KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PROJECT REPORT

FUNCTION GENERATOR

A Second year project report submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering

by:
Sewak Bhandari (22303)
Bishal Bhattarai (22337)
Sujal Bhattarai (22339)
Kapil Bahadur Bohara (22340)
Abhijan Chaudhary (22341)

August 2025
 CERTIFICATION

SECOND YEAR PROJECT REPORT

ON
FUNCTION GENERATOR
by:
Sewak Bhandari (22303)
Bishal Bhattarai (22337)
Sujal Bhattarai (22339)
Kapil Bahadur Bohara (22340)
Abhijan Chaudhary (22341)

Approved by:
1. Project Supervisor

____________________ ______________________________ ___________

(Signature) (Name) (Date)

2. Head of the Department

____________________ ______________________________ ___________

(Signature) (Name) (Date)

ii
 ABSTRACT
This project involves the design and implementation of a function generator capable of
producing three basic waveforms: square, triangular, and sine waves, within a frequency
range of 10 Hz to 3 kHz. The circuit uses LM741 operational amplifiers along with
resistors, capacitors, and potentiometers. Each waveform is generated through separate
configurations. A Schmitt trigger circuit produces the square wave by utilizing hysteresis
for stable switching. The triangular wave is generated by passing the square wave through
an integrator circuit, creating a linear rise and fall. A Wien bridge oscillator is used for
sine wave generation, relying on a balanced RC network to create a smooth sinusoidal
output. Each waveform output is connected to an inverting amplifier stage to ensure
symmetrical amplitude and sufficient output capability. The function generator’s
performance was analyzed through simulation, breadboard prototyping, and final PCB
testing. Practical results matched simulations, confirming successful waveform generation.
This project serves as a useful educational tool for basic electronics labs, signal tracing,
and analog circuit validation. It offers hands-on experience with waveform generation,
op-amp applications, and signal processing techniques.

iii
 LIST OF SYMBOLS
Symbols Definition First in Page
Hz Hertz 1
k Kilo 1
V Voltage 1
R Resistor 3
C Capacitor 3
T Time Period 9
f frequency 9
ln Natural log 9
Vi Input Voltage 10
Vo Output Voltage 10

iv
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations Definition First in Page
IC Integrated Circuit 1
Op-Amp Operational Amplifier 1
PCB Printed Circuit Board 5

v
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1.1: Breadboard .................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2.1.2: Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) ................................................................. 1
Figure 2.1.3: Potentiometer ................................................................................................ 1
Figure 3.1.1: Block Diagram................................................................................................7
Figure 4.1.1.1: Square wave simulation.............................................................................12
Figure 4.1.1.2: Square waveforms..................................................................................... 13
Figure 4.1.2.1: Triangular Wave Simulation...................................................................... 14
Figure 4.1.2.2: Triangular waveforms...............................................................................14
Figure 4.1.3.1: Sine Wave Simulation................................................................................15
Figure 4.1.3.2: Sine waveforms......................................................................................... 15
Figure 4.2.1: Breadboard Testing....................................................................................... 16
Figure 4.2.2: Square and Triangular Waveforms............................................................... 17
Figure 4.2.3: Sine Waveform............................................................................................. 17
Figure 4.3. 1: Triangular wave PCB Testing ....................................................................... 1
Figure 4.3. 2: Square wave PCB Testing ............................................................................. 1
Figure 4.3. 3: Sine wave PCB Testing ................................................................................. 1
Figure 4.3. 4: Sine waveform (PCB) ................................................................................... 1
Figure 4.3. 5: Square waveform (PCB) ............................................................................... 1
Figure 4.3. 6: Triangular waveform (PCB) ..........................................................................1

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF SYMBOLS ..........................................................................................................iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................. v

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ vi

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background and Description ............................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Definition and Motivation .....................................................................2

1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................ 2

1.4 Significance of Study ...........................................................................................2

1.5 Limitations ...........................................................................................................3

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................4

2.1 Components ......................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................7

3.1 Block Diagram ...........................................................................................................7

3.2 Working ..................................................................................................................... 8

