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Collection Highlights

Strategies for Supporting Inclusion and Diversity in the

Academy: Higher Education, Aspiration and Inequality Gail
Crimmins

Neurologic interventions for physical therapy Third

Edition Kessler

Adapted physical education national standards Third

Edition Kelly

Child Rights Education for Inclusion and Protection

Primary Prevention Murli Desai
Teaching physical education for learning Seventh Edition.
Edition Rink

Dynamic physical education for elementary school children

Pangrazi

Uptime strategies for excellence in maintenance management

Third Edition Campbell

Inhalation aerosols physical and biological basis for

therapy Third Edition Hickey

Inhalation aerosols : physical and biological basis for

therapy Third Edition. Edition Hickey
 Third Edition

Strategies for
Inclusion
Physical Education for Everyone

Lauren J. Lieberman, PhD

Cathy Houston-Wilson, PhD
The College at Brockport, State University of New York

HUMAN KINETICS
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lieberman, Lauren J., 1965- author. | Houston-Wilson, Cathy, 1962-
author.
Title: Strategies for inclusion : physical education for everyone / Lauren J.
Lieberman, PhD; Cathy Houston-Wilson, PhD.
Description: Third edition. | Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. | Description based on
print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not
viewed.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017002404 (print) | LCCN 2017027375 (ebook) | ISBN
9781492550525 (e-book) | ISBN 9781492517238 (print)
Subjects: LCSH: Physical education for children with disabilities--United
States. | Physical education for children--United States. | Inclusive
education--United States.
Classification: LCC GV445 (ebook) | LCC GV445 .L54 2017 (print) | DDC
371.9/04486--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017002404
ISBN: 978-1-4925-1723-8 (print)
Copyright © 2018, 2009, 2002 by Lauren J. Lieberman and Cathy Houston-Wilson
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechani-
cal, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information
storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
Notice: Permission to reproduce the following material is granted to instructors and agencies who have purchased Strategies for
Inclusion, Third Edition: pp. 15, 38-43, 47-48, 51-52, 93-95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 126-136, 138-161, 164-176, 178-183, and 200-202.
The reproduction of other parts of this book is expressly forbidden by the above copyright notice. Persons or agencies who have not
purchased Strategies for Inclusion, Third Edition, may not reproduce any material.
The web addresses cited in this text were current as of April 2017, unless otherwise noted.
Acquisitions Editor: Ray Vallese; Senior Developmental Editor: Bethany J. Bentley; Managing Editor: Derek Campbell;
Copyeditor: Shannon Foreman; Indexer: Michael Ferreira; Permissions Manager: Dalene Reeder; Graphic Designer: Dawn
Sills; Cover Designer: Keith Blomberg; Photographs (cover and interior): Matt Yeoman; About the Authors photos courtesy
of SUNY; Photo Production Manager: Jason Allen; Senior Art Manager: Kelly Hendren; Illustrations: © Human Kinetics;
Printer: McNaughton & Gunn
We thank The College at Brockport in Brockport, New York, for assistance in providing the location for the photo shoot for this book.
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We would like to dedicate this book to Dr. Joseph P. Winnick, professor emeritus
from The College at Brockport, who pioneered the discipline of adapted physi-
cal education and served as a mentor to us and countless other individuals. His
influence has had a ripple effect on those he taught who have gone on to teach
others, and this pattern repeats year after year. We also dedicate this book to all the
children and teachers in our lives who have shared their triumphs over the years.
These lived experiences have helped us shape our vision for inclusive practice.
This page intentionally left blank.
 Contents

Preface vii ◾ Acknowledgments ix

Part I Understanding Inclusion 1

Chapter 1 Inclusion in Physical Education 3
Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective 4 ◾ Placement Options
in Physical Education 8 ◾ Roles and Responsibilities of General Physical
Education Teachers 9 ◾ Roles and Responsibilities of Adapted Physical
Education Specialists 9 ◾ Effectiveness of Inclusion 10 ◾ Summary 12

Chapter 2 Assessment: The Cornerstone of Effective Instruction 13

Features of Effective Assessment 14 ◾ Traditional Assessment
Techniques 18 ◾ Authentic Assessment 20 ◾ Alternative
Assessment 25 ◾ Summary 31

Chapter 3 The Placement Process in Physical Education 33

Physical Education Placement Challenges 34 ◾ Special Education
Process 36 ◾ Assessing the Placement: The Lieberman-Brian Inclusion
Rating Scale for Physical Education 50 ◾ Summary 53

Chapter 4 Individualized Education Plans 55

The IEP Process 56 ◾ The Role of Assessment in IEPs 57 ◾ Components
of the IEP 58 ◾ Electronically Generated IEPs 63 ◾ Physical Educator’s
Role in the IEP Process 64 ◾ Incorporating Goals and Objectives Into the
General Physical Education Class 65 ◾ Summary 67

Chapter 5 Managing Student Behavior 69

Strategies to Avoid Behavior Problems 70 ◾ Understanding the Purpose
of Inappropriate Behavior 71 ◾ Interventions and Strategies to Improve
Behavior 73 ◾ Strategies to Decrease Inappropriate Behavior 74 ◾
Summary 75

Chapter 6 Universal Design for Learning 77

Universal Design in Physical Education 78 ◾ Differentiated Instruction 79 ◾
Process of Adapting Activities 81 ◾ Types of Adaptation 82 ◾ Infusing
the Paralympics Into the Curriculum 86 ◾ Summary 88

Chapter 7 Support Personnel 89

Peer Tutors 90 ◾ Paraeducators 104 ◾ Senior Citizens 108 ◾ College
Students 109 ◾ Summary 109

v
vi Contents

Chapter 8 Transition Planning 111

Dr. Amaury Samalot-Rivera
Transition Services and the IEP 112 ◾ Functional Approach in Transition
Planning 114 ◾ Transition Activities for Effective Social Inclusion 118 ◾
Assessment in Transition 119 ◾ Summary 120

Part II Strategies for Inclusion 123

Chapter 9 Basic Skills 125
Balance 126 ◾ Body Awareness 127 ◾ Hula Hoop Activities 128 ◾
Jump Rope 129 ◾ Locomotor Skills 130 ◾ Cooperative Games 131 ◾
Object Control Skills 132 ◾ Parachute Activities 134 ◾ Rhythmic
Skills 135 ◾ Scooter Board Activities 136

