CH-1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

❖ Physical changes and chemical changes

➢ A physical change takes place due to change in the parameters such as
temperature and pressure.
➢ The composition of matter remains the same in a physical change.
➢ Often a physical change is reversible.
➢ The changes in which no new substance is formed are considered as
physical changes.
Ex :- Melting of ice, evaporation of water
➢ The changes in which new substances are formed with entirely new
properties such changes are considered as chemical changes / chemical
reactions.
Ex :- Burning of paper

❖ Chemical reaction
➢ A process in which one or more substances are converted into different
substances having different properties is known as chemical reaction.
Note :- In a chemical reaction, only rearrangement of atoms take place
and no new atoms are formed.
➢ It involves the breaking of old bonds between atoms taking part in the
reaction and the formation of new chemical bonds to form new
substances.

❖ Reactants and products

➢ The substances that take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants
and the new substances formed are called products. The products are
formed have entirely different properties than those of reactants.

❖ Chemical equations
➢ The simplest way to write a chemical reaction in shorter form is to
represent it with the help of a chemical word equation.

❖ Rules for writing a chemical word equation

i. The substances taking part in the chemical reaction i.e reactants are
always written on the L.H.S.
 ii. The substances formed after the chemical reaction i.e products are
always written on the R.H.S
iii. The sign of arrow (→) is inserted between reactants and products
pointing towards the right side.
Reactants → Products
Ex:- Burning of magnesium ribbon
Magnesium + oxygen → Magnesium oxide (Chemical word equation)

(Reactants) (Product)
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
➢ The schematic representation of a chemical reaction with the help of
symbols and formulae of various species involved is called a chemical
equation.
Copper sulphate + Zinc → Zinc sulphate + Copper ↓
(aqueous solution) (dust) (aqueous solution)
CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) → Chemical equation
iv. Mention physical states of reactants and products
Solid (s) , Liquid (l) , Gas (g) ↑ , Precipitate(s) ↓ , Dissolved in water :
Aqueous (aq)
v. Indicate heat whether given from outside or released during reaction.
Endothermic Reaction:-CuSO4 (aq) + Zn (s) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s) ↓ + Heat
Exothermic Reaction:-
CaCO3 (S) + Heat → CaO(S) + CO2 (g) ↑
(Limestone) (Quicklime) (Carbon dioxide)
(Or)
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

vi. Mention certain specific conditions like temperature, pressure, catalyst

etc. Nickel catalyst
Vegetable oil (l) + H2 (g) Vanaspati ghee(s) Catalyst
600c speeds up the
rate of
reaction
❖ Balancing a chemical equation :-
Q.) Why is there a need of balancing a chemical equation ?
Ans :- We need to balance a chemical equation in order to satisfy the law of
conservation of mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
 Reactants Products
(Total mass of each of the ( Total mass of each of the
elements in the reactants) elements in the products )
❖ Rules for balancing a chemical equation
1) First balance the metal in a chemical reaction. (Na, K, Ca, Al, Mg etc )
2) Secondly, balance the non- metal in a chemical reaction (Carbon ,
Sulphur, Nitrogen , Halogen etc)
3) Balance the oxygen atoms
4) Balance the hydrogen atoms
Note :- Fe2O3 = 2 atoms of iron and 3 atoms of oxygen
2Fe2O3 = 4 atoms of iron and 6 atoms of oxygen
Mg(OH)2 = 1 atom of magnesium and 2 atoms of oxygen and
hydrogen
2Mg(OH)2 = 2 atoms of magnesium and 4 atoms of oxygen and
hydrogen
Ex :- Mg (s) + O2(g) → MgO(S) ( Unbalanced chemical equation )
2Mg (s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(S) ( balanced chemical equation )
Reactant Product
Mg = 1 x 2 Mg = 1 x 2
O=2 O=1x2

❖ Types of chemical reactions :-

The various types of chemical reactions are :-
1) Combination reactions
2) Decomposition reactions
3) Displacement reactions
4) Double – displacement reactions
5) Oxidation and reduction reactions ( Redox reactions )
1) Combination reactions :-
➢ The reaction in which two or more reactants combine together to form
a single product is called combination reaction.
A+B→C
Ex :- C + O2 → CO2
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Generally , combination reactions are exothermic.
 CaO(S) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat (Exothermic reaction )
Fe (s) + S (S) + Heat → FeS(S) ( Endothermic reaction)

2) Decomposition reactions :-
➢ The reaction in which a single reactant breaks down to give two or more
simpler products is called decomposition reaction.
A → B+C
Ex :- CaCO3(S) + Heat → CaO(S) + CO2 (g)
( Limestone ) (Quick lime) (Carbon dioxide )
Generally, decomposition reactions are endothermic.
➢ For decomposition reactions, energy must be supplied either in the form
of heat , light or electricity.
➢ Depending upon the form of energy supplied, decomposition reactions
are categorized into three different types.
i) Thermal decomposition reaction :- when a decomposition reaction
is carried out by heating.
FeSO4.7H2O FeSO4 + 7H2O

2FeSO4 (S) Fe2O3(S) + SO2(g) + SO3 (g)

(Ferrous sulphate) (Ferric Oxide) (Burning sulphur)
(Green) ( Brown)

2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Lead Nitrate Lead Iodide Nitrogen dioxide
(Colorless) (Yellow) (Brown fumes)

(ii) Photolytic decomposition reaction :- when a decomposition

reaction is carried out with the help of sunlight.
2AgCl(s) 2 Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
(White) (Grey)

(iii) Electrolytic decomposition reaction :- when a decomposition

reaction is carried out with the help of electricity.
Electricity
2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)
(At Cathode) (At Anode)
2 : 1
3) Displacement reaction
➢ The reaction in which more reactive element displaces a less reactive
element from its compound is called displacement reaction.
A + BC → AC + B
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(Blue) (Green)
➢ Depending upon the nature of the element displaced displacement reaction is
categorized in two different types :-
i) Metal displacement reactions :-In metal displacement reactions, a metal is
displaced from a compound by a more reactive metal in the uncombined
state.
2Al(s) + 3FeSO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Fe(s)
(Green) (Colorless)
ii) Non – metal displacement reactions :-The non metal displacement reactions
include displacement of a non metal like hydrogen (or) halogen.
Reactivity of Halogens: F > Cl > Br > I
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) 2KCl(aq) + Br2(g)
4) Double – displacement reaction :-
➢ The reaction in which two compounds react by an exchange of ions to form
two new compounds is called double – displacement reaction.
AB + CD → BC + AD
➢ The ions in the reactants are exchanged to form a precipitate.
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Barium Chloride Sodium sulphate (White precipitate of Barium sulphate)

