Biomolecules

And Cell Biology

In the 1950s, James Watson (1928) and Francis Crick

(1916–2004) unveiled the double helix structure of DNA
using X-ray diffraction images. This breakthrough earned
them the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The
DNA model provided insights into replication and the
James Watson
transmission of genetic information in humans.
&
Francis Crick
 BIOMOLECULES
Consider the diversity of life around us - from the tiniest microorganisms to
complex plants and animals.
i. What do you think is the common thread that unites all living things at
the molecular level?
ii. How might these molecules serve as the building blocks of life?
iii. How do biomolecules create unique characteristics in different
organisms?
iv. What biomolecules are there in the last meal you ate, and how do they
support your body?

1.1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Think about the incredible variety of living things, from tiny microorganisms to the
complex structures of plants and animals. What ties them all together at the tiniest
level? Well, it's all about molecules! Cells and organisms are made of different
kinds of molecules called biomolecules. These special molecules are like the
building blocks of life, coming in different sizes from simple ones like carbon
dioxide and water to big ones like proteins. As the smaller molecules are soluble
and easily transported, they frequently enter the general chemical activity of cells
known as metabolism. Larger molecules tend to be used for structural purposes and
some can be described as "informational" molecules, concerned with carrying
genetic information (DNA and RNA) and the expression of that information
(proteins). The collection of the biomolecules in the cell is called cellular pool.

Do you know?
Living cells are primarily made up of C, H, N, O, P, and S, which make up about
99% of their mass. The remaining 1% consists of elements like Ca, Fe, Zn, Na, K,
Cl with water (H and O) making up around 70% of a cell's mass.

A cell possesses thousands of different types of chemicals to carry out thousands of

types of reactions. However, they can be broadly categorized into two kinds:
1. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats and Nucleic Acids.
2. Inorganic Compounds: Water, Minerals, and salts.
1.1.2 CARBOHYDRATES
Consider your daily breakfast routine. What is your preferred morning food, and do
you recognize the nutritional significance of this choice in providing energy for the
day?

Carbohydrates, vital biomolecules, consist mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is typically 2:1, earning them the name "hydrates
of carbon." The general formula for carbohydrates is Cn(H2O)n.
They are also referred to as saccharides (Greek, 'saccharin' = sugar) meaning sugar.
Carbohydrates are aldehyde and ketone derivatives of polyhydroxy alcohol. Those
with an aldehyde group (-CHO) at the terminal position are called aldoses, while
those with a ketone group (=C=O) at the subterminal position are termed ketoses.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are categorized into three groups based on their chemical
complexity:

Figure: 1.1.1 Classification of carbohydrate

1. Monosaccharides (CnH2nOn)
Monosaccharides, the simplest forms of carbohydrates, cannot be broken down into
smaller units. They are highly soluble in water and taste sweet. Some common
examples like glucose, fructose, and galactose. Structurally, monosaccharides are
simple sugars composed of polyhydroxy compounds, with all carbon atoms having
a hydroxyl group, except one, which contains either an aldehyde (-CHO) or a
ketone (=C=O) group. Aldoses are the sugars with aldehyde groups, while ketoses
are those with ketone groups. Monosaccharides with free aldehyde and ketone
groups are termed reducing sugars because they can reduce Cu0 to Cu+ form.

Do you know?
Derived monosaccharides are the modified monosaccharides obtained by alteration
(the addition or removal) of functional groups. Key derivatives include deoxy sugar
(e.g., deoxyribose of DNA), amino sugars (e.g., glucosamine), sugar acid (e.g.,
ascorbic acid), and sugar alcohol (e.g., mannitol).
E.g. Glucose + Acetyl gp. �N-acetylglucosamine

Monosaccharides generally consist of 3 - 7 carbon atoms; based on which, they are

classified as follows:
Table 1.1.1 Types of monosaccharide based on the number of Carbon and
functional groups
Monosaccharides (Empirical formula) Aldose Ketose
Trioses (C3H6O3) Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyaxetone
Tetroses (C7H8O4) Erythrose Erythrulose
Pentoses (C5H10 O5) Ribose Ribulose
Hexoses (C6H12O6) Glucose Fructose
Heptoses (C7H14O7) Glucoheptolose Seduheptulose

Glucose, and aldohexose with six carbon atoms (C6H12O6) is the most abundant
monosaccharide in nature. It has five hydroxy groups and one aldehyde group with
6 carbon atoms in total. It is a white, crystalline, sweet-tasting substance that is
highly soluble in water. Their structures are:
 Figure 1.1.2 Structures of Glucose
2. Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide molecules joined by
glycosidic linkage. Examples include, maltose, lactose, and sucrose.
Glucose + Glucose Maltose
Glucose + Galactose � Lactose
Glucose + Fructose � Sucrose
Disaccharides like maltose and lactose reduce sugars, while sucrose is non-
reducing. Upon hydrolysis, they yield simple sugars (monosaccharides) that are
soluble in water, and taste sweet.

Figure 1.1.3 Molecular structure of Maltose

Figure 1.1.4 Molecular Structure of Lactose

 Figure 1.1.5 Molecular structure of sucrose

3. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides are the chain of 3-10 monosaccharide molecules linked by
glycosidic bonds. When hydrolyzed, they break down into monosaccharides. For
example: Raffinose and Stachyose.
Raffinose (C18H32O16) is made of three sugar molecules: galactose, glucose, and
fructose. Stachyose (C24H42O21) is made of four sugar molecules: two molecules of
galactose, one molecule of glucose, and one molecule of fructose.

Figure 1.1.6 Molecular structure of: (1) raffinose; (2) stachyose

Do You Know?
Raffinose is commonly found in various plants, especially in seeds and legumes. It
serves as a reserve carbohydrate, providing a source of energy for the growing plant
embryo.

Figure 1.1.7 Molecular structure of Mono-Di-Tri-Poly-saccharide

4. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are complex molecules formed by the condensation of numerous
monosaccharides, linked together by glycosidic bonds. Despite their long size,
polysaccharides do not function as reducing sugars. Upon hydrolysis, they release
multiple monosaccharides. These substances are not soluble in water and lack a
sweet taste. For example, starch, cellulose, glycogen, and dextrin. Starch serves as a
food storage in plants, but animals store it in the form of glycogen, and cellulose
contributes to the plant cell wall.
 Figure 1.1.8 Molecular structure of some polysaccharides

Table 1.1.2 Tabular differences between Oligosaccharide and Polysaccharide

Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides
1. They consist of 2-10 1. They consist of many monosaccharide
monosaccharides. molecules.
2. They are soluble in water. 2. They are insoluble in water.
3. They taste sweet. 3. They do not taste sweet.
4. Examples are sucrose, maltose and 4. Examples are starch, cellulose and
lactose. glycogen.
Activity 1.1
Demonstrate polysaccharide structures using cotton balls and toothpicks.
Differentiate glucose, galactose, and fructose with colored cotton balls. Construct
sucrose, maltose, and lactose models, identifying glycosidic bonds.
(Optional: Further explore branching in starch and cellulose for a hands-on
understanding of polysaccharides.)

Figure 1.1.9 Water colour, cotton and toothpick

Materials required: Gather small cotton balls (approximately 1 cm in diameter),

three different nontoxic watercolors to represent glucose, galactose, and fructose,
and toothpicks
Procedure
Steps 1 | Color Coding Monosaccharides:
 Soak one cotton ball in each color to represent the three different
monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, and fructose).
 Allow the colored cotton balls to dry.
Step 2 | Building Disaccharides:
 Use toothpicks to represent glycosidic bonds between the colored cotton
balls.
 Combine the cotton balls with toothpicks to visually demonstrate the
formation of disaccharides.
 For example, use toothpicks to connect glucose and fructose cotton balls to
create a model of sucrose.

Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are essential for various functions in our body:
1. Approximately 50% of our total energy comes from breaking down
carbohydrates.
2. Monosaccharides act as basic units for constructing disaccharides and
polysaccharides.
 3. Monosaccharides like ribose and deoxyribose are structural elements in
RNA and DNA. Polysaccharides like cellulose and hemicellulose form the
plant cell wall.
4. Starch serves as a storage polysaccharide in plants, while glycogen (animal
starch) is a primary reserve food stored in the liver and muscles.
5. Carbohydrates support the synthesis of fats and amino acids.
6. Glucose plays a crucial role in preventing the incomplete oxidation of fats
and the formation of ketone bodies in the blood.
Activity 1.2
With the help of the provided templates draw structures of monosaccharides
(glucose, fructose) and simple polysaccharides (like maltose) in a chart paper using
different colors. And label the bonds between monomers. Discuss how these
structures contribute to the overall understanding of carbohydrates.

1.1.3 AMINO ACIDS

Figure 1.1.10 Amino acid (schematic)

Proteins are long chains of small units called amino acids. Amino acids are the
building blocks of proteins. Here are some characteristics of amino acids:
1. Amino acids are the basic units that form proteins.
2. Every amino acid has at least one acidic carboxylic group (-COOH) and one
basic amino group (-NH2).
3. They are clear, solid crystals.
4. Amino acids are soluble in water but don't mix well with organic solvents.
5. In nature, there are 20 different amino acids.
6. For example, alanine, glycine, serine, leucine, isoleucine, and more. The
simplest one is called glycine.
Formation of Peptide Bond.
When two amino acids get linked at -COOH group of one amino acid and -NH2
group of another amino acid, a peptide bond (-CO-NH-) gets formed releasing a
water molecule. This connection between amino acid molecules is referred to as a
peptide linkage. A chain of multiple amino acids joined together in succession
forms a polypeptide chain.

Figure 1.1.11 Peptide bond of protein

CATEGORIES OF AMINO ACIDS

Do you know?
There are some amino acids which are usually not essential, except in times of
illness and stress. They are called conditionally essential amino acids. Some of
them are arginine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.

There are 20 different types of amino acids that are commonly found in nature.
They can be categorized into two main groups based on their role in the body:
i. Essential Amino Acids: These are amino acids that the human body
cannot produce on its own, so they must be obtained through diet. There are
nine essential amino acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
ii. Non-Essential Amino Acids: The human body can synthesize these
amino acids, so it is not necessary to obtain them from diet. There are 11
non-essential amino acids: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid,
cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.
Table 1.1.3 Differences between Essential and non-essential amino acids
Essential Amino Acids Non-essential Amino Acids
They are not synthesized in the human They are synthesized in the human body.
body.
Hence, they are consumed via diet. They are not necessarily incorporated in
diet.
There are nine essential amino acids: There are 11 non-essential amino acids:
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine,
tryptophan, and valine. glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.

Functions of Amino Acids

Amino acids play crucial roles in our body:
1. They serve as the fundamental components of proteins.
2. The amino acid (Tryptophan) acts as the precursor for the plant hormone
indole acetic acid (auxin).
3. Tyrosine is essential for the synthesis of animal hormones like thyroxine and
adrenaline; and melanin pigments.

1.1.4 PROTEINS
Proteins are long chains of a large number of chemically bonded amino acids. They
are the most complex chemical compounds basically composed of C, H, O, N, S,
and P. Nitrogen is a key element in proteins. Enzymes, basically proteins, control
all body reactions.
Around 20 different amino acids naturally form proteins, a polymer.

CATEGORIES OF PROTEINS
A. Based on chemical nature, proteins are divided into three categories:
a) Simple proteins
b) Conjugated proteins
c) Derived proteins

a) Simple proteins: They consist of peptide chains. For example, albumins,

globulins, histones, protamines, etc.
b) Conjugated proteins: These are proteins that form in conjunction with non-
protein substances. These additional components are known as prosthetic groups.
Some specific types of conjugated proteins are:
1. Glycoproteins: These result from the combination of protein and glucose,
as seen in substances like mucin of saliva.
2. Phosphoproteins: They are formed by the combination of amino acids and
phosphate. For example, caesin of milk.
3. Lipoproteins: These are the combination of amino acids and lipids. They
are found in various proteins such as those in the brain, serum, and the
chemical composition of biological membranes.
4. Nucleoprotein: They are formed by the combination of amino acids and
nucleic acids. They are located in the chromosomes of cells.
5. Chromoprotein: They are formed by the combination of amino acids and
colored pigments containing elements like Fe, Cu, Mg, or Cobalt. For
example, hemoglobin and the retina of the eye.

c) Derived proteins: These proteins are formed by the partial hydrolysis of simple
and conjugated proteins. For example, peptones and proteoses.

Proteins exist in either globular or fibrous forms, although some may be found in
both forms. For example, albumin and globulin fall into the category of globular
proteins, while fibrous proteins include keratin, elastin, fibrin, and collagen. Actin
can be present in either globular or fibrous forms.

B. Based on molecular structure, proteins are categorized into two types: types:
1. Fibrous proteins show twisted structure, forming fiber-like arrangements.
They are insoluble in water and other reagents, and they are exclusively
found in animals. For example, keratin, elastin, collagen, etc.
2. Globular proteins are composed of one or several polypeptide chains
arranged in an alpha helix configuration and folded in a specific manner.
These chains are held together by hydrogen bonds and cohesive forces.
Globular proteins are soluble in water, salt solutions, acids, or bases, and
they are predominantly found in plants, such as albumin and globulin.
 Figure 1.1.12 Types of Protein

STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN
Do You Know?
Why does the transparent fluid in an egg turn white when boiled?
Egg whites have proteins called albumins with a specific 3D shape due to bonds
between amino acids. Heating breaks these bonds and reveals hydrophobic amino
acids. These amino acids stick together, forming a network that gives the egg
white opaque structure.
Each protein has a unique shape. If the environment's temperature, pH, or
chemicals change, the protein's shape can be affected, causing it to lose its
structure and become a jumbled string of amino acids, called denaturation.
Denatured proteins often lose their function.

Proteins are large compounds basically made from the bonding of numerous amino
acid molecules. They exhibit various configurations or structures based on which
proteins can be categorized into the following types:
1. Primary structure
3. Tertiary structure
2. Secondary structure
4. Quaternary structure
Do You Know?
The sequence of a protein is determined by the DNA of the gene responsible for the
coding of the protein. A change in DNA sequence brings change in the sequence of
amino acids altering not only its structure but also its function.

