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JOBNAME: 4. korrektur PAGE: 1 SESS: 71 OUTPUT: Tue Nov 1 11:14:38 2011
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SERIES EDITORS:
Stewart R. Clegg &
Ralph Stablein

Anshuman Prasad (Editor)

Against The Grain:

Advances in Postcolonial
Organization Studies

Copenhagen Business School Press

Liber
Universitetsforlaget
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Against the Grain:

Advances in Postcolonial Organization Studies

Editorial Matter & Selection © Anshuman Prasad &

Copenhagen Business School Press, 2012
Individual Chapters © Individual Contributors &
Copenhagen Business School Press, 2012

ISBN ebook 978-87-630-9940-0

ISBN printed book 978-87-630-0243-1

ISSN 1566-1075

Series Editors: Stewart R. Clegg & Ralph Stablein

Typeset: BookPartnerMedia
Cover design by Daniel Sjöfors, Blå Huset, Sweden
Printed in Denmark by Narayana Press, Gylling

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used

in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic or mechanical including
photocopying, recording, taping or information storage or retrieval systems
– without permission in writing from Copenhagen Business School Press at www.cbspress.dk
JOBNAME: 4. korrektur PAGE: 3 SESS: 69 OUTPUT: Tue Nov 1 11:14:38 2011
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Advances in Organization Studies

Series Editors

Stewart R. Clegg
Professor, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia

Ralph Stablein
Professor, Massey University, New Zealand

The series Advances in Organization Studies is a channel for cutting edge theo-
retical and empirical works of high quality that contributes to the field of orga-
nizational studies. The series welcomes thought-provoking ideas, new perspec-
tives and neglected topics from researchers within a wide range of disciplines
and geographical locations.

www.organizationstudies.org
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Respectfully dedicated to the memory of my parents

– Anshuman Prasad
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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 7

Notes on the Contributors I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 8

Chapter 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 13
Working Against the Grain: Beyond Eurocentrism in Organization Studies
Anshuman Prasad

Chapter 2 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 32
Packaging Paradise: Organizing Representations of Hawaii
Jonathan E. Schroeder & Janet L. Borgerson

Chapter 3 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 54
Unveiling Europe’s Civilized Face: Gender Relations, New Immigrants and
the Discourse of the Veil in the Scandinavian Workplace
Pushkala Prasad

Chapter 4 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 73
Swachh Narayani, The Goddess of Good Governance: The ‘Creation’ of a
Goddess as an Organizational Intervention
Christina Schwabenland

Chapter 5 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 95
Indigenous Governance: The Harvard Project, Australian Aboriginal
Organizations and Cultural Subsidiarity
Patrick Sullivan

Chapter 6I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 116
Inscribing the Body: The Construction of Educational Practices for the
Female Other
Viktorija Kalonaityte

Chapter 7 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 135
Treats and Threats: Global Cultures in India’s Call Centers
Kiran Mirchandani, Srabani Maitra & Jasjit Sangha

5
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Chapter 8 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 155
Constructing the ‘Neocolonial’ Manager: Orientalizing Latin America in the
Textbooks
Gabriela Coronado

Chapter 9 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 177
Beyond Modernist Thinking: Unmasking the Myth of Collective
Organization in the Development Debate
Monique Nuijten

Chapter 10 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 200
A Postcolonial Perspective on Organizational Governance in New Zealand:
Reconciling Māori and Pākehā Forms
Joy Panoho & Ralph Stablein

Chapter 11 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 218
The New War on African “Corruption”: Just Another Neo-Colonial
Adventure?
William De Maria

Chapter 12 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 249
Whose Capacity Needs Building?
Deirdre Tedmanson

Chapter 13 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 276
A Postcolonial Reading of Hofstede’s Culture’s Consequences
Martin Fougère & Agneta Moulettes

Chapter 14 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 302
Seeds and Food or Bits and Bytes? Arguing for a New Approach to
Development in India
Raza Mir & Ali Mir

6
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Acknowledgments
Early versions of several chapters in this book were initially presented as part of
the conference program for Postcolonialism Stream at different International
Critical Management Studies (CMS) Conferences, and have profited from the
feedback received at those meetings. Grateful thanks to all the conference par-
ticipants who offered comments on the papers. My sincere thanks to the con-
tributing authors who made this book possible. And above all, my deepest
thanks to Stewart Clegg and Ralph Stablein, Series Editors, for wholeheartedly
supporting this book project, and for their patience.
A few of the chapters in this book have made use of artwork or other material
that has already been published elsewhere. Our use of those materials is grate-
fully acknowledged here, and is mentioned in due detail in the relevant chapters.
The book’s contributors have made every effort to obtain permission for using
material which is believed to be under copyright protection. We will be glad to
hear from those holders of copyright who could not be appropriately acknowl-
edged in this edition of the book because of circumstances beyond the contri-
buting authors’ control, and will be pleased to set right in future editions of the
book any mistakes or oversights that might have occurred in the current edition.

Anshuman Prasad
Branford, Connecticut

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Notes on the Contributors

Janet L. Borgerson teaches at Rochester Institute of Technology in New York.
Her research articulates intersections of materiality, agency and incompleteness.
She received her B.A. (Philosophy) from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
and M.A. and Ph.D. (Philosophy) from the University of Wisconsin, Madison,
completing postdoctoral work in existential phenomenology at Brown Univer-
sity. Borgerson has served as Malmsten Visiting Professor at Gothenburg Uni-
versity, Sweden and Research Fellow at the Centre on Digital Enterprise, Uni-
versity of Auckland. Her research has appeared in Sociological Review, Philosophy
Today, European Journal of Marketing, Advances in Consumer Research, Consump-
tion Markets & Culture, Culture and Organization, Journal of Knowledge Man-
agement, Organization Studies, Gender Work & Organization, Business Ethics: A
European Review, Feminist Theory, Radical Philosophy Review and Journal of
Philosophical Research, as well as in numerous book chapters. She completed a
Master’s degree in Islamic Studies in 2007, and currently is writing a book
length manuscript on Islamic philosophy and models of subject formation.

Gabriela Coronado is Senior Lecturer in the School of Management at the

University of Western Sydney, Australia. A Mexican anthropologist, she con-
ducts research from an interdisciplinary perspective, which includes anthropol-
ogy, semiotics, and discourse analysis of ideology. Her scholarly interests include
the study of complexities of culture, society and politics in the context of glo-
balization, transnational relationships, and cultural factors in the generation of
new forms of organizational and intercultural communication.

