = vb urnou t ~ncp
~ To get the south and east components, we must project the magnitude
,.,_~1----t-~..---~~•E
of the burnout velocity onto the horizontal plane, again using the flight-
path angle, cp
vb u rnou tprojcciion
= vb u rnou t cose
s Then, using this result and the azimuth angle, ~, we get the east
North component
• vburnout CilSI
= vburnoutcoscpsin(180° - ~)
We can simplify this equation by using the trigonometric identity
sin(180° - ~) = sinf
~ vburnout cas. = v burnoutcoscpsin~
1,,-~ ~~~~~--E
........ t
And for the south component, we get
v burnout cos cp v burnout south = v burnout coso cos(1800 - ~)
Then simplifying with the trigonometric identity
s cos(180° - ~)=-cos~
Figure C-10. We can analyze the geometry
of the launch site with respect to known Vburnout south
= -V burnoutcoscpcos~
burnout conditions, such as flight-path angle, <Ji,
and launch azimuth, ~. to determine what the
burnout velocity vector should be.
728
C.9 Deriving the Rocket Equation
C.9 Deriving the Rocket Equation
Newton's Second Law states that the sum of the external forces on an
object equals its change in momentum, or, in equation form
~ _ (mV)_ Lr_2
L.,;Fexternal-d dt -ddt
where
F = forces on an object (N)
m = mass of the object (kg)
V = object's velocity (m/s)
p = object's linear momentum (kg m/ s)
= time (s)
d = differential operator (unitless)
Consider a rocket expelling mass at a constant velocity, V exit, relative to
the vehicle. If we ignore gravity, drag, and air pressure, no external forces
act on the body.
· -~ F external -0-d(p)
· L,; - - dt
But the real question is, "what is the momentum, p, of the rocket?"
p(t) = m(t)V(t) + J;dm(t)(V(t)-Vexit) (C-30)
\ I
(1) (2)
where
(1) = current momentum of the rocket
(2) = sum of the momentum associated with all of the mass ejected
as combustion products from time zero to the present
If we assume the rocket, shown in Figure C-11, burns fuel at some rate,
m, the time rate of change of the vehicle mass is m < 0 (negative because
the vehicle is losing mass). But dm (t) = - m dt > 0 (the mass of the fuel
expelled by the rocket is increasing with time). Now, we substitute m dt
for dm in Equation (C-30)
V(t)----
:.p(t) = m(t)V(t)-J0\n(V(t)-Vexit)dt (C-31)
Figure C-11. Absolute Velocity. The
Differentiating absolute velocity of the ejected mass, dm (I) is
V(t) - Vexit·
da~t) oi(t)V(tj-+m(t)V(t)-!JiW¥ftt+m(t)Vexit = 0
Notice m(t)V(t) terms cancel, so we have
:.m(t)V(t) = -m (t)Vexit
729
Appendix C Derivations
We divide both sides by m(t) to get
· mtt) m
V (t) = --(-)Vexit= --Vexit
mt m
Integrating both sides from initial conditions to final conditions gives us
v. mr-dm
f dV = f ~Vexit
Jvo Jmo
We evaluate the natural logarithm of mat the initial and find masses to get
mo
/l.V = Vexit ln-
mf
From Chapter 14, Vexit = C, the effective exhaust velocity, so we have
ll.V = Cln(::) (C-32)
This is the rocket equation, which gives the velocity change due to burning
fuel (m, - mf) and exhausting the combustion products at a speed of C, the
effective exhaust velocity.
730
C.10 Deriving the Potential Energy Equation and Discovering the Potential Energy Well
C.10 Deriving the Potential Energy
Equation and Discovering the
Potential Energy Well
We start with a basic physics principle that in a conservative energy
field (such as gravity), the amount of work done raising or lowering an
object equals the integral of the force vector, F, dotted with the
differential distance vector, ds . We also know that the work done raising
or lowering an object equals its change in potential energy, ~PE. So, in
equation form, we say
W = F1F · ds, = -~PE (C-33)
where
W = work done in a conservative field (Nm)
--'
F = applied force vector (N)
ds = object's differential displacement vector (m)
~PE = object's change in potential energy (Nm)
If we limit the object's motion to one dimension (up and down), we get
W2 = fI\dz = -~PE2
Thus in a gravity field, using our two-body assumptions from Chapter 4,
we have
(C-34)
where
R = object's position vector from Earth's center (km)
Now, we need _,.to use Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation to get an
expression for F g
__,. -Gm1 m2,
Fg = R
R2
Next, we arbitrarily choose up as positive, so i\
points down, which is
negative.
Near Earth, we combine Gm1 and call it µEarth, so we have
__,. -µm2,
F = --R
g R2
Now, we substitute our simplified expression for Fg into Equation (C-
34), and get
731
Appendix C Derivations
W = J-µm2dR
R2
which acts along the R direction.
When we integrate, we get
µm2
W=-+C
R
And the potential energy change is
-µm2
APE= -W = ---C (C-35)
R
where
C = constant of integration (Nm)
If we ever want to compute a value for APE, we must establish a reference
point, so we can set a value for C.
In astronautics, we choose to set potential energy equal to zero at R = co,
When we substitute these values into Equation (C-35), we get
0 = -µm21
-- -C
R limR-+oo
When we take the limit of -µ;2 as R approaches infinity, that term is
zero. So, C = 0 for our chosen reference condition. Thus, the potential
energy in Equation (C-35) becomes
-µm2
PE= --
R
So, starting at R = oo, where PE = 0, for every other finite radius, the
potential energy is negative, growing more negative toward Earth's center,
where the expression does not yield a finite answer.
732
Solar and
Planetary Data
D.1 Physical Properties of the Sun !I!!!!! 0 u tli n e
0.1 Physical Properties of the Sun
Table D-1. Physical Properties of the Sun. [Larson & Wertz, Space Mission Analysis
and Design, 1999.J 0.2 Physical Properties of the
Earth
Quantity Value
Radius of the photosphere 6.95508 x 105 km 0.3 Physical Properties of the
Angular diameter of the photosphere at 1 AU 0.53313 deg Moon
Mass 1.9891 x 1030 kg
0.4 Planetary Data
Mean density 1.410 g/cm3
Total radiation emitted 3.826 x 1026 J/s 0.5 Spheres of Influence for the
Total radiation per unit area at 1 AU 1358 W/m2 Planets
Apparent visual magnitude at 1 AU -26.75
Absolute visual magnitude (magnitude at distance of 10 +4.82
parsecs)
Color Index, B-V +0.65
Spectral type G2V
Effective temperature 5777 K
Inclination of the equator to the ecliptic 7.25 deg
Adopted period of sidereal rotation (q! = 17°) 25.38 days
Corresponding synodic rotation period (relative to Earth) 27.345 days
Mean sunspot period 11.04 years
Dates of former maxima 1968.9, 1980.0, 1989.6
Mean time from maximum to subsequent minimum 6.2 years
Appendix D Solar and Planetary Data
D.2 Physical Properties of the Earth
Table D-2. Physical Properties of the Earth. [Larson & Wertz, Space Mission Analysis
and Design, 1999.]
Quantity Value
Equatorial radius, a 6378.13649 km
Flattening factor (ellipticity), f .. (a - c) la 1 /298.25642 - 0.00335282
Polar ractus.' c 6356.7517 km
Mean radius," (a2 c) 113 6371.00 km
Eccentricity,· (a2 - c2) 1 /2/a 0.081819301
Surface area 5.100657 x 1 oB km2
Volume 1.083207 x 1012 km3
Ellipticity of the equator (amax - am1n)larnean - 1.6 x 10-5
Longitude of the maxima 14.805° W, 165.105° E
Ratio of the mass of the Sun to the mass of the Earth 332945.9
Gravitational parameter, GmEarth = ftEarth 3.986004418 x 1014 m31s2
Mass of Earth 5.9737 x 1 o2'1 kg
Mean density 5.5548 g/cm3
Gravitational field constants =
J2 + 1.08263 x , o-a
J3 = -2.53231 x 10-6
J4 = -1.62043 x 10---6
Mean distance of Earth center from Earth-Moon barycenter 4671 km
Average lengthening oi the day 0.0015 s/century
• Based on adopted values of f and a.
734
D.3 Physical Properties of the Moon
D.3 Physical Properties of the Moon
Table D-3. Physical Properties of the Moon. [Adapted from The Astronomical Almanac,
Nautical Almanac OHice, U.S. Naval Observatory, Government printing office,
2000, except where noted.]