For example:
In sickle cell anemia, one of the polypeptide chains that makes hemoglobin suffers
a slight alteration in aminoacid sequence. The glutamic acid normally located as the
sixth amino acid of the hemoglobin β chain is replaced by valine.
 Figure 1.1.13 Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary structures of
protein
1. Primary structure
Arrangement of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is the primary structure of a
protein. It is a linear arrangement of amino acids and has only peptide bonds.
Insulin is the smallest protein which shows primary structure.
 Figure 1.1.14 Primary Structure of protein
2. Secondary structure
In this type, the polypeptide chain bends and folds due to molecular force and gives
a special shape to the protein. Between carbonyl oxygen, there is a hydrogen atom.
The force originated from the hydrogen bond twists the polypeptide chain into its
helical structure. This is called alpha - helix. Such proteins are found in hair, wool
and in fibrous substances.

3. Tertiary structure
In this type, a long peptide chain is coiled and variously folded forming the tertiary
structure. having four kinds of bonds -
 Hydrogen bond between -OH group of hydroxy amino acid.
 Ionic bond between NH2 group of basic amino acid and -COOH group of
acidic amino acid.
 Hydrophobic bond lies between the two nearest similar R groups.
 Disulphide bond is generally formed by cystine.

4. Quaternary structure
It is formed due to polymerization of several tertiary proteins e.g. phosphorylase.

Functions of Proteins
1. Many proteins act as structural proteins and take part in building and
repairing body tissues. Therefore, these are essential for growth.
 2. Proteins provide energy fuel. The caloric value of 1 gm of proteins is 5.65
kcal while the physiological fuel value of 1 gm of proteins is 4.0 kcal.
3. These act as enzymes or biocatalysts which regulate life processes. Around
2000 different kinds of enzymes are known so far.
4. Insulin is a hormone (protein) that regulates glucose level in the body.
5. Antibodies or immuno-globins are proteins that develop immunity/protect
the body against foreign bodies.
6. Thrombin and fibrinogen are proteins that prevent bleeding by clotting
blood.

1.1.5 LIPIDS OR FATS

Why do our bodies need fat?
Can you think of any common foods that are a good source of fats?

Lipids consist of fats and fat-like substances, which are basically made of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. It has lower oxygen content compared to carbohydrates.
They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like acetone, ether, and
alcohol. A significant amount of oxygen is required for their oxidation to generate
energy. True lipids are essentially esters derived from the combination of fatty acids
and alcohol. An ester is an organic compound formed by the union of a fatty acid
with alcohol.

where, R= CH3, CH5, etc.

Figure 1.1.15 Structures of ester formation

FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids are large molecules containing acidic groups. The general formula is R -
COOH, where, R= CH3, CH5, etc. There are two types of fatty acids.
1. Unsaturated fatty acids
2. Saturated fatty acids
 Figure 1.1.16 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acid
Table 1.1.4 Differences between unsaturated and saturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids Saturated fatty acids
These fatty acids have one or more double These fatty acids have single bond
bonds between the carbon atoms between the carbon atoms
They have lower melting points. They have higher melting points.
They are generally in liquid state (oil) at They are generally in solid state (fat)
room temperature. at room temperature.
Generally found in plant-based oils like Generally found in animal products
sunflower oil, mustard oil, soybean oil, like meat and dairy products and
olive oil, nuts, seeds, avocado and some some plant-based oils like coconut
fatty fish like salmon, sardine. oil and palm oil.
It is usually clear/semi-transparent. It is often opaque or cloudy.
Examples Examples
Oleic acid – possesses one double bond Palmitic acid (possesses 16 C-
Linoleic acid - possesses two double atoms)
bonds Stearic acid (possesses 18 C-
Linolenic acid - possesses three double atoms)
bonds

CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Lipids are grouped into three categories:
1. Simple lipids
2. Complex or conjugated lipids
3. Derived lipids
1. Simple Lipids
They are esters (compounds) of fatty acids and certain alcohol. They are broadly
categorized into the following types:
i. Neutral fats
ii. Oils
iii. Waxes

i. Neutral fats: They are the esters of fatty acids and glycerols, hence called
glycerides. Each molecule of glycerol can react with three molecules of fatty acids.
Depending upon the number of fatty acids attached, they are called mono-, di- or
tri-glycerides.

Figure 1.1.17 Types of Glycerides

a. Monoglyceride: One molecule of glycerol + one molecule of fatty acid.

b. Diglyceride: One molecule of glycerol + two molecules of fatty acids.
c. Triglyceride: One molecule of glycerol + three molecules of fatty acids.

Figure 1.1.18 Triglyceride or a triester

 ii. Oils: They are fats rich in unsaturated fatty acids (with more than one
double bond). They are found in liquid state.
iii. Waxes: They are esters of long chain fatty acids and long chain alcohol
except glycerol. Waxes are chemically inert. They lack double bond in their
hydrocarbon chain. They are protective in functions and form water
insoluble coating on hair and skin in animals and on stems, leaves, and fruits
of plants. The important types of waxes are as follows:
1. Plant wax: This type of lipid forms a coating on plant parts to reduce
the rate of transpiration and prevent.
2. Bee's wax: It is secreted by abdominal glands of worker honeybees.
3. Paraffin Wax: Paraffin wax is a petroleum-derived wax composed of
long-chain saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes). It is widely used in
candles, cosmetics, and food coatings.
4. Lanolin (wool fat): It is obtained from sheep‘s wool. It is secreted by
sebaceous gland and get deposited onto the wool fibers.

Figure 1.1.19 Waxes

Table 1.1.5 Differences between fats and oils

Fat Oil
Fat is usually solid at room temperature. Oil is usually liquid at room temperature.
It is mainly obtained from animal (e.g., Mainly obtained from plant (e.g., olive
butter, lard). oil, sunflower oil).
It is rich in Saturated Fatty acids. It is rich in unsaturated Fatty acids.
It is often opaque or cloudy. It is usually clear/semi-transparent.
It is suitable for baking and frying at It is preferred for dressings and low-
high temperatures. temperature cooking.
2. Complex lipids
These lipids are more complex as they are created in conjunction with either
carbohydrates, phosphates, or proteins.
a. Glycolipids (Glycolipids = lipids + carbohydrate): They are formed by the
combination of lipids with carbohydrate molecules, glycolipids are present
in membranes. They play a significant role in the composition of the white
matter in nerve tissue.
b. Phospholipids (Phospholipids = lipids + phosphate): These lipids include a
phosphate group, resulting in polar molecules with hydrophilic and
hydrophobic ends. Biologically, they are essential for the formation of
plasma membrane and other endomembranes in cells. For example,
Lecithin, Cephalins, Plasmalogens, etc.
c. Lipoprotein (Lipoprotein = lipids + protein molecules): Lipoproteins are
lipids associated with protein molecules, and various types are present in
blood plasma.

3. Derived Lipids
Derived lipids are obtained from the modification or breakdown of other lipids,
often through processes like hydrolysis or oxidation. They include compounds such
as fatty acids, sterols, and glycerides. These molecules play important roles in
various biological processes, including energy storage, cell structure, and signaling
within the body.

Importance of Steroids:
Do you know?

Cholesterol, being a steroid lipid, is linked to abnormal thickening of artery walls,

potentially raising blood pressure and causing circulatory issues. Its overall utility is
questioned, not being inherently bad but lacking clear usefulness.
 1. Cholesterol serves as a precursor for sex hormones like progesterone,
testosterone, and adrenocortico-tropic hormones like cortisol.
2. When exposed to ultraviolet rays, cholesterol undergoes irradiation,
producing vitamin D essential for bone growth.
3. Diosgenin finds application in the production of anti-fertility pills.

Functions of Lipids:
1. Lipids act as a rich energy source, with a caloric value higher than
physiological fuel.
2. Lipid deposited in subcutaneous tissues insulates heat.
3. Triglycerides stored in adipose tissue serve as a principal food reserve.
4. Lipids act as solvents for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).
5. They protect organs from injury by absorbing mechanical impact around
organs.
6. Phospholipids contribute to the composition of various organ membranes.
7. Glycolipids form components of cell membranes and myelin in nerve cells.
8. Bile salts, derived from modified cholesterol, play a crucial role in fat
metabolism.
9. Lipoproteins can contribute to preventing bacterial diseases.
10. Exposure to ultraviolet light activates the synthesis of vitamin D which is
essential for bone growth.

1.1.6 NUCLEIC ACIDS

 Have you ever wondered how our body stores and transmits genetic
information?
 What role do you think nucleic acids play in this process?
Nucleic acids are the most essential molecules of life. They are complex, long
chained compounds larger than most proteins and primarily contain C, O, H, N, P.
These nucleic acids are made up of a few nucleotides. In other words, nucleic acids
are the polymers of nucleotides.

Structure of Nucleotide
Basically, a nucleotide is composed of three components:
i. Pentose sugar
ii. Nitrogenous bases
iii. Phosphoric acid
Do you know?
Friedrich Meischer (1868) isolated nucleic acids from pus cell nuclei,
establishing them as genetic material for all organisms, including
viruses. Oswald Avery's (1944) work further supported nucleic acids
as carriers of genetic information.

Figure 1.1.20 Three components of nucleotide

Do You Know?
Nucleosides are the building blocks of nucleotides. For convenience,
Nucleotide = Nucleoside + Phosphate group

Figure 1.1.20 Structural differences between Nucleoside and nucleotide

i. Pentose sugar: Two types of pentose sugars are present in the two types of
nucleic acids - Ribonucleic acid (RNA) contains ribose sugar and deoxyribonucleic
acid DNA) contains deoxyribose sugar.

Figure 1.1.21 Structures of deoxyribose and ribose sugars

ii. Nitrogen base: They can be categorized into two classes:

1. Purines: There are two rings in their structure (6 + 5 membered). Purines
are Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
2. Pyrimidines: There is one ring in their structure (6 membered). Pyrimidines
are Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U) (Uracil is present only in
RNA instead of Thymine).

Figure 1.1.22 Structures of purine bases (Adenine and guanine)

pyrimidine base (Cytosine, thymine and uracil)
In fact, there exists complementary bases - purine base attaches to specific
pyrimidine base, i.e.
  Adenine pairs with Thymine (A = T) by two hydrogen bonds.
 Cytosine pairs with Guanine (C≡G) by three hydrogen bonds.
iii. Phosphoric acid:
It has a phosphate group that connects two nucleotides by a phosphodiester
bond

TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

Two types of nucleic acids are:
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A. Deoxy-Ribonucleic Acid (DNA)

DNA is present in all living things except some viruses. It's in the nucleus,
mitochondria, and plastids. DNA is a big molecule made up of many units called
nucleotides. A nucleotide has deoxyribose sugar, phosphoric acid, and one of four
nitrogenous bases.

Figure 1.1.23 DNA Structure (Watson and Crick Model)

Characteristics of DNA:
 DNA has two parallel chains of polynucleotides running as a double helix.
 The strands are spirally coiled and run in opposite directions (one in 3' - 5'
direction and another in 5' - 3').
 They have sugar-phosphate chains outside and purines and pyrimidine bases
inside.
 Weak hydrogen bonds join the strands.
 The distance between strands is 20 A. There are 10 base pairs in a turn
(34A), with 3.4 A between pairs.
 Purines (A and G) attach to specific pyrimidines (T and C) with hydrogen
bonds.
 DNA has 28% adenine, 24% guanine, 20% cytosine, and 28% thymine.
 Nucleotides in a helix connect with phospho-diester bonds.

Functions of DNA
1. Being a genetic material, it carries genetic information in the form of a
sequence of nitrogenous bases.
2. DNA copies genetic information to pass it to cells of the next generation.
3. Crossing over in DNA produces genetic recombination.
4. Changes in components of DNA create variations and new species.
5. Transcription of DNA synthesizes RNAs for different cell functions.
6. It regulates cell metabolic reactions through RNA and protein synthesis
(Central Dogma).

B. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

RNA is made in the nucleus but found in the nucleolus, cytoplasm, and on ribosome
membranes. It also acts as hereditary material in some viruses and aids in protein
synthesis.
Structural Details:
1. RNA, like DNA, is a big molecule but smaller.
2. It's a single-stranded polynucleotide chain.
3. Composed of hundreds or thousands of nucleotides connected by 3'-5'
phosphodiester bonds.
4. Each nucleotide has ribose sugar, phosphate, and one of four nitrogen bases,
called ribonucleotides.
 5. RNA uses Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil (instead of Thymine in
DNA).
Types of RNA:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): Translates genetic info from DNA to ribosomes
for protein synthesis, most abundant RNA.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Stable RNA linked with ribosomes.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA): Acts as an adapter, carrying amino acids to the
protein synthesis site.

Functions of RNA:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries coded info for translating into polypeptide
chains.
2. RNA forms compact genes for genetic engineering via reverse transcription.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers specific amino acids to the ribosome for
protein synthesis.
4. They possess a cap region for ribosome attachment.
5. They act as genetic material in some viruses.
6. They synthesize proteins and enzymes with ribosome assistance.