2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Potassium Lead (Yellow Precipitate
Iodide Nitrate of Lead Iodide)

➢ Note:- A double – displacement reaction usually occurs in solution and one of

the products remains insoluble and separate out as a solid which is known as
precipitate.
➢ All double – displacement reactions are not precipitation reactions but all
precipitation reactions are double – displacement reactions.
 5) Oxidation and reduction reactions ( Redox reactions )
➢ A reaction in which both oxidation and reduction occur
simultaneously is known as redox reaction. In the term redox (
reduction + oxidation ) ‘red’ stands for ‘reduction’ and ‘ox’ stands
for ‘oxidation’ .
▪ Oxidation :-
➢ Addition of oxygen to a substance is known as oxidation.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO ( Oxidation of Mg to MgO )
➢ Removal of hydrogen from a substance is known as oxidation.
2H2S + O2 → 2S + 2H2O ( Oxidation of H2S to S )
➢ Loss of electron from any species is known as oxidation.
Na → Na+ + e- ( Oxidation of Na to Na+ )
▪ Reduction :-
➢ Removal of oxygen from a substance is known as reduction.
2HgO → 2Hg + O2 ( Reduction of HgO to Hg )
➢ Addition of hydrogen to a substance is known as reduction.
Cl2 + H2 → 2 HCl ( Reduction of Cl2 to HCl )
➢ Gain of electron by any species is known as reduction.
Cl + 1e- → Cl-
➢ In a redox reaction one substance is reduced and the other is
oxidised .

❖ Oxidising and Reducing agents

➢ The substance which is reduced , oxidizes the other substance and
is known as oxidizing agent (or) oxidant .
Or
➢ A substance which supplies oxygen and removes hydrogen .
➢ The substance which is oxidized , reduces the other substance and
is known as reducing agent (or) reductant .
Or
➢ A substance which supplies hydrogen and removes oxygen .
Ex :- Zn + CO → ZnO + C
Substance oxidised :- Zn
Substance reduction :- CO
Oxidizing agent :- CO
Reducing agent :- Zn
 Ex :- Fe2O3 + Al → Al2O3 + Fe
Substance oxidised :- Al
Substance reduced :- Fe2O3
Oxidising agent :- Fe2O3
Reducing agent :- Al

❖ Endothermic reaction :- Produces cooling effect

➢ Reactions in which energy is absorbed are called endothermic reaction.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g)
❖ Exothermic reaction :- Produces heating effect
➢ Reactions in which energy is released are called exothermic rection .
CaO (S) + H2O(l) → Ca (OH)2 + Heat
(slaked
lime)

❖ Corrosion
➢ Corrosion is defined as the slow degradation of metal surfaces by the
action of air , moisture or a chemical on their surface.

Oxide , Hydroxide , Carbonate , Sulphide

➢ Corrosion is a slow process in which the surfaces of metallic objects are

coated with oxides , hydroxide , carbonate or sulphide of the metal .

❖ Corrosion of copper
➢ Copper articles develop a coating of green coloured copper carbonate
when they are exposed to humid atmosphere.
2Cu(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) + O2(g) CuCO3 . Cu(OH)2 (S)
Basic copper carbonate
(From moist air) (green)
❖ Corrosion of silver
➢ Silver articles lose their lusture and develop black coating on its surface .
This is due to its oxidation to silver sulphide (Ag2S) on reacting with
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in air. This is also known as tarnishing of silver.
2Ag(s) + H2S(g) Ag2S (S) + H2 (g)
From air (silver sulphide)
❖ Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)
➢ Iron articles develop a coating of a reddish - brown flaky powder when
left open in moist air for long time. The reddish brown flaky powder
formed is chemically hydrated ferric oxide which is commonly known
as rust and the phenomenon is known as rusting.
3
2Fe(s) + O2 (g) + x.H2O Fe2O3 . xH2O(s)
2
Hydrated Ferric Oxide (rust)
❖ Prevention of corrosion
1) Metals can be prevented from corrosion by applying paints on their
surface .
2) Rusting of iron can also be prevented by covering its surface with a layer
of more reactive metal which prevents iron from oxidation. Zinc is often
used for covering iron and the process is called galvanization.

❖ Rancidity
It may be defined as the aerial oxidation of fat / oil containing food materials
indicated by unpleasant smell and taste .

❖ Prevention of rancidity
1) Use of anti – oxidants retards the oxidation of fat and oil present in food .
Ex :- vitamin–C , BHA (Butylated hydroxy anisole), BHT (Butylated hydroxy
toluene )
2) Packaging of food in the bags flushed with nitrogen gas also prevent
rancidity.
3) Storing the food materials in air – tight container .
4) Storing the food at low temperature .
 CH-2 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
❖ INTRODUCTION
➢ The presence of acid in food materials makes them sour in taste.
Example: Lemon juice is sour due to citric acid.
➢ The presence of base in food materials makes them bitter in taste.
Example: Baking soda, soap.
➢ The acidic or basic nature of the substances can be checked by using acid-base
indicators.

❖ Indicator
➢ The term ‘Indicator’ is derived from latin word ‘indicare’ which means to
indicate.
➢ An indicator is a substance that change its color in presence of an acid or base.
TYPES OF INDICATORS

Natural Olfactory
Indicators Synthetic Indicators
Indicators

❖ Natural Indicators
➢ The natural substances that show different characteristics like color/odour in
acidic and basic medium are called natural indicators.
Examples: Litmus, Red Cabbage leaves, Turmeric etc.
➢ Litmus solution, a purple colored dye extracted from lichens.
➢ Litmus is available as blue and red litmus strips or red and blue litmus
solution.
INDICATORS NEUTRAL ACIDIC BASIC
Litmus Purple Red Blue
Red Cabbage Leaves Red Red Green
Turmeric Yellow Yellow Red

ABR- Acids turn Blue litmus to Red Learn this mnemonics

BRB- Bases turn Red litmus to Blue
❖ Synthetic Indicators
➢ An indicator prepared from artificial substances in laboratory are known as
synthetic indicators. Examples: Phenolphthalein and methyl orange.
INDICATORS NEUTRAL ACIDIC BASIC
Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink
Methyl Orange Orange Pink Yellow

❖ Olfactory Indicators
➢ These are the substances whose odour varies when mixed with an acidic or
basic substance.
➢ These substances indicate whether the given solution is acidic or basic by
changing their smell.