William De Maria is responsible for the ethics contents in the MBA Program in
the UQ Business School at the University of Queensland, Australia. He is well
published in the fields of business ethics, whistle blowing, and corruption. His
current research interest is in exploring the neo-colonialist framework through
which the West is responding to African ‘corruption’. He has been a Visiting
Fellow at the Berlin world headquarters of Transparency International. He was
the plenary speaker at the recent Business Ethics Network Conference held in
Botswana

Martin Fougère is an Assistant Professor in the department of Management and

Organization, Hanken School of Economics, Helsinki, Finland. His main re-
search interests are in business and society and critical management studies. His
work mainly concentrates on the analysis of powerful managerial discourses and
their effects on people, organizations and the world. In his research, he employs
a discourse theory approach to critically examine academic literature as well as

8
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policy and business communication related to corporate social responsibility

and service management, and lets a postcolonial sensibility inform his efforts to
expose the perversities of corporate sustainability and cross-cultural manage-
ment.

Viktorija Kalonaityte is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Leader-

ship, Entrepreneurship and Organization at the Linnaeus University in Sweden.
Her research interests include gender and diversity in organizations and identity
construction, viewed from feminist and postcolonial perspectives. Her most re-
cent publications include an article on diversity as border control, published in
Organization.

Srabani Maitra is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Adult Education

and Counselling Psychology at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
(OISE), University of Toronto, Canada. Currently, she is also an Adjunct Lec-
turer in the Department of Women’s Studies at University of Waterloo teaching
courses on how race and ethnicity interact with gender in the context of colonial
and postcolonial world. Her doctoral research focuses on immigration, enclave
entrepreneurship, and postcolonial theorization of worker subjectivity. She has
also published on workplace learning, contingent employment and transna-
tional tele-work.

Ali Mir is a Professor in the College of Business at William Paterson University.

He is currently working on issues related to migration/immigration and the in-
ternational division of labor. He is on the board of directors of the Brecht Forum
in New York City.

Raza Mir is a Professor in the College of Business at William Paterson Univer-

sity. His research mainly concerns the transfer of knowledge across national
boundaries in multinational corporations, and issues relating to power and re-
sistance in organizations.

Kiran Mirchandani is an Associate Professor at the Ontario Institute for Stud-

ies in Education, University of Toronto, Canada. Adopting a postcolonial fem-
inist perspective, her research on issues of globalization, outsourcing of service
work, and workplace diversity and multiculturalism has been published in a
number of scholarly outlets. She is the author of Phone Clones: Authenticity Work
in the Global Service Economy (Cornell University Press, 2012).

Agneta Moulettes is an Assistant Professor in the department of Business Stud-

ies, Kristianstad University, Sweden. Her scholarly interest includes critical anal-
ysis of cross-cultural management, postcolonial perspectives on globalization
and management and issues related to immigration. She is currently engaged in

9
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a study on intermediaries’ role in integrating immigrants into the Swedish la-

bour market.

Monique Nuijten is Associate Professor at the Sociology and Anthropology of

Development group, Wageningen University, the Netherlands. She has con-
ducted research on peasant communities and state formation in Mexico and
Peru. Her current research focuses on slum upgrading projects and participatory
governance in Brazil. She has widely published on land reform and the law, or-
ganization in development, participatory approaches and the different dimen-
sions of state power. She is the author of Power, Community and the State: The
Political Anthropology of Organization in Mexico (Pluto Press, 2003) and co-ed-
itor of Corruption and the Secret of Law: A Legal Anthropological Perspective (Ash-
gate, 2007).

Joy Panoho: My iwi is Ngāpuhi. My mountain is Whatitiri. My hapū are Te

Uriroroi and Te Parawhao. My marae is Maungarongo. I am a doctoral candi-
date in the Management Department of the Massey University College of Busi-
ness. My research focuses on the governance of private and public sector orga-
nizations. In particular, I am interested in the application of a postcolonial per-
spective in merging western and indigenous organizational values and practices.

Anshuman Prasad is Professor of Management and University Research

Scholar at the College of Business, University of New Haven, USA. Before mov-
ing to academe, he worked as an executive in the commercial banking sector for
several years. He brings an interdisciplinary orientation in his scholarship, which
deals with such issues as globalization, workplace diversity and multiculturalism,
corporate legitimacy, resistance in organizations, and epistemology. He is the ed-
itor of Postcolonial Theory and Organizational Analysis: A Critical Engagement
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), and a co-editor of Managing the Organizational
Melting Pot: Dilemmas of Workplace Diversity (Sage, 1997). Currently, he is
working on a book on globalization.

Pushkala Prasad is the Zankel Chair Professor of Management and Liberal Arts
at Skidmore College in the United States. At Skidmore she teaches courses in
workplace diversity, international business and faces of capitalism. Her scholarly
work on culture, resistance and technological change has been published in sev-
eral journals including Organization Science, the Academy of Management Journal
and Human Relations. She is a co-editor of Managing the Organizational Melting
Pot (Sage Publications, 1997) and the Handbook of Workplace Diversity (Sage
Publications, 2006). She has also written widely on research methods for orga-
nization studies and is the author of Crafting Qualitative Research: Working in the
Post-Positivist Traditions (M.E. Sharpe, 2005). She is currently working on a
comparative study of patterns of diversity and discrimination in Sweden and the

10
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U.S.A. with the support of grants from the Swedish Quality of Worklife Foun-
dation and the Foundation of the Bank of Commerce of Sweden.

Jasjit Sangha recently completed her Ph.D. from the University of Toronto,
Canada. Her research interests focus on mothering, arts-informed research and
qualitative inquiry. She is currently working on an edited book on South Asian
mothering.