Figure 1.1.24 Structure of RNA

Table 1.1.6 Differences between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
It is found in the nucleus and It is synthesized in the nucleus but found in the
mitochondria nucleolus, cytoplasm, and on ribosomes
Its double-stranded structure It is single-stranded structure
It comprises deoxyribose It comprises ribose sugar
sugar
It has thymine as a nitrogen Here, Uracil replaces Thymine as a nitrogenous
base base
It shows stability under It is sensitive to alkaline conditions
alkaline conditions
It is mainly involved in It participates in protein synthesis, carries genetic
genetic information information in some viruses

Table 1.1.7 Types and functions of Nucleotides

Nucleotide Function
AMP (Adenosine Used as a monomer in the synthesis of RNA and plays a
Monophosphate) role in energy transfer within cells
ADP (Adenosine Intermediate in ATP cycle, represents lower-energy state in
Diphosphate) cells
ATP (Adenosine Main energy currency of the cell, stores, and transfers
Triphosphate) energy during various cellular processes; each dissociation
releases 8K cal energy.
FAD (Flavin Adenine A high energy molecule that accepts and donates electrons
Dinucleotide) in redox reactions, part of the electron transport chain;
(gives 2ATP molecules)
NAD (Nicotinamide Acts as a coenzyme in redox reactions, carrying electrons
Adenine to the electron transport chain
Dinucleotide)
NADP (Nicotinamide A high energy molecule like NAD but involved in anabolic
Adenine Dinucleotide reactions, particularly in photosynthesis; (gives 3 ATP
Phosphate) molecules)
Activity: 1.3
Designing a Watson and Crick DNA Model with Clay.
Objective: The objective of this project is to understand the structure of DNA
(Watson and Crick) by creating a tangible model of the DNA molecule using
colorful clay, color and toothpick.
Materials Required:
a. Clay (different colors)
b. Toothpicks or wooden sticks
c. Marker/Paper -flag for labeling
Steps:
a. Decide colors for different DNA components: Pentose sugar be blue,
phosphate be red and nitrogenous bases of four other different colors.
b. Roll ten 2-centimeter-wide spheres of a particular color (to represent Pentose
sugar), equal number of 0.5 centimeter wide spheres of another color (to
represent pentose sugar) and differently coloured smaller spheres in half their
number (to represent four nucleotide bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine
(C), and guanine (G).
c. Place a strong and long stick to be in the middle as an axis.
d. Over a base of hard plywood, place out two long strands of spheres
(alternately big and small) of different colors on floral wire to represent the
DNA strands around the central axis.
e. Attach adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine pairs to toothpicks.
f. Insert toothpicks into the biggest spheres in floral wire.\
g. Twist floral wires slightly between each toothpick, counter-clockwise at the
top.
h. Carefully twist the two strands around each other to form the double helix
structure.
i. Add additional details to the model, such as labeling the nucleotide bases or
highlighting the sugar-phosphate backbone.
j. Showcase your model to the class and explain
its different components and its importance.
1.1.7 MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic substances crucial for the effective operation of the human
body. Minerals, found in small quantities, are vital cell components, constituting
approximately 2-3% of the body. Due to their crucial role in metabolism, they are
essential for overall body growth and development. Since the body continually
loses minerals, a regular intake from food is necessary.
The human body predominantly relies on five major minerals: calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, and magnesium. Additionally, trace elements like iron, zinc,
copper, and iodine are vital but needed in smaller quantities.

CATEGORIES OF MINERALS
There are about 25 types of minerals. Based on their amounts required by the
organisms, They have been categorized into two groups:
a. Macro-elements: These elements are required in large amounts. They include
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl),
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P).
b. Micro-elements: These elements are required in small amounts (> 1 gram). They
include copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), iron
(Fe), manganese (Mn), iodine (I), fluorine (F), molybdenum (Mo), etc.

Table 1.1.8 Macro Elements (Name and functions)

Macro Symbol Functions
Elements
Provides strength and rigidity to bones and teeth.
Forms the exoskeleton of invertebrates (CaCO3).
Forms the shells of molluscs (CaO).
Calcium Ca
Assists in the formation of the middle lamella in plant cell
walls.
Utilized as fertilizer in bone dust.
Imparts rigidity to bones and teeth.
Magnesium Mg Contributes to the structure of chlorophyll pigment.
Acts as a co-factor for enzymes such as ATP-ase.
Aids in maintaining the electrical potential across
Potassium K membranes.
Facilitates the conduction of nerve impulses.
Plays a role in protein synthesis, such as keratin.
Sulphur S
Synthesizes organic compounds like Co-enzyme A.
 Shares similar functions with potassium.
Maintains the balance of anions/cations and osmotic
Sodium Na
balance in cellular fluids.
Acts as a co-factor in photosynthesis and respiration.
Involved in the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and
Nitrogen N organic compounds.
Participates in the synthesis of chlorophyll.
Involved in the synthesis of nucleic acids, ATP, and
proteins.
Phosphorus
Functions in the synthesis of phospholipids for membranes.
Constituents of bone and tooth enamel.
Forms a significant component of blood plasma.
Chlorine Cl Facilitates the exchange of gases in tissues during
respiration (chloride shift).

Table 1.1.9 Trace Elements (Name and functions)

Trace
Symbol Functions
Elements
Acts as an electron carrier in cytochrome oxidase
Copper Cu respiratory system and photosynthesis.
Contributes to melanin production.
Serves as an oxygen carrier in hemoglobin and
myoglobin (respiratory pigments).
Transports electrons to carriers in cytochromes during
Iron Fe
respiration and photosynthesis.
Plays a role in chlorophyll synthesis.
Deficiency leads to anemia.
Essential for the hormone thyroxine; deficiency causes
Iodine I
goiter and cretinism in children.
Necessary for the oxidation of fatty acids.
Required for enzymes in respiration and photosynthesis,
Manganese Mn
with mitochondria rich in manganese.
Works with phosphatases in bone development.
Supports nitrogen fixation catalyzed by the enzyme
Molybdenum Mo nitrogenase.
Helps in the formation of proteins.
Activity 1.4
Analyze and categorize mineral-rich foods consumed by your family and explain
their health benefits.
Objective: Identify and list the mineral-rich foods regularly consumed in your
family's diet.
Steps:
a. Collect and list the food items consumed by your family.
b. Conduct research using reliable sources such as textbooks, reference books,
and the internet to identify the mineral content of these foods.
c. Categorize the foods by their mineral content.
d. Provide a brief explanation of the health benefits associated with each
mineral-rich food.

1.1.8 ENZYMES
Have you ever thought about how your body breaks down the food you eat?
What role do you think enzymes play in this digestive process?
Enzymes are the proteinaceous substances that are capable of catalyzing chemical
reactions of biological origin without undergoing any changes themselves and thus
they are also known as biocatalysts.
Enzymes are special proteins that can speed up chemical reactions in living things
without undergoing any change. They are often called biocatalysts as they help with
biological processes.

Do You Know?
The term 'enzyme' (Greek enzymos = "leavened") was coined by German
physiologist Wilhelm Kuhne (1878). Buchner (1903) isolated the first enzyme.
Sumner (1926) first discovered the protein nature of enzymes; he purified and
crystalized Urease enzyme for which he was honored with the Nobel prize (1946).

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES
1. Enzymes are usually globular proteins, and they can include inorganic or
organic substances for their activity.
2. Hydrophilic and form hydrosol in the free-state.
 3. Highly specific in their action, catalyzing only a single reaction, but
different enzymes can act on the same substrate to produce different
products.
4. All enzyme-catalyzed reactions are theoretically reversible, depending on
energy requirements, reaction availability, end product concentration, and
pH.
5. Very efficient, a small amount can catalyze a large amount of substrate,
measured by turnover number.
6. Enzymes don't start chemical reactions but speed them up, not altering the
equilibrium but reaching it quickly.
7. Lower the activation energy of catalyzed reactions.
8. Coded by DNA as they are proteins.
9. Inactivated or denatured by substances and factors that destroy protein
structure, like heavy metals and high-energy radiation.

Biological Importance of Enzymes:

1. Almost all chemical reactions in living organisms are mediated by enzymes.
2. Specialized catalysts working at biological temperatures.
3. pH-specific, allowing different pH reactions to occur in different body parts.
4. Reactions mediated by enzymes don't require harsh treatment.
5. Enzymes create a favorable environment for organisms to live in.
6. Enzyme formation is controlled by separate regulatory genes, allowing for
precise regulation of enzyme activity.

1.1.9 WATER
Water is the most common inorganic substance in cells, forming a significant part
of all living organisms, whether on land or in water. It constitutes 60%-70% of
body weight and occupies 75%-90% of the protoplasm. While it doesn't provide
energy, water is crucial for sustaining life.

Figure 1.1.25 Water Molecules

Structurally, the water molecule, H2O, is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen. It behaves as a dipole, with the oxygen atom sharing electrons with two
hydrogen atoms. This creates a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end,
leading to weak hydrogen bonding and the formation of a lattice structure.

Biological Functions of Water

1. Acts as an effective solvent, dissolving soluble materials.
2. Participates in ionic reactions, aiding ionization in water.
3. Facilitates heat loss with minimal water loss, contributing to cooling through
evaporation of sweat.
4. High surface tension and cohesion enable water conduction through plant
xylem vessels.
5. Serves as a medium for transporting substances like nutrients in the body.
6. Provides an environment for organisms living in water.
7. Eliminates waste products in solution form, primarily as urine and to a lesser
extent as sweat, maintaining homeostasis.
8. Abundance of organic molecules like cellulose, chitin, and the protein
Rubisco (ribulose biphosphate carboxylase).

EXERCISE
A. Tick the correct alternatives:
1. What is the general formula for carbohydrates, and what is the ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen in these molecules?
a. Cn(H2O)n, ratio 1:2
b. Cn(H2O)n, ratio 2:1
c. Cn(H2O)n, ratio 1:1
d. Cn(H2O)n, ratio 2:2
2. What is the primary difference between monosaccharides and
disaccharides?
a. Monosaccharides are soluble in water, while disaccharides are
insoluble.
b. Monosaccharides are simple sugars, while disaccharides are complex
carbohydrates.
c. Monosaccharides have a sweet taste, while disaccharides do not.
d. Monosaccharides consist of two sugar molecules, while
disaccharides consist of a single sugar molecule.
3. If you were to build a model to demonstrate the formation of disaccharides
using colored cotton balls and toothpicks, which combination would
correctly represent sucrose?
a. Glucose + Fructose
b. Glucose + Glucose
c. Glucose + Galactose
d. Fructose + Galactose
4. Which statement accurately describes the difference between essential and
non-essential amino acids?
a. Essential amino acids are synthesized in the human body, while non-
essential amino acids must be obtained through diet.
b. Essential amino acids are not incorporated into the diet, while non-
essential amino acids are consumed through diet.
c. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized in the human body and
must be obtained through diet, while non-essential amino acids are
synthesized in the body.
d. Essential and non-essential amino acids have the same role in the
human body.

5. In the context of proteins, what is the primary difference between globular

and fibrous proteins?
a. Globular proteins are insoluble in water, while fibrous proteins are
soluble.
b. Globular proteins have a twisted structure, while fibrous proteins
have a folded configuration.
c. Globular proteins are primarily found in plants, while fibrous
proteins are exclusively found in animals.
d. Globular proteins are composed of one or several polypeptide chains
arranged in an alpha helix configuration, while fibrous proteins
exhibit a twisted structure.

6. Which of the following is the primary source of energy?

a. Proteins
b. Carbohydrates
c. Lipids
d. Nucleic Acids
7. Why do our bodies need fats?
a. To build muscles
b. As a source of energy
c. For vitamin C synthesis
d. To regulate body temperature
8. Can you think of any common foods that are a good source of fats?
a. Oranges
b. Salmon
c. Rice
d. Spinach
9. Which of the following is a characteristic of unsaturated fatty acids?
a. Higher melting points
b. Single bonds between carbon atoms
c. Clear or translucent
d. Usually solid at room temperature
10. What is the main function of lipids in protecting organs?
a. Acting as energy reserves
b. Absorbing mechanical impact
c. Forming cell membranes
d. Catalyzing chemical reactions
11. What are nucleic acids primarily composed of?
a. Carbon and Oxygen
b. Hydrogen and Nitrogen
c. Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus
d. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
12. Who isolated nucleic acids from pus cell nuclei, establishing them as genetic
material?
a. Friedrich Meischer
b. Oswald Avery
c. Watson and Crick
d. Sumner and Buchner
13. Which component is common to both nucleosides and nucleotides?
a. Pentose sugar
b. Nitrogenous base
c. Phosphoric acid
d. Ribose sugar
 14. Which type of sugar is found in RNA nucleotides?
a. Deoxyribose
b. Ribose
c. Glucose
d. Fructose
15. What is the role of phosphoric acid in a nucleotide?
a. It provides structural support
b. It carries genetic information
c. It forms hydrogen bonds
d. It connects two nucleotides by a phosphodiester bond

B. Answer the following questions:

1. What are biomolecules?
2. Define metabolism in cells.
3. Explain the differences between monosaccharides and disaccharides.
4. Demonstrate your understanding of the concept of glycoproteins by
describing its composition with an example.
5. Sucrose and glucose are both sweet; however, they are not the same. Explain
the differences between them in terms of their chemical structure and
composition.
6. Compare and contrast globular proteins and fibrous proteins with examples.
7. Create a simple diagram illustrating the primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary structures of a protein. Label each structure and briefly describe
its significance.
8. What are biomolecules, and how are they related to the building blocks of
life?
9. Explain the significance of the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in carbohydrates,
and provide an example of a carbohydrate.
10. Describe how oligosaccharides and polysaccharides differ, and provide an
example of each.
11. Connect the functions of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides to their roles in the human body.
12. Differentiate between essential and non-essential amino acids, and provide
examples of each.
 13. Explain the role of carbohydrates in our body, covering their functions and
the different types of carbohydrates. Provide examples for each type and
elaborate on their significance.
14. Why is junk food considered unhealthy or prohibited in schools for kids,
particularly in relation to the type of oil used?
15. Describe the structure and functions of amino acids, emphasizing the
significance of essential and non-essential amino acids. Discuss how amino
acids contribute to the formation of proteins and include examples of
different amino acids.
16. Elaborate on the categories, structures, and functions of proteins. Discuss the
differences between simple, conjugated, and derived proteins. Provide
examples for each category and explain the significance of primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures in proteins.

Project work: Identify and list the mineral-rich foods that your family regularly
consume in their diet. Categorize them by mineral content, and provide a brief
explanation of their health benefits.

Project work: Bring a variety of food items from home. Discuss in small groups to
analyze the nutritional content of the foods using food labels or online resources.
Categorize the foods based on the presence of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals. Discuss the results in your class with their significance.

*****
 CELL
Let’s discuss the following questions:
i. Have you ever wondered how living organisms are structured and
organized?
ii. What do you think all living things have in common, regardless of their
size or appearance?
iii. Why do you think cells are considered the basic units of life?
iv. What, in cells, carryout virtual functions to make it alive?

1.2.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

All living beings ever existed or existing are basically composed of a collection of
special compounds called biomolecules packaged in a structure termed a cell. The
cell is the basic building block of life, responsible for all necessary life processes. It
is the smallest unit that can perform essential activities and is enclosed by a
protective membrane. A cell can reproduce on its own and carries out vital
functions like respiration, growth, and excretion. In multicellular organisms, the
combined actions of cells drive life processes. In unicellular organisms, a single cell
manages all life activities, making it the fundamental unit of life. The study of
structure and function of a cell and its components is called Cytology, coined by
Oscar Hertwig (1892).