❖ Acids
➢ The word “acid” has been derived from a latin word “acidus” meaning sour.
➢ Arrhenius, defined acids as the substances which dissociate in water to give
+ +
hydrogen ions (H ) or hydronium ions (H3O ).
For example, Hydrochloric acid.
+ -
Dry HCl gas when dissolved in water, dissociates into H and Cl ions.
+ -
HCl(aq) → H (aq)
+ Cl (aq)
+
➢ In aqueous medium, H ions combine with H2O molecule to form hydronium
+
ions (H3O ).
H+ + H2O → H3O+
➢ Thus, ionization of HCl in aqueous medium can also be represented as:

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

❖ Classification of Acids
(A) On the basis of source
1. Organic Acids
2. Inorganic Acids

1. Organic Acids:- The acids which are obtained from natural living sources i.e.,
plants and animals.
NATURAL SOURCE ACIDS
CITRUS FRUITS Citric acid
TAMARIND Tartaric acid
TOMATO Oxalic acid
VINEGAR Acetic acid
NETTLE STING Formic or methanoic acid
APPLE Maleic acid
ANT STING Formic acid
CURD Lactic acid

2. Inorganic Acids:- The acids which are obtained from minerals of the earth are
known as In organic acids. Hence, also known as mineral acids. Example: HCl,
H2SO4, HNO3, H2CO3 etc.
(B) On the basis of their ability to dissociate in aqueous solution
1. Strong Acids:- The acids that dissociate completely in an aqueous solution to
release H+ ions are known as strong acids.
Example:- HCl, H2SO4 etc.
Note: All mineral acids except carbonic acid are strong acids.
2. Weak Acids: The acids that dissociate partially in an aqueous solution to
release less amount of H+ ions are known as weak acids.
Example : Acetic acid, Formic acid etc.
Note: All organic acids are weak acids. Thus, these can also be used as food
ingredients.
(C) On the bais of their concentration in water
1. Concentrated acids:- Those acids that have maximum amount of acid
dissolved in very less amount of water. Example:
 2. Dilute acids:- Those acids that have lesser amount of acid dissolved in large
amount of water are called dilute acids.
Q.) Why should dilution of a concentrated acid be done with utmost care?
ANS:-Dilution of a concentrated acid means to increase the proportion of water in
the solution. Since, the dilution process is highly exothermic so it must be done
with utmost care.
Concentrated acid should be added to water so that the heat evolved may be
absorbed by the large amount of water present. If water is added to the
concentrated acid, the heat produced may not be absorbed and the water added may
convert into steam due to which acid may splash out causing acid burns. The glass
container may also break due to excessive heat produced.
Q. What do all acids have in common?
All acids have a common tendency to produce hydrogen ions in aqueous medium.

❖ BASES
Arrhenius, defined bases as the substances which dissociate in water to give
-
hydroxide ions (OH ) ions.
Ex: NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
KOH(aq) → K+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
 All bases are not soluble in water but some bases are soluble in water.
 A base which is soluble in water is known as Alkali.
Water soluble bases: KOH, NaOH etc.
Water insoluble bases: Cu(OH)2 , Fe(OH)3
 Hence, all the alkali are bases but all bases are not alkali.
 Dissolution of alkali in water is an exothermic process.

❖ Classification of Bases
A) Strong base: The base which dissociates completely to give high
concentration of OH- ions in aqueous medium. Ex: NaOH, KOH etc.
B) Weak base: The base which dissociates partially to give less concentration
of OH- ions in aqueous medium. Ex: Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 etc.
❖ Properties of Acids
➢ Physical properties of Acids
(i) Acids are sour in taste.
(ii) Acids turns blue litmus to red.
(iii) Acids are corrosive in nature.
(iv) Acids are electrolytes i.e., they ionize in water.
(v) In aqueous medium, acids conduct electricity.

➢ Chemical properties
1. Reaction with metals
Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen gas
Ex :- Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
2Al (s) + 6 HCl (aq) 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

2. Reaction with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen

carbonates
Acid + Metal Carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Acid + Metal hydrogen Carbonate Salt + CO2 + Water
Metal Carbonate = MCO3 + Valency
Metal hydrogen Carbonate = MHCO3 + Valency
Ex :- Sodium Carbonate
Na+1 CO32-
+2 +1 = Na2CO3
Ex :- 2HCl (aq) + NaCO3 (S) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (S) NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

➢ Test for CO2 :- Lime water test

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (S) + H2O(l)
(Lime water) Calcium carbonate
Calcium hydroxide (white ppt)
CaCO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(Milkiness disappear)
3. Reaction with bases
➢ Acid react with bases to form salt and water . This reaction is called
neutralization reaction .
Acid + Base Salt + Water
Ex :- HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)

4. Reaction with metal oxides

➢ Acid + Metal oxide Salt + Water
Ex :- 2HCl(aq) + CuO(S) CuCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)
Copper (II) oxide Copper (II)
(or) Chloride
Cupric oxide

❖ Uses of Acids
➢ HCl is used in dye stuffs, textile, food and leather industry.
➢ H2SO4 is used in car batteries and manufacture of fertilizers
(ammonium sulphate)
➢ HNO3 is used in making explosives (TNT – Trinitrotoluene).

❖ Properties of Bases
❖ Physical properties of Bases :-
1) Bases are bitter in taste.
2) Bases are soapy in touch.
3) Bases turn red litmus to blue.
4) Bases being electrolytes ionize in water and conduct electricity in
aqueous medium.
5) Strong bases like NaOH are corrosive in nature . These can cause severe
burns on skin.
 ❖ Chemical properties
1) Reaction with metals
Base + Metal Salt + Hydrogen
2NaOH (aq) + Zn (s) Na2ZnO2 (S) + H2↑
(Sodium Zincate)
NaOH (aq) + Al (s) NaAlO2 + H2 ↑
(Sodium Aluminate)

2) Reaction with acids

Base + Acid Salt + Water
NaOH(aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

3) Reaction ith metal carbonate and metal hydrogen carbonates

➢ Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates are basic in nature .
Therefore , no reaction.

4) Reaction with non – metal oxides

➢ Non – metallic oxides are acidic in nature .
Base + Non – metal oxide Salt + Water
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (S) + H2O(l)
(Lime water) (Lime stone)
Mg(OH)2 (aq) + SO2 (g) MgSO4 (S) + H2O (l)

❖ Uses of Bases
i. Sodium hydroxide is used in manufacture of soap.
ii. Calcium hydroxide is used in white washing walls.
iii. Magnesium hydroxide is used as an antacid.
❖ How strong are Acid or Base solutions ?
➢ All the aqueous solutions whether acidic , basic or neutral contain H+ ions as
well as OH- ions . The concentration of H+ and OH- ions determines the
strength of acids and bases .
Neutral solution :- [H+] = [OH-]
Acidic solution :- [H+] > [OH-]
Basic solution :- [H+] < [OH-]
➢ Sorenson introduced the concept of pH to measure the strength of acids and
bases .
➢ pH is a numeric scale used to specify the strength of acids and bases in
aqueous solutions .
pH → ‘p’ → Potenz means ‘power’
‘H’ → Hydrogen ion concentration
➢ It measures the potential of hydrogen ion concentration .
➢ pH has no unit .

pH = - log10 [H+] (or) pH = - log10 [H3O+]

➢ pH value of any solution ranges from 0 to 14 with 7 as the middle value for
neutral solution .