Chapter 10 Sport Skills 137

Softball 138 ◾ Volleyball 141 ◾ Basketball 144 ◾ Soccer 146 ◾
Tennis 148 ◾ Badminton 150 ◾ Flag Football 152 ◾ Golf 154 ◾
Track and Field 156 ◾ Gymnastics 158 ◾ Wrestling 161

Chapter 11 Recreation and Leisure Skills 163

Backpacking and Hiking 164 ◾ Bowling 165 ◾ Fishing 166 ◾ Rock
Climbing 167 ◾ Skating and In-Line Skating 168 ◾ Canoeing 169 ◾
Line Dancing 170 ◾ Martial Arts 171 ◾ Yoga 172 ◾ Dancing 173 ◾
Spikeball 174 ◾ Paddleboarding 176

Chapter 12 Health and Fitness 177

Swimming 178 ◾ Aerobics 180 ◾ Weight Training 181 ◾ Cross-Country
Skiing 182 ◾ Fitness Activities 183

Appendix A Disabilities in Kid Terms 185

Appendix B Special Education Terminology 196
Appendix C Brockport Aquatic Skills Checklist 200

Glossary 203 ◾ References and Resources 206 ◾

Index 213 ◾ About the Authors 221
 Preface

Since 1975, children with disabilities in the United States have been included in
general physical education classes. Unfortunately, the transition from segregated
classrooms to supportive, inclusive environments has been a struggle for students
with disabilities and those responsible for their education. Teachers of physical
education have been forced to navigate the maze of legislation and its accompany-
ing mountains of paperwork and rely on best intentions instead of best information
when it comes to integrating students.
The purpose of this book is to empower you with the information and tools neces-
sary for the successful inclusion of children with disabilities in your programs. In
this third edition, we again worked diligently to create a resource filled with practical
applications and easily implemented planning and assessment strategies that can
be used by physical education teachers; coaches; paraeducators; adapted physical
educators; special education teachers; recreation directors; therapeutic recreation
specialists; parents; and graduate and undergraduate students in physical education,
recreation, and special education.
The book is divided into two parts. The first part provides background informa-
tion on inclusive education and guidelines for successfully including children with
disabilities in traditional physical education settings. The second part of the book
contains 38 teachable units that include assessment tools for curriculum planning.
The units are also included in the accompany web resource at www.HumanKinetics.
com/StrategiesForInclusion; they can be printed for use in the classroom, or you can
view them on a mobile device.
The first chapter, Inclusion in Physical Education, provides an overview of legis-
lative mandates that directly affect physical education. Armed with this knowledge,
you can advocate for receiving the support you need to successfully educate children
with disabilities. Various placements are discussed so you can see the options avail-
able in educating children with disabilities. Depending on a child’s unique needs and
the unit of instruction, he or she can move from one placement option to another.
This chapter also discusses current research on inclusive physical education and its
effectiveness and the roles and responsibilities of general physical educators.
The second chapter, Assessment: The Cornerstone of Effective Instruction,
addresses various types of assessments. The chapter highlights the purposes of
assessment and the use of assessment data to drive instruction. This chapter also
includes sample rubrics and a sample alternative assessment that can be used with
children with severe disabilities.
Chapter 3, The Placement Process in Physical Education, reviews the step-by-
step process necessary to ensure appropriate placement. The steps covered in this
chapter are based on legal requirements. Each step is described clearly, and some
sample forms are provided. In addition, suggested forms for school districts to use
are provided to ensure the system supports the process. This chapter also provides
a validated inclusion rating scale for physical education to help you determine the
most inclusive environment possible.

vii
viii Preface

Chapter 4, Individualized Education Plans, thoroughly addresses this necessary

component in the education of children with disabilities. Individualized education
plans (IEPs) help ensure that children with disabilities are making progress toward
intended goals. The chapter provides steps for developing and implementing physical
education IEPs and discusses several ways you can ensure that IEP objectives are
implemented in general physical education classes.
Chapter 5, Managing Student Behavior, helps you set up your environment to
maximize success and minimize disruptions. The chapter discusses using positive
behavioral support and functional behavioral assessments to remediate challenging
behaviors. The chapter also provides tips to ensure the best behavior possible from
your students.
Chapter 6, Universal Design for Learning, highlights a proactive approach to adap-
tations. First, we discuss the Universal Design for Learning philosophy that drives
modifications in general physical education. Then we provide specific guidelines for
adaptation. Four major variables—rules, equipment, environment, and instruction—
can easily be adjusted to successfully include children of all ability levels. Examples
are provided to help you understand your options. The chapter ends with examples
of how to infuse Paralympic sports into the curriculum.
Chapter 7, Support Personnel, includes comprehensive guidelines on how to train,
work with, and motivate a variety of support staff in general physical education.
This invaluable network of individuals includes peer tutors, paraeducators, senior
citizens, and college students. Specific training techniques are provided for peer
tutors and paraeducators.
Chapter 8, Transition Planning, provides information about preparing students
with disabilities for their transition from school to the community. It focuses on
using a functional approach to transition planning in community-based settings and
discusses the importance of helping students build necessary skills.
The second part of this book introduces specific strategies for inclusion. Here you
will learn how to apply the information provided in part I. Part II includes step-by-
step guidelines for implementing an inclusive curriculum. Chapter 9 contains 10
basic skills units; chapter 10 has 11 sport skills units; chapter 11 has 12 recreation
and leisure units; and chapter 12 has 5 health and fitness units. Potential adaptations
and modifications for equipment, rules, environment, and instruction are provided
for each unit. The adaptations can be recorded to keep track of what works for each
child. In addition, each unit has at least one assessment rubric that breaks down a
specific skill.
This book includes three helpful appendixes. Appendix A, Disabilities in Kid Terms,
provides definitions of many disabilities in terms that children can easily understand.
Appendix B, Special Education Terminology, provides definitions of special educa-
tion terminology as well as any implications for PE teachers. Appendix C, Brockport
Aquatic Skills Checklist, provides an aquatic skills assessment to help you evaluate
the swimming abilities of children.
We hope this book will empower you to advocate for yourself and your students
with disabilities, and we hope you receive the necessary support to help you lead
all children in developing healthy and active lifestyles. It is
also our hope that you will instill in all your students the
notions that anything is possible and that hopes and goals
can be achieved through understanding, cooperation, and
creativity.
 Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge The College at Brockport; our faculty in the depart-
ment of Kinesiology, Sport Studies and Physical Education; and our students past,
present, and future. You are making a difference every day and making the world a
more inclusive place. We would also like to acknowledge and thank our families for
their continued support and understanding as we worked on the third edition of this
book. Their understanding of the time needed to complete this work and pursue our
passion is very much appreciated.
We would also like to thank the following picture models for the time they devoted
to this project: Kiera Wilson, Luke Wilcox, Skylar Walsh, Brooke Walsh, Makayla Hai-
bach, Maija Young, Jasmine Miller, Nathan Spurr, Riley Spurr, Lily Panning, Hudson
Panning, Julia Martin, Van Hart, Christina Too, Matthew Too, and Dr. Danny Too,
as well as our cover models Ms. Schecyl Santiago, Grace LaRocca, Skye Sullivan,
Kaelynn Wood, and Caleb Burrows.