Quantity Value
Equatorial radius 1737.4 km
Surface area 37.9 x 106 km2'
Ratio of the mass of the Moon to the mass of the Earth 0.0123
Mass of the Moon 7.3483 x 1022 kg
Mean density 3.34 glcm3
Gravitational field parameters J2 = +0.2027 x 1 o-3
Semimajor axis of lunar orbit 384,400 km
Gravitational parameter, GmMoon • PMoon 4.902794 x 1 o3 km3ts2 ··
Sidereal orbit period 27.321661 solar days
Sidereal rotation period 27.321661 solar days
Orbital eccentricity 0.054900489
Orbital inclination with respect to Earth's equator 18.28° - 28.58°
Heiken, Grant H., David T. Vaniman, Bevan M. French. Lunar Sourcebook. Cambridge,
U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson (ed.). Space Mission Analysis and Design.
Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
s
Figure D-1. Relationship Between Inclinations of the Earth and Moon.
735
9£l
·41Je3 a41 punorv uoow a4110 uo11n1or.a1:::1 ·z-a am61::1
Si\BJ
sung
D.4 Planetary Data
D.4 PlanetaryData
Table D-4. Planetary Data. [Adapted from The Astronomical Almanac, Nautical Almanac Office, U.S. Naval Observatory,
Government printing office, 2000, except where noted.]
Mean Orbital
Equatorial Distance Orbital Orbital lnclin- Surface Gravitational
Radius from Sun Period Eccen- at ion Atmos- Gravity Parameter 1.1
Planet (km) Mass (kg) (AU) (Years) tricity (deg) phere Earth=1g (km3/s2)
Mercury 2439.7 3.3022 x 1023 0.387 0.241 0.206 7.0 None 0.352 2.094x 104
Venus 6051.8 4.869 x 1024 0.723 0.615 0.007 3.39 C02 0.8874 3.249x 105
Earth 6378.14 5.9742 x 1024 1.0 1.0 0.017 0 N2 + 02 1.0 3.986x 105
Mars 3397.2 6.4191 x 1023 1.524 1.881 0.093 1.85 C02 0.37 4.269x 104
Jupiter 71,492 1 .8988 x 1027 5.204 11.862 0.049 1.30 H2 + He NIA 1.267x 108
Saturn 60,268 5.685 x 1026 9.582 29.458 0.056 2.49 CH4+NH3 NIA 3.7967x 107
Uranus 25,559 8.6625 x 1025 19.20 84.014 0.046 0.77 H2 + He NIA 5.7918x106
Neplune 24,764 1.0278 x 1026 30.05 164.79 0.011 1.77 H2 + He NIA 6.806x 106
Pluto 1195 1.5x 1022 39.24 247.7 0.244 17.2 thin CH4 0.0603 798.04
Values from McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.7th ed., Vol. 13. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992.
Note: 1 AU = 149.6 x 106 km.
737
Appendix D Solar and Planetary Data
D.5 Spheres of Influence for the Planets
Table D-5. Sphere of Influence Radii for the Planets. (Computed using
method from Chapter 7.)
Distance from Sun Mass of Planet Radius of SOI
Planet (x 106 km) (x 1024 kg) (x 103 km)
Mercury 57.9 0.33022 112
Venus 108.2 4.869 616
Earth 149.6 5.9742 925
Mars 228.0 0.64191 577
Jupiter 778.5 1898.8 48,216
Saturn 1433.4 568.5 54,802
Uranus 2872.3 86.625 51,740
Neptune 4495.4 102.78 86,710
Pluto 5870.2 0.015 3308
Table D-6. Synodic Periods for Missions from Earth to the Planets.
Planet Synodic Period (Years)
Mercury 0.32
Venus 1.60
Mars 2.13
Jupiter 1.09
Saturn 1.04
Uranus 1.01
Neptune 1.01
Pluto 1.00
738
References
== References
Allen, C. W. Astrophysical Quantities. Third Edition.
London, England: The Athlene Press, 1973.
American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. London,
England: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1961.
H. M. Nautical Almanac Office. Explanatory Supplement
to the Astronomical Ephemeris. London, England: Her
Majesty's Stationery Office, 1961.
Larsen, Dennis G. and Richard Holdaway, eds. The
Astronomical Almanac, 2000. Nautical Almanac
Office, U.S. Naval Observatory, and H. M. Nautical
Almanac Office. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 2000.
Hartman, William I<. Moon and Planets. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, Inc., 1983.
Hedgley, David R., Jr. An Exact Transformation from
Geocentric to Geodetic Coordinates for Nonzero
Altitudes. NASA TRR-458, Flight Research Center,
1976.
Hedman, Edward L., Jr. A High Accuracy Relationship
Between Geocentric Cartesian coordinates and
Geodetic Latitude and Altitude. J. Spacecraft. 7: 993-
995, 1970.
Heiken, Grant, David Vaniman, and Bevan M. French.
Lunar Sourcebook. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge
University Press, 1991.
Muller, Edith A. and Jappel Arndst, eds. International
Astronomical Union Proceedings of the Sixteenth
General Assembly, Grenoble, 1976. Dordrecht,
Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1977.
Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space b/iission
Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
739
Ovl
Motion of
Ballistic
Vehicles
E.1 Equation of Motion 111111111 Outline
Ballistic trajectories are the paths followed by nonthrusting objects, such E.1 Equation of Motion
as baseballs or intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), moving under Ground-track Geometry
the influence of gravity. We can use the geocentric-equatorial coordinate Trajectory Geometry
system to describe this motion. The equation of motion is
Maximum Range
Time of Flight
R + ~R
R2
= o (E-1)
Rotating-Earth Correction
Error Analysis
using three assumptions
.,.
• Most of the trajectory is outside Earth's atmosphere: Fdrag O
.,.
• Start time at burnout: Fthrust = 0
• Other forces are negligible compared to gravity: Father = 0
A ballistic trajectory, like an orbit, is defined by six initial conditions
(!Cs)
• Radius at burnout, Rburnout
• Velocity at burnout, Vburnout
• Flight-path angle at burnout, <!>burnout
• Azimuth angle at burnout, i3burnout
• Latitude at burnout, Lburnout
• Longitude at burnout, !burnout
The shape of a ballistic trajectory is an ellipse which intersects Earth's
surface at two points-launch and impact, as shown in Figure E-1. Figure E-1. Basic Trajectory for an ICBM.
Appendix E Motion of Ballistic Vehicles
Ground-trackGeometry
The ground track of a ballistic trajectory is the arc of a great circle. To
determine this range angle, A, from the launcher to the target, we start
with L0 and 10, the latitude and longitude of the launcher, and Lt and It,
the latitude and longitude of the target. Then, using spherical
trigonometry, as shown in Figure E-2, we get
I cos A = sin L0sinL1 + cosL0cosL1costll I (E-2)
where
Lll = It -10
Note that this setup assumes that Earth isn't rotating. This equation
gives two values for the range angle, A. The smaller one, A, is the short
way around the Earth; the larger value, 360° - A, is for the long way. To
convert from a range angle in degrees to range in kilometers, multiply by
10,000 km/90°. We show the range-angle geometry in Figure E-2.
Figure E-2. Ballistic Trajectories. To visualize ballistic trajectories, it's helpful to slice earth
North Pole open like an apple, reveallng a launch site (launch site latitude, L0, target latitude, L1, and the
range angle, A. The range traces over Earth's surface.
One of the initial conditions to locate the trajectory is the burnout
azimuth angle.B. We measure this angle clockwise from true north to the
trajectory, as shown in Figure E-3.
sin L1 - sin L0 cos A
cosB (E-3)
cos Lg sin A
A polar plot of the trajectory is useful to determine the correct quadrant
for the azimuth angle, as shown in Figure E-4.
Figure E-3. Launch Azimuth. Launch
azimuth, [:l, is the angle measured from true
north at the launch site, clockwise to the launch
direction.
742
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·spafqo ~msmeq JO S)f~BJl punoif a4i az!lenS!A sn d1a4 sioid JBIOd ·101d JBIOd ·p-3 aJn61:1
Appendix E Motion of Ballistic Vehicles
Trajectory Geometry
Define a trajectory parameter
VGurnout
Q burnout = y2 (E-4)
circular µ
• Qburnout < 1.0: This restricts the booster to go only the short way to a
target. Because most ballistic rockets use the short way to a target,
they need a Qburnout less than one.
• Qburnout;;,;1.0: This implies Vbumout;;,; V circular, which means the
rocket can place a payload into orbit at a radius, Rburnout· This also
means the booster can reach any point on Earth using either the short
or long way.