Jonathan E. Schroeder is the William A. Kern Professor of Communications at

Rochester Institute of Technology. His BA (Psychology) is from the University
of Michigan and his MA and PhD (Social Psychology) is from the University of
California, Berkeley, and he did postdoctoral work at Rhode Island School of
Design. He has held visiting appointments at Wesleyan University (Center for
the Humanities), Göteborg University (Centre for Consumer Science), Univer-
sity of Auckland (Centre for Digital Enterprise), Indian School of Business, and
Bocconi University in Milan (Program in Fashion, Experience, and Design).
Schroeder has published widely on branding, communication, consumer re-
search, and identity. He is the author of Visual Consumption (Routledge, 2002)
and co-editor of Brand Culture (Routledge, 2006). He is editor in chief of Con-
sumption Markets & Culture, and serves on the editorial boards of Advertising and
Society Review, Critical Studies in Fashion and Beauty, European Journal of Mar-
keting, Innovative Marketing, International Journal of Indian Culture and Business
Management, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal
of Historical Research in Marketing, Journal of Macromarketing, Marketing Theory,
and Visual Methodologies.

Christina Schwabenland is a Principal Lecturer at the University of Bedford-

shire, U.K., specializing in voluntary sector management, having over 20 years
senior management experience in the sector. Her Ph.D. research explored the
‘founding’ stories of voluntary organizations in the U.K. and in India and the
role they play as creation myths. She is the author of Stories, Visions and Values in
Voluntary Organizations, published by Ashgate in 2006 and is currently working
on a book entitled Metaphor and Dialectic in Managing Diversity. Her teaching
interests include cross cultural management and diversity and equality issues in
organizations. She is currently researching voluntary organizations established
to work across communities divided by conflict.

Ralph Stablein is a Professor in the Management Department of the Massey

University College of Business. He received his BA in psychology and economics
from Benedictine University. He has the MA in economics from Western Illinois
University. His PhD in organization behavior with a minor in sociology is from
the Kellogg Graduate School of Management at Northwestern University. His
research is in the areas of epistemology, method and practice.

11
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Patrick Sullivan is an anthropologist who has studied the interaction between

indigenous and non-indigenous systems of governance since his introduction to
the Kimberley region, West Australia, in 1983. Much of his professional life has
been spent with independent Aboriginal organizations where he has carried out
land studies, contributed to native title cases and been involved in related policy
development. He has worked for indigenous groups at United Nations forums.
He is the author of numerous scholarly articles and practical reports on indige-
nous issues in Australia and Malaysia. His book Belonging Together: Dealing with
the Politics of Disenchantment in Australian Indigenous Policy was published by
Aboriginal Sudies Press in 2011. He is currently Visiting Research Fellow in In-
digenous Regional Organisation, Governance and Public Policy at the Austra-
lian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, and Adjunct Pro-
fessor at the National Centre for Indigenous Studies, Australian National Uni-
versity.

Deirdre Tedmanson lectures in the School of Psychology, Social Work & Social
Policy at the University of South Australia. She is a core Researcher with the
Hawke Research Institute for Sustainable Societies, co-convener of its Social
Policy Research Group and a member of its Centre for Postcolonial & Global-
ization Studies. Deirdre is also a researcher leader with the Desert Knowledge
Cooperative Research Centre and Research Scholar with the Centre for Aborig-
inal Economic Policy Research at the Australian National University. Her re-
search interests include postcolonial theory; critical management studies; Indig-
enous enterprise development, governance and sovereignty; social and cultural
entrepreneurship; and participatory action research methodologies. Deirdre has
a strong commitment to the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) Lands,
where she is currently working in partnership with Anangu communities on na-
tional research projects about demand-responsive service delivery, enterprise de-
velopment, and mental health and social well-being. Deirdre has won a number
of academic awards for excellence in research and community engagement.

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Chapter 1

Working Against the Grain:

Beyond Eurocentrism in
Organization Studies
Anshuman Prasad

And when life once asked me, “Who is this wisdom?” I answered fervently, “Oh
yes, wisdom! One thirsts after her and is never satisfied; one looks through veils,
one grabs through nets. ... She is changeable and stubborn; often I have seen her
bite her lip and comb her hair against the grain.
Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra
... [the] Warlpiri people [describe] the coming of the Europeans ... [as] ‘the end
of the Jukurrpa’. When Rosie Napurrurla said this at Lajamanu, she explained
that this did not mean there was now nothing to be learned from the Jukurrpa
but that, from that time, Warlpiri people have no longer been living in it.
Peggy Rockman Napaljarri and Lee Cataldi (trans.),
Yimikirli: Warlpiri Dreamings and Histories
[Quoted in Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, A Critique of Postcolonial Reason]

The Bandung Conference of 1955 marks a moment of extraordinary signifi-

cance in world history (Guha, 2007; Young, 2001). Often ignored in hagio-
graphic accounts of modern Western (neo-)colonialism, the Bandung Confer-
ence–the first major gathering of independent Third World leaders–may be seen
as representing, at one and the same time, a number of things including an in-
ternational celebration of the hard-fought victories won by national liberation
movements around the world, an outline of a program of action for the rejuve-
nation–political, economic, and cultural–of the peoples newly emerging from
brutal Western colonial rule, as also an emphatic “public statement of the cre-
ation of an independent transcontinental political consciousness in ... the Third
World” (Young, 2001: 191). Bringing together a remarkable group of world
leaders who had dedicated their lives to winning national independence in the
face of overwhelming odds, the Bandung Conference was, moreover, an occa-
sion also for the Third World to pronounce its considered verdict on modern
Western colonialism.
The Third World leaders gathered together at the town of Bandung in Indo-