ix
This page intentionally left blank.
 PART I

Understanding
Inclusion

M ore than 95 percent of children with disabilities in the United States

are educated in public schools (National Center for Education Statis-
tics, 2016). This change from segregated placements to more inclusive envi-
ronments is a result of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of
1975, which was reauthorized as the Individuals With Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEIA). The legislation requires that children with
disabilities receive physical education and, if necessary, that such education
be adapted to meet their unique needs. The law also requires that children
with disabilities be educated in the environment in which they will be most
successful (the least restrictive environment). In physical education, the most
successful environment could be a totally inclusive class, a modified class,
a segregated class, or something in-between. The most important thing to
remember is that children with disabilities can receive adapted physical edu-
cation in any environment, because adapted physical education is a service
rather than a placement.
Inclusion, which is the process of educating children with and without
disabilities together, has become the norm for most school districts across
the United States. Even if a district has not embraced the concept of total
inclusion, many children with disabilities are included in general physical
education classes. Thus, physical education teachers are faced with the
challenge of providing appropriate education to students with a variety of
abilities. Unfortunately, many teachers lack the professional preparation to
successfully include children with disabilities in physical education (Block,
2016; Lieberman, Houston-Wilson, & Kozub, 2002). They might have the best
intentions, but they have limited knowledge about how to adapt the curricu-
lum. Most undergraduate programs offer only one class in adapted physical

1
2 Part I

education, and this is seldom adequate preparation for adapting the whole
curriculum for children with disabilities. In addition, most school districts do
not offer in-service training to assist teachers and paraeducators in success-
fully including all children (Davis, Kotecki, Harvey, & Oliver, 2007; Hodge,
Lieberman, & Murata, 2012). The challenge faced by physical educators is
compounded by the fact that children with disabilities are often behind their
typically developing peers in fitness levels (Murphy & Carbone, 2008) and
motor skills (Haibach, Wagner, & Lieberman, 2014).
The solution to these problems—and the purpose of the first part of this
book—is to educate and empower physical education teachers by introducing
the variables that can be adapted to ensure appropriate inclusion in physi-
cal education. It is only when teachers are willing to plan and analyze the
curricula, instructions, rules, equipment, and environments that children
with disabilities will have a chance at full participation in general physical
education. Surveys of children with disabilities indicate that these children
want to be included. The following lists show how children feel when they
are excluded versus when they are included (Falvey, Givner, & Kimm, 1995):

Excluded Included
•• Angry •• Worthless •• Proud •• Appreciated
•• Resentful •• Invisible •• Secure •• Reinforced
•• Hurt •• Substandard •• Special •• Loved
•• Frustrated •• Unwanted •• Comfortable •• Grateful
•• Lonely •• Untrusted •• Recognized •• Normal
•• Different •• Unaccepted •• Confident •• Open
•• Confused •• Closed •• Happy •• Positive
•• Isolated •• Ashamed •• Excited •• Nurtured
•• Inferior •• Trusted •• Important
•• Cared about •• Responsible
•• Liked •• Grown-up
•• Accepted

Inclusion is worth the time and energy it requires, because all students
should experience the feelings that result from being included. The strategies
presented in this book will help pre-service teachers, teachers, administrators,
and support staff in this critical area excel in the art of inclusion.
 1
Inclusion
in Physical Education
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will
▶▶ know the historical and legislative mandates that affect the education
of students with disabilities;
▶▶ understand physical education placement options available to stu-
dents with disabilities;
▶▶ be familiar with research on the effectiveness of including students with
disabilities in physical education;
▶▶ know the roles and responsibilities of general physical education
teachers and adapted physical education teachers in the education
of students with disabilities; and
▶▶ understand the terminology used in special education to better under-
stand the needs of students with disabilities.

I sabel is a 5-year-old girl with cerebral palsy, a condition that effects the central
nervous system and movement. Isabel attended an inclusive preschool where
she made great gains, especially in her motor skills. She can now walk slowly
without a walker and faster with a walker. At the start of kindergarten, Isabel was
assigned a teacher’s aide named Ms. Adams.
Preparing for kindergarten was a little scary for Isabel, but once she met Ms.
Adams, she was more comfortable. Isabel’s mother made sure Ms. Adams and
the teachers knew about Isabel’s disability—as well as her abilities—during her
individualized education plan (IEP) meeting. The IEP team decided that Isabel
would be included in the general physical education (GPE) class because her
skills are adequate for the intended curriculum and she would benefit from being
included with same-age peers.
The GPE teacher, Mrs. Bishop, attended the meeting. She did not have much
experience teaching children with physical disabilities, but she was willing to do
her best to accommodate Isabel. Mrs. Bishop was assured by the team that she
would receive support from an adapted physical education (APE) consultant.
The APE consultant showed Mrs. Bishop how to modify and adapt activities to
include Isabel in the GPE class.As the school year progressed, Mrs. Bishop began to
think of her own strategies, and she also solicited advice from Isabel and the other
students.The children were supportive and were enthusiastic about helping Isabel
succeed in physical education. Mrs. Bishop modified some equipment, the pace
of some games, and the instructional grouping, and Isabel did well. Mrs. Bishop
reflected on the experience and concluded that all good teaching is adapted.
3
4 Strategies for Inclusion