• Qburnout = 2.0: This implies = ~~ ~. This is Earth's
V burnout
escape velocity. A booster with Qburnout;;,: 2.0 would leave on an
escape trajectory (parabolic or hyperbolic) and would therefore be
useless for getting from one point on Earth to another.
Another of the angles describing the trajectory is the flight-path angle,
qi, defined as the angle between the local horizontal and the velocity
vector. Based on the value of the trajectory parameter, Qburnout, the
ballistic vehicle can follow either a high or low path, as Figure E-5 shows.
The following figure shows the various paths available
low
horizontal
Figure E-5. Flight-path Angle and Trajectory. Whether you're squirting a hose or
launching a missile, the ellect of lllght-path angle is the same. Maximum range is achieved
with a !light-path angle of 45° (for very short trajectories). Two other angles will get you to the
same spat-a law, direct trajectory or a high, arcing trajectory.
To solve for the flight-path angle
<Pb urnoutlow = -1 2 f.lsm. -1 [(2 - Qburnout)
Qburnout
!\}
. A] - -
sm-2 2
(E-S)
744
E.1 Equation of Motion
This angle results in a low, direct trajectory.
,1-,
"'
burnout1,;61,
= - 12 {1soo - sm. [(2 - -1 Qburnout)
Qburnout
. -/\] - -/\}
sin
2 2
(E-6)
This angle gives a high, arcing trajectory.
Maximum Range
For a specified value of the trajectory parameter, we can determine the
maximum range achievable for that ballistic vehicle. Given the trajectory
parameter, Qburnout
/\ max = .
2 Sin -·1 ( Qburnout ) (E-7)
2 Q
- burnout
To find the flight-path angle for launch to achieve the maximum range
angle, /\max
,t. )
/\ max
(
'!'burnout max range = 45 0_
4 (E-8)
Similarly, to avoid over-designing a missile, we can solve for the
minimum value of Qburnout needed to reach some range angle, /\
. A
2 sm 2
Qburnoutmin (E-9)
. /\
1 + sm2
Time of Flight
Time of flight can be determined in two ways. The first way was
previously discussed in Chapter 8. This involves using the definition of
the ballistic trajectory as an elliptical path and solving Kepler's equation.
The second method uses two charts based on these equations.
Figure E-6 shows a chart that relates the ratio of time of flight (TOF) to
the period of a circular orbit and to the total range angle, /\. The graph
also contains lines for the trajectory parameter, Qburnout, and for the
flight-path angle, qi.
To find the TOF for the trajectory, you must first compute the range
angle, A, and have the value for the radius at burnout, Rburnout· In Figure
E-6, the vertical axis is a ratio, TOF IP circular- We earlier defined Qburnout
as the ratio of the square of Vburnout to the square of V circular· Similarly, we
set up a ratio of the TOF of a trajectory to the period of a circular orbit at
that radius of burnout. Let's step through how we use this chart to find
TOF
745
Appendix E Motion of Ballistic Vehicles
• Find the value of A on the horizontal axis. Move vertically until you
intersect the given value of <2burnout for the problem. The values for
Qburnout are in increments of 0.05, so if your value is between curves,
you must estimate.
• Find the intersection with the appropriate <2bumout curve to get two
possibilities-a high and low trajectory. The one above the max range
line is the high path, and the one below is the low path.
• Estimate the value for flight-path angle from the lines for qi. These
lines are in 10° increments, so you may need to interpolate.
• Move left to the vertical axis to find the value of the ratio TOF I
P circular·
• Find the appropriate value of the circular orbit period at Rburnout by
using the equation for period
3
Rburnout
pcircular = 2rr µ
Be careful of units. The value of Pcircular needs to be in minutes.
• Multiply the ratio by the circular orbit period to find
TOF )
TOF = (p . pcircular
circular
0.6
E o.5
:,
~
·u
P--<
....._
I-!.
~ 0.4 ,-- __ ...,.
low trajectory
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150-160 170 180
Range Angle, A (deg)
Figure E-6. Range Angle in Degrees Versus TOF/Pcircular·
746
E.1 Equation of Motion
Recall that all trajectories with Qburnout <1.0 have two options: a high
trajectory and a low trajectory. We must solve each case separately for the
time of flight.
Rotating-EarthCorrection
Earth's rotation at 15° /hr has the following effect on trajectories
• Eastward launches
- Target moves away from the launcher
- Range angle, t\, increases (from nonrotating solution)
- Flight-path angle, qi, must increase on the low trajectory and
decrease on the high trajectory
• Westward launches
- Target moves toward the launcher
- Range angle, t\, decreases (from nonrotating solution)
- Flight-path angle, qi, must decrease on the low trajectory and
increase on the high trajectory
To account for the rotation we adjust the range-angle equation to
We can't solve directly for the range angle, t\, so we must start with a
"guess" and then iterate until we reach a solution. We're given L0 and 10,
as well as Lt and It. To find t\, ~' qi, we must go through the following
algorithm
• Solve for the nonrotating range angle
cos t\ = sin L0 sin Lt + cos L0 cos Lt cosal
• Find the time of flight, TOF, with t\nonrotating by using the chart in
Figure E-6 for high trajectory
• Plug this time into the rotating range-angle equation and get a value
for !\rotating
cost\= sin L0 sin Lt+ cos L0 cos Lt costal + WEarthTOF)
• Compute a new TOF using the new value of !\rotating
• Repeat the last two steps until the difference between successive
values of range angle is small enough (usually 0.5° to 1°)
• Solve for B and cp for the chosen trajectory
• Repeat aJI of the above for low trajectory
ErrorAnalysis
Errors in any of the six initial conditions for a ballistic trajectory will
cause it to miss the target. We categorize how we miss the target in terms
747
Appendix E Motion of Ballistic Vehicles
of downrange errors (in the direction of motion) and crossrange errors
(perpendicular to the direction of motion). We use the following sign
convention, as shown in Figure E-7.
• Landing long or to the right of the target is a positive error
• Landing short or to the left of the target is a negative error
Downrange error (6A) has three causes
• Burning out at higher or lower altitude
6A = (aR aA ) 6Rburnout
burnout
. 2 A
Figure E-7. Conventions for Error Analysis. aA 4µ sm 2 180° deg
(E-11)
aRburnout VGurnoutRGurnout sin2cj> rt km
• Burning out at higher or lower velocity
6A = (av aA ) 6 Vburnout
burnout
. 2 A
cJA 8µ sm 2180° ~
(E-12)
av burnout ( V burnout )3(R
burnout
) sin2cj> rt m/s
• Burning out at a different flight-path angle. This is also shown in
max range
Figure E-8
6A = (acp aA ) 6cpburnout
A burnout
-
high
aA
acpburnout
= 2sin(2cj>burnout +A)_
sin(2cj>burnout)
2deg
deg
(E-13)
These three ratios showing the change in range angle due to a change
Figure E-8. Plot of Flight-Path Angle in some initial condition are called influence coefficients. Because they are
Versus Range Angle. rather complicated to compute, we can use estimates of the influence
coefficients called rule-of-thumb values.
Crossrange errors (6C) have two causes
• Displacing the launch site left or right of the trajectory
6C = (6Yburnout) cos A (E-14)
• Burning out with a larger or a smaller azimuth angle
6C = 6~( 111.1 ~;) sin A (E-15)
~ References
Bate, Roger R., Donald D. Mueller, and Jerry E. White. Fundamentals of
Astrodynamics. New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications, Inc., 1971.