1.2.2 PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL

Fig: 1.2.1 Structure of (a) Eukaryotic Cell (b) Prokaryotic Cell

Dougherty (1957) recognized two types of cellular organization based on the nature
of nucleus and cell organelles, and complexity of genetic material cells can be
classified into two types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

1. Prokaryotic Cell:
A prokaryotic cell is a primitive cell characterized by the absence of a definite
nuclear membrane to form an organized nucleus and the lack of membrane-
bound cell organelles. They lack mitotic apparatus, nucleoli, membrane-bound
organelles and flagella with (9+2) pattern of fibril arrangement. But they bear a
single circular chromosome. Their cell wall is primarily composed of carbohydrates
and amino acids, with murein or peptidoglycan. And their plasma membranes form
intrusions like mesosomes. Their chlorophylls are located in lamellae rather than in
membrane-enclosed chloroplasts. They bear 70s ribosomes (50s + 30s) for protein
synthesis. They respire through cytoplasmic membranes.

For example: bacteria and cyanobacteria (a. Nostoc, b. Anabaena, c. Lyngbya, etc.).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig: 1.2.2 Cyanobacteria
2. Eukaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cells are characterized by the presence of a well-organized nucleus
enclosed by a nuclear envelope and possess membrane-bound cell organelles. The
membrane bound organelles present in eukaryotic cells are mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, centrosome, vacuoles, etc.

These cells divide through mitosis, meiosis, or amitosis and their genetic material
contains DNA with histone proteins. Their cell wall is composed of mostly
cellulose and hemicellulose or in some cases, pectin or lignin in plantae. Similarly,
the cell wall in mycota is composed of fungal cellulose or chitin. Eukaryotes
typically exhibit 11 fibrillar (9 + 2 stranded) flagella. They exhibit cytoplasmic
streaming and carry out photosynthesis in membrane-enclosed chloroplasts. Their
ribosomes are of the 80s (60s + 40s) in cytoplasm and 70s (30s + 50s) in chloroplast
and mitochondria.
Examples of eukaryotic cells encompass a wide range of organisms, including
plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

Activity 1.2.1
Design a table using colourful pens to contrast the characteristics of prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells.

1.2.3 STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

Shapes and sizes
The cell shape is influenced by factors such as function, age, cell wall, external
pressure, location, tension and viscosity. It may have different shapes like irregular,
cylindrical, oval, plate-like, tubular, branched, etc. The size of eukaryotic cells can
generally range from 1 micrometer - 1 millimeter long. The smallest cell is
mycoplasma (0.3 micrometer) and the largest cell is an ostrich egg (around 15 cm).

A typical eukaryotic animal cell is composed of a jelly-like, translucent protoplasm

enclosed by a plasma membrane. In plant cells, the plasma membrane is further
surrounded by a rigid and porous cell wall made of cellulose. The fluid between the
plasma membrane and nuclear envelope is called cytoplasm.

Parts of Eukaryotic Cells

Fig: 1.2.3 Components of Eukaryotic cell

1. CELL WALL
The cell wall functions as the outermost protective layer, providing rigidity, and
mechanical support. It is present in plant cells, bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, and
certain protists. However, the cell wall may be absent in certain lower plants and in
cells involved in reproduction, such as plant gametes and zoospores. Notably, the
cell wall is entirely absent in animal cells. The thickness of the cell wall can vary
considerably, ranging from 0.1 - 10 micrometers. The discovery of the cell wall is
attributed to Robert Hooke (1665).

The complex structure of the plant cell wall is divided into following different
layers and structures:

i. Middle Lamella: It is a thin layer between adjacent plant cell walls (formed
during cell division) which is composed of pectates of calcium and
magnesium. Its pectin layer is a hydrophilic colloidal substance that absorbs
water and acts as a cementing material between cells.

Fig: 1.2.4 Different layers in plant cell wall

ii. Primary Cell Wall: It is a thin, elastic and permeable membrane basically
composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectic compounds. It is formed
by protoplasm on either side of the middle lamella in a growing cell. Most
leaves, fruits, cortex, and pith cells contain only the primary cell wall and
middle lamella.
 iii. Secondary Cell Wall: It is a thick, rigid, and inelastic protective membrane
composed of three concentric layers of microfibrils, chemically formed of
lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin of thickness 5-10 micrometers
that lays down on the primary cell wall after its growth is complete. It is
found in mature and specialized cells like tracheids, vessels,
collenchymatous cells, and sclerenchymatous cells. Additional chemical
substances like cutin, suberin, waxes, mucilage, and silica are deposited on
the wall.
iv. Tertiary Cell Wall: It is a very thin protective membrane composed of
cellulose and xylan. It is found beneath the secondary cell wall, particularly
in xylem tracheids of Gymnosperms and provides strength to the cell wall.
Plasmodesmata: It is a small aperture between the primary cell wall and
middle lamella that is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum. It permits the
circulation of fluid and passage of solutes between cells forming bridges.

Functions of Cell Wall:

The functions of cell wall are:
a. It provides rigid walls, offering mechanical strength to cells and the plant.
b. It protects the inner cell contents from mechanical injuries and prevents the
entry of germs.
c. Its permeability allows exchange of essential molecules between the cell and
its surroundings.
d. It maintains the shape of cells, preventing undue expansion.
e. The cell wall of root hairs aids in the absorption of water and minerals from
the soil.
f. Glycerolipid like Suberin (at root) and cutin (at cuticle) deposited on the cell
wall prevent the loss of water from evaporation.
g. It prevents cell bursting by maintaining a balance between intracellular
osmotic pressure and the environment.
h. It is involved in various enzymatic activities.

2. PROTOPLAST
A protoplast is a part of a cell when its cell wall is removed, leaving only the cell
membrane and its contents.

3. CELL MEMBRANE
All living cells are enveloped by a thin, transparent and selectively permeable
membrane called plasma membrane. It is an elastic, regenerative and living
structure. The term "cell membrane" was coined by Cramer and Nagelli (1855), but
it was referred to as plasmalemma by Plowe (1931).
Notably, the plasma membrane and all the membranes that cover different cell
organelles within the cell share the same ultrastructure. Collectively, these
membranes are referred to as biomembranes. This emphasizes the uniformity in the
structural composition of cell membranes, both at the cell's outer boundary and
within its internal organelles.
Cell membranes are lipoproteinous, i.e. they are chiefly composed of lipids and
proteins. The membrane contains three different classes of proteins, viz. structural
proteins, enzymes (functional proteins), and carrier proteins.
Structural proteins are a major component of the cell membrane. Enzymes form the
major component of many membranes and are catalytic proteins. Carrier proteins
transport substances across the membrane against the concentration gradient. Lipid
constitutes 20-40% of the membrane.

To explain the structure of cell membranes different models have been developed.
Most convincing two models are described below:

Structural models of plasma membrane

a. Sandwich Model: This model was proposed by Danielli and H. Davson
(1935) which is based on the physical and chemical properties of plasma
membrane.

Fig: 1.2.5 Sandwich Model of cell membrane

Plasma membrane is basically a lipoproteinous trilaminar membrane

distinctly divided into outer and inner denser protein monolayer and a
middle phospholipid bilayer. It is called so because of the presence of the
phospholipid bilayer between two protein monolayers. Here, protein
molecules are globular that bear polar and non-polar side-chains and provide
 stability. Each phospholipid molecule is polar with hydrophilic and
hydrophobic ends. Heads (glycerols) are directed in opposite directions,
associated with proteins. Tails (fatty acids) of two layers face each other,
held by weak Van der Waals forces. Porous membrane with microscopic
pores of 7 – 10 Angstrom (Å).
However, this model doesn't explain functional specificity and variability in
biomembranes nor accounts for phenomena like active transport and
movement of water-soluble substances.

b. Fluid-Mosaic Model: According to this model, protein is not found in a

uniform layer but found in a mosaic pattern like icebergs in a sea. This
model was proposed by Singer and Nicholson (1972).
The plasma membrane is composed of lipoproteins and trilaminar
arrangement. It consists of a fluidly phospholipid bilayer, exhibiting two
types of movements: transition and flip flop. Within this bilayer, there are
globular proteins, which are further categorized as extrinsic (peripheral) or
intrinsic (integral). Extrinsic proteins are positioned outside the bilayer,
while intrinsic proteins are embedded with it. They are present in fluidly
phospholipids bilayer either in partially or in completely suspended forms.
They form channels for the passage of water, ions and other water soluble
solutes. The phospholipid molecule is polar, with a hydrophobic tail and
hydrophilic head of two fatty acid chains. So is an amphipathic molecule.
This amphipathic nature contributes to the formation of a water resistant
barrier, with head and tail in opposite directions.

Fig: 1.2.6 Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane

Functions of Plasma membrane
Following are the functions of plasma membrane:
 a. Cell membrane provides shape and protects the cell from mechanical injury.
b. It helps in transportation of materials by different processes like diffusion,
osmosis, active transportation, endocytosis (taking in large solid or liquid
materials), exocytosis (expelling large sized materials from the cell), etc.
a. It also helps in cellular locomotion through pseudopodia movement
(involving extension and folding of the plasma membrane like in amoeba,
etc.) or undulatory movement (wave-like undulations of the plasma
membrane like in fibroblast cells).
b. The antigens present in cell membranes help in separation of blood groups.
c. Microvilli is its modified form that helps in absorption of digested materials
in the intestine.
d. It serves as a site where different stimuli, like hormones and antigens, can be
detected and recognized.

4. PROTOPLASM
Protoplasm is the living colloidal mass of a cell, encompassing various cellular
organelles. According to Huxley, it is ‗a physical basis of life‘. It is thick,
translucent fluid containing lipids, carbohydrates, inorganic salts, and nucleic acids.
The term ‗protoplasm‘ was coined by Purkinje (1837). It comprises cytoplasm and
nucleus.

5. CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm is a jelly-like, semi-fluid component of protoplasm filling the space
between cell membrane and nuclear membrane. It comprises cytosol, cell organelles
and cell inclusions.
It consists of cell organelles, cytoplasmic matrix/cytosol, cell inclusions/ergastic
substances. Protoplasm maintains the cell‘s shape and stores necessary substances
required by organelles. It also facilitates essential reactions within the cell. In
plants, it‘s crucial for photosynthesis.

6. CELL ORGANELLE
The subcellular living membrane bound components having specific biological
functions are called cell organelles.
Protoplasm = Cytoplasm + Nucleus.
7. MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria (GK mito = thread; chondrion = granule) are granular or filamentous
cytoplasmic structures also known as "the powerhouse of the cell" as they give
energy in the form of ATP during aerobic respiration to carry out basic activities of
a cell. It was discovered by Kolliker (1880 AD) in the voluntary muscles of insects.
The term mitochondria was given by Benda (1897).

Mitochondria are absent in prokaryotes but present in all eukaryotic cells except for
mature mammalian red blood cells and sieve tubes in vascular plants. In
prokaryotes, respiratory enzymes are on the plasma membrane instead of
mitochondria. Mitochondria, shaped variably from rod-like to globular, change
based on cell conditions. Sizes range from 1 μm in yeast to 20-40 μm in Xenopus.
They are the largest organelles in animal cells and second-largest in plant cells,
ranking third in overall cell structures after the nucleus and chloroplast.
Mitochondrial number varies, being more abundant in growing, dividing, and
metabolically active cells. Positioned strategically in metabolically active areas,
mitochondria supply immediate ATP for cellular activities.

Fig: 1.2.7 Ultrastructure of a Mitochondrion

Structurally, mitochondria have two membranes (outer and inner), with the
space between them called the outer chamber. The inner chamber, or matrix,
contains granules, ribosomes, and mitochondrial DNA. The enzymes for the Kreb's
cycle are located in the matrix. The outer membrane is smooth, while the inner
membrane folds into cristae, increasing the surface area for cell respiration. The
inter-cristae space within the folds is continuous with the intermembrane space. On
the side of the inner membrane facing the matrix, numerous small tennis-racket-
shaped particles, referred to as elementary particles, F1-particles, or oxysomes, are
present. Each elementary particle comprises a head, stalk, and base. These particles
play a crucial role in oxidation and phosphorylation reactions.

At the end of the F1-particles, there is an enzyme called ATPase or ATP synthetase,
responsible for controlling the synthesis of ATP. Consequently, these particles are
termed ATP particles and serve as the functional units of mitochondria. While the
chemical composition of mitochondria varies among animal and plant cells, they
generally contain protein (65-70%), lipids (25-30%), RNA (0.5%), and a small
amount of DNA.

Fig: 1.2.8 An enlarge crista and a F1 particle

Mitochondria possess the essential components for protein synthesis, including 70s
ribosomes, self-replicating DNA molecules capable of forming RNA, and ATP
molecules for energy. While mitochondrial DNA encodes information for about 30
proteins, insufficient for creating a new mitochondrion, the process relies on nuclear
DNA, cytoplasmic enzymes, and other cellular molecules. Hence, mitochondria are
considered semi-autonomous organelles.

Functions of mitochondria
1. Mitochondria are referred to as powerhouses or ATP factories, they are the
key sites for ATP formation.
2. Intermediate products of cellular respiration contribute to the synthesis of
steroids, cytochromes, chlorophyll, etc.
3. It is involved in the biosynthesis of certain amino acids.
4. It regulates calcium ion concentration within the cell.
5. Mitochondria contribute to yolk formation in ovum development.
6. It forms the middle piece of sperm during maturation.
8. PLASTIDS
Plastids are cellular organelles in plants and certain protozoans, like Euglena. The
term plastid was coined by Haeckel (1866). Plastids are absent in bacteria, blue-
green algae, fungi, and animals. In bacteria chromatophore is present instead of
plastid. Additionally, they are not found in the gametes and zoospores of plants.
Plastids are classified as chloroplast (green coloured), chromoplast (coloured other
than green) and leucoplast (colourless).

a. Chloroplast
Chloroplasts, the most prevalent plastids, are crucial for plants as they facilitate
photosynthesis, the process responsible for manufacturing complex organic food. It
was discovered by Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (1679) and the term "chloroplast"
was introduced by Schimper (1883). These green plastids contain the pigment
chlorophyll. They are widespread in photosynthetic cells of plants and some protists
like Euglena, chloroplasts are absent in plant parts not exposed to light.