3.2.1 Square Wave Generator .......................................................................................... 8

3.2.3 Triangular Wave Generator .....................................................................................9

3.2.3 Sine Wave Generator ............................................................................................ 10

3.2.4 Amplifier Stage .....................................................................................................10

CHAPTER IV: RESULT AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................11

4.1 Simulations .............................................................................................................. 11

4.1.1 Square wave Simulation ....................................................................................... 11

4.1.2 Triangular Wave Simulation ................................................................................. 12

4.1.3 Sine Wave Simulation ...........................................................................................13

4.2 Breadboard Testing .................................................................................................. 15

4.3 PCB Testing ............................................................................................................. 17

vii
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................22

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 23

APPENDIX A ....................................................................................................................24

A.1 Datasheet of LM 741 Operational Amplifier ..........................................................24

A.2 Wooden Box ............................................................................................................25

A.3 Frequency Counter ..................................................................................................25

viii
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces the project topic, explains why it was chosen, and outlines its
objectives and relevance. It begins by providing context about function generators and
their role in electronics. It then discusses the motivation behind the project, the specific
goals that were set, and the significance of building a waveform generator using
fundamental circuit techniques. The aim is to give readers a clear understanding of what
the project is about, why it matters, and how the work has been approached.

1.1 Background and Description

Signal generation plays a fundamental role in electronics and electrical engineering,

especially in the testing, verification, and development of circuits. A function generator is
a widely used instrument that produces standard waveforms such as sine, square, and
triangular signals. These waveforms are essential for analyzing the behavior of electronic
components and systems under various input conditions. Applications include amplifier
testing, filter response analysis, waveform shaping, and experimentation in analog and
digital circuits.

This project focuses on the design and implementation of a function generator capable of
producing sine, square, and triangular waveforms within a frequency range of 10 Hz to 3
kHz. The circuit design is based on basic components, such as operational amplifiers
(LM741), resistors, capacitors, and potentiometers. Different waveform generation
techniques are employed, such as Schmitt trigger configuration for square waves,
integrator circuit for triangular waves, and Wien bridge oscillator for sine waves. Each
waveform stage is followed by an amplifier to ensure proper amplitude and drive
capability. A ±12V dual power supply is used for system operation, ensuring
compatibility with standard laboratory setups.

Several existing solutions and integrated circuits, such as XR2206 or ICL8038, offer
advanced waveform generation features. However, such ICs often limit learning
opportunities, as they encapsulate the internal design and make waveform generation less
transparent to students. By implementing the waveform generation circuits manually
using op-amps, the design allows for a better understanding of the underlying principles,
signal behavior, and component interaction.

1
The development of this circuit serves both educational and functional purposes. It
reinforces theoretical concepts of analog electronics and provides a practical waveform
source suitable for use in academic laboratories and experimental setups.

1.2 Problem Definition and Motivation

Function generators are widely used in electronics for testing, simulation, and circuit
development. They produce basic waveforms such as sine, square, and triangular signals,
which are essential in both academic and industrial applications. Despite their importance,
access to function generators is often limited in educational. Additionally, commercial
devices typically do not reveal the internal working of waveform generation, which limits
their value in hands-on learning. This project was undertaken to address the lack of
simple, transparent, and educational waveform generators in academic settings. The goal
is to design and implement a function generator using basic analog components so that
learners can understand the core concepts of waveform generation and signal shaping at
the circuit level.

The technical motivation includes exploring op-amp-based waveform circuits, ensuring

signal stability, and achieving frequency adjustability using discrete components. This
involves solving engineering challenges such as waveform distortion, frequency tuning,
and amplitude control. Non-technical motivation stems from the need to enhance
electronics education by creating tools that are easy to build, modify, and reuse. The
project encourages deeper learning through direct implementation, simulation, and testing.

Compared to existing solutions that rely on specialized ICs or digital systems, this design
is more accessible and instructive. It benefits students, educators, and labs that prioritize
foundational understanding over complexity. By making waveform generation circuits
visible and modifiable, the project offers both practical utility and academic value.

1.3 Objectives

The main objective of this project is to design and implement a function generator circuit
capable of producing waveforms ranging from 10Hz to 3KHz using basic electronics
components.