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nesia in the spring of 1955 had an acute understanding of the nature of colo-
nialism. Well versed in the “theoretical practices of the freedom struggles”
(Young, 2001: 159), all of them had spent long years minutely studying, ana-
lyzing and dissecting colonialism. Drawing upon their sophisticated under-
standing of modern Western colonialism as an historical phenomenon, the lead-
ers present at Bandung voiced a collective judgment and “declared colonialism
an evil” (Darwin, 2008: 444; emphasis added). It is this understanding of colo-
nialism as evil, one might argue, which is never really lost sight of by the schol-
arly field of postcolonial theory and criticism.1 Moreover, it is this very under-
standing of colonialism, along with a commitment to the ethico-political project
of ‘provincializing Europe’ (Chakrabarty, 1992, 2000; Prasad, 1997a), which
may be said to lend postcolonial theory its distinctively radical edge.
According to postcolonial theory, modern Western (neo-)colonialism needs
to be recognized as evil because–somewhat similar to incidents of rape, or his-
torical phenomena like the 20th century European Holocaust, and modern
Western slave trade–it represents a process which is inextricably enmeshed in the
discursive production2 of (genocidal) violence and a degraded view of its victims
as things that are less than human (Root, 1996; Said, 1978; Spivak, 1999). From
a postcolonial perspective, therefore, modern Western (neo-)colonialism is eth-
ically indefensible. In other words, just as it would be morally unacceptable to
try to offer justifications for rape, or modern slave trade, or the European Ho-
locaust, it would be equally repugnant to attempt to defend colonialism or neo-
colonialism. In its critique of (neo-)colonialism, accordingly, postcolonial theory
“identifies with the subject position of [the colonized and the] anticolonial ac-
tivist” (Young, 2001: 19) and refuses to fall victim to the “conceit of historical
neutrality” (Dirks, 2006: 329). It is this very scholarly sensibility that largely in-
forms the contributions appearing in the present collection of postcolonial the-
oretic research on management and organizations.
Not surprisingly, perhaps, the postcolonial perspective occupies a relatively
marginal position within the field of management and organization studies in
the West, a field which mostly seems to reflect the somewhat narrow academic
preferences and proclivities of metropolitan Anglophone researchers, and which
is largely guided by rather old-fashioned, and frequently Eurocentric, scholarly
concerns and/or approaches to social scientific inquiry. Nevertheless, it appears
to be the case also that postcolonial theory is increasingly being viewed by man-
agement researchers–especially, perhaps, by critical management researchers–as
a highly productive and valuable scholarly approach for doing management
research differently, and adding new and unique layers to the current under-
standing of management and organizations. As a result, the last several years have
seen a significant growth of postcolonial theoretic research within organization
studies. The present volume represents an attempt to take stock of some of the
recent advances in postcolonial organization studies.
As often noted in past accounts of postcolonial theory, critique of Western

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colonialism is, by no means, an entirely new phenomenon and, in many ways,

such critique goes all the way back to the early days of modern colonialism itself
(Prasad, 2003a; Williams & Chrisman, 1994; Young, 2001). Within Western
academe, however, the emergence of postcolonial theory as a unique and well-
regarded scholarly approach for interrogating colonial discourse3 is greatly in-
debted to the prominence achieved by Edward Said’s masterpiece, Orientalism
(1978). As is well known, together with Edward Said, it is scholars like Ashis
Nandy, Homi Bhabha, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, and Ranajit Guha whose
theoretical efforts are often regarded as crucial to the development of the broader
conceptual architecture of postcolonial theory and criticism (see, e.g. Bhabha,
1990, 1994; Guha, 1982, 1997; Guha & Spivak, 1988; Nandy, 1983, 1987,
1995; Said, 1978, 1993; Spivak, 1987, 1990, 1993, 1999). The contribution
made by these and other scholars to the overall postcolonial oeuvre has already
been reviewed in a number of earlier works (e.g. Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin,
1995; Gandhi, 1998; Loomba, 1998; Mongia, 1996; Özkazanç-Pan, 2008;
Prasad, 2003a; Williams & Chrisman, 1994; Young, 1990, 2001), and no at-
tempt will be made in this chapter to provide yet another survey of the scholarly
landscape of postcolonial theory.
Nevertheless, it might be useful to note here that postcolonialism is a
uniquely productive and highly heterogeneous4 approach for critical inquiry
that creatively draws upon a wide range of theoretical positions including the
“theoretical practices of the freedom struggles” alluded to earlier (Young, 2001:
159), as well as (neo-)Marxism, (post-)feminism, deconstruction, post-structur-
alism, psychoanalysis, and many more. Such theoretical syncretism, however,
can often be intellectually unsettling to those who might be wedded to notions
of homogeneity and uniformity in any given approach to scholarly inquiry.
Moreover, it needs to be borne in mind also that, while postcolonialism does
draw upon the resources of other theoretical positions like Marxism or post-
structuralism, it also repeatedly deviates from them in highly creative and sig-
nificant ways. Hence, unless due care is exercised to eschew hasty readings of
postcolonial theory, its theoretical syncretism may sometimes lead researchers to
conflate postcolonialism and one or more of certain other scholarly approaches
like Marxism, post-structuralism, or post-modernism.
Along these lines, for instance, it might be useful to emphasize here that, not-
withstanding certain apparent overlaps, postcolonialism needs to be seen as dis-
tinct from Marxism. Briefly stated, postcolonial theory evinces considerable
skepticism about several key aspects of Marxism, such as commitment to En-
lightenment rationalism and totalization of history, the teleology of Universal
History as Progress, the narrative of modes of production, the notion of the Asi-
atic Mode of Production (AMP), the idea of capitalism as a uniquely European
phenomenon that emerged as a result of certain factors largely internal to Eu-
rope, and Marx’s expressed view5 that modern European colonialism might have
played a necessary and beneficent role in the social transformation of the non-Eu-

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ropean world (see, e.g. Chakrabarty, 1992, 1995, 2000; Frank, 1998; Prakash,
1990, 1992; Prasad & Prasad, 2003a). Similarly, as several scholars have elabo-
rated at considerable length, it is important to recognize that postcolonialism
differs significantly from post-modernism and post-structuralism as well, both
of which have been critiqued for, among other things, their Eurocentrism, and
for their failure to recognize the significance of the colonial encounter for major
developments not only in the non-West but also within the Western world itself
(see, e.g. Adams & Tiffin, 1990; Bhabha, 1994; During, 1987; Mignolo, 2000;
Prasad & Prasad, 2003a; Richard, 1993; Sardar, 1998; Spivak, 1993, 1999).6
In many ways, therefore, postcolonialism may be viewed as a unique theoret-
ical and ethico-political position which is invaluable not only for (a) developing
new and comprehensive critiques of the complex discourses of modernity, cap-
italism, colonialism, Eurocentrism, and so on, but also (b) for serving as a con-
stant reminder that such critiques need to be carried out from an intellectual
vantage point that is not fatally enmeshed in Eurocentric epistemologies, cate-
gories, modes of enunciation, or protocols of knowledge production. As a result,
the postcolonial perspective becomes a truly radical critique of Eurocentrism,
and differs significantly from other critical approaches like Marxism, postmod-
ernism, or post-structuralism.
Eurocentrism in Western scholarship has drawn considerable critical atten-
tion lately (Amin, 1989; Blaut, 1993, 2000; Dussel, 1998; Mignolo, 2000,
2002; Shohat & Stam, 1994; Wallerstein, 1997). Despite such criticism, how-
ever, Eurocentrism continues to deeply pervade current scholarship (including
current management and organizational scholarship) in the West. It might be
useful, therefore, to take a brief look at the phenomenon of Eurocentrism, and
discuss some of its features that seem to have deeply troubling implications for
scholarship.