748
Answers to
Numerical
Mission
Problems
Chapter 1
Space in Our Lives
None
Chapter 2
Exploring Space
None
Chapter 3
The Space Environment
None
Appendix F Answers to umerical Mission Problems
Chapter4 Chapter 5
Understanding Orbits Describing Orbits
8) H = 0.25 kg· m2/s km2
4) E = -4.73-?
s-
9) H = 0.006283 kg· m2 Is
2
16) a) h = - 40,307.381 + 50,036.88J - 6920.24:Kkm
s
10) Fg = 0.05336 N
b) i = 96.15°
11) g = 9.722 m/ s2
c) n = -50,036.881- 40,307.38J (km2 Is)
12) V = 76.669 m/ s d) Q = 218.85°
t = 7.825 s
17) a) e = 0.1351 + 0.092J - 0.1201<:
23) a) a = 7565.5 km b) (I)= 216.7°
b) e = 0.1074 c) v=319.3°
c) R = 8374.926 km 22) a) 6N = 240°
Alt= 1996.926 km b) Latmax and min= 25°
d) Negative
23) a) i ""50°
b) P = 3 hrs
-' A 2
25) b) h = -49,441 K km Is
d) E = -31.999 km2 / s2
Chapter 6
26) KEtruck = 0.844 kg · km2 / s2 Maneuvering in Space
vspace = 7.473 km/s
5) a) Etrnnsfer = -29.73 km2 / s2
KEspace = 279,249 kg · km2 / s2
b) tiV1=0.lkm/s
27) Alt = 35,863.08 km c) 6V2=0.llkm/s
d) TOF = 45.5 min
30) a) Vcirc = 3.993 km/ S
b) 6 vesc = 1.654 km/ s 10) 6 V simple= 4.45 km/ S
c) 6KE=7.972km2/s2 11) 6 vsimple = 4.71 km/ s
750
Numerical An wers
12) a) Etrnnsfer = -12.11 km2 / s2 Chapter8
b) t.V1=2.08km/s
Predicting Orbits
c) l'. Vcombined = 1.70 km/ S
2) TOF = 1390.09 s = 23.17 min
14) a) TOF = 2642.6 s
3) TOF = 21.96 min
b) Winterceptor = 0.001205 rad/ S
Wtarget = 0.001173 rad/ s 4) u = 155.6°
c) a1ead = 3.10 rad 5) Vfuture = 157.390
d) <Pfinal = 0.0436 rad
9) Time= 816.67 days
e) wait time= 19.8 hrs
10) Q = -8.1 deg/ day, westward
15) a) TOF = 5877 s
11) Vfuture = 233.1 o
b) a= 7038.8 km
afuture = 6876 km
c) t.V1 = 0.23 km/ s
efuture = 0.0288
ifuture = 75o
Chapter7 .Qfuture = 0°
Wfuture = 0°
InterplanetaryTravel
8) t.V = 2.32 km/s
Chapter9
9) a) atrnnsfer = 1.289 x 108 km Getting to Orbit
Etransfer = -514.7 k rrr?/ s-?
7) LSI = 0300 hrs
b) V oo Earth= 2.49 km/ S
c) Vco Venus= 2.72 km/ S 8) LSI = 0320 hrs
d) l'.Vboost = 3.5 km/s 12) 1) One
e) l'.Vretro=3.32km/s 2) Two
f) l'. V mission = 6.82 km/ S
14) a) LWST = 135°
10) TOF = 146.1 days b) LWST = 0900 hrs
c) Wait 21 hrs
11) Radius of SOI= 66,183 km
17) e) a= 30°
12) <Pfinal = 106° £) y=60.24°
751
Appendix F Answers lo Numerical Mission Problems
g) 0 = 6.91°
Chapter 11
h) LWST AN = 0928 hrs
Space Systems Engineering
j) ~AN= 60.24°
k) LWST AN = 2032 hrs
11) 6 x 1014 Hz
l) 6 hrs and 2 min
m) ~ON= 119.76° 16) Am = 3.574 µm
18) Launch at 2036 ~AN= 46.17° E = 2.452 x 104 W lm2
19) a) 13° 23) 1.22e-6 rad= 6.99e-5 deg
b) 15 hrs, 21 min, and 36 s
24) h = 8.1967 x 103 km
21) 408.7 m Is
24) a) Iv burnout! = 7451.8 ml s Chapter 12
b) Y1aunchsite = 408.7 m/s E Space Vehicle Control
Systems
c) V needed = 170~3.J ml S
b732.~J 9) Torque= 2.0 Nm
1'1.H = 2.0 kg m2ls2
d) IV needectl = 7971 m IS
e) l'1. V design = 8971 m Is 12 1.273 x 10-4 Nm
25) l'1. V design = 8558 .2 m Is 13 1.811 x 10-4 N
14 0.077 N
Chapter 10
Returning From Space: 30) ag = -9.6765 ml s2
Re-entry
11) 24.813 g's, alt= 28,251 m 34) vtogo = [~~:~] mis
14.4 SEZ
12) 20,348 m
18) 118,391 w I m2
21) 0.34 g's
752
Numerical Answers
Chapter13 Chapter14
SpacecraftSubsystems Rockets and Launch Vehicles
13) 2.1 x 107bits/s 5) PJ = 1.296 MW
19) VR = 300 V 6) 6p = 100 Ns
8) M = 1000 s 10 N engine
20) i = 17.86 A
= 5000 s 2 N engine
23) PouT = 288.6 WI m2 = 10,000 s 1 N engine
25) TOEmax = 36.3 min 9) F= 15N
Isp = 3.06 s
29) 888.9 W hr
6V = 12.16 m/s
36) orbit average power= 220 W
11) 6V = 20.1 m/s
TE= 36.5 min
battery capacity= 243.4 W hr 12) ffipropellant= 9.95 kg
18) p = 116.1 kg/m3
42) q = -4.94 W
21) V = 0.637 m/ s
43) q = -9.69 W
vkink = 2.546 m/ s
44) T = 213.43 K = -59.57° C
22) a0 = 352.4 m/ s
45) T = 203.37 K = -69.6° C Mach 1.3 = 458.1 m/s
61) a= 127,389 NI m2 27) D, = 0.0177 m
28) M = 356.5 s
62) E = 0.0001
29) ISP· ideal = 383.9 s
63) M = 2000 N · m
a0 = 1263 m/s '
64) E = 0.2 (41° C) C* = 1747 m/s
-0.2 (1° C)
33) From Figure 14-20: Isp no change; Thrust increases
66) fnaturaJ = 0.0159 Hz 34) Isp, F, and C* decrease
67) K = 24.67 x 106 N/m 39) Savings of 111.2 kg
69) E = 2 X 10-9 47) ffioxidizer = 800 kg
753
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2)f 0006 (1{
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2)f OOS'1S1 (B (69
(%SL= LL) u01 x zzs lU £££'££ = wnwqdo~IV (99
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scil '(%SS= Lt) u01 x l0"9 =
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zw/ M 1806 = d (01 lID\ 09v = aa~ode~ (19
SUO!lCJ.:JdQaJed5 zS/W v-01 X 09"8 = B
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SLU<>fqO.lcl LIOISSllfl! 1in1.r;:,wn 01 S.1,'lMSU\f :I xtpuaddv
Index
Index
-A- angular resolution 389
angular velocity 112, 211, 412, 426
ablation 346
anode 469
ablative cooling 346
aperture 389
absorbed energy 385
apogee 135, 141, 156
absorptivity 484
Apollo program 49
accelerating charge 618
A pol lo 1 mission 489
acceleration 118, 510
Apollo 13 mission 608, 651
accelerometer 435,439
Apollo Applications Program (AAP) 287
acceptable operating ranges, ECLSS 373
Apollo capsule 324
accuracy, re-entry 341
Apollo mission 151
acoustic chamber 611
Apollo-Soyuz mission 50
acoustic load 512
apparent solar day 293
action and reaction 115
application software 454
active actuators 422
active sensor 391 arcjet rocket 572
active thermal control 485 argument of latitude 164,262
actuator 404,437 argument of perigee 156, 159, 161, 171,274
acute dosages, radiation 94 quadrant for 172
Adams, John Couch 41 Ariane IV 60
adiabatic flow 541 Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads
advance science and technology 663 (ASAP) 60
aerobraking 350,352 Ariane V 17,591
aerodynamic drag 416 Arianespace 60,657
Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) 623 Aristotle 33
albedo 482 Armstrong, Neil 49
Aldrin, Buzz 49 arrival at the target planet 227
Alfonsine Tables 34 ascending node 158, 162, 181
algebra 34 ascending node vector 169
Almagest 34 ascending-node launch opportunity 300
alternating current 465 assembly drawing 516
altitude 309 assembly, integration, and test (AIT) 513, 608, 634
altitude of maximum deceleration 341 asteroids 84
altitude of maximum heating rate 341 as trod ynamics 80
amortize 672 Astrolabe 34
amperes 463 astrolabe 34
amplitude 451, 618 astrology 33,266
amplitude modulation 451,456 astronautics 11, 13
analog data 455 astronauts 491
analog to digital conversion 456 astronomy 33,266
Andromeda 76 Atlas 590
anechoic chamber 457,612 atmosphere 73,81
angle of attack 350 atmospheric
angle of incidence 466 density 81
angular momentum 112, 123, 140,412,426 drag 273,413
angular momentum vector 419 pressure 81
755
Index
re-entry 324 Booster Officer 636
windows 385 bow shock 87
atomic oxygen 82 Brahe, Tycho 36
attitude accuracy 409 bremsstrahlung radiation 95
attitude and orbit control 370 brittle 507
attitude and orbit control subsystem Bruno, Giordano 36
(AOCS) 371,406,589 Buckley Air National Guard Base 614
attitude control 370 burnout velocity 309, 313
attitude determination and control bytes 453
subsystem (ADCS) 407,430
attitude dynamics 412
attitude-control budget 371 -C-
Aurora Borealis 88 calculus 114
autonomy 646 Callisto 55
average mean motion 281 cameras 389
axial load 501 capillary wick system 487
azimuth 261 capital market acceptance 656, 660
carbon dioxide 489
carrier signal 451, 618
-B- Cartwheel Galaxy 109
backward pass 643 Cassini mission 27,56
ballistic coefficient (BC) 330,342,345 cathode 469
ballistic missile 45 Centaurus A 56
bandwidth 622 center of gravity 513
barbecue mode 485 central processing unit (CPU) 453
batteries CERISE mission 84
nickel-cadmium 469 Challenger 62
nickel-hydrogen 469 chamber pressure 551
primary 469 chamber temperature 551
secondary 469 Chandra X-ray Observatory 3,56
Becquerel, Henri 42 characteristic exhaust velocity 547
beginning-of-life 467 charge 462