❖ Universal indicator
➢ A universal indicator is a PH indicator comprising of a solution of several
compounds (dye) that exhibits different colours for different PH values
ranging from 0 to 14 .
➢ The universal indicator is used either in the form of PH paper strips or solution
to measure the PH of different solutions .
❖ PH in everyday life
➢ Our body work well within a narrow range of PH of 7.0 to 7.8 living organisms
can survive only within a narrow range of PH change.
➢ When the PH of the rainwater is less then 5.6 , it is called acid rain . When acid
rain flows into the river water , it causes a decrease in the PH . (Calcium
carbonate is often added to rain water ).
➢ Excessive acid is secreted in our stomach causes irritation and pain . This
condition is known as acidity. To neutralize excess acid in the gastric juices ,
antacids like sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) are used that give relief
from acid indigestion.
➢ When the PH level in the mouth falls below 5.5 , tooth decay can occur. At this
PH level our tooth enamel ( which is made up of calcium phosphate) starts
dissolving causing cavities . Toothpastes being basic in nature neutralize acid
in our mouth and prevents in tooth decay .
➢ Insects like honeybee and red ant inject formic acid (methanoic acid) to
reduce the PH level causing immediate skin reaction resulting in redness and
swelling of the injected area . The effects can be neutralized by rubbing the
infected part with a solution of baking soda sting from a wasp inject alkaline
venom , so its effect can be reduced by neutralizing it with vinegar or acetic
acid.
➢ The growth of plants is proper only at an optimum pH range of soil . If the soil
is more acidic than required it is treated with calcium oxide or calcium
hydroxide which neutralizes excessive acid and makes the soil fertile again .
➢ Plants have also developed a defence mechanism through chemical welfare .
when a person touches stingy hairs of nettle plant , they inject formic acid into
the skin. Again , rubbing the solution of baking soda on the effective area of
the skin gives relief .
“dock plant” → leaf treats the effect of nettle plant

❖ Salts
➢ A salt is a neutral ionic compound formed by the neutralization reaction of an
acid and a base.
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
Salt NaCl contains Na+ as cation derived from NaOH ( base) and anion Cl-
comes from HCl (acid).
❖ Families of salts
SALTS COMMON ION FAMILY OF SALTS
Sodium chloride (NaCl) Sodium ion (Na+) Sodium salts
Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) Sodium ion (Na+)
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) Sodium ion (Na+)

Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) Sulphate ion (SO42-) Sulphate salts

Copper sulphate (CuSO4) Sulphate ion (SO42-)
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4) Sulphate ion (SO42-)

Potassium chloride (KCl) Chloride ion (Cl-) Chloride salts

Calcium chloride (CaCl2) Chloride ion (Cl-)

❖ PH of salts
On the basis of nature of acid and base from which the salt is formed .
TYPE OF SALT NATURE OF ACID NATURE OF BASE NATURE OF SALT
SOLUTION
Salt of Strong acid Strong acid HCl Strong base Neutral
+ Strong base NaOH
(NaCl)
Salt of Strong acid Strong acid HCl Weak base Acidic
+ Weak base NH4OH
(NH4Cl)
Salt of Weak acid Weak acid Strong base Basic
+ strong base CH3COOH NaOH
(CH3COONa)
Salt of weak acid Weak acid Weak base Neutral
+ weak base CH3COOH NH4OH
(CH3COONH4)

❖ Chemicals from common salts

1) Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride also known as common salt (table salt) (NaCl).
 Preparation :-
➢ On large scale , it is produced by solar evaporation of sea water.
➢ Crude NaCl thus obtained contains Na2SO4 , CaSO4 , CaCl2 and MgCl2 as soluble
impurities with some insoluble impurities . This crude salt is obtained as
brown crystals commonly known as rock salt .
In laboratory , it can be formed by neutralization reaction of HCl and NaOH .
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

❖ Properties :-
• It is a white crystalline solid
• Its melting point is very high (108 K)
• It has high solubility in water
❖ Uses :-
• As a common salt or table salt for domestic purpose
• As a food preservative
• As a de-icing agent i.e, it is used to clear snow from roads.

2) Caustic soda
Chemical name :- Sodium hydroxide
Chemical formula :- NaOH
Preparation :- It is produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride in
castner – kellner cell.
• Electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride (called brine) it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide
this process is known as chlor – alkali process as chlorine is also
produced along with alkali NaOH.
Electricity
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2(g) + H2 (g)
at anode at cathode

❖ Properties
• It is a white crystalline solid and soapy to touch.
• It is deliquescent and corrosive in nature.
• It is highly soluble in water to form alkaline solution.
❖ Uses
• Manufacture of paper, soap and artificial silk
• Used for the purification of bauxite
• Used in preparation of pure fats and oils
• Used as a laboratory reagent

3) Bleaching powder
Chemical name :- Calcium oxychloride
Chemical formula :- CaOCl2
Preparation :- During the electrolysis of aqueous solution chlorine
(brine), chlorine (Cl2) is produced. This chlorine gas is used for the
manufacture of calcium oxychloride.
• It is prepared by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime
Ca(OH)2.
Ca(OH)2 (S) + Cl2(g) CaOCl2 (s) + H2O(l)
Slaked lime Chlorine Calcium oxychloride
(bleaching powder)

❖ Properties :-
i. It is a yellowish white powder having strong smell of chlorine
ii. It is soluble in cold water
iii. It gradually loses chlorine , when exposed to air
CaOCl2 (s) + CO2(g) CaCO3 (s) + Cl2 (g)
iv. It reacts with dilute acid to produce chlorine
CaOCl2 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (S) + Cl2 (g) + H2O(l)
CaOCl2 (s) + HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2O (l)

❖ Uses :-
• As a disinfectant
• For bleaching washed clothes in laundry
• As an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries

4) Baking soda
Chemical name :- Sodium hydrogencarbonate
Chemical formula :- NaHCO3
 Preparation :- On large scale, it is prepared by passing CO2 gas through
ammonical brine.
NaCl(s) + H2O(l) + NH3 (l) + CO2 (g) NaHCO3 (s) + NH4Cl (g)
Baking soda
Ammonical brine

This is known as Solvay process .