As illustrated in the opening scenario, schools are responsible for planning for the
inclusion of students with disabilities. The scenario also demonstrates the need for
and value of including physical education (PE) teachers in preliminary discussions.
For example, when Mrs. Bishop described her limited experience working with
students with physical disabilities, the district provided an APE consultant. Unfor-
tunately, scenarios like this are not the norm. Physical educators often don’t know
until the first day of school that they will have students with unique needs in their
classes; they are often left out of the placement planning for students with disabili-
ties and do not receive students’ IEPs. This lack of information and communication
is frustrating, but it is important that these teachers continue to work to involve
themselves in the process. Only through persistence will they become fully valued
members of the team. Similarly, teachers who involve themselves in the planning
and implementation process will be more able to secure the necessary resources
and supports to make inclusion a successful experience for themselves and for their
students with disabilities.

Legislative Mandates: A Historical Perspective

Educating students with disabilities was not always required. In fact, before much
attention was paid to the subject, several parent activist groups filed suit on behalf
of their children with disabilities who were being denied education. Two specific
landmark lawsuits filed in 1972 in the United States (Pennsylvania Association for
Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education of
the District of Columbia) set the stage for the passage of several laws that ensured the
right to schooling opportunities for all students with disabilities. It was determined
that excluding children with disabilities from public education violated the 5th (due
process) and the 14th (equal protection under the law) constitutional amendments.
As a result of these watershed lawsuits, two legislative mandates were passed. The
first law, Public Law 93-112, is known as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. One compo-
nent of the Rehabilitation Act is Section 504, which stipulates that no person with a
disability shall be discriminated against or denied opportunity equal to that afforded
to nondisabled individuals in any programs or activities that receive federal funding.
This stipulation has been especially significant because all public schools receive
some form of federal support; as a result, students with disabilities are guaranteed
equal protection under the law. This law also stipulates that students with disabili-
ties should be provided with physical education and opportunities in sport-related
programs comparable to those available to their nondisabled peers. As a result of

Including a student with a disability in physical education benefits everyone.

 Inclusion in Physical Education   5

this law, some students with disabilities are provided with 504 plans, which identify
their unique needs and provide strategies to support and assist these students (e.g.,
accommodations, modifications) in successfully accessing the curriculum. The other
law, Public Law 94-142, is known as the Education for All Handicapped Children
Act. It paved the way for full access to education for all students with disabilities.
This law has undergone a series of reauthorizations and is currently known as the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (Public Law
108-446). All components of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act have
been retained, and other mandates have been added over the years. The mandates
of IDEIA are summarized here.
First, this legislation guarantees that special education is provided to qualified
students. Special education is specially designed instruction that meets the unique
needs of the learners with disabilities and is provided at no cost to parents. Instruc-
tion can take place in various environments such as schools, homes, and hospitals.
This law also established that instruction in physical education must be provided
and, if necessary, it can be adapted for students with disabilities. The law defines
physical education as the development of (a) physical and motor fitness; (b) funda-
mental motor skills and patterns; and (c) skills in aquatics, dance, sports, and indi-
vidual and group games. Physical education is the only curricular area specifically
identified in the law. As a result, physical education is considered a direct service.
Direct services must be provided to all students with disabilities, whereas related
services are provided to students as needed to allow them to benefit from educational
experiences (e.g., occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy). Although
physical therapy (the development of gross motor coordination and function) and
occupational therapy (the development of fine motor coordination and function) can
supplement a PE program, these services cannot take the place of physical education
(Silliman-French, Candler, French, & Hamilton, 2007).
The second mandate of IDEIA stipulates that special education services must be
provided by qualified personnel. Although federal legislation does not define the term
qualified personnel, states define it in their regulations governing physical education.
New York, for example, defines it as anyone certified to teach physical education.
Some states allow classroom teachers to provide adapted physical education, and
others, such as California, require APE certification. Regardless of state definitions,
however, anyone who provides physical education to students with disabilities should
be aware of appropriate adaptations and modifications to ensure successful PE
experiences (Winnick, 2017).
The third requirement of the law is that students with disabilities must be provided
with individualized education plans that identify specific educational needs and
determine appropriate resources for addressing those needs. Typically, an IEP team
is assembled to determine an appropriate plan when the district is first notified that
a student with disabilities will be attending the school. IEP teams usually include
parents; general education teachers (including the GPE teacher if the student will
be participating in regular physical education); special education teachers; special
education providers, including adapted physical educators; a school psychologist;
a school district representative; others, at the request of the parents or the school
district; and, when appropriate, the child (Winnick, 2017). During IEP deliberations,
participants make placement decisions, determine modifications, and formulate
adaptation strategies; they also finalize goals and objectives based on the standard
goals and objectives specific to each curricular area and on the results of student
assessments. Chapter 4 provides more information about the IEP process.
For a student to qualify for special education services, the child must have a dis-
ability that falls into one of the 14 categories of disability identified in table 1.1.
Currently, any student between the ages of 3 and 21 who meets the criteria for one
or more of the specified disabilities must be provided with a free, appropriate public
education in the least restrictive environment (LRE). The LRE is the environment
in which the child learns best. To the extent possible, students with disabilities should
 TABLE 1.1 Categories of Disability
Disability Definition
Autism Developmental disability that significantly affects verbal and nonverbal communication and social
interaction (generally evident before age 3) and adversely affects a child’s educational perfor-
mance.
Deafblindness Simultaneous hearing and visual impairments that cause such severe communication and other
developmental and educational needs that the child cannot be accommodated in special educa-
tion programs for children with deafness or blindness.
Deafness Hearing impairment so severe that a child cannot process linguistic information through hearing
(with or without amplification), which adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
Developmental disor- From ages 3 through 9 the term (as defined by each state) means a delay in one or more of the
der or delay following areas: physical development, cognitive development, communication, social or emo-
tional development, or adaptive (behavioral) development.
Emotional disturbance Condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period and to a
or behavior disorder marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:
•• An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors
•• An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers
•• Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances
•• A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
•• A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school prob-
lems
Hearing impairment Impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educa-
tional performance but is not included under the definition of deafness.
Intellectual disability Significantly less-than-average general intellectual functioning that exists concurrently with defi-
cits in adaptive behavior, is manifested during the developmental period, and adversely affects a
child’s educational performance.
Multiple disabilities Simultaneous impairments (e.g., intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic
impairment) that cause severe educational needs that cannot be accommodated in a special edu-
cation program for only one of the impairments. Does not include deafblindness.
Orthopedic impairment A severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
Includes impairments caused by congenital anomaly, disease, and other causes.
Other health impair- Limited strength, vitality, or alertness that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
ment Can be due to chronic or acute health problems (such as asthma, attention-deficit disorder or
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead
poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, Tourette syndrome).
Specific learning dis- Disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using
ability language (spoken or written) that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. Includes conditions such as perceptual
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Does
not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabili-
ties; intellectual disability; emotional disturbance; or environmental, cultural, or economic disad-
vantages.
Speech or language Communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, or voice
impairment impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
Traumatic brain injury Acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force that results in total or partial
functional disability or psychosocial impairment (or both) that adversely affects a child’s educa-
tional performance.
Visual impairment Impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational perfor-
mance. Includes both partial sight and blindness.
Based on IDEIA 2004.