bending moment 502 charge-coupled device (CCD) 390
Bernoulli Principle 543 charged particles 74, 75,554
Bernoulli, Daniel 543 charging 88
biased momentum systems 427 Charon 57
bicycle wheels in space 426 check valves 563
bioregenerative life-support subsystems 493 chemical energy 468
bipropellant rockets 565 chemical rockets 564
bit 453 chemical-energy systems 468
bitflip 88 chlorofluorocarbons 387
black body 387 choked flow 544
black-body radiation 622 circle 106, 134
block diagrams 403 circuits 462,464
body frame 408 circular equatorial orbit 165
body-mounted solar array 466 circular orbit 164
Boeing Sea Launch 310 circular trajectory 106
Boltzmann's constant 622 Clarke, Arthur C. 352
756
Index
classic orbital elements (COEs) 155, 161, conservation of angular momentum 420
261, 272, 616 conservation of linear momentum 534
alternates 165 conservation of momentum 123
clean room 610, 672 conservative field 124, 140
Clementine mission 58 constellation 16
Clementine spacecraft 669 constraints 632
closed-loop control system 405,408 contact forces 80
co-apsidal orbits 194 control 434
coefficient of drag 329 control center 614
coefficient of thermal expansion 504 control systems 403
cold welding 82,83 controller 404,429,438
cold-gas rocket 550 control-moment gyroscope (CMG) 427,429
trade-offs 552 convection 83,337,483
Columbia space vehicle 290 convective heat transfer 337
combined plane change 203, 205 co-orbital rendezvous 213
combined-cycle propulsion systems 595 coordinate system 107, 131
combustion chamber 545,564 fundamental plane 131
comet 36,84 origin 131
commands, spacecraft 616 principal direction 131
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) 671 Copernicus, Nicolaus 32,35
commercial spending 657 coplaner orbits 194
commercialization of space 59, 657 corridor width 341
commissioning 637 cosmic year 76
communicate 2 cosmonauts 490
communication 6, 614, 617 cost 631
communication and data handling 589 cost estimating 675
communication and data-handling cost estimating relationships (CERs) 676
subsystem (CDHS) 371,449,618 cost versus reliability 671
communication architecture 614 coulomb 462
communication components 452 Coulomb's Law 462
communication networks 623 critical path 644
compass 87 Critical-path Method (CPM) 641
composite material 508 cross product 169
composite structure 509 crosslink 615
composites 508 cryogenic 565
compression load 501 cryogenic coolers 488
compressive load 501 cyrogenic propellants 562
computational fluid dynamics (CFO) 342
computer aided design (CAD) 514
computer-aided manufacturing equipment 610 -D-
condenser 487 damper 424
conduction 83,337,482 damping 506
conductive heat transfer 337 data 450
conductor 464,483 budget 457
configuration control 514 handling 453
conflict resolution 639 rate 457
Congreve, William 44 sampling 456
conic section 106, 134, 225 data budgets 372
757
Index
data processing and handling 632,637 drag
data rate 617 atmospheric 81, 132, 273, 329
debris, space 84 coefficient 417
deceleration profiles 336,343 torque 417
decibel 512 dry weight 498
decision-making process 639 dual-spin spacecraft 424
decreased hydrostatic gradient 91 dual-spin systems 423
Deep Space Network antennas 257 ductile 507
deep-space tracking network (DSN) 623 dust, cosmic 84
Defense Satellite Communication System 6 duty cycle 475
Defense Support Program dynamic envelope 511
(DSP) mission 488,614,624 dynamic loads 501
degree 36 dynamic pressure 329,587
Delta II 568
delta-V 194
boost 240 -E-
mission 245 earliest-finish (EF) time 643
retro 244 earliest-start (ES) time 643
demodulator 452 early-warning satellites 7
density specific impulse 537 earned value 645
density, atmospheric 81 Earth
Department of Transportation (DOT) 666 angular radius 467
depth-of-discharge (DOD) 469
curvature 106
deregulation 657
departure 227
teleconununica tions 657
escaping 238
derivative control 430
infrared 481
descending node 158
descending-node launch opportunity magnetic field 413
300
design and manufacturing teams rotation rate 293
632
design velocity 314 sensors 418
design-for-manufacture 375, 633 ~~e ~1
design-to-cost 365,633,679 Earth Science Enterprise mission 659
Dewar flasks 488 Earth shine 386
digital data 455 eccentric anomaly 264
dinosaurs 331 eccentricity 37, 136, 157, 161
dipole 416 eccentricity vector 168
direct current 465 Echo I 6, 48
direct energy transfer 472 eclipse time 468
direct orbit 157, 183 ecliptic plane 223
direct solar input 481 economics 654, 668
directional antenna 619 edema 92
disturbance torques 413 Edgeworth-Kuiper Disk 57
Dnepr 60 effective exhaust velocity 534, 537, 553
Dobson Unit (DU) 11 effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) 620
docking 208,219 effective program performance indicators 645
dot product 168 Einstein, Albert 42
downlink 614 elastic region 506
downrange angle 309 elastically 506
758
Jndex
electric 75 Europa 55
current 463 European Space Agency (ESA) 55
electric field 463, 553, 618 evaporator 487
electrical Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) 60
charge 540 exotic propulsion systems 578
potential 463,553 expansion ratio 547,552
power 590 exploration 6
electrical power subsystem (EPS) 372,448,461 Explorer 1 mission 47,88
example 474 extravehicular activity (EV A) 219,489
solar powered 472
electricity 462
electrodes 468 -F-
electrodynamic 539 Far Infrared and Submillimetre Telescope
acceleration 540 (FIRST) 57
energy 540 FASat-A spacecraft 656,674
rockets 540, 574, 576 faster, better, cheaper 57
electrolyte 468 Federal Communication Commission
electromagnetic (FCC) 618, 666, 683
energy 382 feedback control system 405
radiation 74, 93, 384, 386, 618 field-of-view (FOV) 16, 388
spectrum 3, 74, 382 final frontier 2,3
electrons 75 final phase angle 212
electrostatic force 462, 553 FireSat 364
electrostatic thruster 574 drawing 514
elevation angle 261 mission 382
ellipse 106, 134 operations concept 365
emerging markets 656 propulsion system 563
emission 346 First Point of Aries 132
emissivity 346, 485 flares, solar 86
Endeavour 290 flash evaporator 486
end-of-life (EOL) 467, 474 flight
energy 124, 384 control 632, 634, 637
energy sources 465 controllers 636
engineering models 672 director 21, 636
engineering performance data 632 model 672
environmental control and life support 372 rules 637
environmental control and life-support spare 672
subsystem (ECLSS) 373,448,480 Flight Dynamics Officer 636
acceptable operating ranges 373 flight-control team 18, 635, 636
environmental testing 611 flight-path angle 135, 136, 309, 313
epicycles 34 flight-readiness review 635
equants 34 fluid shift 91
equation of motion 108, 134 focal length 389
equatorial orbit 157 foci 135
error analysis 108 focus 38, 135
error signal 430 food in space 491
escape trajectory 137 forest fires from space 382
estimating mission 668 forward link 614
759
Index
forward pass 643 spending 657
Foucault Pendulum 420 gravitational acceleration 105, 325
Fourier, J.B. J. 483 gravitational constant 117
Fourier's Law 483 gravitational parameter 118, 156
free fall 4,40, 80,91,488 gravity 110, 132
frequency 384,623 assist 27,222, 252, 254
frequency allocation 666 force of 117
frequency modulation 618 gradient 413, 414
frozen flow 541 turn 309
fuel 564 well 313
fuel cells 470 Gravity Probe B 436
functional testing 611 gravity-gradient stabilization 422
fundamental frequency 505,509 gravity-gradient torque 414
fundamental plane 131 great circle 179
future missions 10 greenhouse effect 387
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 294
-G- Greenwich Meridian 132
Greenwich, England 294
Gagarin, Yuri A. 48
ground resolution versus angular resolution 390
gain 620
ground stations 614
galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) 86,93
ground support equipment (CSE) 611
Galilei, Galileo 32, 39, 118