• In laboratory , it can be prepared by passing excess of CO2 gas
through a solution of sodium carbonate .
Na2CO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l) 2NaHCO3 (S)

❖ Properties :-
• It is a white crystalline powder.
• It is a sparingly soluble in water. Its solution in water is alkaline in
nature
• Being basic in nature, it reacts with acids to give brisk
effervescence of CO2 gas .
NaHCO3 (S) + 2HCl (aq) NaCl(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)

❖ Uses :-
• As an antacid
• As a mild antiseptic for skin infections
• In fire extinguishers
• In manufacture of baking powder

➢ The following reaction take place when it is heated during cooking on heating
it decomposes to give CO2 , which makes the cake or pastries light and fluffy.
Heat
2NaHCO3 (S) Na2CO3 + CO2 (g) + H2O

➢ Na2CO3 is produced is bitter in taste . Edible acid like tartaric acid present in
baking powder neutralizes Na2CO3 and avoids bitterness .
NaHCO3 + H+ CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of acid

(from tartaric slightly basic

acid ) (Baking powder)
 5) Washing soda
Chemical name :- Sodium carbonate decahydrate
Chemical formula :- Na2CO3 . 10H2O
Sodium carbonate exists in various forms :-
Anhydrous :- Na2CO3 (Soda ash)
Monohydrate :- Na2CO3 . H2O
Decahydrate :- Na2CO3 . 10H2O
(Crystalline)

❖ Preparation :-
It is prepared by heating sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) obtained
by salvay process
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Na2CO3 + 10H2O Na2CO3 . 10H2O
(Washing soda)

❖ Properties :-
• It is a white crystalline solid
• Soluble in water to form an alkaline solution
• It is hygroscopic in nature
• On exposure to dry air, it loses molecules of water of crystallization
dry air
Na2CO3 . 10H2O Na2CO3 . H2O + 9H2O
This spontaneous loss of water of crystallization by a hydrated salt on
exposure to air known as efflorescence.

❖ Uses :-
• In paper, paints and textile industries.
• In the manufacture of glass , soap.
• As a water softener and cleaning purpose.

➢ The water molecules that form part of the structure of a crystal are called
water of crystallization.
➢ The salts in which water of crystallization are present are known as hydrated
salts and the one in which it is absent is known as anhydrous salts.
 CuSO4 . 5H2O CaSO4 → dead burnt plaster
Hydrated Salts CuSO4 Anhydrous salts
FeSO4 . 7 H2O FeSO4

Heat
CuSO4 . 5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
(Blue) (white)

6) Plaster of paris (POP)

Chemical name :- Calcium sulphate hemihydrate
Chemical formula :- CaSO4 . ½ H2O

❖ Preparation :- It is prepared by the heating of gypsum at 373K

CaSO4 . 2H2O(S) CaSO4 . ½ H2O(S) + 3⁄2 H2O(g)

gypsum 373K/1000C Plaster of paris

➢ If heating is not controlled it may convert to dead burnt plaster i.e , it

may become anhydrous .
>373K
CaSO4 . 2H2O CaSO4 + 2H2O

❖ Properties
• It is a white powder
• It has a property of setting into hard solid mass with water in 5 to 15
minutes. This is because it gets hydrated to form gypsum which sets
into a hard solid mass.
setting
CaSO4 . ½ H2O(S) + 3⁄2 H2O(l) CaSO4 . 2H2O(S)
Plaster of paris Gypsum (hard mass)
❖ Uses
• In the building industry
• As plasters for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
• In making chalks & making casts of statues
• In dentistry
 CH-3 METALS AND NON-METALS
❖ Introduction
➢ There are 118 elements known to us.
➢ Elements are classified as metals and non-metals based on different
properties. The properties of metals and non-metals are given in the form of
table below:
Properties of Metals and Non-metals
Property Metals Non-metals
Lustre Metals have shining They do not have
suface. shining surface. Except
iodine
Hardness They are generally Generally soft
hard. Except:- Sodium, Except:- Diamond, a
Potassium which are form of carbon which is
soft & can be easily cut the hardest natural
with knife. substance.
State Exist as solids, except Exist as solids or gases
mercury that exist as except Bromine that
liquid. exist as liquid.
Malleability Metals can be beaten Non-metals are non-
into thin sheet. malleable. They are
Example: Gold, Silver brittle.
and Aluminium are
most malleable metals.
Ductility Metals can be drawn Non-metals are non-
into thin wires. ductile
Example: Gold
Conductor of heat & Metals are good Non-metals are poor
electricity conductors of heat & conductors of heat &
electricity. electricity. Except:
Graphite.
Density & Melting point Generally, metals have Non-metals have low
high density & high density & low Melting
Melting point. point. Except:-
Diamond has high
Melting point.
Sonorous Metals produce a sound They are not sonorous.
on striking a hard
surface.
Oxides Metal oxides are basic Non-metal oxides are
in nature. acidic in nature.
❖ Chemical properties of Metals
➢ Metals are known as electropositive elements because they can form
positive ions (cations) by losing electrons.
1. Reaction with Oxygen
Metal + Oxygen Metal oxides
Reactive metals like Na & K react with oxygen at room temperature to form
oxides.
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
(sodium oxide)
Magnesium metal does not react with oxygen at room temperature. It burns
with white dazzling light on heating.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
(Magnesium oxide)
4 Al(s) + O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)
(Aluminium oxide)
Zinc metal burns on strong heating in air to form zinc oxide.
2Zn(s) + O2(g) → 2ZnO(s)
(Zinc Oxide)
Metals like Iron & Copper do not burn in air, even on strong heating but reacts
with oxygen to form oxides.
3Fe(s) + 2O2(g) → Fe3O4(s)
Iron (II) (III) Oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
Copper oxide
Less reactive metals like Silver & Gold do not react with oxygen even at high
temperature.
 Nature of Oxides:- The oxides formed by most of the metals are basic in
nature.
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) The nature of these oxides
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) with water can be checked
MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) by red litmus solution.
Certain metal oxides like Al2O3 and ZnO are amphoteric in nature i.e., they
show both acidic and basic behaviour.
 Justification of amphoteric nature of Aluminium and Zinc oxide
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)
(Sodium Aluminate)
ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O(l)
(Sodium Zincate)
2. Reaction with water
Metal + Water → Metal oxide/Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
Example: Potassium and Sodium metal reacts violently with cold water. The
reaction is highly exothermic & the evolved hydrogen gas immediately
catches fire.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) + Heat
(Cold)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Heat
(Cold)
Calcium also reacts with cold water but not so violently. The reaction is also
exothermic but less heat is evolved & the evolved hydrogen gas does not burn.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
(cold )
Mg reacts with hot water
Mg(s) + H2O (l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
(hot)
Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (S) + H2 (g)
(steam)
Aluminium and zinc and iron do not react with either cold or hot water , they
react with steam to form metal oxide and hydrogen gas .
2Al (s) + 3H2O(g) → Al2O3 (s) + 3H2 (g)
(Steam)
Zn(s) + H2O(g) → ZnO(S) + H2 (g)
(steam)
 3Fe (s) + 4H2O (g) → Fe3O4 (S) + 4H2 (g)
(steam) Iron (II ,III)Oxide