Chloroplasts exhibit diverse shapes, commonly biconvex or plano-convex in higher

plants. Various shapes include filamentous, saucer-shaped, ovoid, discoid, spheroid,
star-like, girdle-shaped, spiral ribbon-like, reticulate, or cup-shaped, depending on
the plant cell. The size may vary from 2-3 µm in thickness and 5-10 µm in diameter
and may be one (Chlamydomonas) to many (an intermodal cell of Chara) in
number.

Structure:

Fig: 1.2.9 An ultrastructure of Chloroplast

Chloroplast is composed of three main components: envelope, stroma and
thylakoid. It is bounded by an envelope made of two membranes, outer and inner
with an inter-membrane space. The inner membrane encloses a dense, colorless,
granular ground substance called stroma or matrix. It is rich in proteins (over 50%),
70s ribosomes, circular and naked DNA molecules (0.5%), mRNA, tRNA
molecules, water, minerals, and enzymes. The stroma is the site of the dark reaction
of photosynthesis. Within the stroma, structures like grana and intergrana
connecting membranes are embedded. Each granum consists of disc-shaped
membranous sacs called thylakoids piled upon each other. Grana are interconnected
by a network of membranous tubules known as intergrana or stroma lamellae. The
thylakoid membrane contains all the enzymatic components required for
photosynthesis, serving as the site for light reactions.

Similar to mitochondria, chloroplasts are semi-autonomous organelles with the

ability to synthesize some proteins independently. However, for certain proteins,
they rely on nuclear DNA and cytoplasmic ribosomes.

Functions of Chloroplasts:
1. Chloroplasts play a crucial role in photosynthesis, serving as the cell's
kitchen.
2. They produce oxygen essential for the respiration of aerobic organisms.
3. They contribute to maintaining the balance of O2 and CO2 in the biosphere.
4. They mitigate global warming by reducing CO2 concentration.
5. In algal forms, chloroplasts store starch in proteinaceous bodies called
pyrenoids.
6. They are responsible for the natural green coloration of plant tissues.

b. Chromoplasts:
Chromoplasts are colored plastids found in the non-green parts of plants, such as
flowers and fruits. They may develop from chloroplasts by replacing chlorophyll
with other pigments or from leucoplasts by acquiring pigments like carotenes or
anthocyanin. Chromoplasts are angular or needle-shaped, lack lamellae and grana,
and are enclosed by a double-layered membrane.

Types of Chromoplasts Based on Pigments:

a. Phaeoplasts: They are found in diatoms, dinoflagellates, and brown algae,
containing brown pigments Xanthophyll and Fucoxanthin.
b. Rhodoplasts: They are present in red algae, containing red pigments R-
phycoerythrin and R-phycocyanin.
 c. Chromatophores: They are found in blue-green algae, containing C-
phycocyanin, C-phycoerythrin, and chlorophyll-a.
d. Chromatophores: They are found in purple photosynthetic bacteria with
purple-red carotenoid pigments.

Function of Chromoplasts:
Chromoplasts contribute to the vibrant colors of flowers and fruits, attracting
insects and animals for pollination and the dispersal of seeds.

3. Leucoplasts:
Leucoplasts are colorless plastids found in storage organs where light is limited.
They may be rod-like, spherical, or oval, enclosed by double-layered membranes,
and contain a granular matrix. Leucoplasts transform into chloroplasts with a
thylakoid structure when exposed to sunlight.
Types of Leucoplasts Based on Stored Food:
a. Amyloplasts: They are found in potato tubers and grains of wheat and rice,
synthesizing and storing starch.
b. Elaioplast: (Oleosome or Lipoplast): They store lipids (fat or oil) and are
found in seeds of mustard, castor, groundnut, sunflower, cotton, etc.
c. Proteinoplasts or Aleuronoplasts: They are protein-storing leucoplasts
mainly occurring in seeds with few thylakoids.

Function of Leucoplasts:
Leucoplasts primarily serve to store various reserve food materials like
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

9. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of interconnected cisternae, tubules
and vesicles present throughout the cytoplasm, especially in the endoplasm. It is
like a busy factory inside a cell, with winding pathways and chambers where
proteins and lipids are synthesized, processed, packaged and transported where
they're needed. ER was discovered by Garnier (1897) but its structural detail was
reported by Porter, Claude and Fullam (1945), while the term 'Endoplasmic
Reticulum' was given by Porter (1953).
It is found only in eukaryotic cells, excluding germinal cells and matured
mammalian red blood cells. Its occurrence and development depend on the
metabolic state and differentiation stage of cells; absent in embryonic cells, less
developed in spermatocytes, and well-developed in fully differentiated and
metabolically active cells, like pancreas and liver.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

The ER is classified into two types based on the presence or absence of ribosomes:
a. Smooth or Agranular Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Lacks ribosomes on
its surface.
b. Rough or Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Possesses ribosomes on
its surface.
Table: Differences between SER and RER
SER RER
1. It lacks ribosomes. 1. It bears ribosomes.
2. Generally, it is located near the 2. Generally, it is located near the
cell membrane. nucleus.
3. It primarily comprises tubules. 3. It primarily comprises cisternae.
4. Lipid forming cells like 4. Protein forming cells like pancreatic
adipocytes, interstitial cells, acinal cells, goblet cells, plasma
adrenal cortical cells, muscle cells, cells, Nissl's granules of nerve cells,
etc. are rich in SER. etc. are rich in RER.
5. It is formed when RER loses 5. It is formed from nuclear membrane.
ribosomes.
6. Its main function is to synthesize 6. Its main function is to transport
and store lipids. protein.

Structure:
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) comprises three main structures: cisternae,
vesicles, and tubules.
1. Cisternae: They are flattened, sac-like tubules near the nucleus,
interconnected, and often found in cells with synthetic roles.
2. Vesicles: They are membrane-bound vacuolar structures scattered in the
cytoplasm, especially abundant in pancreatic cells.
3. Tubules: They are wider and branched structures that form the reticular
system along with cisternae and vesicles, mainly near the cell membrane
and lacking ribosomes.
 Fig: 1.2.10 Ultra structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

1. It helps in lipid and protein synthesis.
2. ER acts as the cell-circulatory system for material transport.
3. It functions as the cytoskeleton, providing mechanical support to the cell.
4. It participates in primary lysosome formation and nuclear-envelope
synthesis.
5. ER contributes to cell plate formation in plant cells during cytokinesis.
6. ER contains many enzymes which perform many synthetic and metabolic
activities.
7. It facilitates information transfer from the nucleus to organelles.
8. It stores synthetic products like glycogen.

10. GOLGI COMPLEX

Camillo Golgi discovered the Golgi complex in nerve cells of cats and barn owls
(1898). It is also known as Lipochondria, Idiosome, Dalton complex, or
Dictyosomes. Present in all eukaryotic cells except mature mammalian red blood
cells, antherozoids of bryophytes and pteridophytes, and sieve tube cells. Absent in
prokaryotic cells. Pleomorphic organelle with varying shapes dependent on the
cell's functional state. It varies in size, larger in mature, functional, and secretory
cells like nerve cells, pancreatic cells, liver cells, germinal cells, and smaller in non-
secretory cells like muscle cells.
 Fig: 1.2.11 Ultra Structure of Golgi complex

Under an electron microscope, the Golgi body consists of three smooth

membranous compartments: cisternae, vacuoles, and vesicles.
1. Cisternae or Flattened Sacs: They are double-layered, flat, curved parallel
sacs with swollen ends forming stacks. Golgian vacuoles present at the
swollen ends, each about 180-230Å in size. The number may vary from 3-
12 in animal cells to 10-20 in plant cells.
2. Vacuoles: These are spherical structures lying toward the maturing face or
concave side of cisternae. It represents modified and expanded cisternae
with widely separated membranes.
3. Vesicles: They are associated with cisternae, present along the convex
surface or forming face. These are of two types viz. Smooth vesicles and
coated vesicles.
Golgi body exhibits a definite polarity; concave side (maturation face) faces the cell
membrane, and convex side (forming face) faces the nucleus.

Functions:
1. Golgi bodies transport and chemically modify cell materials such as
proteins, lipids, and sterols.
2. It stores, condenses, and packages materials within the cell.
3. It is involved in cell secretion; vesicles containing secretory molecules pinch
off and discharge contents to the cell's exterior.
4. They participate in cell plate formation during cytokinesis in plant cells;
vesicles separate from the main body to form a new cell plate.
 5. Golgi bodies contribute to the formation of primary lysosomes.
6. It plays a role in the synthesis of hormones in endocrine cells, e.g., thyroxine
in thyroid gland cells.
7. They participate in the transformation of membranes and recycling of the
plasma membrane.
8. It contributes to the biosynthesis of glycoproteins.

11. LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are microscopic vesicular structures within the cytoplasm that play a
crucial role in intracellular digestion. They house enzymes capable of digestion,
earning them the nickname "suicidal bags." Lysosomes were discovered by Belgian
biochemist Christian de Duve (1955) within rat liver cells. The term "lysosome" is
derived from Greek words meaning "digestive body." They are found in all
eukaryotic animal cells (excluding mammalian red blood cells), certain fungi (e.g.,
yeasts), specific protists (e.g., Euglena), and meristematic cells (e.g., root tip cells
of maize). Generally, they are spherical but irregular in plant root tip cells. They are
found in a large number and helps in intracellular digestive activities, such as white
blood cells, phagocytes in the liver and spleen, and histiocytes in connective tissue.

Structure:
Under electron microscopy, lysosomes appear as dense, spherical, vacuolar
structures. Enclosed by a lipoprotein membrane, they contain digestive enzymes.
Approximately 40 types of enzymes are found in lysosomes.

On the basis of the nature of matrix, it is of following types:

1. Primary Lysosomes: Primary lysosomes are minute sac-like structures
pinched off from the Golgi complex or granular endoplasmic reticulum.
They contain only inactive digestive enzymes and are known as storage
granules.
2. Secondary Lysosomes: Secondary lysosomes form when primary
lysosomes fuse with other vacuoles containing extracellular or intracellular
materials. They possess ingested food along with digestive enzymes.
3. Autophagosomes or Autolysosomes: Autophagosomes are formed through
the process of autophagy, where the cell consumes its intracellular
organelles, such as mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. These
vacuoles emerge during instances of deficient external food or when the
 organism is starving. They are also known as autolysosomes, cytolysosomes
or autophagic vacuoles.
4. Residual Bodies: Residual bodies consist of lysosomes containing
undigested food. Typically, these bodies are expelled from the cell through
exocytosis. They are also known as tertiary lysosomes or telolysosomes.

Fig: 1.2.12 Different types of lysosome and their origin

Functions:
1. It digests cell's reserve food or organelles, like endoplasmic reticulum
fragments and mitochondria, by forming autophagosomes during starvation
or pathological conditions. This process is called auto-digestion.
2. It engulf and digests foreign food within the cell.
3. At pathological conditions, cells undergo autolysis by digesting their own
cell organelles. Thus, it is also called 'suicidal bag'.
4. It releases digestive enzymes outside the cell to hydrolyse extracellular
materials. It is called exocytosis.
5. Lysosomes initiate cell division by digesting repressor molecules.
6. DNase in lysosome can bring gene mutations, contributing to diseases like
Leukemia (blood cancer).
12. RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are electron microscopic, round and granular organelles crucial for
protein synthesis. It was discovered by Claude (1943 AD). Ribosomes are present
in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, except in mature sperm and red blood
cells. In prokaryotic cells, they are often free in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells host
cytoplasmic ribosomes in two forms: free and bound (on RER and outer nuclear
membrane). Organellar ribosomes are also found inside certain cell organelles like
mitochondria and plastids. The number of ribosomes depends on the cell's RNA
content, with higher numbers in plasma cells, liver cells, meristematic cells, cancer
cells, and endocrine cells. For example, E. coli has about 20,000-30,000 ribosomes.

Structure:
Ribosomes, oblate spheroids, consist of two subunits—one larger subunit (50s or
60s) and one smaller subunit (30s or 40s), joining only during protein synthesis.
The larger subunit is dome-shaped, attached to the ER, and has various structural
features. The smaller subunit is oval-shaped and fits like a cap. Ribosomes are
composed of approximately 45% rRNA and 55% proteins. Depending on
sedimentation coefficient, ribosomes are of two types:
1. 70s type: They are smaller in size and are found in cyanobacteria,
mitochondria, and chloroplasts. It consists of two sub-units, the 50s and 30s.
2. 80s type: They are larger in size and are present in the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells in plants and animals. It consists of two sub-unit, 60s and
40s.

Fig: 1.2.13 Types of ribosome

Functions:
1. Ribosomes act as protein factories, being essential sites for protein synthesis.
2. Proteins synthesized by ribosomes contribute to cellular structure or act as
enzymes, regulating cellular functions.
3. Free ribosomes produce intracellular enzymes, while bound ribosomes on RER
synthesize enzymes for extracellular use.
4. Ribosomes temporarily store proteins and rRNA, contributing to protein
synthesis.

13. CILIA AND FLAGELLA

The cilia (L. cili = eye-lash) and flagella (L. little whip) are microscopic, hair or
thread like motile structures present extracellularly but originate intra-cellularly
from the basal bodies and help in movement locomotion, feeding, circulation, etc.
The presence of flagellum was first reported by Englemann (1868 A.D.). Jansen
(1887 A.D.) was first to report the structure of sperm flagellum.

Occurrence
Cilia are found in all the ciliate protozoans, flame cells of flat worms, in some larval
forms e.g. Bipinnaria larva of starfish, in some body structures e.g. wind pipe,
fallopian tubes, etc., ciliated epithelium of the metazoa, etc. Flagella are found in all
the flagellate protozoans, collar cells of sponges, gastrodermal cells of
coelenterates, spermatozoa of animals and lower plants, zoospores of algae, etc.