Galileo mission 27,53,55 ground tracks 154, 179
Galileo spacecraft 254 ground-system specialist 638
Gamma Ray Observatory 3 guidance 434,438
gamma rays 85 Guidance and Procedures Officer 636
Gemini mission 193, 208, 219 gyroscopes 419
geocentric 33 gyroscopic stiffness 413
model 34
geocentric-equatorial coordinate system 131, 157 -H-
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 659
geometrical parameters 135 half-life 470
geostatic 33 Hall-effect thruster (HET) 575
geostationary orbit 164, 182 hardened 86
geosynchronous orbit 164, 182 heat pipes 487
gimbal 420 heat sink 345
Glenn, John 48, 53 heat sources 481
g-load 587 heat transfer 82,482
global cellular phone service 59 heating rate 338,344
global perspective 3 heliocentric 35,223
Global Positioning System (CPS) 9, 16, 43, 59, 61, heliocentric transfer orbit 238
368,421,445,589, 658 heliocentric-ecliptic coordinate system 223
global space industry 658 Herschel, William 41
Global Surveyor mission, Mars 57 Hohmann Transfer 194,222,230-234
globalization 656 Hohmann, Walter 194
GLONASS 9 home-heating system 404
Goddard, Robert H. 45 homogeneous 508
government 654 HST Optical Systems Test platform 21
760
index
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) 3, 10, 52, 56, internal thermal control 486
192,529 International Astronomical Union (IAU) 235
thermal-induced vibrations 504 International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF) 132
Hubble, Edwin 42 International Extreme Ultraviolet Hitchhiker
Huggins, William 41 Experiment (IEUHE) mission 21
human system 489 international space law 665
Huygens mission 56 International Space Station ll
hybrid rocket 568 International Space Station (ISS) 54,360,663
hybrid-propulsion systems 568 International Space Station (ISS) mission 10
hydrazine 565 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 452
hydrogen peroxide 565 International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 666
hydrostatic gradient 91 interplanetary rendezvous 249
hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene 567 interplanetary transfer 222
hyperbola 106, 134 interstellar travel 580
hyperbolic intimate-contact devices 492
Earth departure 238 Io 27,55
excess velocity 238 ion 540
planetary arrival 243 engines 575
trajectory 238 thruster 574
hyperbolic-departure trajectory 238 Iridium System 660
hypergolic 565 business 683
mission objectives 683
mission 16,59,366
-1- mission statement 683
Ida 55 space manufacturing 684
ideal rocket equation 538 isentropic 542
IKON OS 189 flow 541
impulse 535 isotropic 619
impulse bits 551 iteration 265
impulsive burn 195
inclination 156-158, 161, 168, 182, 203, 298 -J-
inclination auxiliary angle 300, 303 J2 effect 274
indirect orbit 157 jet power 535
industry 654 Jupiter 10,27,55
inertia llO
inertial navigation system 437
inertial reference frame 130 -K-
information 450 K-1 launch vehicle 60
initial conditions 108 Kapton™ 486
input/ output (I/ O) devices 453 Kennedy launch site 613
integral control 430 Kennedy Space Center (KSC) 203, 298, 311
Integrated Communications Officer (INCO) 638 Kennedy, John F. 48, 151
integrated testing 457 Kepler, Johannes 32,37, 155,266
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance Kepler's Equation 265
(ISR) 61 Kepler's Laws
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) 326 Kepler's First Law 38
re-entry 335 Kepler's Second Law 38
internal rate of return (IRR) 677,679 Kepler's Third Law 38
761
Index
Kepler's Problem 261, 280 launch-site latitude 301
kinetic energy 124, 126, 141,314,326,535 launch-site longitude 295
Kistler Aerospace 60 launch-vehicle subsystems 586
Kodiak Island launch site 666 launch-window location angle 301, 303
Korolev, Sergei P. 47 launch-window sidereal time (LWST) 299,301
Kourou, French Guyana 310 launch-window situations 304
laws 662
-L- lead angle 211
level of cohesiveness 639
Lagrange Libration Points (LLP) 241 Leverrier, Urbain 41
Landsat mission 7,51,399 Liability Convention 665
latent heat of fusion 346,487 life cycle 669
latent heat of vaporization 487 life-cycle cost 669
lateral load 501 design 669
latest-finish (LF) time 644 launch 669
latest-start (LS) time 644
manufacture 669
launch 609, 612, 635
operations 669
ascending-node opportunity 300
life-support budget 493
azimuth 302
light year 42, 76
costs 673
line of nodes 158
descending-node opportunity 300
director linear aerospike nozzle 588
635
environment 510 linear momentum 111
geometry 303 lines of latitude 179
loads 510 lines of longitude 179
opportunity 299 link budget 372,457
services 658 liquid-chemical rockets 565
site 292 lithium hydroxide canisters 492
site latitude 303 loads, types of 501
team 631 local sidereal time (LST) 294,299
time 292 logical relationships 642
vehicle 17,308 Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) mission 82
vehicle ascent, phases of 308 longitude of perigee 165
vehicle envelope 511 low-cost launch opportunities 656
vehicles 586 Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) 587
Ariane 17, 60, 591 Lunar Prospector mission 57
Atlas 590 Lunar-orbit rendezvous 208
Delta II 568
K-1 605
Pegasus 60,661 -M-
Proton 54,60 Mach Number 544
Titan 56,60 Magellan mission 10,55
Tsyklon 60 mapper 257
Vanguard 46 Space Probe 257
window 291,298,308 magnetic field 75, 87, 618
launch-control team 635 magnetic field strength 416
launch-direction auxiliary angle 301,303 magnetic torque 416
launch-readiness review 635 magnetic torquer 425
762
Index
magnetometer 421 Milky Way 2, 42, 76
assembly drawing 516 Milstar mission 6
magnetopause 87 minor axis 135
magnetosphere 87,93 minute of arc 36
magnetotail 87 Mir Space Station 50,54
magnification 389 Miranda 27
major axis 135 mission 13
manned maneuvering unit (MMU) 551 analysis 376
manufacturing constraints 678
costs 672 director 21
drawing 515 management 632,638
team 633 management and operations 19, 630
mapmakers 8 managers 631
Mariner mission 10, 51 objective 363,639,678
Mars 10,37 operations center 614
Mars Climate Orbiter mission 646 operations system 18,609
Mars Global Surveyor mission 353 operations team 20
Mars Observer mission 57,563 planning and analysis 632
Mars Pathfinder mission 53 politics 678
Mars Polar Lander mission 58 statement 13,363
mass 110 timeline 633
mass flow rate 534 Mission Control Center (MCC), Houston 19
mass moment of inertia 410,426 mission-operations team 636
mass properties 509,512 model
Mathematical Principles of Natural engineering 672
Philosophy 41 flight 672
maximum deceleration 336 test 672
altitude of 341 MODEM 452
maximum heating rate 338 modulation 451
altitude of 341 modulator 452
Maxwell, James 618 modulus of elasticity 507
mean anomaly 263 molecular mass 549
mean motion 262 Molniya orbit 164, 276
mean solar day 293 moment arm 113
mean solar time 293 moment of inertia 112, 123, 415, 513
mechanical momentum 111, 123
behavior 500 dumping 429
configuration 500 thrust 545
energy 140 wheels 427
interfaces 509 momentum-control devices 426
mechanisms 498 monopropellant rocket 565
Mercator projection 179 Moon 117
Mercury 10 Moon Agreement 665
Mercury program 48 Morse code 451
Meteor spacecraft 483 Motion Analysis Process (MAP) 107, 130, 223, 328
meteoroids 84 motor 567
meteors 2, 331 multi-layer insulation (MLI) 486
micrometeoroid 84 Mylar™ 486
763
Index
-N- nozzle
ideally expanded
545
546
nadir 34
over-expanded 546
national 663 under-expanded 546
national image 663 nozzle design 586,588
national security 663 nozzle expansion ratio 588
natural frequency 504 nuclear energy 470
navigation 6,9,658 Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle
sensor 435 Applications (NERV A) 573
navigation, guidance, and control (NGC) 589 nuclear fusion 74
navigation, guidance, and control (NGC) nuclear-thermal rocket 572,573
subsystem 434,438 Nyquist criteria 456
NAVSTAR 445
near infrared camera and multi-object