Eurocentrism: A Brief Critique

Eurocentrism–which may appropriately be defined as “the procrustean forcing
of ... [global] heterogeneity into a single paradigmatic perspective in which Eu-
rope is seen as the unique source of meaning, as the world’s center of gravity, as
ontological ‘reality’ to the rest of the world’s shadow” (Stam & Shohat, 1994:
296)–is commonly viewed as one of the foundational elements of modern West-
ern (neo-)colonialism. Eurocentrism is characterized by complex, shifting and
often somewhat contradictory features, and no attempt will be made here to la-
boriously unpack various aspects of Eurocentrism in all their minute details. In
a nutshell, however, according to the discourse of Eurocentrism, Europe consti-
tutes “the center and end” of Universal History (Hegel, 1900: 158).
The notion of Europe as “the center and end” of Universal History implies,
first of all, that in terms of Eurocentric thinking, developments of World His-
torical significance (e.g. capitalism, democracy, philosophy, etc.) can only occur

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in and/or through Europe, and that Europe “alone and unaided” is the “motor”
force of global history (Stam & Shohat, 1994: 297). In other words, Eurocen-
trism declares that Europe, and only Europe, possesses the necessary capabilities
for serving as an active Subject (or Agent) in World History. Secondly, from the
Eurocentric perspective, Europe represents not only the center of global history
but also its teleological terminus; or, as Hegel has famously asserted, the “His-
tory of the World travels from East to West, for Europe is absolutely the end of
History” (1900: 163; italics added). Hence, in a claim remarkable for its narcis-
sism, Eurocentric discourse insists, for the most part, that modern European cul-
ture, society, knowledge, science, politico-economic arrangements/institutions,
and so on represent exemplary and universal end-points toward which the his-
tory of the world is relentlessly moving (Prasad, 1997a; Stam & Shohat, 1994;
Shohat & Stam, 1994).
The assertion regarding Europe being “the center and end” of human history
is further fine-tuned, elaborated, and consolidated in Eurocentric thinking by
means of a number of somewhat overlapping intellectual claims and maneuvers.
For instance, Eurocentrism commonly considers the various modernist catego-
ries of knowledge and thought–categories such as ‘capital,’ ‘state,’ ‘political econ-
omy,’ ‘history,’ ‘tradition,’ and so on (Dirks, 2006) that came to acquire their
unique salience and set of meanings in the European imagination only as part of
Europe’s historical transition to modernity–to be of universal epistemological
and ontological significance (Chakrabarty, 1992, 2000). As a result, Eurocentric
discourse generally holds that it is only by relying upon many of these categories
of European modernity that human beings can develop genuine (i.e., true or
correct) knowledge/understanding of the world, and “indeed, that the world
may even exist only in and through such [modern European] categories”
(Prasad, 1997a: 94).
Furthermore, Eurocentric thought posits also a somewhat elemental divide
between the essence of Europe and that of non-Europe, and employs an elaborate
structure of hierarchical binaries (e.g. active/passive, developed/under-devel-
oped, nation/tribe, scientific/superstitious, etc.) with a view to representing Eu-
rope as ontologically superior to non-Europe (Prasad, 1997b, 2006). Somewhat
related to this, Eurocentrism maintains that the essence of Europe is fundamen-
tally characterized by the spirit of progress and democracy, and relying upon
what Stam and Shohat (1994) refer to as the “logic of historical amnesia and
selective legitimation,” (p. 297), tends to consider large-scale processes of au-
thoritarianism and violence surrounding major European historical figures like
“Torquemada, Mussolini, and Hitler” as mere deviations from the norm (p.
297).
As Stam and Shohat (1994) have pointed out, by choosing to regard the com-
plex and troubling dynamics accompanying the rise of these and similar other
major European personalities as simple aberrations, and by electing to treat
highly oppressive histories of slavery, genocide and colonialism as “contingent,

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accidental [or] exceptional” (p. 297), Eurocentric discourse, in effect, works to

“sanitize Western history” (p. 298). Intellectual maneuvers like these, hence,
serve as powerful devices for safeguarding the Eurocentric claim of European
superiority. In a parallel move, moreover, Eurocentrism often ignores non-West-
ern achievements, and/or is oblivious/dismissive of such achievements and ac-
complishments, and thereby seeks to further reinforce its view of non-Europe as
inferior to Europe. Finally, the Eurocentric project of constructing/consolidat-
ing the Europe/non-Europe hierarchy relies also upon large-scale and unac-
knowledged appropriations of non-Western “cultural and material productions”
(Stam & Shohat, 1994: 298) such as, to name only a few, algebra, quantitative
cartography, reconstructive plastic surgery, hydraulic engineering, Linnaeus’s
system of plant classification, the European coffeehouse, and countless more
(Prasad, 2003a: 30-31; Shohat & Stam, 1994: 14).
In Eurocentric discourse, Europe’s civilizational superiority and vanguardist
historical role is frequently presented as an ontological condition and, generally
speaking, this discourse has sought to substantiate that claim by arguing that
Europe’s superiority is merely a result of the allegedly superior nature of Euro-
pean race, or religion, or natural environment, or culture, or some shifting com-
bination of these (Blaut, 1993, 2000). For instance, it appears that in early 19th
century, Eurocentrism considered Christianity to be an important explanation
for Europe’s supposedly innate superiority, but during the late 19th and early
20th centuries race (‘whiteness’) became more prominent as an explanatory fac-
tor, and nowadays Eurocentric discourse mostly seems to invoke the idea of the
purported superiority of Europe’s culture and/or natural environment while
seeking to account for Europe’s putative pre-eminence (Blaut, 1993, 2000).
All in all, the discourse of Eurocentrism may be seen as revolving around a
range of claims that maintain, among other things, that (a) freedom, democracy,
science, mathematics, philosophy, bureaucracy, capitalism, abstract thinking, ra-
tionality and so on were first invented and/or perfected in Europe, (b) that non-
Europe is marked by a serious lack of key civilizational endowments (e.g. the
rational spirit, individualism, the idea of private property, etc.) that are essential
for making contributions of significance to Universal History, (c) that Europe is
dynamic and tends to progress and modernize, while non-Europe is static and
remains moribund in the absence of European intervention, and (d) that Eu-
rope’s dynamism and progress can be fully accounted for by certain factors that
are not only internal to Europe, but also define the intrinsic essence of Europe
and Europeanness (Blaut, 1993). The consolidation of Eurocentrism as a some-
what taken-for-granted ideology or world-view represents a process spanning a
fairly long historical period, and at different times, this process has relied upon
a variety of instruments, including:

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a. works of art, literature, philosophy and science that repeatedly repre-

sented Europe as holding “a monopoly on beauty, intelligence, and
strength” (Shohat & Stam, 1994: 3);
b. the modern European project of cartography that accorded centrality to
Europe and (by the use of mapping devices like the Mercator projection)
exaggerated the geographical area and significance of Europe, transform-
ing, in the process, “a distant and marginal peninsula of ... [the Eur-
asian] land mass” into a ‘full-fledged’ continent, and making “little Brit-
ain appear about as large as India” (Frank, 1998: 2);
c. large-scale rewriting of history leading to a radical reversal–during the
late 18th and early 19th centuries–of Europe’s earlier high regard for
prominent civilizations like China and India (Frank, 1998: 10-14); and
d. the fabrication of universalistic social science deeply imbued with no-
tions of European exceptionalism and “the superiority of the European
mind”, a development that arguably attained its high point in Max We-
ber, sometimes called “the godfather” of Eurocentric social science7
(Blaut, 2000: 204; see also Frank, 1998).

As already noted, Eurocentrism has been subjected to considerable critique dur-

ing recent years, highlighting a variety of deeply troubling scholarly implications
of this discourse (see e.g. Amin, 1989; Blaut, 1993, 2000; Frank, 1998; Shohat
& Stam, 1994). According to these and other critics, Eurocentric research suf-
fers from serious shortcomings because, among other things, the discourse of
Eurocentrism:

a. tends to essentialize and exoticize the non-Western ‘Other’, and thereby

leads researchers to arrive at flawed notions of non-Western cultures and
practices;
b. flattens global heterogeneity, with the result that researchers often fail to
develop fine-grained understanding of the specificities of local cultures
and institutions;
c. appears to blind researchers to the significance of Europe’s historical
connections and interdependencies with the rest of the world, and hence
often results in failure in research to recognize the hybridity and inter-
mixing that characterize all cultures;
d. leads to a devaluation of cultural self-scrutiny in the West, frequently
encouraging researchers in the West to uncritically celebrate Western
practices and institutions in a rather unthinking manner;
e. often views non-Western cultures as somewhat simple, naïve, or child-
like, with the result that researchers frequently fail to see theoretical so-
phistication in the non-West;
f. seems to promote a degree of theoretical laziness in research, inasmuch as
readily available Eurocentric stereotypes come to be unthinkingly em-

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ployed by researchers for purposes of theorizing non-Western cultural,

political, economic and other practices and institutions; and
g. encourages cultural parochialism and/or paranoia in Western societies,
leading to a tendency in research to often perceive non-Western cultural
and other practices in a somewhat unduly unflattering and/or menacing
light.

Needless to say, the above-identified shortcomings of Eurocentric scholarship

have serious implications for public and private policy, as well as for a wide range
of complex dynamics revolving around organizations and institutions in differ-
ent spheres of society. Postcolonial theory’s persistent critique of Eurocentrism,
hence, is valuable for keeping us constantly vigilant against these and similar
other dangers. Moreover, within management studies, there seems to be a par-
ticularly urgent need for developing an in-depth understanding of the dangers
posed by Eurocentrism because, notwithstanding certain critiques of Eurocen-
trism that have appeared in recent management scholarship (e.g. Boyacigiller &
Adler, 1991; Prasad, 2003a, 2006, 2008; Westwood, 2004; Westwood & Jack,
2007; Wong-MingJi & Mir, 1997), most of management research–includ-
ing, most of critical management research–continues to be overwhelmingly Eu-
rocentric. That being the case, postcolonial theory and its critique of Eurocen-
trism might hold special significance for the field of management and organiza-
tion studies.
However, it needs to be emphasized that postcolonial theory as a critical
scholarly perspective offers something more than merely a vehicle for critique of
Eurocentrism, even though a critical posture toward Eurocentrism is vital to the
overall intellectual approach adopted by postcolonialism. Beyond its critique of
Eurocentrism, at a broader level, postcolonialism may be understood as an in-
tellectual approach that persistently works ‘against the grain’ of traditional schol-
arship with a view to exerting constant pressure on, and reorienting, the logics
and the trajectories generally followed by current scholarship and, in the process,
generating uniquely original insights about social, cultural, political, economic,
and other phenomena (Bhabha, 1994; Mignolo, 2000; Moore-Gilbert, 1997;
Spivak, 1999, 2003, 2008). Accordingly, in what follows, we will briefly outline
some of the ways in which postcolonial organizational scholarship might at-
tempt to go ‘against the grain’ of conventional organization studies–or, might at-
tempt to ‘read’ conventional discourse of management ‘against the grain’–in or-
der to develop not only unique understandings of management and organiza-
tions, but also to imagine radically innovative ways of doing management re-
search.

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Reading/Working Against the Grain