NOTE :- Sodium and potassium are very reactive metals and burn vigorously
in oxygen . Therefore , these are stored under kerosene oil to prevent their
reaction with oxygen , moisture etc .
3. Reaction with dilute acids
Metal + dilute acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen
Reaction with dilute Hydrochloric acid
Metal + dilute HCl → Metal chloride + Hydrogen
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Copper, Silver, Gold and Platinum do not react with dilute acids.
Reaction with dilute Sulphuric acid
Metal + dilute H2SO4 → Metal sulphate + Hydrogen
2Na(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Reaction with dilute Nitric acid
Metals like Magnesium and Manganese react with very dilute nitric acid to
form metal nitrates & hydrogen gas.
Metal + Nitric acid → Metal nitrate + Hydrogen
(very very dilute)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Mn(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Mn(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
In general, when metals react with dilute nitric acid, hydrogen gas is not
evolved. This is because nitric acid being a good oxidizing agent oxidises
hydrogen gas to water.
 4Zn + 10HNO3 → 4Zn(NO3)2 + N2O + 5H2O
Nitrous oxide
 AQUA REGIA: It is a Latin term for “royal water”.
I. Aqua regia is formed by mixing three parts of conc. HCl & one part of
conc. HNO3 .
II. It is highly corrosive & fuming liquid.
III. This is used for dissolving noble metals like gold & platinum.

4. Reaction with metal salts

Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(S)
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

❖ Chemical properties of Non-Metals

➢ Non-metals are known as electronegative elements because they can form
negative ions (anions) by gaining electrons.
1. Reaction with Oxygen
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
The oxides formed by most of the non-metals are acidic in nature. Example:
CO2 & SO2.
Non-metal oxide + water → Acid
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
Carbonic acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
Sulphurous acid
Certain non-metal oxides like CO, NO and N2O are neutral in nature.
2. Reaction with Water
Non-metals do not react with water to evolve hydrogen gas. However, carbon
reacts with steam at high temperature to form a mixture of CO and H2 which
is known as water gas.
C + H2O(g) → CO + H2
Coke
water gas
3. Reaction with dilute acids
Non-metals do not react with dilute acids i.e., they do not displace hydrogen
from dilute acids.

4. Reaction with salt solutions

2NaBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
2NaI(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(aq) + I2(aq)

❖ How do metals and non metals react ?

➢ Metals and non – metals combine to form variety of chemical compounds
in which the constituent particle (atoms , ions etc) are held together by
attractive forces called chemical bonds .

➢ The bond formed by complete transfer of one or more electrons from

valence shell of one atom to another is called ionic or electrovalent
bond.
❖ Properties of Ionic compounds
1) Ionic compounds are usually hard and brittle solids
2) These compounds have high melting and boiling points due to strong
force of attraction between ions .
3) These do not conduct electricity in solid state as ions are not free to
move but conduct electricity in molten state or in aqueous solution .
4) These are fairly soluble in water .

❖ Occurrence of metals
➢ All metals that are present in the earth’s crust occur either in the free
state or in the form of their compounds .
➢ The metals lying low in the reactivity series like gold and platinum
occur in free state .
➢ Metals lying in the middle of the reactivity series like zinc, iron , lead
etc. are moderately reactive and occur in combined state as oxides ,
sulphides or carbonates .
➢ Metals lying high in the reactivity series like potassium , sodium ,
calcium , magnesium and aluminium are highly reactive and always
occur in combined state .
➢ Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust the second
most abundant metal is iron and third one is calcium .
➢ The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth’s crust
are known as minerals .
➢ Those minerals which contain a very high percentage of a particular
metal from which metal can be profitably extracted is called ores .
➢ Ores contain different impurities in it such as sand , soil , animal decay
etc . These impurities are known as Gangue .
❖ Concentration of Ore
➢ The first step in the extraction of metals is crushing or grinding of ore into
fine powder & the removal of impurities from it. This is known as
concentration of ore or dressing of ore. The various methods used for
concentration of ore are:-
(a) Hydraulic washing (c) Froth floatation process
(b) Magnetic separation (d) Leaching

❖ Extraction of metals lying in medium reactivity series

I. Conversion of ore into metal oxide:- The sulphide or carbonate ores
can be converted into metal oxide by roasting or calcination.
(a) Roasting:- It is the process in which a sulphide ore is heated
strongly in the presence of air to convert it into metal oxide.
2ZnS(S) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Zinc sulphide Zinc oxide
(Zinc Blende ore)

(b) Calcination:- It is the process in which a carbonate ore is heated

strongly in the limited supply of air to convert it into metal
oxide.
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Zinc carbonate Zinc oxide
(calamine ore)

(c) Reduction of metal oxide into metal :-

The oxide of a moderately reactive metal can be reduced by using
a suitable reducing agent .
ZnO(S) + C (S) Zn (s) + CO (g)
Zinc oxide Carbon Zinc metal Carbon monoxide

➢ A more reactive metal can be used for reducing the oxide of a less reactive
metal .

❖ Thermite reaction / Aluminothermy

Fe2O3 (S) + 2Al (s) Al2O3 (S) + 2Fe (l) + Heat
Iron (III) oxide / Aluminium (Aluminium Iron metal
Ferric oxide powder oxide)
 ➢ The reduction process is highly exothermic and the heat evolved is so large
that Fe produced is in molten state which can be used for welding of
railway tracks or cracked machinery parts . This is also known as thermite
welding .
➢ The reduction of metal oxide to form metal by using aluminium powder as
a reducing agent is known as thermite reaction or aluminothermy.

❖ Extraction of metals lying low in reactivity series

➢ Metals lying low in the reactivity series are least reactive and their
oxides can be reduced by heating alone .

Ex 1 :- Extraction of mercury
The principle ore of mercury is Cinnabar (HgS) which is a sulphide
ore.

a) Roasting of sulphide ore :- The cinnabar ore HgS is heated in

presence of air to convert it into metal oxide (HgO) .
Roasting
2HgS (S) + 3O2 (g) 2HgO (S) + 2SO2 (g)
Mercuric Mercury(II) oxide
sulfide

b) Reduction of metal oxide to metal :- The metal oxide so

formed (HgO) get reduced to metal on further heating .