1.4 Significance of Study

This project holds importance both as an educational tool and a practical device for
electronics laboratories. By designing and building a function generator from

2
fundamental analog components, the study reinforces key concepts such as waveform
generation, oscillation, signal shaping, and amplification. It bridges the gap between
theoretical knowledge and practical implementation, offering learners an opportunity to
observe and analyze real signals beyond simulations.

The developed function generator serves as a valuable resource in academic environments,

especially where access to commercial signal generators is limited. Its transparent and
modular design allows students and educators to modify and experiment with the circuit,
deepening understanding of analog electronics principles.

Moreover, the project promotes hands-on skills in circuit design, troubleshooting, and
testing, which are essential for engineering practice. Unlike integrated or digital solutions
that often hidden internal mechanisms, this work emphasizes fundamental circuit
behavior, encouraging exploration and innovation.

1.5 Limitations

One of the primary limitations of this project lies in the non-linear relationship between
the potentiometer rotation and the resulting frequency or amplitude of the generated
waveform. This is since the circuit uses two different capacitance values to cover a wide
frequency range, a higher capacitance for low frequencies and a lower capacitance for
high frequencies. Because the time constant (RC) changes with the capacitance value, the
same angular rotation of the potentiometer yields different frequency shifts depending on
which capacitor is in use. For example, a 30° rotation might shift frequency by 100 Hz
with one capacitor but result in a 500 Hz shift with another. This variation makes it
difficult to establish a consistent or labeled mapping between potentiometer angle and
frequency or amplitude. As a result, the system lacks precise frequency tuning or
calibration marks, and users must rely on external instruments (like a frequency counter
or oscilloscope) for accurate frequency determination. This limits the ease of use and
repeatability of settings, particularly in lab environments where reproducibility is
important.

3
 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews existing designs, methods, and components used in function
generators and waveform generation circuits. It outlines the evolution of waveform
generation techniques and highlights key principles relevant to the present work. The
focus is on both discrete analog circuit designs and integrated circuit (IC) based
approaches, along with their respective advantages and limitations.

The design of function generators has been widely explored in electronics literature, with
many studies emphasizing simple and reliable circuit implementations. These works
provide insights into generating square, triangular, and sine waveforms using
combinations of operational amplifiers, diodes, and transistors. The studies reviewed in
this chapter support the design decisions made in this project and establish a foundation
for its implementation.

Smith and Johnson [1] presented a method for generating square and triangular
waveforms using operational amplifiers. Their approach employs a resistor–capacitor
feedback network to control the frequency of oscillation. This concept is directly applied
in the present work, where op-amps are used to produce stable and tunable signals.

Lee et al. [2] proposed a diode-based method to convert triangular waveforms into sine
waves. By selecting suitable diode characteristics, they demonstrated how the sharp edges
of a triangular waveform can be smoothed to approximate a sine wave. A similar shaping
technique is adopted in this project to implement a basic sine wave generator using
discrete components.

Kumar and Sharma [3] emphasized the use of commonly available components such as
LM741 op-amps and general-purpose transistors in educational function generators. Their
design philosophy aligns with the objectives of this project, which prioritizes simplicity
and accessibility in a learning environment.

Brown and Green [4] compared several methods for triangular to sine waveform
conversion and found diode-based shaping to be among the most practical and cost-
effective, despite its limited precision. This supports the selection of a diode shaping
circuit in the proposed design.

Wilson et al. [5] highlighted the educational benefits of compact, analog function
generators. Their emphasis on ease of understanding and hands-on learning reinforces the

4
educational value of building such systems using discrete components, a key motivation
behind this project.

In summary, existing literature confirms that analog function generators built with
operational amplifiers, resistors, and diodes offer a simple and effective platform for
waveform generation and practical electronics education. The design approach taken in
this project builds on these studies to deliver a functional and educational signal source
suitable for basic laboratory applications.

2.1 Components

2.1.1 Breadboard:
It is a board that is used to create a model or a prototype of a circuit.it is made with plastic
and contains holes to hold the electronics equipments. It is generally used to check the
correctness of a circuit before printing in PCB.