Postcolonialism as a field of scholarly endeavor comprises a wide and changing
array of productively inventive and heterogeneous intellectual practices, and it is
not our intention to offer here an exhaustive inventory of the variety of ap-
proaches that postcolonialist organizational scholarship might conceivably
adopt with a view to reading the conventional discourse of management against
the grain.8 However, it would be useful to remind ourselves that postcolonial
organizational scholarship is firmly rooted in the recognition that the Western
discourse of management–broadly understood here as an evolving set of inter-
dependent and mutually reinforcing networks (of ideas, institutions and prac-
tices) that ongoingly (re-)produce Western management ‘knowledge’ as well as
Western management practices/institutions–is deeply complicit with the dis-
course of modern Western colonialism and neo-colonialism (Banerjee & Prasad,
2008; Prasad, 2003a; Westwood, 2004). Hence, generally speaking, the various
postcolonialist approaches potentially available for reading management dis-
course against the grain are grounded in an awareness of the close proximities
and overlaps between the discourse of management and the (neo-)colonial dis-
course.
Thus, for instance, one of the ways in which postcolonial organizational re-
searchers might read management discourse is by means of carefully investigat-
ing the troubling implications of the persistent imprint of colonialist binaries on
Western management knowledge and/or practices and institutions. Similarly,
another postcolonialist reading approach in organizational research might in-
volve identifying non-Western influences on Western management practices
and/or bodies of knowledge with a view to problematizing that widely held
‘common-sense’ of management discourse which tends to see Western manage-
ment knowledge and practices as having emerged autonomously within the
West, and/or as being largely unrelated to the modern (neo-)colonial encounter.
Along similar lines, postcolonialist management research might also rely
upon fine-grained analyses of non-Western management practices–prac-
tices that are often regarded by Western observers as ‘strange’, ‘flawed’, or ‘inef-
ficient’–in order not to understand those practices as ‘errors’ seemingly in need of
correction under the benevolent supervision of management ‘experts’ from the
West, but rather as sophisticated phenomena that effectively respond to
uniquely local contexts and requirements. Somewhat related to this, yet another
postcolonial mode of reading in organizational research might be directed at un-
derstanding Western management practices/institutions themselves as contex-
tually circumscribed phenomena that emerge in response to uniquely local con-
ditions and circumstances, and hence–contrary to the claims regarding the uni-
versality of Western management frequently made by conventional management
discourse–may often lack universal relevance and applicability. In a parallel vein,
postcolonial readings in organization studies might also strive to develop an un-

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derstanding of the Western management ‘research industry’ itself as a culturally

embedded artifact rather than simply a producer of ‘knowledge’ about manage-
ment and organizations.
These and other postcolonial approaches for reading management discourse
against the grain represent a broad spectrum marked by considerable heteroge-
neity in which, generally speaking, different approaches might involve some-
what differing scholarly objectives and exhibit significant differences with re-
spect to the specific theoretical and other scholarly resources that might be mo-
bilized. Notwithstanding such differences, however, all these approaches share a
common goal of unsettling, disrupting and displacing (the logics and trajectories
of) the Western discourse of management, and giving radically new meanings
and directions to the theory, research and practice of management.
Not surprisingly, therefore, postcolonial research approaches tend to be skep-
tical of totalizing and universalistic narratives that frequently (a) posit the West
as the norm, and (b) often theorize from a position that assumes that the rest of
the world is merely waiting to ‘become Europe’. Along with this, postcolonial
research may often pay considerable attention to issues of ‘mimicry’, ‘hybridity’
and (post-)colonial ‘translation’ (Bhabha, 1994), with a view to producing read-
ings that enable us to come to the powerful realization that many management
practices and institutions–practices and institutions that might appear to be
‘similar’ across different cultural contexts–are frequently different in quite radi-
cal ways, with the result that the apparent ‘similarity’ of management practices
across cultures can only be understood within the logic of “the difference of the
same” (p. 22).
The practice of reading against the grain that informs postcolonial manage-
ment research, hence, may entail considerable attention to what might generally
be regarded (by conventional management discourse) as relatively marginal/un-
important aspects of management knowledge, practice and/or epistemology.
Similarly, postcolonial scholarship may often rely upon the practice of ‘catach-
resis’, or ‘creative appropriation’–which, briefly stated, involves wresting words,
concepts, ideas and images away from their ‘proper’ places/contexts and inno-
vatively re-situating them in new and ‘inappropriate’ places/contexts (Moore-
Gilbert, 1997; Spivak, 1999), or what Bhabha seems to describe as “a process of
iterative ‘unpicking’ and incommensurable, insurgent relinking” (1994:
185)–with a view to instilling novel meanings into conventional understandings
of management knowledge and practice.
Along with this, postcolonial reading against the grain requires that metro-
politan (and other) researchers learn to view the Third World not as a mere pro-
vider of ‘data’ but also as a valuable source of sophisticated ‘theories’: theories
that might be essential for adequately understanding organizations and institu-
tions located not only in non-Western countries, but also those within the West-
ern world itself. In other words, the postcolonial practice of reading/working
against the grain seeks to discursively “transform into a reading-position the site

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of the [Third World] ‘native informant’” (Spivak, 1999: 49), a site that is gen-
erally regarded (in the conventional Western discourse of management) as a pas-
sive depository of ‘data’: data that would be eventually ‘read’ and actively ‘de-
coded’ by the theories that allegedly can only be offered by the said Western dis-
course itself. Needless to say, postcolonial organizational research demands con-
siderable intellectual preparation, including learning to value genuine inter-dis-
ciplinarity stretching across (and beyond) social sciences and the humanities, de-
veloping an ‘idiomatic’ understanding of the different cultures and societies our
research might require us to have dealings with9, and inculcating a deep aware-
ness of contemporary, as well as historical, global/planetary linkages (Frank,
1998; Mignolo, 2000; Spivak, 1999, 2003).
Utilizing a range of approaches for working against the grain, postcolonial re-
search in the broad field of management has gathered considerable momentum
during recent years, and spans a wide variety of themes and topics, including
cross-cultural management (Ailon, 2008; Jack & Lorbiecki, 2003; Kwek, 2003),
workplace diversity and multiculturalism (Kalonaityte, 2010; Prasad, 1997b,
2006; Prasad & Prasad, 2002; Schwabenland & Tomlinson, 2008), indigenous
management (Banerjee & Linstead, 2004), organizational communication
(Bradfoot & Munshi, 2007; Grimes & Parker, 2009), globalization (Banerjee &
Linstead, 2001; Gopal, Willis & Gopal, 2003; Mirchandani, 2004, 2005;
Prasad, 2009a, 2009b), control and resistance in organizations (Mir, Mir & Up-
adhyaya, 2003; Pal & Dutta, 2008; Prasad & Prasad, 2003b), representational
issues in business journalism (Priyadharshini, 2003), (neo)colonial imprints on
contemporary institutions (Harrison, 1997; Prasad, 2003), Third World tour-
ism marketing (Bandopadhyay & Morais, 2005; Echtner & Prasad, 2003), the
role of accounting in structuring (neo)colonial relations (Neu, 2003), bureau-
cratic administration and management of state violence in the context of Aus-
tralian Aboriginal affairs (Sullivan, 2008; Tedmanson, 2008), stakeholder issues
(Banerjee, 2003; Parsons, 2008), dynamics of knowledge transfer across organi-
zations and economies (Chio, 2008; Frenkel, 2008; Mir, Banerjee & Mir, 2008;
Mir & Mir, 2009), comparative management (Xu, 2008), human resource man-
agement in foreign MNCs operating in China (Cheung, 2008), implications of
the ethnographic imagination for management scholarship (Prasad & Prasad,
2002), the neo-colonial foundations of Western attempts directed against Afri-
can ‘corruption’ (de Maria, 2008), conceptual discussions of postcolonial theory
(Özkazanç-Pan, 2008; Prasad, 2003a), disciplinary critiques of management
(Frenkel & Shenhav, 2006; Jaya, 2001), broad deliberations of methodology,
epistemology and knowledge production (Jack & Westwood, 2006; Prasad,
1997a; Westwood, 2004; Westwood & Jack, 2007), and many more. The
present volume seeks to add to the existing oeuvre of postcolonial organizational
scholarship.
The authors contributing to this collection of postcolonial organizational re-
search come from many different countries spread around the world, and focus