6
 Inclusion in Physical Education   7

be educated with their typically developing peers unless it is not beneficial to do so.
Students with disabilities should be removed from the general education class only
when the student needs additional one-to-one services, the placement has a negative
effect on the other students in the class, the inability to perform physically is deemed
significant enough to warrant alternative placements, or the student is not receiving
educational benefit from general education placement (Block, 2016). In summary,
students with disabilities should be separated from typically developing peers for
physical education if there is a probability of harm to students with disabilities or
their peers (e.g., disability is exacerbated by involvement in regular physical educa-
tion, behaviors harm self or others).
The Rehabilitation Act and IDEIA affect how PE services are provided to students
with disabilities. The sidebar Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA can be used
to support inclusion or placement recommendations when these are being discussed
with administrators or colleagues who are not familiar with the laws.

Physical Education Requirements in IDEIA

34 C.F.R.300.39(b)(2). IDEIA defines physical education as the development of
•• physical and motor skills;
•• fundamental motor skills and patterns; and
•• skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including
intramural and lifetime sports).
20 U.S.C. 1401(29) Special Education. The term special education refers to specially
designed instruction that meets the unique needs of a child with a disability. This
includes
•• instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions,
and in other settings; and
•• instruction in physical education.
34 CFR 300.108 Physical Education. The state must ensure that public agencies
comply with the following:
a. General. Physical education services (specially designed, if necessary) must be
made available to every child with a disability who receives a free appropriate
public education (FAPE) unless the public agency enrolls children without disabili-
ties and does not provide physical education to children without disabilities in the
same grades.
b. Regular physical education. Each child with a disability must be afforded the
opportunity to participate in the regular physical education program available to
nondisabled children unless
1. the child is enrolled full time in a separate facility; or
2. the child needs specially designed physical education, as prescribed in the
child’s IEP.
c. Special physical education. If specially designed physical education is prescribed
in a child’s IEP, the public agency responsible for the education of that child must
provide the services directly or arrange for those services to be provided through
other public or private programs.
d. Education in separate facilities. The public agency responsible for the education
of a child with a disability who is enrolled in a separate facility must ensure that
the child receives appropriate physical education services in compliance with this
section.
See more at www.wrightslaw.com/info/pe.index.htm (Wright & Wright, 2010).
8 Strategies for Inclusion

Placement Options in Physical Education

The model of providing services to students with disabilities in the typical environ-
ment rather than removing them from the general class is known as inclusion.
When students with disabilities are provided with specialized instruction in physical
education to meet their unique needs, they are receiving adapted physical education.
Adapted physical education is a service rather than a placement. While every effort
should be made to educate students with disabilities in general physical education by
providing the necessary supports to ensure success, there will be instances in which
the regular class placement is not in the best interest of the learner and perhaps not
in the best interest of his or her peers (i.e., when a student is extremely disruptive
or distracting). The law provides for a continuum of placement options for students
with disabilities; these options range from a totally inclusive environment to a self-
contained environment. Students can move from option to option based on their
unique needs within a given curricular area.
The following is an example of a continuum of placement options in physical
education. These options provide a basis for making educated decisions about the
most appropriate learning environments for students with disabilities in physical
education. With the exception of full inclusion with no adaptations or support, spe-
cific information regarding the placement must be included in the IEP. In the list, A
is most inclusive and E is the least inclusive.

A. Inclusion Options
•• Full inclusion with no adaptations or support (no IEP needed)
•• Full inclusion with curriculum adaptations and modifications
•• Full inclusion with trained peer tutors
•• Full inclusion with paraeducators
•• Full inclusion with specialists
•• Modified physical education (small class) with able-bodied peers

B. Part-Time Self-Contained and Part-Time Integrated Placement

Options
•• Split placement without additional support
•• Split placement with additional support

C. Community-Based Placement Options

•• Part-time community-based and part-time school-based placement
•• Full-time community-based placement

D. Full-Time Self-Contained Placement Options Within a Regular

School District
•• Self-contained placement with no additional support
•• Reverse integration (typically developing peers attend class with peer with a
disability)
•• Paraeducator one-to-one support

E. Other Placement Options

•• Day school for specific disabilities
•• Residential school for specific disabilities
•• Home schooling
•• Institution
•• Hospital
 Inclusion in Physical Education   9

Regardless of the placement option chosen, teachers must understand their unique
roles and responsibilities when teaching students with disabilities in their PE classes.
See chapter 3 for more information on placement.