Figure 2.1.1: Breadboard [6]

2.1.2 Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp):

A general-purpose Op-Amp used for relaxation oscillator, integrator, and sine wave
shaping stages. It amplifies the input signal and helps generate the desired waveforms,
providing high gain and stability.

Figure 2.1.2: Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) [7]

5
2.1.3 Potentiometer:
A potentiometer is a three-terminal variable resistor that allows for adjustable voltage
division in an electrical circuit.

Figure 2.1.3: Potentiometer [8]

6
 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the systematic approach used in the design and implementation of
the function generator. It outlines the circuit configurations used to generate square,
triangular, and sine waveforms using analog components. The section begins with a
functional block diagram, followed by detailed explanations of each waveform generator
stage. Key working principles, circuit equations, and design considerations are also
discussed. The goal of this chapter is to explain how the theoretical concepts of waveform
generation were applied to build a working prototype of the function generator.

3.1 Block Diagram

Figure 3.1.1: Block Diagram

7
Figure 3.1.1 illustrates the functional block diagram of a function generator circuit that
produces square, triangular, and sine wave outputs. The system is powered by a ±12V
dual power supply, which provides the necessary voltage for all active components.

The square wave generator, implemented using a Schmitt trigger configuration, produces
a stable square waveform by rapidly switching between high and low voltage levels. This
output is fed into a triangular wave generator stage, consisting of an integrator circuit that
converts the sharp edges of the square wave into smooth, linearly increasing and
decreasing voltage, resulting in a triangular waveform.

Simultaneously, a sine wave is produced using a Wien bridge oscillator. This oscillator
relies on an RC feedback network where one pair act as a high-pass filter and another as a
low-pass filter, shaping the output into a smooth sinusoidal waveform at a specific
resonant frequency.

All generated waveforms pass through an amplification stage to strengthen the signals
and ensure proper amplitude levels for external use. The final output stage provides
selectable square, triangular, and sine wave signals, making the circuit suitable for signal
processing, circuit testing, and basic electronic experiments.

3.2 Working

The function generator consists of three independent waveform generation circuits:

square, triangular, and sine wave generators. The LM741 operational amplifier was used
in all waveform generation stages due to its high gain and versatility (see Appendix A.1
for datasheet). The circuits operate independently, meaning each waveform is generated
through a different configuration tailored to its characteristics.

3.2.1 Square Wave Generator

At the first stage, we have a square wave generator circuit, which produces square waves.
The square wave generator works using an OP-AMP in a stable mode which continuously
switches between high and low voltage states. For this process, we have configured OP-
AMP as Schmitt Trigger circuit. This configured OP-AMP has two threshold voltage
states, i.e, Upper Threshold and Lower Threshold. These two voltage states depend upon
whether the output is high or low. When the Output is high, the non-inverting input (+) is
set to a fraction of the high voltage via resistor (R1 and R2). Similarly, when the output is
low, the non-inverting input is set to a fraction of the low voltage.

8
The capacitor is connected to inverting input (-) and charges/discharges through
potentiometer (RV1). When the output is high, the capacitor charges through
potentiometer (RV1). The capacitor reaches the upper threshold voltage, as soon as the
capacitor crosses upper threshold voltage its output switches to lower voltage. Then the
capacitor starts to discharge to low voltage via potentiometer (RV1). When the capacitor
crosses the lower threshold voltage, the output of OP-AMP switches to high output
voltage. This cycle repeats on and on to the indefinitely, creating a square wave at the
output. The time taken to charge and discharge is the time period of square wave in one
cycle and the frequency is just reciprocal of the time.

The time period for the oscillation is given by the formula;

T = 2RC ln(3) ------------------- (1)

where, R is the value of potentiometer and C is the value of capacitor.