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upon a wide variety of important issues. The issues selected for attention in this
book include the colonialist underpinnings of the commodification, packaging
and marketing of Hawaii as a tourist paradise (chapter 2), the role of the dis-
course of the veil in structuring workplace dynamics involving Muslim immi-
grants in Scandinavian organizations (chapter 3), the significance of the ‘cre-
ation’ of a goddess by an NGO (non-governmental organization) in India as part
of its efforts directed at bringing about social change (chapter 4), the complex-
ities of indigenous governance involving Australian Aboriginal people (chapter
5), local practices and interpretations of diversity management in a Swedish mu-
nicipal adult education school with a large Third World immigrant clientele
(chapter 6), emerging work cultures within call centers in India intended to ser-
vice Western clients (chapter 7), the representation of Latin America in interna-
tional management textbooks produced in the West (chapter 8), the Mexican
ejido as an effective form of non-modernist Third World organization and its
implications for the modernist discourse of development (chapter 9), innovative
attempts to create governance arrangements (for Māori development organiza-
tions in New Zealand) which value Māori knowledge and participation (chapter
10), the problematic nature of the West’s new ‘war’ on ‘corruption’ in Africa
(chapter 11), critique of the notion of ‘capacity building’ that guides state-led
bureaucratic efforts to ‘improve’ governance in Australian Aboriginal commu-
nities (chapter 12), critical appraisal of Hofstede’s Culture’s Consequences (2001)
and the model of cross-cultural management research which that book advocates
(chapter 13), and limits to the role of information and communication technol-
ogies (ICTs) in India’s developmental efforts (chapter 14). The present volume’s
focus upon such a wide range of complex issues is a fitting testament, perhaps, to
the power and the promise of postcolonialism as a critical approach in organi-
zation studies.

Endnotes
1. Following a somewhat common scholarly practice, the three terms–namely, ‘postcolonial theory,’ ‘postcolonial
theory and criticism,’ and ‘postcolonialism’–will be employed interchangeably in this volume. Similarly, in
keeping with general postcolonial theoretic usage, we will mostly employ the terms ‘Europe’ and ‘the West’ as
synonyms and also as “figures of the imaginary” (Chakrabarty, 1992: 1). Any deviation from this practice will
take place in fairly specific contexts where the distinct meanings of these terms will be generally obvious. For
a discussion of relevant terminology, see, e.g. Prasad (2003a).
2. Following Spivak (1999: 3, n.5), the term ‘discursive production’ is used here to “mean something that is
among the conditions as well as the effect of a general system of the formation and transformation of state-
ments”. In tune with discourse theory as employed in postcolonial works like Spivak’s, the term ‘statement’
does not refer here to language alone. See, e.g. Young (2001: 401-403) for an elaboration of the concept of
‘statement’. Similarly, following a common enough postcolonial theoretic practice, the term ‘discourse’ is used
in this chapter not to refer to language alone but, rather, to point toward the “intersection of ideas and insti-
tutions, knowledge and power” (Loomba, 1998: 54).
3. Within postcolonial theory, the term ‘colonial discourse’ is generally understood as referring to “the body of

24
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/first/Samfundslitteratur/ODT2/1520_Against_the_Gain_165x242/Materie

knowledge, modes of representation, strategies [and institutions] of power, law, discipline, and so on, that are
employed in the construction and domination of ‘colonial subjects’” (Niranjana, 1992: 7).
4. An indication of the heterogeneity of the field is provided by the extensive debates that have marked postco-
lonial scholarship since its early years (see, e.g. Ahmad, 1992; Appiah, 1997; Dirlik, 1997; Duara, 2001; Go-
pal, 2004; Hall, 1996; McClintock, 1992; Mishra & Hodge, 1991; Parry, 1987, 1994, 2004; Prakash, 1992;
Shohat, 1992). See Prasad (2003a) for a brief overview of some aspects of these debates.
5. For instance, writing in 1853, Marx opined in the context of the horrific brutalities of British colonial rule in
India that “whatever may have been the crimes of England, she was the unconscious tool of history” (see Marx,
1972: 582).
6. However, these differences between postcolonial theory and Marxism (or postmodernism, or post-structural-
ism) should not be taken to imply that postcolonialism is anti-Marxist (or anti-postmodernist, or anti-post-
structuralist).
7. Critics have noted that there is a vast amount of Western scholarship in the humanities and the social sciences
that, explicitly and/or implicitly, merely works in the service of the basic Weberian thesis–expressed in The
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism–that “in Western civilization, and in Western civilization only,
cultural phenomena have appeared which ... lie in a line of development having universal significance and
value” (Max Weber, quoted in Blaut, 2000: 25; emphasis in the original).
8. Although postcolonial scholars may be said to be in general agreement with Bhabha’s view that “reading
against the grain [is something] that ... postcolonial interpretation demands” (1994: 174; emphasis added), the
idea of reading against the grain does appear to hold somewhat different meanings for different scholars.
Moore-Gilbert (1997: 83 ff.), for instance, seems to understand ‘reading against the grain’ as a relatively nar-
row reading practice largely related to deconstruction. In this chapter, we have adopted a somewhat broader
view of this critical practice.
9. The idea of ‘idiomatic understanding’ is suggested by Spivak (2003) to refer to something like the in-depth
understanding of a social formation’s culture, history, politics, etc. that might be acquired (following serious,
respectful, and non-Eurocentric engagement) by a person who is not necessarily a trained specialist in those
fields.

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