Ultrastructure
Electron micrographs indicate that cilia and flagella possess identical internal
structures. Generally, the term cilium is used when the extension is shorter than a
cell, while the longer extension is called flagellum.
A transverse section of either organelle shows it consists of a pair of central
filaments surrounded by nine peripheral filaments which show a 9 + 2 arrangement.
This bundle of filaments is called an axoneme or axial filament. It is surrounded by
double layered, 90 A thick protective coat, continuous with the plasma-membrane.
Each peripheral microtubule is doublet and is formed of two subtubules - "A' and
'B'.
Each 'A' microtubule has pairs of 'arms' at regular intervals composed of another
protein called dynein which is capable of hydrolysing ATP. The central filaments
are connected to the A' microtubule of the peripheral filaments by radial spokes.
Motility of cilia and flagella is due to AT which is supplied from the cell cytoplasm
by diffusion.
Chemically, the central tubules are formed of dynein protein while the peripheral
microtubules are formed of tubulin protein.
Dynein is the ATPase enzyme which hydrolyses the ATP to provide free energy for
ciliary/flagelle beating.

Fig. 1.2.14 Ultrastructure of a cilia/ flagellum

Functions
1. Cilia or flagella bring locomotion in organisms by their power strokes and
return strokes.
2. Cilia of Paramecium and flagella of collar cells of sponges set up current in
water letting nutrition-and respiratory gas enter inside the body.
3. Ciliary movements in the respiratory tract help to eliminate solid wastes out
of the body.
4. Cilia of kidney-nephrons move nephric filtrate.
5. The eggs of amphibians and mammals are driven out from the oviduct by
the cilia.
6. The cilia of larval forms help in their dispersal.

14. NUCLEUS
Nucleus (L. nucleus = kernel) is the most important component of the cell which
regulates all the cellular activities and carries the hereditary information of the cell.
It has a spherical protoplasmic body embedded in the cytoplasm. It was first
observed by Anton Von Leeuwenhoek and was later described by Robert Brown
(1831) in orchid cells.
A true nucleus (Eukaryon) is found in all the eukaryotes except mature mammalian
RBCs, sieve tube cells of phloem, tracheids and vessels of xylem. The prokaryotes
have an incipient nucleus called nucleoid or prokaryon or genophore (the nucleus
without nuclear membrane and nucleolus). Its shape and size varies. Generally, its
shape depends upon the shape of the cell. However, it could be spherical, cuboidal,
ellipsoidal, discoidal or even irregular. Its size depends upon nueleo-cytoplasmic
index and the number of chromosomes present in the nucleus. In young cell nucleus
occupies 25% of cell volume while in mature cell, it occupies about 10% of cell
volume.

Structure
The nucleus is made of the following four components:
a. Nuclear membrane (karyotheca)
b. Nuclear sap or nucleoplasm.
c. Chromatin fibres and
d. Nucleolus

Fig: 1.2.15 Structure of nucleus (during interphase)

a. Nuclear membrane: Nuclear membrane is the outermost layer of the nucleus. It

was discovered by Erclab (1845) A.D. It consists of two membranes with a fluid-
filled space between them called the perinuclear space. The outer membrane is
connected to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Pores in the nuclear envelope enable
the exchange of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. This structure
performs several functions, including controlling interactions between the nucleus
and cytoplasm, permitting the passage of small molecules and ions, facilitating the
uptake of large molecules through pinocytosis and phagocytosis, allowing the
movement of ribosomal subunits, mRNA, tRNA, and proteins through nuclear
pores, and maintaining the shape of the nucleus.
b. Nuclear sap (Nucleoplasm or karyolymph)
Nucleoplasm is a transparent, homogenous, semi fluid, gel-like, colloidal and
slightly acidophilic ground substance or matrix present inside the nuclear
membrane in which nuclear chromatin and nucleoli are embedded. It is chemically
composed of water, nucleotides, sugars, minerals (Mn, Mg), ribosomes, enzymes,
lipids, proteins, mRNA, tRNA, etc.
Functions
1. It helps in maintaining the shape of nucleus.
2. It acts as nuclear skeleton.
3. It is the site of enzyme activities.
4. It helps in the formation of spindle proteins for the cell division.
5. It is site for DNA, tRNA, mRNA and ribosomal subunits formation.
6. It supports nucleoli and chromatin threads.

c. The chromatin fibres (Nuclear reticulum)

The nucleoplasm contains numerous fines, thread-like, coiled and much elongated
structures, known as chromatin fibres. (GK. chroma = colour), Chromatin threads
are intermingled with one another forming a network called chromatin reticulum. It
is strongly stainable. Chromatins are differentiated into two types:
i. Heterochromatin: The darkly stained, condensed region of the chromatin is
known as heterochromatin. It occurs around the nucleolus and at the
periphery. It is supposed to be metabolically and genetically inert because it
contains comparatively small amount of the DNA and large amount of the
RNA.
ii. Euchromatin: It is true chromatin and is light stained and diffused region of
the chromatin. It contains relatively large amount of DNA.

d. The Nucleolus
The nucleus contains one or more large, spherical and acidophilic dense granule
known as the nucleolus (pl. = nucleoli). Nucleolus, also called plasmosome, is
generally associated with the nucleolar organizer region (NOR) of the nucleolar
chromosome. Nucleolus is chemically composed of RNA and non-histone acidic
proteins.

Functions
1. The main function of nucleolus is biogenesis of r-RNA. It also stores RNA.
2. It plays an important role in spindle formation during cell division.
 3. It receives the ribosomal proteins from the cytoplasm, combines the rRNAs
and ribosomal proteins to form ribosomal subunits.

Functions of nucleus
1. It controls all cellular activities of the cell.
2. It controls the synthesis of structural proteins.
3. It controls cellular functions by controlling the synthesis of enzymatic
proteins.
4. It contains genetic information for reproduction, development and
behaviour.
5. It takes part in the formation of ribosomes.
6. It induces genetic variations which help in organic evolution.
7. It controls cellular differentiation.

15. CHROMOSOMES
Chromosomes are filamentous bodies which are typically present in the nucleus and
become visible during cell division. They are the carriers of genes or units of
heredity during cell division only. Chromosomes are composed of DNA and
proteins (histones) with small amount of chromosomal RNA. The electron
microscopic structure of each chromosome includes the chromonema, centromere,
secondary constrictions, nucleolar organisers, telomeres and satellites.

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2.16 (a) structure of Chromosome (b) structure of chromosome at
anaphase stage of mitosis cell division

a. Chromonema
 Under the light microscope, the metaphasic chromosome appears to be made
up of two subunits called chromatids which are twisted around each other.
Each chromatid consists of two subchromatids known as the chromonemata.
b. Centromere
The chromosomes have a constricted region called or primary constriction.
The position of the centromere is constant for a particular chromosome.
The structure and function of the centromere is different from that of the rest
of the chromosome. During cell division, it is functional.
The position of the centromere varies in different chromosomes. Four
categories of chromosomes are recognized depending on the position of the
centromere. These are called metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric and
telocentric chromosomes.

Fig. 1.2.17 Types of chromosome on the basis of position of centromere

c. Secondary constriction (Il)

In addition to the primary constriction or centromere, the arms of the
chromosomes may show one or more secondary constriction (called
secondary constriction Il). These constrictions are different from nucleolar
organisers (called secondary constriction). The secondary constriction
represents the sites of breakage and subsequent fusion.
d. Nuclear organiser (secondary constriction I)
The constriction near the one end of chromosome is called "nucleolar
organiser", because it is necessary for the formation of nucleolus.
e. Satellite
The part of chromosome beyond the nucleolar organiser is very short and
appears like a sphere (satellite). Chromosomes bearing satellites are called
SAT - chromosomes. The prefix SAT - stands for "Sine Acid
Thymonucleinico " (without thymonucleic acid or DNA).
 f. Telomeres
The tips of chromosomes are called telomeres. The telomeres differ in
structure and composition from the rest of the chromosome. It has a unique
property in that it prevents the ends of the chromosome from sticking
together.

Functions
1. Chromatin fibers contain DNA which acts as a genetic material.
2. They control the synthesis of structural as well as enzymatic proteins.
3. The changes in DNA produce variations.

16. CELL INCLUSIONS

The metabolically inactive non-living substances such as proteins, amino
compounds, starch grains, essential oils, latex, mineral crystals, cellulose, inulin,
sugars, fats, oils, pigment, enzymes, etc. present in the cytoplasm of the cell are
known as cell inclusions or deutoplasmic bodies or ergastic bodies. Due to
metabolic activities in the cell, several non-living substances are produced in it.

Cell inclusions can be divided into three categories:

1. Reserve materials
2. Secretory materials
3. Excretory materials
1. Reserve materials
The metabolic products stored in plant cells form the reserve food of the plant. They
are either nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous and may remain in solid form or liquid
form.
a. Nitrogenous reserve food materials: In addition to carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, these materials always have some amount of nitrogen and are
present in almost every cell. Protein granules are the solid forms and amino
acids are the liquid form of nitrogenous reserve food materials.
b. Non-nitrogenous reserve food materials: These reserve food materials
contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The proportion of hydrogen and
oxygen is present as in water (i.e. H2O). They may or may not be soluble in
water. They are the products of photosynthesis e. g. starch, cellulose, sugars,
inulin, glycogens, etc.
2. Secretory materials
Certain substances formed during plant metabolism, though not concerned with
nutrition, are very important to plants. Such materials are called secretory materials.
They may be of the following types:
a. Plant pigments: The colour producing substances of plants such as
phycocyanin, phycoerythrin, carotenes, fucoxanthin, flavoxanthin, lutein,
chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, chlorophyll-c, etc. are the plant pigments.
b. Enzymes: These are the nitrogenous secretory products. They are bio-
catalyst and soluble in water.
c. Nectar: It is secreted by the nectar secreting glands known as nectaries.

3. Excretory materials
Excretory materials are the by-products of plant metabolism and are of no use to
plants. Various excretory products are as follows:
a. Alkaloids: These are the compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen and occur in association with organic acids in various plant parts.
For example, Quinine, nicotine, morphine, atropine, daturine, etc.
b. Organic acids: These are the products of various chemical processes in
living cells. For example, citric acid, tartaric acid, oxalic acid, malic acid,
etc.
c. Gums: These are decomposition products of cellulosic cell wall soluble in
water. They swell up in water forming a viscous mass.
d. Resins: They are solid, brittle, non-volatile complex substances present in
various parts of plants.
e. Tannins: Tannins are non-nitrogenous, complex compounds, commonly
found dissolved in the cell sap of parenchymatous cells. They are most
common in unripe fruits.
f. Essential oils: The essential oils are found mainly in fruits and flowers as
well as in glandular leaves of lemon, Eucalyptus, etc.
g. Latex: It is an emulsion of matrix in watery fluid. Starch grains, sugars,
proteins, enzymes and alkaloids are dissolved in this fluid.
h. Mineral crystals: These are present in parenchymatous cells of various
plants. They are found in the form of silica crystals, calcium carbonate
crystals, calcium oxalate crystals, etc.

EXERCISE
A. Tick the correct alternatives:
1. In which cellular organelles are ribosomes found?
a. Mitochondria only
b. Nucleus only
 c. Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast
b. Nucleus, mitochondria and centriole
2. What makes up the cytoskeleton?
a. Callose deposits
b. Calcium carbonate granules
c. Cellulose microfibrils
d. Proteinaceous filaments
3. Which of the following organelles is not membrane bound?
a. Centriole
b. Chloroplast
c. Plastid
d. Ribosome
4. How would you describe the property of the cell membrane?
a. Semipermeable
b. Permeable
c. Nonpermeable
d. Impermeable
5. What term describes the protoplasmic connection between two cells?
a. Plasmodesmata
b. Semipermeable
c. Cell wall
d. None
6. According to the fluid-Mosaic Model, which type of proteins are embedded
within the phospholipid bilayer?
a. peripheral proteins
b. Extrinsic proteins
c. Integral proteins
d. Globular proteins
7. Which process involves the expulsion of large sized materials from the cell
through the cell membrane?
a. Endocytosis
b. Exocytosis
c. Osmosis
d. Diffusion
8. What enzyme is responsible for controlling the synthesis of ATP in
mitochondria?
 a. ATPase
b. ATP synthetase
c. Oxidase
d. Ribonuclease
9. Chromosomes with a centromere located near the middle are classified as?
a. Metacentric
b. Sub-metacentric
c. Acrocentric
d. Telocentric

B. Answer the following questions:

1. Why is the cell considered as a basic unit of life?
2. What do you mean by cell inclusions?
3. Write a brief note on fluid-mosaic model.
4. What is cyclosis?
5. Why mitochondrion is called the powerhouse of cells?
6. Name two semi-autonomous organelles.
7. Which organelle is called "suicidal bag"? Why is it called so?
8. What is the basic difference between ribosome and mitochondria?
9. Draw well labelled sketches of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and
point out their differences.
10. Give an account of the structure and function of mitochondrion.
11. Differentiate between leucoplasts and chromoplasts.
12. Differentiate between SER and RER.
13. Write briefly about the structure of the nucleus.
14. Name different types of plastids and describe their structure and function.
Describe the structures and functions of any two major cytoplasmic
organelles of the eukaryotic cell.

*****
 CELL DIVISION
Let’s discuss the following questions:

i. How do small creatures like protozoans reproduce?

ii. How does a single-celled zygote develop into a full-grown organism?
iii. What biological process enables wound healing?
iv. Which type of cell division helps in evolution of the organism?

1.3.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Cells typically go through a series of activities, including growth, essential
functions for survival, and division to generate new cells. In fact, the growth and
development of every living organism depends on the increment in the number or
size of its cells. Cell division is that fundamental process in which a parent/mother
cell divides into two or more daughter cells, ensuring growth, repair, and
reproduction in living organisms. And a series of distinct events takes place in the
cell leading to its division producing two daughter cells. It is crucial for the
maintenance, growth, and repair of multicellular organisms.

Primitive protozoans and prokaryotes divide by a simple method of cell division

that involves copying the cell's chromosomes, separating the copied DNA, and
dividing the parent cell's cytoplasm. But in complex eukaryotic cells, division
occurs involving intricate distinct phages, either maintaining the number of
chromosomes or reducing their number in daughter cells. General growth and
development of multicellular organisms require a diploid cell to divide into two
diploid daughter cells which are genetically identical. On the other hand, sexual
reproduction in developed organisms requires a diploid cell to divide into four
haploid daughter cells.
In unicellular organisms, cell division is the means of reproduction by which the
mother cell produces two or more cells. In multicellular organisms also, new
individuals develop from a single cell, the zygote, by cell division. It also forms the
basis of replacement of old and worn-out cells in the process of repair and
regeneration. Cell division is thus central to the life of the cell and is essential for
the perpetuation of the species.