spectrometer (NICMOS) 499 -0-
Near-Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) Ober th, Hermann J. 45
mission 58 objectives
needed velocity 438 advance science and technology 662
Neptune 10, 27,32 foreign policy 662
network scheduling 641 national image 662
neutral charge 462 national industries support 662
neutrons 75 regional security 662
new industry leaders 656, 661 space mission 13, 662
Newton, Isaac 40, 109 oblateness 273
Newton's Laws ocean tides 117
Newton's First Law of Motion 111 ohm 464
Newton's Law of Universal Ohm's Law 464
Gravitation 116, 133, omnidirectional antenna 619
228,414,463 Onizuka Air Station 20
Newton's Second Law of Motion 114, 224, 328, open-loop control system 404
411, 535 operating-system software 454
Newton's Third Law of Motion 115, 533 opera tiona I scenarios 632
Newtonian flow 342 operations 609,614
Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) 56 concept 13, 364, 678
nickel-cadmium battery 469 costs 673
nickel-hydrogen battery 469 director 21, 636
Nimbus 4 11 operators 631, 636
nitrogen 489 orbit average power 475
nitrogen tetroxide 565 orbit cranking 253
nodal displacement 180 orbit pumping 253
nodal regression rate 274 orbital
noise 510 control 370, 434
non-spherical shape 260 maneuvers 192
North American Aerospace Defense motion 104
Command (NORAD) 84 period 142
North American Aviation's X-15 46 perturbations 272
North Pole 87 plane 143,292,295
Northern Lights 88 orbital maneuvering system (OMS) 335,356
764
Index
Orbital Sciences Corporation 661 peak power 475
orbital-control budget 371 peak power tracking 472
orbital-prediction problem 260 Peenemuende 69
orbital-slot assignments 666 Pegasus launch vehicle 60,661
orbits 15, 104 performance 631
circular 164 perigee 135, 141, 156
circular equatorial 165 perigee rotation rate 275
direct 157 period 38, 142, 181
equatorial 157 peripheral vision 389
geostationary 164, 182 personal computer 453
geosynchronous 164, 182 perturbation 41, 261, 272
indirect 157 phase angle 212
Molniya 164 phase-change material 487
polar 157 phasing of the planets 248
prograde 157 phasing orbit 213
retrograde 157 Philolaus 37
semi-synchronous 164 photons 86,384,387,415
Sun-synchronous 164 photovoltaic 465
Orb View 659 photovoltaic cells 85
origin, coordinate system 131 Pioneer mission 10, 581
orthostatic intolerance 92 pitch 408
Outer Space Treaty 665 pitch over 309
out-gassing 83,508 Planck, Max 57
overshoot boundary 327, 344 Planck's black-body radiation curve 387
oxidation 82 plane changes 203
oxidizer 564 plane-change angle 204
oxidizer/fuel ratio (O/F) 565 plant 403
oxygen 489 plant model 405,434
ozone 11, 82, 93 plasma 75,554
plasma thrusters 575
-P- Pluto 57,235
Palapa A and B satellites 6 pointing accuracy 409
parabola 106, 134 polar equation of a conic 136
parabolic trajectory 238 polar orbit 157
paraffin 487 policies 662
parallax 35 politics 654, 662
parking orbit 17, 192 PoSat-1 spacecraft 669
partial pressure 489 position 155
passive actuators 422 position vector 135
passive sensors 391 post-flight operations 615
passive thermal control 485 potential 463
patched-conic approximation 224, 227, 230 potential energy 124, 141, 314
Pathfinder mission 10,57 power 535
payload 15,366,368 beginning-of-life 467
data 638 budget 474
design process 393 conditioning and distribution 473
sensors 388 end-of-life 467
specialists 636 supply 472-474
765
Index
power-flux density 619 -Q-
precedence requirements 642
quadrant check for true anomaly 173
precession 274, 413 qualification test 517
predicting orbits 280 quasi-static load 511
President Kennedy's address to Congress 151
pressure
atmospheric 81
-R-
regulator 561 radar 392
thrust 545 radiation 84,337,384,484
radiative cooling 346,347
transducers 562
radiative heat transfer 337
pressure-fed propellant system 561
radiators 486
pressure-relief valves 563 radio frequency 452
primary batteries 469 radioisotope thermoelectric generators
primary focus 135 (RTGs) 470-472
primary payload 613 radius of apoapsis 135
primary structure 499 radius of periapsis 135
Prime Meridian 294 RA Os 93
principal direction 131 random access memory (RAM) 453
157 range 261, 613
prograde orbit
Ranger 7-9 missions 51
Program Evaluation and Review Technique
range-safety officer (RSO) 635
(PERT) 641
ratio of specific heats 543
Project Phoenix 101 reaction wheels 427
project-management techniques 640 operation 428
propagate 262 read only memory (ROM) 453
propellant 533 real time 615
budget 374 real-time commands 616
cryogenic 565 real-time operations 615
hypergolic 565 received signal strength 621
loading 578 receiver 617
Redstone rocket 47
management 561
redundancy 670
storable 565 re-entry
proportional control 430 accuracy 325,341
proportional limit 506 coordinate system 328
propulsion subsystem 373 corridor 326, 340, 344
FireSat 563 deceleration 325
propulsion system block diagram 560 design 341
propulsion-system functions 532 flight-path angle 328,333
Proton launch vehicle 54,60 heating 325
protons profile 351
75
velocity 333
Proxima Centauri 76
reference frame 130
Ptolemy 32,34 reflected energy 385
pulsed-plasma thrusters (PPT) 575 reflection 389
pump-fed delivery systems 562 reflectivity 484
pyrotechnic actuators 511 refraction 389
766
Index
regional security 663 Salyut space stations 321,490
Registration Convention 665 Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre
regulations 662 (SPOT) 7, 638
relative biological effectiveness (RBE) 93 satellites 39
relative velocity 229 Saturn 10, 27, 56
relativity 40 Saturn I 591
relay satellites 614 Saturn V 361
reliability 671 scan rate 389
remote sensing 6, 382, 658 schedule 631
data 659 Schriever Air Force Base 20, 62, 623
mission 383,659 science and exploration 10
satellites 7 scintillation 3
rendezvous 208, 210, 248 Sea Launch platform 613
Lunar orbit 208 search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) 101
requirements 632 secondary battery 469
derived 367 secondary payload 613
trading 367 secondary structure 499
Rescue Agreement 665 semiconductor crystal 465
residual strain 506 sernimajor axis 136, 142, 156, 161, 167
resistance 464 semiminor axis 135, 136
resistojet 571 semi-synchronous orbit 164
resistor 464 sensor 404
resolution 389 separation ring 511
resonance 505 shaker table 611
restricted two-body equation of motion 134, 272 Shapley, Harlow 42
restricted two-body problem 130 shear 503
retrograde orbit 157, 183, 311 shear stress 503
return link 615 shock front 87
return on investment 677 shock wave 337, 344
right ascension of the ascending node 156, 158, 161, attached 337
170,203,274 detached 337
quadrant for 171 shocks 510, 511
right-hand rule 112, 131 Shoemaker-Levy 9 55
ring-laser gyroscope 421 sidereal day 294
rocket 17, 437, 532 sidereal time 294,296
equation 535,539 signal 403, 617
nozzle 541 signal strength 617
propulsion 2 signal-to-noise ratio 617, 622
scientist 533 simple plane change 203
staging 591 simplifying assumptions 108
testing 578 simulation and training 632,637
roentgen equivalent man (REM) 94 simulations 633
single event phenomenon (SEP) 88
single event upset (SEU) 88, 455
-S- single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) 594
safe mode 616 Skylab mission 50, 82, 287
safety factor 511 slack 644
Sagan, Carl 77 slew rate 409
767
Index
Sojourner mission 10, 57 space mission
solar architecture 13, 364
cell efficiency 465 operations 608
cells 85, 465 subject 367
constant 415 users 363
cycle, 11-year 273 space missions
energy 3,465 Apollo 151
flares 75 Apollo-Soyuz 50
particle events 75 Cassini 56
pressure 86 CERISE 84
radiation pressure 277 Clementine 58
sail 578 Explorer 1 47,88
simulation chamber 612 Galileo 27,53
system 10, 74 GlobalSurveyo~Mars 57
time 296 Hubble Space Telescope (HST) 3, 10
wind 75,86
Huygens 56
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