3.2.3 Triangular Wave Generator

For triangular wave generator circuit, we have used Schmitt trigger circuit with integrator
circuit. A Schmitt trigger combined with an integrator forms a circuit capable of
generating a triangular wave, making it a simple yet effective oscillator. The Schmitt
trigger, with its inherent hysteresis, produces a square wave by toggling between high and
low states when the input voltage crosses its upper and lower threshold levels. This
square wave is then fed into an integrator, typically built using an operational amplifier
(op-amp) with a resistor-capacitor (RC) network. The integrator converts the square wave
into a triangular wave by linearly increasing the voltage when the square wave is low and
linearly decreasing when the square wave is high. The time constant of the integrator,
determined by the resistor and capacitor values, controls the slope of the triangular wave
and its frequency. The feedback loop between the Schmitt trigger and the integrator
ensures continuous oscillation, with the Schmitt trigger's thresholds defining the
amplitude of the triangular wave. This combination is widely used in function generators,
signal processing, and oscillator circuits, providing a reliable method for generating
precise triangular waveforms.

The frequency is given by;

f = R1/ (4R2R3 C) ---------------- (2)

where, time period is the reciprocal of this frequency.

9
3.2.3 Sine Wave Generator

Lastly, for the sine wave generator circuit we have used yet another circuit for better
control over waveform, that is Wien bridge oscillator circuit which is a viable option for
generating sine waveform. The Wien bridge oscillator is a widely used circuit for the
generation of sinusoidal waveform with variable frequency. It operates on the principle of
balancing bridge network for stable oscillations. It consists of a mainly two parts
feedback network and an amplifier. The feedback network consists of series-parallel
combination of capacitor and resistor that oscillates at a specific resonance frequency
known as resonant frequency. For the resonant frequency the value of R1 and R2 and C1
and C2 must be the same.

The resonant frequency is given by;

f = 1/(2ᴨRC) -----------------(3)

where, time period is the reciprocal of this frequency

and R = R1 = R2 and C = C1 = C2.

3.2.4 Amplifier Stage

At the output of all three types of waveforms we have used an inverting amplifier for the
output waveform of all square, triangular and sinusoidal waveform to vary the output
signal from -11V to 11V, just below supply voltage to the op-amp. This amplifier also acts
as buffer reducing the noise level in main circuit.

The output of the amplifier for all op-amp as an amplifier is given by;

Vo = -(R5/RV4) * Vi ------------------(4)

where, Vi is the input voltage at inverting terminal of op-amp.

In summary, the function generator integrates three waveform generation techniques,

Schmitt trigger based square wave, integrator based triangular wave, and Wien bridge
oscillator-based sine wave. Each waveform passes through a dedicated amplifier stage to
ensure signal strength and quality. This setup provides a versatile tool for testing,
simulation, and educational purposes in electronics, fulfilling the project’s objective of
developing an efficient signal source.

10
 CHAPTER IV: RESULT AND ANALYSIS
This chapter presents the outcomes of the function generator project through three key
stages: simulation, breadboard testing, and PCB testing. Each phase played a vital role in
validating the theoretical design, analyzing waveform accuracy, and ensuring circuit
reliability.

Simulations were first conducted to confirm the expected behavior of square, triangular,
and sine waveform circuits. Afterward, breadboard testing provided real-world
verification and allowed for practical adjustments and observations. Finally, the circuit
was implemented on a printed circuit board (PCB) to ensure signal stability, compactness,
and usability in a lab environment. Waveform outputs from each phase are analyzed to
evaluate performance across the target frequency range of 10 Hz to 3 kHz,

4.1 Simulations

To validate our circuit design before physical implementation, we first carried out
simulations for all three waveforms: square, triangular, and sine. The simulations were
performed using basic analog components like LM741 operational amplifiers, resistors,
and capacitors.

4.1.1 Square wave Simulation

Figure 4.1.1.1: Square wave simulation

11
 V Legend

Output of Op-Amp

Final Output

t (ms)

Figure 4.1.1.2: Square waveforms

The square wave generator circuit, implemented using a Schmitt Trigger configuration,
was first simulated. The simulation circuit is shown in Figure 4.1.1.1, and the resulting
square waveform output is displayed in Figure 4.1.1.2. The output exhibited sharp
transitions between high and low voltage levels, confirming the proper functioning of the
Schmitt Trigger design.