Roles and Responsibilities

of General Physical Education Teachers
GPE teachers assume multiple roles. They prepare and implement units of instruction
and lesson plans in line with state and national standards. They ensure the safety of
all participants by minimizing foreseeable risks, checking on the integrity of equip-
ment, and maintaining a safe and secure physical environment. They assess student
performance and modify or enhance the curriculum based on students’ needs while
managing an array of student behaviors to ensure successful and
positive learning environments. GPE teachers also engage in public
relations to promote their programs. In addition, many GPE teach-
ers coach sports and are involved in other school-related functions.
One of the most important responsibilities of the GPE teacher is
engaging in professional development. Keeping current in the field
and adhering to best practices in teaching strengthens the profession
and assists GPE teachers in accessing information on how to best
meet the needs of all their students, especially those with unique PE
needs. Professional development training is by far the best way for
teachers to gain the knowledge and experience needed to accom-
modate students with disabilities. Mastering the skills needed to
accommodate students with disabilities, such as adapting activities,
working with paraeducators and special education teachers, under-
standing how to read and write IEPs and 504 plans, and collaborat-
ing with other professionals who are experts in the motor domain
(e.g., physical and occupational therapists) requires a commitment
to continued professional development (Choi, French, & Silliman-
French, 2013; Grenier, 2011; Silliman-French et al., 2007).
School districts are responsible for providing ongoing educational
support and training for their employees, and physical educators can
request in-service training in adapted physical education. Physical
educators can also take advantage of various books and resources The least restrictive placement for this student
is with a peer tutor who provides physical
geared toward teaching students with disabilities in physical educa- assistance.
tion. In addition, specially trained PE teachers, known as adapted
physical educators, are available to consult with school districts and, if necessary, pro-
vide hands-on assistance. During meetings and deliberations on services that will be
provided to the child, the GPE teacher can request professional support—specifically,
the support of an APE specialist. APE specialists have extensive training in working
with students with disabilities and can greatly assist the GPE teacher in providing
the best possible experience to students in need of adapted physical education.

Roles and Responsibilities

of Adapted Physical Education Specialists
All APE specialists have training not only in general physical education but also in
specific disability populations, communication methodologies, assessment methods,
and the legal requirements of educating students with disabilities. An APE specialist
typically has a master’s degree in adapted physical education or had an undergradu-
ate concentration in the field. Many take the Adapted Physical Education National
Standards (APENS) test to become Certified Adapted Physical Education Teachers
10 Strategies for Inclusion

(CAPEs) (Obrusnikova & Kelly, 2009; for more information on APENS, see www.
apens.org).
APE specialists can work as consultants to school districts as mentioned previously;
work as itinerant teachers who service a number of school districts by teaching stu-
dents in need of adapted physical education; or work as teachers in one school district.
All APE specialists can teach general physical education as well. APE specialists are
trained in making appropriate curricular adaptations and modifications for particular
conditions. They are also well-trained in serving as members of multidisciplinary
teams that meet to discuss assessment data, placement, and IEP programming for
students with disabilities. They work with parents to determine priorities related
to movement and incorporate them into students’ programs (Lytle & Hutchinson,
2004). APE specialists are also prepared to provide sport opportunities for students
with disabilities, and they help develop movement programs that embed unique sport
experiences that encourage lifelong movement (Foley, Tindall, Lieberman, & Kim,
2007). Together, general physical educators and adapted physical educators can work
to create the most effective programming for students with disabilities.
Districts hire full-time APE specialists as part of the PE staff, but they also work
collaboratively with the special education department. They are assigned their own
caseloads, and they provide direct instruction to their students in the LRE. In some
cases, students will receive their instruction in small groups, self-contained classes,
or inclusive classes in which the GPE teacher and APE specialist work collaboratively
as instructors. Recall that adapted physical education is a service, not a placement,
and educating the child in the LRE continues to be the goal of special education.

Effectiveness of Inclusion
You might wonder how effective it is to include students with disabilities in general
physical education instead of placing them in self-contained environments. Research-
ers contend that inclusion produces various results (Coates & Vickerman, 2008;
Fitzgerald & Stride, 2012; Haegele & Sutherland, 2015; Morley, Bailey, Tan, & Cooke,
2005; Verderber, Rizzo, & Sherrill, 2003). For example, in a study by Goodwin and
Watkinson (2000), included students rated their experiences as good days or bad days;
on good days they felt a sense of belonging, shared in the benefits of the activity, and
mastered tasks, and on bad days their participation was restricted, they felt isolated,
or their competence was questioned. These findings mirror those in other research
(e.g., Bredahl, 2013; de Schipper, Lieberman, & Moody, 2017).
Some researchers indicate that students’ social skills can be improved when
they are educated in inclusive environments (Klavina & Block, 2008; Suomi, Col-
lier, & Brown, 2003). Others have found that students with and without disabilities
demonstrate favorable attitudes toward peers, coaches, and teachers as a result of
inclusion (Obrusnikova, Valkova, & Block, 2003). Furthermore, when games are
appropriately modified to create successful experiences for all learners, students
without disabilities are more receptive to accommodating students with disabilities
(de Schipper et al., 2017; Kalyvas & Reid, 2003; Obrusnikova et al., 2003). Using
peer tutors also has positive effects on students with disabilities who are included
in general physical education. Planned peer tutoring programs that include training
can result in increased physical activity levels (Lieberman, Dunn, van der Mars, &
McCubbin, 2000), opportunities to respond (Houston-Wilson, Lieberman, Horton, &
Kasser, 1997; Ward & Ayvazo, 2006), academic learning time in physical education
(Wiskochil, Lieberman, Houston-Wilson, & Petersen, 2007), socialization (Klavina
& Block, 2008), and fitness levels (Halle, Gabler-Halle, & Bembren, 1989).
 Inclusion in Physical Education   11

Having peers stretch together prior to the start of an activity can improve attitudes and understanding.