The cell division is a process by which a mature cell divides to form new cells
which resemble the mother cell in a number of characters. The division of the cell is
achieved by two integral activities such as:
1. the division of the nucleus i.e. karyokinesis
2. the division of the cytoplasm i.e. cytokinesis

1.3.2 CELL CYCLE

All cells are reproduced by dividing the pre-exissting cell. This process gives
continuity to our life. The entire sequence that take place during cell growth and
cell division are collectively called cell cycle.
Basically, a cell cycle consists of the following three main cycles:
1. Chromosome cycle: In this process, a DNA molecule is replicated into two
identical daughter DNA molecules.
2. Cytoplasmic cycle: In this process, cell growth and cytoplasm division takes
place one after another.
3. Centrosome cycle: In this process, the centrosome is duplicated and divided
and separated into two poles of the cell.
The above-mentioned cycles can be accumulated into the following broad two
phases:

1. Interphase (Latin 'inter' = between; 'phasis' = stage)

It is the stage between the end of one cell division and the beginning of the next cell
division. This stage is also known as resting stage. The cell is apparently inactive in
this stage; however, it is metabolically very active synthesizing a number of
essential biomolecules required to carry out the next cell division.

Based on synthetic activities, interphase can be divided into three sub-phases which
are briefly featured below:
Gap-one (G1) or first growth phase:
During the gap-one (G1) or first growth phase, the high rate of biosynthesis leads to
the enlargement of the cell, driven by an active synthesis of RNA, proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids for histone, as well as the formation of
energy-rich compounds necessary for DNA synthesis. This robust biosynthetic
process results in an increase in the number of nucleotides and organelles, but not in
the DNA itself. The cell's metabolic activity and growth are sustained by this
process, enabling it to meet the demands of cellular function and replication.

Synthetic phase or S-phase:

During the synthetic phase (S-phase), DNA molecules replicate, and most histone
proteins and subunits of kinetochores are synthesized. This phase ensures the
accurate duplication and distribution of genetic material to daughter cells,
contributing to the maintenance of genetic integrity and stability.

Gap-two (G2) or second growth phase:

During the gap-two (G2) or second growth phase, significant protein and lipid
synthesis occurs, along with the synthesis of spindle proteins and three types of
RNA molecules using DNA. Additionally, this phase involves the repair of DNA
double-strand breaks during DNA replication, as well as the synthesis and storage
of ATP molecules. Furthermore, the duplication of mitochondria, plastids, and
centrioles takes place, preparing the cell for subsequent mitotic division.

Fig. 1.3.1 Cell cycle

2. M-phase
The M-phase, or mitotic phase, follows interphase and includes mitosis and
cytokinesis. Mitosis consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase,
involving the division of nuclear material and distribution of identical genetic
material to daughter cells. Cytokinesis, the division of cytoplasm and organelles,
completes the process of cell division.

Table: 1.3.1 Cell cycle: Phases and events within cell.

Stage Events within Cell

The cell enters an intensive synthetic phase, producing

G1 essential structural and functional proteins, experiencing
growth, and synthesizing RNA, lipids, and carbohydrates.

DNA replication occurs, along with the synthesis of protein

S (histone) molecules, resulting in each chromosome bearing
two chromatids.

Synthesis of various molecules, including RNA, proteins,

G2 and ATP, takes place. Additionally, mitochondria, plastids,
and centrioles are duplicated.

Nuclear division progresses through four phases: prophase,

M-Karyokinesis
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Organelles and cytoplasm are equally distributed in each

M-Cytokinesis daughter cell, with animal cells undergoing cleavage/furrow
and plant cells following the cell plate method.
 G0 - Phase:
In the G0 phase, cells are inactive due to the unavailability
Do you know?
of mitogens and energy-rich compounds. Despite their
metabolic activity, they function as reserve cells poised to
re-enter the cell cycle. The transition from G1 to G2 is
linked to cell differentiation. Cell cycle durations vary
based on cell type and external factors, with the G phase
occupying 30-40%, the S phase 30-50%, the C phase 10-
20%, and the M phase 5-10% of the total duration.
Bacterial cells
1.3.3 TYPES OF CELL DIVISION (Escherichia coli)
The cells may divide by any of the following three divide every 20
methods: minutes7; epithelial
1. Direct cell division or amitosis cells of intestine
2. Indirect cell division or mitosis every 8-10 hours
3. Reductional cell division or meiosis and tip cells of onion
root divides every
1. DIRECT CELL DIVISION OR AMITOSIS (Greek, 20 hours.
'amitos' = without thread; 'osis' = state)
Simple organisms such as primitive protozoans and archaea reproduce through a
basic form of cell division known as amitosis or binary fission. This asexual process
entails duplicating the cell's chromosomes, separating the copied DNA, and
dividing the parent cell's cytoplasm, ultimately creating two identical offspring
cells. Examples of organisms that undergo this process include bacteria, amoeba,
and Paramecium.
The following events occur in this process.

Fig. 1.3.2 Different stages of direct cell division

 1. At first, the nucleus elongates setting constricts in the middle.
2. The elongated cell divides its nucleus into two daughter nuclei.
3. Simultaneously, cytoplasm divides into two poles giving rise to two
approximately equal halves.

2. INDIRECT CELL DIVISION

Mitosis, also known as indirect cell division, ensures that daughter cells, resulting
from the division of a mature cell, possess the same chromosome number as the
mother cell. This process occurs in somatic cells during growth, germ cells in the
gonads, meristematic cells in plants, and during embryonic development. The steps
of mitotic cell division involve duplicating all cell contents, including
chromosomes, and carefully controlled splitting to form two identical daughter
cells.

The mitotic cell division is briefly described in the following steps:

A. Interphase
B. Mitotic phase
1. Karyokinesis
2. Cytokinesis

A. Interphase: During interphase, which is the stage between two successive

cell multiplications, the cell is metabolically very active despite appearing
restful. Key features of this stage include a large nucleus enclosed by an
intact nuclear membrane, diffused and long chromatin fibers, duplication of
chromosomal DNA, and synthesis of RNA and proteins. Additionally, there
is duplication of mitochondria, plastids, and centrioles in animal cells.

B. Mitotic phase
1. Karyokinesis: (Greek, karyon = nucleus; kinesis = movement)
The division of nucleus comprises four phases:

a. Prophase (Greek, 'pro' = first, 'phasis' = stage): The initial visible step
in nuclear division involves several changes in the nucleus. The nuclear
reticulum and nucleoli become clear as the nuclear sap condenses, the
reticulum becomes more stable, and chromosomes become distinct through
shortening and thickening. Additionally, a proteinous matrix forms around
the chromosome, and the centrosome divides early into two star-shaped
centrosomes, with the centrioles moving to opposite sides of the nucleus.
Finally, the nuclear membrane and nucleolus start to disorganize and
disappear by the end of this stage.

Fig. 1.3.3 Different stages of mitotic cell division

b. Metaphase (Greek, 'meta' = after, 'phasis' = stage): Metaphase marks

the initial visible step in nuclear division, characterized by the dissolution of
the nuclear membrane and nucleolus, accompanied by the appearance of
spindle fibers. Chromosomes split longitudinally into two but remain
connected at the centromere, aligning at the equatorial plane of the cell. This
process, known as congression, allows for easy counting and determination
of their shape and size

c. Anaphase (Greek, 'ana' = up; 'phasis' = stage): The migratory phase, or

anaphase, is a brief stage characterized by the centromere of each
chromosome splitting into two, forming two sister chromatids that later
become daughter chromosomes. These daughter chromosomes, with a single
chromatid, move towards opposite poles due to spindle fiber contraction and
interzonal fiber stretching. As they migrate, centromeres lead, resulting in
chromosome shapes resembling J, U, or V. Anaphase concludes when all
daughter chromosomes reach opposite poles, ensuring the equal division of
nuclear matter, termed equational division.

d. Telophase (Greek, 'telo' = end; 'phasis' = stage): The last visible stage
of nuclear division, also known as the re-organization phase or telophase, is
characterized by several key events. Daughter chromosomes arrive at their
respective poles, and as they do, they decondense through hydration and
despiraling, transforming into long, thread-like structures as they lose their
 proteinous matrix, known as chromatin fibers. The disappearance of the
matrix aligns with the reappearance of the nucleolus. Additionally, spindle
fibers vanish, and nuclear membranes form around the two opposite
chromosomal sets. Telophase concludes when two daughter nuclei are fully
organized from the two sets of daughter chromosomes.

2. Cytokinesis: In this process, the protoplast (outside the nucleus) splits

into two halves. It happens through the creation of a cell plate between two
new daughter nuclei or through peripheral furrowing.

Fig. 1.3.4 Cytokinesis in animal and plant cell

a. Formation of cell plate: In plant cells, cytokinesis involves the creation of a

cell plate, while in bacteria, fungi, and animals, it occurs through furrowing.
In plant cells, the cell plate is formed by small granular bodies called
phragmoplasts, which are components of the Golgi complex and
endoplasmic reticulum. These phragmoplasts gather at the cell's equator to
form the cell plate. The stages of cell plate formation include the creation of
the phragmoplast, trafficking of vesicles to the division plane, fusion of
membrane tubules, deposition of callose and cellulose, recycling of excess
material, and fusion with the parental cell wall.
 b. Furrowing: Furrowing involves in bacteria, fungi, and animals in which the
gradual appearance of a peripheral cleavage furrow between the two
daughter nuclei. The furrow deepens, and when its edges meet at the cell's
center, the protoplasm divides into two daughter cells.

Significance of mitosis
1. Mitosis aids in the growth of multicellular organisms by facilitating the
transformation of a zygote into an adult.
2. Mitosis is crucial for asexual reproduction in certain organisms, as it enables
processes such as fragmentation, budding, and stem cutting.
3. Mitosis ensures genetic stability by maintaining a consistent number of
chromosomes in daughter cells, thereby safeguarding an organism‘s linear
heredity.
4. Mitosis contributes to cell repair and regeneration, creating new cells to
replace lost parts and heal wounds.
5. Mitosis controls cell size by triggering the division of cells that have grown
too large.
6. Mitosis guarantees genetic consistency between mother and daughter cells,
both qualitatively and quantitatively. The daughter cells formed through this
cell division possess the same genetic makeup as the mother cell.

Table: 1.3.2 Differences between mitosis in plant and animal cell

Mitosis in plant cell Mitosis in animal cell

a) Centrioles are absent. a) Centrioles are present.
b) It does not form Aster. b) Aster formation occurs.
c) It forms Cell-plate. c) It does not form Cell plate.
d) It does not form furrow. d) It forms furrow at cytoplasm.
e) It occurs mainly in e) It may occur in tissues throughout
meristems. the body.
Activity: 1.3.1

Study of mitosis in onion root tips cells by preparing temporary slides and
permanent slides.

Part 1 | Growing Onion Roots | Day 1 – 5

Objective: Observe and document the growth of roots in an onion using a simple
water-based method.

Materials: Fresh onion, toothpicks, transparent glass, water.

Procedure:

- Insert toothpicks around the middle of the onion.

- Place the onion, supported by toothpicks, in a
half-filled glass of water.

Part 2 | Preparation and microscopic Observation of

Onion Root Tip | Day 6

Objective: Prepare a temporary microscopic slide from a newly grown onion

root, observe its cellular structure, and attempt to identify stages of mitosis.

Materials: Just grown roots of onion, blade, microscope slides, coverslips,

microscope, safranin.

Procedure:

- Gently pluck a young root from the just grown onion.

- Place a small section of the root on a watch glass.
- Add a few drops of safranin for a few seconds and wash with water.
- Cut a few thin slices (T/S) of the dyed root.
- Now, place them on a glass slide and cover
with a coverslip.
- Observe under the microscope.
Observation:
- Examine cells of the root tip under low (10x
– 40x) and high (100x using immersion oil)
magnifications.

- Note any visible structures, patterns, or characteristics.

3. REDUCTIONAL CELL DIVISION OR MEIOSIS (Greek, 'meioum' = to
reduce; 'osis' = state)
It is the type of cell division in which a mature diploid mother cell divides into four
haploid daughter cells. Since the number of chromosomes in daughter cells is
reduced to half, it is also called reductional cell division.

Do you know?

Meiosis was first demonstrated by Van Benden (1883). The term

"meiosis" was given by Farmer and Moore (1905).

Meiosis does not always occur in all cells, but in special types of cells like germ
cells, pollen mother cells, megaspore mother cells when they are to undergo sexual
reproduction. The cells that undergo meiosis are called 'meiocytes'.
The meiosis or meiotic cell division comprises two phases: Meiosis I and meiosis
II.

Meiosis I

Fig. 1.3.5 Meiosis

Meiosis-I forms two daughter cells each bearing half number of chromosomes than
their mother cell.
It is divided into: (A) Karyokinesis-l (B) Cytokinesis-l.
A. Karyokinesis-l
It involves the division of nucleus in four distinct phases:
Prophase-l: This phase is complex and long which can be divided into five
successive substages.
i. Leptotene or Leptonema
ii. Zygotene or Zygonema
iii. Pachytene or Pachynema
iv. Diplotene or Diplonema
v. Diakinesis

Fig. 1.3.6 Prophase I

Leptotene (Greek, 'leptos' = thin; 'tene' = thread): During the leptotene stage,
also known as the thin-threaded stage, the nucleus enlarges, and the chromosomes
condense, appearing as single-strand threads with chromomeres. The chromosomes'
arrangement forms a bouquet at one side of the nucleus, known as the bouquet
stage, while the nuclear membrane and nucleolus remain intact.

Zygotene (Greek 'zygo' = yoke; 'nema' = thread): The yoked-threaded stage, also
known as Zygonema, involves several key events. At this stage, chromosomes
become shorter, thicker, and coil more. Homologous chromosomes from the father
and mother come together to form pairs called bivalents through a process called
synapsis. This pairing starts at specific locations and progresses like a zipper, while
a nucleoprotein complex, the synaptonemal complex, forms between the paired
homologous chromosomes.