4.1.2 Triangular Wave Simulation

Next, the triangular wave was simulated by feeding the square wave output into an
integrator circuit consisting of an op-amp, a resistor, and a capacitor. The simulation
circuit for this stage is presented in Figure 4.1.2.1, and the corresponding output
waveform is shown in Figure 4.1.2.2. The waveform maintained a consistent slope,
validating the correct behavior of the integrator stage.

12
 Figure 4.1.2.1: Triangular wave simulation
V
Legend
Output of Op-Amp

Final Output

t (ms)

Figure 4.1.2.2: Triangular waveforms

4.1.3 Sine Wave Simulation

Finally, the sine wave was generated using a Wien Bridge Oscillator design, which
utilizes an RC feedback network to produce smooth sinusoidal oscillations. The circuit
for this simulation is shown in Figure 4.1.3.1, and the output sine waveform is displayed
in Figure 4.1.3.2. The results indicated a stable, continuous sinusoidal waveform,
confirming that the Wien Bridge Oscillator was correctly tuned and capable of producing
clean sine waves at the desired frequency.
13
Figure 4.1.3.1: Sine Wave Simulation

Legend

VFigure 4.1.3.2: Sine waveforms

Output of Op-Amp

Final Output

14
In summary, the simulation phase validated all three waveform generator designs. Each
circuit produced the expected waveform shapes, and the results closely matched
theoretical expectations. These successful simulations provided the foundation for
physical implementation in the subsequent testing phases.

4.2 Breadboard Testing

Following successful simulation, the waveform generator circuits were physically

implemented and tested on a breadboard using LM741 operational amplifiers and discrete
components. This phase was essential to observe real-time waveform behavior under
actual operating conditions, taking into account non-ideal factors such as component
tolerances, noise, and power supply limitations.

LM 741 Op-Amp

Figure 4.2.1: Breadboard Testing

The complete breadboard setup is shown in Figure 4.2.1, where all three waveform
circuits; square, triangular, and sine were assembled and powered using a ±12V dual
power supply. Proper wiring and grounding techniques were applied to ensure circuit
stability and to minimize unwanted interference.

15
 Figure 4.2 2: Square and Triangular Waveforms

Figure 4.2.3: Sine Waveform

The outputs of the square and triangular waveform generators were observed using an
oscilloscope, as shown in Figure 4.2.2. The square wave output demonstrated sharp
transitions between high and low voltage levels, indicating stable hysteresis behavior
from the Schmitt Trigger circuit. Meanwhile, the triangular waveform appeared with clear
linear rising and falling edges, confirming the correct integration of the square wave input.
Both waveforms were found to be consistent with the results obtained during simulation,

16
although minor variations in amplitude and timing were noted due to practical factors.
The sine wave output, produced by the Wien Bridge Oscillator circuit, is illustrated in
Figure 4.2.3. The waveform was sinusoidal in nature, though slight distortion and
amplitude drift were observed. These imperfections were attributed to imbalances in the
feedback resistor-capacitor network and limitations of the op-amp gain control in the
physical setup.

In conclusion, breadboard testing verified that all three waveform generator circuits were
functional and produced the intended outputs. The square and triangular waves matched
the desired characteristics with good accuracy, while the sine wave required further
refinement. This phase also helped identify practical limitations and guided
improvements for the final PCB implementation.

4.3 PCB Testing

After validating the individual waveform generator circuits through simulation and
breadboard testing, the next stage involved designing and testing the function generator
on a Printed Circuit Board (PCB). The transition to a PCB was undertaken to improve
signal consistency, minimize external interference, and provide a compact and permanent
hardware solution.

LM 741 Op-Amp

Figure 4.3. 1: Triangular wave PCB Testing

17
 LM 741 Op-Amp

Figure 4.3. 2: Square wave PCB Testing

LM 741 Op-Amp

Figure 4.3. 3: Sine wave PCB Testing

Each waveform generation circuit; square, triangular, and sine was separately
implemented on a PCB using the same LM741 op-amps, resistors, capacitors, and power
supply configurations as in previous stages. The respective testing arrangements for
triangular, square, and sine waveforms on the PCB are shown in Figure 4.3.1, Figure
4.3.2, and Figure 4.3.3. Each circuit was powered using a regulated ±12V DC supply, and
output waveforms were observed using a digital oscilloscope.