Inclusion also promotes personal development in students with and without dis-
abilities (Coates, 2012; Fitzgerald & Stride, 2012; Martin & Smith, 2002) by provid-
ing opportunities for leadership (Lieberman, Arndt, & Daggett, 2007). For example,
when using a sport education model in which each student takes on multiple roles,
cohesiveness within the group was strengthened; this means that regardless of
ability, the team members worked together to accomplish the goal (Tindall, Foley,
& Lieberman, 2016). Finally, research on inclusion suggests that students without
disabilities are better able to promote friendships and communication when they
have opportunities to interact and engage with students with disabilities (Coates &
Vickerman, 2010; Seymour, Reid, & Bloom, 2009).
A poorly administered inclusion program will not yield positive outcomes; for
example, students with disabilities might be ridiculed, left out, and made to feel bad
if they are on a team that loses a game (Haegele & Sutherland, 2015; James, Kell-
man, & Lieberman, 2011; Place & Hodge, 2001). This can affect the activity levels of
students with disabilities because they fear letting the team down. In addition, poorly
administered peer tutoring programs can be harmful to students with disabilities.
If students with disabilities are always being assisted, they may lose confidence in
themselves and question their own self-worth (Goodwin, 2001); this is often observed
when students without disabilities always serve as peer helpers. These students often
dominate the decision-making process, thus preventing students with disabilities
from making their own decisions. It is imperative that GPE teachers work to ensure
successful experiences for all students in their classes and that students with disabili-
ties are warmly embraced and valued (Block & Obrusnikova, 2007; Elliott, 2008). As
research has shown, an instructor’s competence in including all students grows as he
or she gains more experience in working with students with disabilities (Boer, Pijl,
Minnaert, & Post, 2014; Hardin, 2005). Furthermore, students tend to follow their
teacher’s lead, and modeling the behaviors you want your students to demonstrate is
one way to encourage a positive experience for all students. This approach, coupled
with professional support from an APE specialist and trained paraeducators, helps
ensure successful inclusion (Bryan, McCubbin, & van der Mars, 2013).
12 Strategies for Inclusion

Summary
This chapter provided information on the legal mandates that currently affect the
education of students with disabilities in physical education. It also outlined the many
placement options available for students with special needs. Providing quality physical
education is best met through collaboration between the general physical education
teacher and the adapted physical educator. The roles and responsibilities of these
individuals were also presented. A review of the literature on inclusion revealed that
properly implemented inclusion practices can yield positive effects, whereas poorly
implemented inclusion practices can yield adverse effects.
 2
Assessment:
The Cornerstone
of Effective Instruction
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will
▶▶ understand what assessment is;
▶▶ know the role that assessment plays in educating students with dis-
abilities;
▶▶ know the types of assessment, both traditional and authentic, that can
be used to assess students with disabilities; and
▶▶ be able to use assessment data for program planning and implemen-
tation.

O livia is a sixth grader who has arthrogryposis, a condition that primarily affects
range of motion. Individuals with arthrogryposis typically demonstrate extreme
rotation at the shoulder joint, which makes their arms turn inward, and abnormal
positioning of the knees and feet. Olivia has many friends. She uses an electric
wheelchair to ambulate, but she also has good use of her left leg and uses it
as much as possible. Olivia loves swimming, and during the summer she swims
independently in her family’s outdoor pool. She also swam independently during
her swimming unit in elementary school. Unfortunately, her elementary school
teacher never documented her ability, and as a result there are no records of
Olivia’s abilities in swimming or any other unit.
Unaware of this issue, Olivia was excited about middle school physical education
because she knew that swimming was offered once a week during the first quarter.
She could not wait to show off her skills to Mrs. Bowman, her new PE teacher. On the
first day of swim class, however, Mrs. Bowman was reluctant to allow Olivia in the
pool. Given Olivia’s physical appearance, Mrs. Bowman had a hard time believing
she could swim independently, despite explanations by Olivia and her peers. Mrs.
Bowman was not going to take any chances and was fearful of possible liability.
She allowed Olivia to swim only in the shallow water with a flotation device, and
her paraeducator was there to offer assistance if needed. Olivia was crushed and
embarrassed. This is one activity she can do independently and do well, and the
opportunity was taken away. Olivia’s mother contacted Mrs. Bowman right away,
and Mrs. Bowman agreed to a private evaluation to assess Olivia’s swimming abili-
ties. The whole situation was frustrating, embarrassing, and demeaning to Olivia,
and it could have been avoided through appropriate assessment practices.
13
14 Strategies for Inclusion

Assessment is vital to ensure that students receive appropriate educational experi-

ences. Lack of information about students’ abilities can compromise PE programs,
especially for students with unique needs. Assessments need to accurately reflect what
students can and cannot do in relation to the curriculum content. Poor, incomplete,
or biased assessments yield weak and inaccurate information, which does little to
shape the curriculum in a useful way. Effective assessments—those prepared and
administered with clear purposes that are related to curriculum content—are useful
in developing appropriate goals and objectives for all students and can help shape
and improve student abilities (Kowalski & Lieberman, 2011). Once information is
obtained about what students can and cannot do (regardless of unique needs), you
can effectively plan programs and implement specific, appropriate activities. Failure
to embed assessment in the PE curriculum results in programs that do not address
learners’ individual needs and thus offer little benefit. Such programs can be tar-
geted for elimination because little value is placed on the subject matter if there is no
documented learning. It is important to address the need for more valid and reliable
assessments for the students we serve in adapted physical education. Further, those
who conduct the assessments need appropriate training (Garrahy, 2015; Haegele &
Lieberman, 2016; Kasser & Lytle, 2013).
What sets an effective assessment apart from an ineffective one is how accurately
it reflects the capabilities of the students being assessed. An effective assessment
is objective and free of guesswork regarding the student’s level of performance. To
facilitate objective assessment, you can use a variety of methods to obtain data, such
as commercial tests and self-made checklists. You can then develop specific activities
to help the participants achieve a high level of mastery for any skill.
Before a child with a disability can be assessed, it is extremely important to acquire
information about the child. You can record such information on the provided Ability
Description Chart. You can ask parents, previous teachers, therapists, or administra-
tors for any information that you do not yet know. Once you have this information, it
will be much easier to implement assessments. The web resource that accompanies
this book includes a printable version of the Ability Description Chart.