2HgO(S) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g)

Mercury (II) Reduction Mercury
Oxide metal
Ex 2 :- Extraction of copper
Copper is mainly found in nature as Cu2S (Copper glance).
(a) Roasting of sulphide ore :-
Roasting
2Cu2S (s) + 3O2 (g) 2Cu2O (s) + 2SO2↑
Copper (I) Copper (I)
sulphide oxide
 (b) Reduction of metal oxide to metal :-
2Cu2O (S) + Cu2S (S) 6Cu (S) + SO2↑
Copper (I) Copper(I) metallic
oxide sulfide copper

❖ Extraction of metals lying high in reactivity series :-

The highly reactive metals are extracted by the electrolytic reduction of their
molten chlorides or oxides .
Ex 1 :- Extraction of sodium metal
At Cathode :- 2Na+ + 2e- → 2Na
At Anode :- 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

Electrolysis
Overall reaction :- 2NaCl(l) 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g)
Sodium Sodium Chlorine
Chloride metal gas
(At cathode) (At Anode)

❖ Refining of the metal / Purification

➢ The metals formed by reduction process are generally not pure .
Therefore , refining of these metals is carried out .

❖ Electrolytic refining of copper :-

At anode :- Cu (s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
(oxidation) (Impure rod)

At cathode :- Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu (s)

(Reduction) (pure metal)

➢ Copper is refined using electrolytic method . Impure copper is taken as

anode and pure copper strip is taken as cathode . The electrolyte
used is acidified copper sulphate solution. The net result of
electrolysis is the transfer of copper in pure form from the anode to the
cathode . The impurities are settled as anode mud .
❖ Alloys
➢ It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a metal & a non-
metal.
➢ The electrical conductivity & melting point of an alloy is less than that
of pure metals.
➢ An alloy of mercury with one or more other metals is called amalgam.
(Example: Sodium-amalgam)
➢ Example: Steel :- Iron + Carbon
Stainless steel :- Iron + Nickel + Chromium
Brass :- copper & zinc
Bronze:- copper & tin
Solder:- Lead & tin

❖ Carat : Pure gold is 24 carat (very soft), therefore it is not suitable for
making jwellery.
➢ 22 carat gold:- It means 22 parts of pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of
either copper or silver.
 CH-4 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
❖ Occurrence of Carbon
➢ Carbon is found in the atmosphere, inside the earth’s crust and in all living
organisms.
➢ Carbon is present in fuels like wood, charcoal, coke, coal, petroleum, natural
gas, biogas, marsh gas etc.
➢ Carbon is present in compounds like carbonates, hydrogen carbonates etc.
➢ Carbon is found in the free state as diamond, graphite, fullerene etc.

❖ Bonding in Carbon:- Covalent Bond

➢ The atomic number of carbon is 6, its electronic configuration is 2,4. It has 4
valence electrons.
➢ It can attain stability by gaining 4 electrons, losing 4 electrons or sharing 4
electrons with other atoms.
➢ It could gain four electrons forming C4- anion, but it does not because it is
difficult for the 6 protons to hold 10 electrons.
➢ It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation, but it does not because it needs
large amount of energy to lose 4 electrons.
➢ So, it shares 4 electrons with other atoms to attain stability resulting in the
formation of covalent bonds.
➢ Since, carbon atom needs 4 electrons to attain stability, its valency is 4 and it is
tetravalent.

❖ Formation of Covalent bonds

➢ The chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms is
called Covalent bond.
Types of Covalent bonds:
1. Single covalent bond:- A covalent bond formed by sharing of one pair of
electrons between two atoms is known as single covalent bond.
2. Double covalent bond:- The covalent bond formed by the sharing of two pairs
of electrons between two atoms is known as double covalent bond.

3. Triple covalent bond:- The covalent bond formed by the sharing of three pairs
of electrons between two atoms is known as triple covalent bond.

❖ Properties of Covalent compounds

➢ Covalent compounds exist as solids, liquids & gases.
➢ They are generally soluble in non-polar solvents or less polar solvents like
ether, benzene etc. and generally insoluble in polar solvents like water.
➢ Molecules of covalent compounds are held together by relatively weaker forces
as compared to ionic compounds. Therefore, covalent compounds have
relatively lower melting point and boiling points.
➢ Covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity because they contain
neither ions nor free electrons necessary for conduction.

❖ Allotropy
➢ The existence of a chemical element in two or more forms, which may differ in
the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids or in the occurrence of
molecules that contain different number of atoms is known as allotropy. For
example: Diamond and graphite are the two allotropes of carbon.
 • Diamond:-
➢ Each of the carbon atom is bonded to four other atoms of carbon.
➢ It is the hardest natural substance.
➢ It is a bad conductor of electricity but good conductor of heat.
➢ It is transparent.
➢ It has high brilliance due to its high refractive index.

• Graphite:-
➢ Each of the carbon atom is bonded to three other atoms of carbon. The fourth
valence electron can move, thus graphite becomes a good conductor of
electricity.
➢ It is soft used as a lubricant.

• Fullerene :- smallest fullerene has C60 carbon atoms.

➢ Spherical fullerenes are referred as Buckminster fullerenes. These are also
called as bucky balls. It has 20 hexagonal & 12 pentagonal rings.

❖ Versatile nature of Carbon

1. Catenation:- The self-linking property of carbon atoms through covalent
bonds to form long chains and rings is called catenation.

2. Tetravalency:- Carbon has valency of four. So, it is capable of making bonds

with four other atoms of carbon or any other element.
• The smaller size of carbon atom enables nucleus to hold the shared pair of
electrons strongly, thus carbon compounds are stable in general.

3. Isomerism:-
• The compounds which possess the same molecular formula but different
structural formulas are called Isomers and the phenomenon is known as
isomerism.
❖ Types of Organic Compounds

Organic
compounds

Hydrocarbon Compounds
containing
Functional
groups
Saturated Unsaturated
Carboxylic
Haloalkane Alcohol Aldehyde Ketone
acid
Alkane Alkene Alkyne

❖ Hydrocarbons:- The compounds of carbon and hydrogen are known as

Hydrocarbons.
❖ Representation of Organic molecules
Types of Propane Propene Propyne
formula
Molecular C3H8 C3H6 C3H4
formula
Complete
structural
formula

Condensed
structural CH3CH2CH3 CH2=CHCH3 CH≡CCH3
formula
 ❖ Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon compounds
❖ Saturated carbon compounds:- Compounds of carbon which have only single
bonds between the carbon atoms are called saturated carbon compounds.
Examples: Methane, Ethane, Propane etc.
➢ These compounds are not very reactive.
➢ These are generally called Alkane.
➢ General formula of Alkane [CnH2n+2], n=no. of carbon atoms

I. Unsaturated carbon compounds:- Compounds of carbon which contain one

or more double or triple bonds between two carbon atoms are called
unsaturated carbon compounds.
➢ Compounds with double bond generally called Alkenes. [CnH2n]
Example: Ethene, Propene, Butene etc.
➢ Compounds with triple bond generally called Alkynes. [CnH2n-2]
Example: Ethyne, Propyne, Butyne etc.