Pachytene (Greek 'pachys' = thick; 'nema' = thread): The thick-threaded stage,

also called Pachynema, is marked by several events. During this stage, the bivalents
become shorter and thicker, and each homologous chromosome splits along its
length, except in the centromere region, forming two sister chromatids, resulting in
the appearance of tetrads. Crossing-over occurs, involving the exchange of
chromatid segments between non-sister chromatids of each tetrad, and the locations
where crossing-over happens are termed chiasmata (singular: chiasma). The
nucleolus remains noticeable during this stage.

Diplotene or Diplonema (Greek "diplos" = meaning double and "nema" =

thread) During the diplotene stage of meiosis, several significant events take place.
Firstly, the attraction force between two homologous chromosomes ceases, leading
to their uncoiling and the emergence of a repulsion force, which separates the two
partners of the bivalents. Despite the tendency of homologous chromosomes to
move apart, they remain connected at specific points known as chiasmata.
Additionally, the nuclear membrane remains intact, while the nucleolus may either
be small or start to degenerate.

D. Diakinesis (Greek, 'dia' = across, 'kinesis' = movement): The diakinesis stage,

the final substage of prophase I in meiosis, is characterized by several key events.
Firstly, the chiasma shifts to the end of the chromosome, a process known as
terminalization. Additionally, chromosomes move towards the nuclear membrane,
coinciding with the disappearance of the nuclear membrane and nucleoli. Two
chromosomes in a pair remain attached at a few spots, mostly towards the end, and
spindle fibers start to form in preparation for the subsequent stages of meiosis.

Metaphase-I
During the metaphase I stage of meiosis, several crucial events occur. Firstly, the
nuclear membrane and nucleolus vanish, and the formation of the spindle is
completed. Homologous pairs or bivalents organize into two parallel equatorial or
metaphase plates, with chromosomes or bivalents connected to the spindle fibers
through their centromeres. The centromeres of bivalents are equally spaced from
the equator and point toward the poles, while proteinaceous interzonal fibers form
between the centromeres of bivalents .

Anaphase-I
During the anaphase I stage of meiosis, several critical events take place. Firstly,
the chromosome's central part, the centromere, does not split into two, keeping the
two chromatids of each chromosome connected through the centromere. Similar
chromosomes split and travel to opposite ends of the cell, driven by the contracting
spindle fiber and the repelling force between the bivalents. This process results in
the creation of two sets of simple chromosomes, with one on each end of the cell,
leading to a reduced number of chromosomes. It's important to note that the
homologous chromosomes moving to opposite ends are either from the father's or
mother's side .

Telophase-I
In the telophase I phase of meiosis, each end of the cell receives one set of simple
chromosomes with two chromatids, which then unwind into chromatin threads. The
spindle fibers vanish, and due to crossing over, two chromatids of a chromosome
are not genetically identical. A nuclear membrane forms around the daughter
chromosomes at each pole, resulting in the creation of two daughter haploid nuclei.

Cytokinesis - I

Not all cells go through this stage. But when they do, animal cells form a ―cell
furrow‖ and plant cells form a ―cell plate‖. Each new cell (called a daughter cell)
ends up with half the number of chromosomes that the original cell (called the
mother cell) had.

Interphase or Interkinesis

During interkinesis, the period between the first and second stages of meiosis, the
cell focuses on protein and RNA production without synthesizing new DNA,
known as the S-phase. This phase may vary in duration or may not occur at all. The
cell prepares for the subsequent meiosis II division, ensuring the genetic material is
ready for further division and the eventual production of four haploid cells from the
two haploid cells produced in meiosis I.
Meiosis-II

This is also known as equational cell division because the number of chromosomes
stays the same after the first stage of meiosis. It has two parts:
(A) Karyokinesis-II
(B) Cytokinesis-II.
A. Karyokinesis-II: This is divided into four phases.
1. Prophase-II:
During prophase II of meiosis, several key events occur. The chromatids become
shorter, thicker, and more visible, with each chromosome having two chromatids
attached at the centromere. Additionally, the nuclear membrane and nucleolus
disappear, while spindle fibers appear. The chromatids are arranged at right angles
to the spindle fibers from the first stage of meiosis.
2. Metaphase-II:
● During metaphase II of meiosis, the nuclear membrane and
nucleolus are absent, and chromosomes align along the middle of the
cell. At this stage, each chromosome's centromere splits into two,
with each becoming the centromere for a chromatid. Additionally,
each chromosome's centromere attaches to spindle fibers from both
ends of the cell.
3. Anaphase-II:
During anaphase II of meiosis, several critical events take place. The process begins
with the separation of the centromeres of sister chromatids, leading to the division
of each chromosome's centromere. As a result of the contraction of the spindle
fibers and the stretching of other fibers, sister chromatids move to opposite ends of
the cell. This movement is facilitated by the spindle fibers, and the separated
chromatids are now referred to as chromosomes
4. Telophase-II:
During telophase II of meiosis, several significant changes occur. At each end of the
cell, chromosomes unwind, stretch out, and form a network of chromatin fibers.
Simultaneously, the spindle fibers disappear, and the nuclear membrane re-forms
around the chromosomes, while the nucleolus reappears.

B. Cytokinesis-II
After Telophase II, the cell undergoes another division, forming a cell plate in plant
cells or a cell furrow in animal cells. In meiosis, a diploid mother cell divides twice,
producing haploid gametes with half the DNA of the mother cell.

Importance of Meiosis
1. Meiosis forms cells necessary for sexual reproduction. These cells,
known as haploid gametes or spores, have one set of chromosomes.
2. Meiosis ensures a constant number of chromosomes in organisms,
maintaining genetic balance.
3. Meiosis causes genetic variation. This happens through the exchange of
genetic material between non-sister chromatids of similar chromosomes.
4. Meiosis aids in gene segregation and independent assortment. This is
due to the random distribution of chromosomes from the mother and father.
5. Meiosis can result in polyploid forms. If meiosis fails (disjunction
disturbance), it can lead to cells with multiple sets of chromosomes.
6. Meiosis contributes to continuous variations. These variations are crucial
for improving plant and animal breeds.
7. Meiosis reveals inter-relationships among sexually reproducing
organisms. This is evident from the similarities in meiosis among these
organisms.
8. Meiosis enables the alternation of generations. It allows for generations
with one set of chromosomes and two sets of chromosomes in plants and
animals.
9. Meiosis maintains the regularity of the reproductive cycle. It ensures a
consistent cycle of reproduction in organisms.

Fig. 1.3.7 Meiosis Cell division

Table: 1.3.3 Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Stage Mitosis Meiosis

Happens in body cells and germ cells during Takes place in reproductive cells of gonads,
General growth or gametogenesis. known as meiocytes.
Prophase I lasts longer and has five sub-
stages: Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene,
Prophase Short phase with no sub-stages. Diplotene, and Diakinesis.
Chromosome pairs are in a four-part state in
Metaphase Chromosomes are double-stranded. Metaphase I.
Each pair‘s two homologous chromosomes
Each chromosome‘s two chromatids move to separate and move to opposite spindle
Anaphase opposite spindle poles. poles.

Telophase Always happens. The first Telophase may not occur.

The division of cell contents to form two new
Cytokinesis cells begins in Anaphase or Telophase. The cell divides exactly in half.
A rest period between Meiosis I and
Interkinesis Not applicable. Meiosis II.
Daughter cells are genetically identical to the Daughter cells are genetically different
mother cell. The DNA amount is the same as in from the mother cells. The DNA amount is
Significance the mother cell. half that of the mother cell.
Project Work:

Group Model Creation of Cell Division Stages

Materials Required:
Woolen thread
Thermocol (Polystyrene)
Chart paper
Glue
Color pencils
Instructions:

Procedure:
- Divide the students into small groups,
ensuring each group has access to the
required materials.
- Assign each group the task of creating a
model depicting different stages of cell division using woolen thread on the
provided chart paper.
- Encourage collaboration within each group, as students use glue to secure
the woolen thread on the chart paper and color pencils to label the stages.
- Instruct groups to prepare a brief presentation explaining their model,
focusing on the labeled components and stages of cell division.
- Facilitate a class session where each group presents their model to their
classmates. Emphasize clarity and understanding during presentations.
- Display all completed models on the classroom board. Engage the class in a
discussion about the various approaches and details presented in each
group's model.

EXERCISE
A. Tick the correct alternatives:
1. Which of the following is a key difference between mitosis and meiosis?
a. Mitosis produces haploid cells, while meiosis produces diploid cells.
b. Mitosis involves one round of cell division, while meiosis involves two
rounds.
 c. Mitosis occurs in reproductive cells, while meiosis occurs in somatic
cells.
d. Mitosis results in genetic variation, while meiosis results in genetic
continuity.
2. What is the main purpose of the cell cycle?
a. Repairing damaged cells
b. Allowing cells to grow and reproduce
c. Producing energy for the cell
d. Breaking down cellular waste
3. How would you describe the phases and sub-phases of cell division?
a. The cell cycle, mitosis, and meiosis
b. Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
c. G1, S, G2, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I, cytokinesis
d. Leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis
4. What is a characteristic feature of mitotic cell division?
a. It produces gametes
b. It involves two rounds of division
c. It results in genetic variation
d. It produces genetically identical daughter cells
5. Why is it important to understand the difference between mitotic and
meiotic cell division?
a. To diagnose genetic disorders
b. To develop new cancer treatments
c. To understand the basis of genetic variation
d. To improve agricultural practices
6. Can you describe the role of centrioles in cell division?
a. They help in the formation of the mitotic spindle
b. They are responsible for cytokinesis
c. They aid in the separation of homologous chromosomes
d. They are involved in the synthesis of DNA
7. How do chromosomes segregate during meiosis?
a. They separate during anaphase II
b. They segregate randomly during metaphase I
c. They segregate in a coordinated manner during anaphase I
d. They segregate during telophase II
8. What is the significance of cytokinesis in cell division?
 a. It ensures the equal distribution of genetic material
b. It marks the end of mitosis
c. It allows for the repair of damaged DNA
d. It is essential for the formation of gametes
9. How do cells prepare for division during interkinesis?
a. They undergo DNA replication
b. They synthesize new organelles
c. They repair damaged cell membranes
d. They accumulate energy reserves
10. How can you determine the type of cell division based on the number of
spindle poles?
a. By counting the number of centrioles
b. By observing the arrangement of chromosomes
c. By analyzing the distribution of genetic material
d. By examining the position of the centromeres
11. What are the potential applications of understanding the differences between
mitosis and meiosis in the field of medicine?
a. Developing new treatments for genetic disorders
b. Designing targeted therapies for cancer
c. Understanding the basis of inheritance patterns
d. Improving techniques for assisted reproduction
12. How can you identify the presence of genetic mutations through cell
division?
a. By analyzing the rate of cell growth
b. By examining the structure of the cell membrane
c. By studying the patterns of chromosome segregation
d. By observing the process of DNA replication
13. What are the potential implications of changes in cell division for the
growth and development of an organism?
a. Increased susceptibility to environmental stressors
b. Altered patterns of gene expression
c. Disruption of normal tissue homeostasis
d. Enhanced capacity for tissue regeneration
14. How can you use cell division as a tool to study gene regulation?
a. By analyzing the expression of specific genes during mitosis and
meiosis
 b. By studying the effects of gene mutations on cell cycle progression
c. By examining the role of regulatory proteins in chromosome segregation
d. By observing the impact of environmental factors on DNA replication
15. How can you create a model that demonstrates the stages of cell division?
a. By using 3D printing technology
b. By developing a computer simulation
c. By constructing a physical diorama
d. By utilizing interactive virtual reality tools
16. Can you design an experiment to study the effects of different temperatures
on cell division?
a. By culturing cells at varying temperatures and analyzing their growth
rates
b. By measuring the changes in gene expression in response to temperature
fluctuations
c. By observing the impact of temperature on the structure of the cell
membrane
d. By studying the effects of temperature on the activity of specific
enzymes involved in DNA replication
17. How do you think changes in cell division could impact the growth and
development of an organism?
a. By influencing the rate of tissue regeneration
b. By altering the patterns of gene expression
c. By affecting the stability of the genome
d. By modulating the efficiency of energy metabolism
18. How can you use cell division as a tool to study gene regulation?
a. By analyzing the expression of specific genes during mitosis and
meiosis
b. By studying the effects of gene mutations on cell cycle progression
c. By examining the role of regulatory proteins in chromosome segregation
d. By observing the impact of environmental factors on DNA replication
19. How do you think advancements in cell division research could impact the
future of biology and medicine?
a. By enabling the development of personalized gene therapies
b. By revolutionizing the diagnosis and treatment of genetic disorders
c. By enhancing our understanding of the evolutionary history of living
organisms
 d. By providing new insights into the mechanisms of aging and age-related
diseases

B. Answer the following questions:

1. Define cell cycle.
2. What is mitotic cell division?
3. What is meiosis?
4. Name the phases of cell division.
5. What is the difference between mitotic and meiotic cell division?
6. What is the significance of mitotic cell division?
7. Explain the difference between mitosis and meiosis in terms of the number
of daughter cells and their genetic composition.
8. How can one identify the phase of cell division through microscopic
study?
9. Describe the phases and sub-phases of cell division in detail.
10. Compare the difference between mitotic and meiotic cell division in terms
of their roles in an organism.
11. Explain the significance of meiotic cell division.
12. How can understanding the difference between mitosis and meiosis be
applied in the field of genetics?
13. How can identifying the phase of cell division be useful in medical
diagnosis and treatment?
14. How can knowledge of the phases and sub-phases of cell division be applied
in the field of cell biology?
15. How can understanding the difference between mitotic and meiotic cell
division be applied in the field of reproductive biology?
16. How can understanding the significance of mitotic and meiotic cell division
be applied in the field of medicine?
17. Analyze the role of mitosis and meiosis in the life cycle of a sexually
reproducing organism.
18. Evaluate the importance of being able to identify the phase of cell division
in the context of cancer research.
19. Compare and contrast the roles of mitotic and meiotic cell division in the
context of human health and disease.

*****