International Extreme Ultraviolet
(SOHO) mission 56
Hitchhiker Experiment 21
solar-powered electrical power subsystem 472
International Space Station (ISS) 10
solar-radiation pressure 413,415
Iridium 16, 59
solar-thermal rockets 569,570
Landsat 51
solid-chemical rockets 566
solid-propellant grain designs Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) 82
567
solid-rocket boosters Lunar Prospector 57
568
Somnium Magellan 55
39
South Atlantic Anomaly 95,455 Mariner 51
South Pole 87 Mars Observer 57
south-east-zenith (SEZ) coordinate system 310 Mars Pathfinder 53
Soviet Salyut 321 Mars Polar Lander 58
space 73 Near-Earth Asteroid Rendezvous
catalog 623 (NEAR) 58
debris 84 Pathfinder 10,57
food 491 Pioneer 10
heat sources 481 Rangers 7-9 51
insurance 674 Skylab 50,82
junk 84 Sojourner 10,57
loss 621 Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
manufacturing 80 (SOHO) 56
operations systems design and Stardust 57
manufacturing 658 Surveyor 51
qualification 670 Transition Region and Coronal Explorer
systems engineering process 377 (TRACE) 56
technology 2 Ulysses 55
vehicle control 402 Viking 10,52
vehicle dynamics 434 Voyager 10, 27, 52, 76
walk 219 Wild-2 57
water 491 Space Mission Management and Operations 608
768
Index
Space Shuttle 50,54,290,325,326,356 Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN) 623
ascent 356 space-funding profiles 657
Challenger 567 space-qualified components 670
computers 454 space-related products 660
de-orbit burn 357 space-related services 658, 660
external tank (ET) 356 Spartan 201 Solar Observer 21
main engine (SSME) 356,562,565 spatial resolution 390
orbiter 356 specific angular momentum 143,157
radiators 486 specific angular momentum vector 170
reaction control system (RCS) 356 specific enthalpy 542
re-entry 357 specific gravity 538
solid-rocket boosters (SRBs) 356 specific impulse 536
Space Transportation System (STS) 356 specific mechanical energy 140, 142, 156,
toilet 492 167, 195, 197, 231
Space Surveillance Network (SSN) 623 equation 230
space systems engineering process 448,630 spectroscopy 41
Space Transportation System (STS) 356 speed of light 75
Space Warfare Center 62 sphere of influence (SOI) 228,252
space-based telescope 389 spherical triangle 300
spacecraft 2, 13, 614 spin rate 123
assembly 513 spin stabilization 423
assembly, integration, and testing (AIT) 672 Spot Image 657
attitude actuators 422 spring constant 505
attitude sensors 417 Sputnik II spacecraft 46
bus 15, 366, 369 sputtering 88
charging 88 stages 17, 510
Clementine 669 standard atmospheric pressure 83
commands 616 star sensor 419
control 370 Stardust mission 57
design and manufacturing 658 Starry Messenger 39
design process 375 static envelope 511
dipole 416 static loads 501
FASat-A 656, 674 steady flow 541
forces acting upon 133,224 Stefan-Boltzmann's constant 484
Galileo 254 Stefan-Boltzmann's equation 388
manufacturing 610 Stefan-Boltzmann's Law 484
Meteor 483 stiffness 505, 509, 511
motion 104 stoichiometric combination 565
Pioneer 10 581 storable propellants 565
pitch 408 stored commands 616
PoSat-1 669 strain 503
roll 408 strength 506, 509
Sputnik 46 stress 503
subsystems 370 stress-strain curves 507
testing 517 structural
thermal analysis techniques 494 design 500
thermal control 485 fatigue 504
yaw 408 load 499
769
Index
structures and mechanisms 373,498,590 telemetry 450,615
subject, space mission 15 tensile load 501
sublunar realm 33 test models 672
subsonic flow 544 testing the model 108
subsystem specialists 636 tether 580
Sun 10, 74 deployment 579
Sun sensor 419 experiment 580
Sun-centered transfer 227 orbital boost 580
sun-synchronous orbit 164,275 theory of relativity 43
sun-tracking array 466 thermal
superlunar realm 33 conductivity 483
supernova 36 control 481
supersonic flow 544 cycling 494
support national industries 664 equilibrium 346,480
data 664 node 494
ground systems 664 vacuum facility 494
hardware and software 664 thermal-protection systems (TPS) 342,345
information 664 thermal-vacuum chamber 83, 672
launch vehicles 664 thermocouples 470
spacecraft 664 thermodynamic 539
surface reflectance 415 energy 540
Surrey Satellite Technology, Ltd. 60,669 expansion 541
Surveyor mission 51 rocket 540,550,564
swath width 16, 389 rocket comparison 570
synodic period 249 thermoelectric rocket 571, 573
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) 257, 392 third body 132
system 403 third-body gravitational effects 277
system assembly, integration, and testing throttling 587
(AIT) 632,634 thrust 132, 437, 533
system block diagram 403 thrust coefficient 549
system maintenance and support 632,637 thruster 18,425
systems engineering 361, 457, 632 thrust-to-weight ratio 587
systems engineering process 362,610 thrust-vector control (TVC) 586,588
time dilation 581
time of flight (TOF) 198, 211, 213, 248, 262
-T- Titan launch vehicle 56, 60
tangential bum 195 Toledan tables 34
tangential velocity 194,309 topocentric-horizon frame 310
tau factor 581 torque 411
team leaders 639 torque applied to a spinning disk 413
team norms 639 torsional loads 501
technologies total angular momentum 428
information 660 total energy 124, 199
space 660 total heat load 339
telecommunications 660 total impulse 536
terrestrial 660 total mechanical energy 124, 126,325
technology 654 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
telecommunications 658 (TOMS) 10
770
Index
total rocket thrust 545 vacant focus 135
total system power budget 474 vacuum 82
total velocity change 196 vacuum phase 309
Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TORS) 623 value added 659
tracking data 261 Van Allen radiation belts 86,88
trajectory 15 Vandenberg Air Force Base launch site 613
transcendental equation 265,282 Vanguard launch vehicle 46
transfer ellipse 231 vector 112
transfer orbit 17, 195, 197 VEEGA (Venus, Earth, Earth Gravity Assist) 253,254
transfer time of flight 248 vehicle shape
Transition Region and Coronal Explorer accuracy, effect on 344
(TRACE) mission 56 deceleration, effect on 343
transmissivity 484 heating rate, effect on 344
transmitted energy 384 re-entry corridor, effect on 344
transmitter 617 velocity 155,309
Treaty of Versailles 69 change 196, 298, 538
trigonometry 34 Earth 231
true anomaly 135, 136, 156, 160, 172 needed 313
true longitude 165 transfer orbit 232
Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin E. 44 vector 135
Tsyklon launch vehicle 60 velocity change
twin paradox 581 combined plane change 205
two-body equation of motion 134 simple plane change 204
two-body problem 225 velocity needed 313
Venera 1 51
venturi effect 542
-U- Venus 10, 55, 392
U.S. Air Force Academy 624 vernal equinox direction 131, 223, 296
U.S. Space Command 623 vertical ascent 308
ultimate failure point 506 vestibular functions 92
ultimate strength 507 vibrations 504, 510
ultraviolet radiation 86,385 Viking mission 10, 52
Ulysses mission 55 voltage 463
undershoot boundary 327 volts 463
unexpected thrusting 277 Vomit Comet 92
Universe 2, 10, 33 von Braun, Wernher 45
uplink 614 Voyager mission 10, 27, 52, 76, 77
Upper Atmospheric Research Satellite
(UARS) 486
upperstage 17 -W-
Uranus 10,27,32,41 wait time 212, 249
users 678 waste management 491
space product 13 watch-dog timer 616
water in space 491
watt 464
-V- wavelength 74,384,623
V infinity at Earth 232 weather forecasts 8
V-2 46,69 weight 109
771
Index
Wien's Displacement Law 387
Wild-2 mission 57
wiring harness 513
word 453
work breakdown structure (WBS) 640
World Administrative Radio Conference
(WARC) 452,683
-X-
X-33 61, 594
X-rays 85
-Y-
yaw 408
yield point 506
yield strength 507
Young's modulus 507
Yuri Gagarin 10
-Z-
Zarya module 54
Zenit launch vehicle 60
zenith 34
zero gravity 79
zero-bias system 427
772
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