II. Cyclic Hydrocarbons

➢ In addition to chains, carbon compounds join together to form rings. Such
compounds are called cyclic hydrocarbons.

Number of single covalent bonds in benzene = 9

Number of double covalent bonds in benzene = 3

III. Functional groups in carbon compounds

➢ In hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen atoms can be replaced by
other atoms, such that the valency of carbon remains satisfied, the element
replaces hydrogen is called heteroatom.
➢ An atom or group of atoms which largely determines the chemical
properties of an organic compound is called a functional group.
IV. Chemical properties of carbon compounds
I. Combustion: Carbon compounds burn in oxygen give carbon dioxide along
with the release of heat and light.
C + O2 CO2 + Heat and Light
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat and Light
CH3CH2OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O + Heat and Light
 ➢ Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean blue flame (non-sooty flame).
➢ Unsaturated hydrocarbons give a yellow flame with lots of smoke (sooty
flame).
➢ Petroleum and coal have same amount of nitrogen and sulphur and their
combustion is responsible for acid rain.

II. Oxidation: Various carbon compounds are oxidised in presence of

substances called oxidizing agents, which are capable of adding oxygen to
others.
➢ When ethanol is heated with alkaline potassium permanganate solution (or)
acidified potassium dichromate solution, it gets oxidised to ethanoic acid.

III. Addition Reaction: Hydrogen is added to unsaturated hydrocarbons in

presence of nickel, palladium or platinum as catalyst. This process is called
hydrogenation. Such reactions are called addition reactions.

➢ Vegetable oils are converted into vegetable ghee using this process.
➢ Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should be chosen for cooking.

• Bromine water test (Test for unsaturation)

The bromine water test is a chemical reaction used to identify unsaturated

compounds, such as alkenes, in organic chemistry. When bromine water,
which is a reddish-brown solution, is added to an unsaturated compound,
the bromine atoms add across the double or triple bond in the unsaturated
compound, causing the bromine water to decolorize (lose its color).
IV. Substitution reaction: the reaction in which one or more hydrogen atoms
of a hydrocarbon are replaced by some other atoms (like chlorine) is called a
substitution reaction.

Methane Chloromethane

❖ Ethanol (C2H5OH)
➢ Ethanol is commonly called ethyl alcohol or simply alcohol.
➢ It is a colorless liquid with pleasant smell and burning taste.
➢ Its boiling point is 351 K and melting point is 156 K.
➢ Ethanol is soluble in water because its hydroxyl group makes hydrogen bond
with water molecule.
➢ It is a neutral compound and hence, it shows no effect on litmus paper.
➢ Absolute alcohol : pure ethanol can be lethal.
➢ Rectified spirit : while its 95% solution in water is called rectified spirit,
which is commercial alcohol
➢ Denatured alcohol : To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial
use, it is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substance like methanol
& dyes.
➢ Reaction with sodium: ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide
and hydrogen gas is evolved.

➢ Dehydration reaction: Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess of conc. Sulphuric

acid results in the dehydration of ethanol to ethene.

Ethanol Ethene
 Uses:
➢ It is a good solvent. It is also used in medicines such as tincture of iodine, cough
syrups and tonics.
➢ It is an active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
➢ Ethanol blended Petrol (EBP) is used as fuel.

❖ Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH)

➢ Ethanoic acid is commonly called Acetic acid.
➢ A dilute solution of ethanoic acid (5% to 8%) is called vinegar
➢ Ethanoic acid is a colorless liquid having a sour taste and a smell of vinegar.
➢ Its boiling point is 391 K and freezing point is 290 K.
➢ It is miscible with water in all proportions.
➢ Since, it is acidic in nature, it turns blue litmus paper red.
➢ Esterification reaction: when an organic acid reacts with an alcohol in the
presence of acid catalyst, it produces a sweet smelling (fruity smell) substance
called ester. The reaction is known as esterification reaction.

➢ Saponification reaction: Esters react in the presence of a base to give back the
alcohol and the sodium salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is known as
saponification reaction because it is used in the preparation of soap.

Uses:-
➢ 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is vinegar and is used as preservatives in
pickels.
➢ Since, it has a low melting point (290 K), it freezes in cold climates, hence, it is
also called glacial acetic acid.
❖ Test for the presence of carboxylic acid group in ethanoic acid
➢ Reaction with a base: Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base
such as sodium hydroxide to give a salt (sodium acetate) and water.

NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O

 ➢ Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates: Ethanoic acid (like
all carboxylic acids) reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give
rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water. The salt produced is commonly
called sodium acetate.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

❖ Soaps and Detergents:

➢ Soaps are sodium and potassium salts of long chain fatty acids such as
Stearic acid (C17H35COOH) , Palmitic acid (C15H35COOH) etc.
➢ Soaps are effective with soft water only & ineffective with hard water.
➢ Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphuric acids or ammonium salts
with chlorides or bromide ions etc. They are effective with both soft as well
as hard water.
➢ Detergents are also known as “Soapless soaps”. Example : C17H35SO3Na
➢ Soaps are completely biodegradable, while detergents are not.
Preparation of soap

Structure of Soap molecule

➢ An ionic part (hydrophilic) and a long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic) part

constitutes the soap molecule.
➢ Action of Soaps

➢ Most dirt is oily in nature and the hydrophobic end attaches itself with dirt,
while the ionic end is surrounded with molecules of water. This result in
formation of a radial structure called micelles. An emulsion is formed by soap
molecules. Then, soap removes the dirt particles from the cloth.
➢ Scum: The magnesium and calcium salts present in hard water reacts with
soap molecule to form insoluble products called scum, thus obstructing the
cleansing action. Use of detergents overcome this problem as the detergent
molecules prevent the formation of insoluble product (scum) & thus clothes
gets cleaned.
2C17H35COONa + MgCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Mg↓ + 2NaCl
soap hard water white ppt (scum)
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca↓ + 2NaCl
soap hard water white ppt (Scum)