18
 Figure 4.3. 4: Sine waveform (PCB)

Figure 4.3. 5: Square waveform (PCB)

19
 Figure 4.3. 6: Triangular waveform (PCB)
The sine wave output from the Wien bridge oscillator circuit, as shown in Figure 4.3.4,
exhibited a smoother waveform with reduced noise and distortion compared to the
breadboard version. The square wave output, illustrated in Figure 4.3.5, demonstrated
sharp transitions between high and low voltage states with minimal overshoot or ripple.
The triangular wave output, displayed in Figure 4.3.6, retained clean linear slopes for
both the rising and falling edges, validating the proper integration of the square wave.
This showed that the circuits benefited from PCB.

Overall, the PCB testing phase confirmed the practical success of the waveform generator
circuits. All three waveform types; square, triangular, and sine were produced accurately
and with improved quality compared to the breadboard implementation. The finalized
PCB-based design not only reduced noise but also provided a more reliable and
maintainable solution. To provide portability and protect the circuit from physical damage,
a custom wooden enclosure was used for the PCB assembly (refer to Appendix A.2). For
monitoring the output frequency during testing, an external frequency counter was used
alongside the oscilloscope. The setup helped verify that the generated waveforms were

20
within the target frequency range of 10 Hz to 3 kHz. A photograph of the frequency
counter used is included in Appendix A.3

21
 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
This project sets out to design and implement a function generator capable of producing
square, triangular, and sine waveforms using fundamental analog components. The
objective was to construct a transparent, educational waveform generator that operates
within a frequency range of 10 Hz to 3 kHz. Through a series of simulations, breadboard
tests, and PCB level evaluations, the project successfully demonstrated that all three
waveform types could be reliably generated using discrete components and LM741
operational amplifiers. The output results confirmed that the theoretical designs; based on
Schmitt trigger, integrator, and Wien bridge oscillator configurations were valid and
effective when implemented practically. These outcomes verified the project's central
hypothesis that waveform generation techniques can be implemented manually without
reliance on specialized ICs, thus enhancing educational value. The significance of the
project lies in its accessibility, clarity of design, and educational potential; it not only
fulfills its technical goals but also reinforces core principles of analog electronics. By
demonstrating the complete process from theory to simulation to working hardware the
project bridges the gap between textbook knowledge and hands on engineering practice,
offering meaningful implications for electronics education.

22
 REFERENCES

[1] J. Smith and R. Johnson, "Creating Waveforms with Op-Amps," IEEE Transactions
on Circuits and Systems, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 123-130, 2021.

[2] C. Lee, D. Kim, and P. Wong, "Wave Shaping with Diodes," Proceedings of IEEE
International Conference on Circuits and Electronics, pp. 78-83, 2020.

[3] R. Kumar and S. Sharma, "Affordable Function Generators for Students," Journal of
Engineering Education and Technology, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 215-223, 2019.

[4] A. Brown and L. Green, "Converting Triangular Waves to Sine Waves," IEEE
Circuits and Systems Magazine, vol. 14, 2018.

[5] P. Wilson, J. Allen, and R. Davis, "Teaching Tools for Electronics Education,"
Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 56, 2017.

[6] "fxpcb," fxpcb, [Online]. Available: https://sfxpcb.com/. [Accessed 1 12 2024].

[7] "Tandy," [Online]. Available: https://www.tandyonline.com/LM741operational-

amplifier.html. [Accessed 1 12 2024].

[8] "Semiconductors for you," Knowledge Based, [Online]. Available:

https://www.semiconductorforu.com/. [Accessed 28 11 2024].

[9] "educationni," National Instruments, [Online]. Available: https://education.ni.com/.

[Accessed 1 12 2024].

23
 APPENDIX A

A.1 Datasheet of LM 741 Operational Amplifier

24
A.2 Wooden Box

Figure A.2 Wooden Box

A.3 Frequency Counter

Figure A.3 The external frequency counter used during waveform verification, capable of
displaying real-time signal frequency from the function generator.

25