Features of Effective Assessment

Effective assessments produce data that are valid, reliable, and functional. Valid
assessments measure a specific skill. For example, to assess throwing maturity, the
assessment task must yield a throw; however, if you add the variable of accuracy
(e.g., hitting a small target on the wall), the throwing assessment becomes invalid
because one can demonstrate a mature throw without hitting a specific target. Reli-
able assessments must yield consistent results repeatedly. For example, assessing a
student on Monday and then reassessing on Friday should yield the same or similar
results. Further, even if two different teachers assessed a student on two different
days, a reliable assessment would yield the same or similar results. Finally, functional
assessments evaluate skills students use on a daily basis. Requiring students to place
pegs in a pegboard, for example, is not a functional assessment; rarely is a person
asked to place pegs in a pegboard. Assessments that measure fine motor skills should
relate to everyday life tasks. Examples of fine motor skills that can be assessed in
physical education are tying knots (ropes unit) and zipping up a personal flotation
device (swimming unit). Ensuring that tests are valid, reliable, and functional is the
cornerstone of appropriate assessment.
An effective assessment is also easy to administer and easy to understand. You
must not only understand how to implement the test and interpret the results but
also be able to present the information in a way that parents and administrators can
understand. Various assessments can produce limited or extensive statistical data.
 Ability Description Chart
Student: ____________________________________________________________________
School: _____________________________________________________________________
Birth date: __________________________________________________________________
Grade: _____________________________________________________________________
Previous PE teacher: _________________________________________________________
Phone number: _____________________________________________________________
Previous APE teacher (if applicable): _________________________________________
Phone number: _____________________________________________________________
Form completed by: ________________________________________________________
Title of person completing the form: _________________________________________

During this semester, this student will receive his or her APE program in the regular PE
class. Please fill out the following form as thoroughly as possible.
Disability: ___________________________________________________________________
Level of current function: ____________________________________________________

Ambulation method(s):
____ Wheelchair (electric/pushes independently) ____ Crutches
____ Wheelchair (needs assistance) ____ Walker ____ Other: __________

Medical concerns:
____ Seizures ____ Shunt ____ Eye condition ____ Ear condition
____ Diabetes ____ Other: _______________________________________________

Please elaborate: ______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

Communication methods: __________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

From Lauren J. Lieberman and Cathy Houston-Wilson, 2018, Strategies for inclusion (3rd ed.) (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).

15
16 Strategies for Inclusion

The key, regardless of the extent of the data generated, is fully understanding the
assessment and clearly articulating its findings.
Using appropriate assessments in physical education is imperative in determining
the need for adapted physical education for students with disabilities. Appropriate
assessments can (a) determine the unique physical or motor needs of students with
disabilities as well as appropriate placements based on those needs; (b) assist in the
development of PE goals and objectives; and (c) serve as useful tools in monitoring
and evaluating student progress. These major outcomes are highlighted in the fol-
lowing sections.

Determining Unique Needs and Placements

Screening is the first step in determining whether a child has a unique need and is
entitled to special education services. Screening involves the professional observa-
tion of student actions to determine whether these actions differ considerably from
typical behavior. Physical educators are often asked to screen youngsters to deter-
mine whether motor delays are evident and whether further testing is warranted.
To conduct screening tests, you can develop checklists of PE skill performance and
observe students as they perform the listed skills. In order to know what skills are
appropriate for each grade level, you can read through the SHAPE America National
Standards student learning outcomes (SHAPE America, 2014). For example, if you
want to determine if a student can catch a ball, then observe the student’s attempt to
catch a ball and use a checklist to mark the skills that are present (i.e., arms in ready
position—hands are in front of the body and elbows are bent—extend arms to reach
for the ball, catch ball with hands). Students who do not demonstrate developmen-
tally appropriate or age-appropriate skill behaviors are identified for further testing.
This identification process is known as a referral. Referrals can be made to the
Committee on Special Education (CSE) by any person who has a vested interest
in the child (i.e., parents, teachers, therapists, physicians). Every district must have
a CSE (or equivalent) that is made up of the child’s teacher; a school psychologist;
and a district representative who is qualified to provide, administer, or supervise
special education. The CSE convenes to determine whether further testing is war-
ranted; if it is, physical educators or APE specialists can choose from a variety of
formal assessments to determine unique needs and eligibility for services. Formal
assessments are systematic, preplanned methods of testing what students know.
Each formal assessment has specific criteria for scoring and interpretation. Once
students are deemed eligible for special education, decisions are made about the
appropriate environment in which the student will receive services (see chapter 3
for more information on placement).
As mentioned previously, IDEIA requires that all students with special needs receive
instruction in the LRE. For example, Olivia, who was introduced earlier, receives
general physical education with her peers two times a week and self-contained
physical education once a week to further her progress toward her goals and objec-
tives. Because Olivia has limited range of motion and deficits in her physical fitness
and motor skills, her goals center on increasing flexibility, muscular strength and
endurance, and body coordination. In her GPE classes, she participates in the same
units as her peers, and her individual goals are incorporated where possible. In her
self-contained PE class, she works predominantly on her individual goals. This is the
least restrictive program for Olivia, and she has improved and excelled throughout
the year. The lack of assessment data about Olivia at the start of the year created an
embarrassing and negative situation. Assessing students to determine their abilities
and placement needs sets them up for success from the beginning (Columna, Davis,
Lieberman, & Lytle, 2010; Lieberman, Cavanaugh, Haegele, Aiello, & Wilson, 2017).
 Assessment  17

Determining Program Goals and Objectives

Assessment in adapted physical education also aids in the development of program
goals and objectives. Through assessment, you can note individual strengths and
weaknesses. Areas of weakness become goals, and the specific activities employed
to reach those goals are the objectives. For example, Olivia’s goal of developing mus-
cular strength and endurance was incorporated into a soccer unit with her peers. A
rubric was developed for the class that included such tasks as dribbling, passing, and
shooting. Using various drills, Olivia increased her muscular strength and endurance
alongside her classmates. Knowing students’ goals and objectives and providing
opportunities for their achievement are crucial to student learning.

Monitoring and Evaluating Student Progress

Assessment provides you with a way to monitor student progress. Through ongoing
assessment, you can note individual progress and develop new goals as the old ones
are achieved.
Monitoring student progress can take many forms. One easy and motivating
approach is to create a student progress chart based on the unit of instruction and
keep it in the student’s portfolio. Olivia’s upper-body strength was first evaluated using
a lat pulldown machine. With straps tied around her wrists (due to her difficulty with
grasp), she could lift 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) 3 to 5 times for 3 sets. During the
rhythm unit, she practiced making circles with streamers tied to her wrists; she could
do 10 circles with both arms. After 4 weeks of work on these exercises, Olivia could
do 10 to 12 repetitions on the lat pulldown machine and 15 circles with the streamers.
Documenting this progress on a chart showed Olivia how much she had improved
through training, which motivated her to continue working to develop her strength.

To meet objectives, students must challenge themselves to improve their abilities.

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