CONCEPT OF FOOD PACKAGING

Introduction
 Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution,
storage, sale and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of
packages. Packaging can be defined as a tool that protects and contains our goods with the aim of
minimizing the environmental impact of our consumption.
 Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying, and
facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial, and consumer products.
 According to the Packaging Institute International, packaging is the enclosure of products, items, or
packages in various container forms such as wrapped pouches, bags, boxes, cups, trays, cans, tubes,
and bottles.
 Packaging performs functions such as:
o Containment
o Protection and preservation
o Communication
o Utility or performance
 The UK Institute of Packaging provides three definitions of packaging:
1. A coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing, and end-use.
2. A means of ensuring the safe delivery of goods to consumers in sound condition at minimum cost.
3. A techno-economic function aimed at minimizing delivery costs while maximizing sales.
Roles of Packaging as a Modern Socio-Scientific Discipline
Packaging has evolved into a crucial socio-scientific discipline, playing multiple roles in product safety,
marketing, and environmental sustainability. The key roles of packaging include:
1. Product Containment and Safety – Ensures the product remains intact and secure, which is of
paramount importance.
2. Facilitating Handling, Storage, and Distribution – Enables easy transportation and storage, reducing
logistical challenges.
3. Protection Against Damages – Safeguards products from biological, chemical, and physical damage
during distribution.
4. Convenience – Enhances usability through features like easy opening, resealability, and portion
control.
5. Information Medium – Provides essential details through labeling, including ingredients, usage
instructions, and safety warnings.
6. Security – Incorporates tamper-evident designs to prevent unauthorized access and ensure consumer
safety.
7. Product Image Enhancement – Utilizes structural and graphic design to create visual appeal and
strengthen brand identity.
8. Shelf-Life Extension – Helps in preserving product freshness, increasing its longevity and
availability.
 9. Marketing and Advertising Tool – Acts as a silent salesperson, attracting customers and influencing
purchasing decisions.
10. Environmental Responsibility – Encourages sustainable practices by managing empty packaging
waste responsibly.
Basic Functions of Packaging
1. Containment
 Ensures packaging maintains integrity during handling, filling, sealing, processing, transportation,
marketing, and dispensing.
 Essential for fresh and processed food to maintain quality and consumer satisfaction.
2. Protection
 Prevents biological contamination from microorganisms, insects, and rodents.
 Protects against oxidation, moisture changes, aroma loss/gain, and physical damage (abrasion,
fracture, crushing).
 Maintains food safety and quality achieved through refrigeration, freezing, drying, and heat
processing.
 Includes tamper-evident features.
3. Communication
 Provides legal and marketing information, including:
o Manufacturer details
o Ingredient list (with allergen information)
o Net content
o Nutrient content
o Country of origin
o Barcodes for checkout and inventory tracking
o Open dating systems for shelf-life information
o Recycling codes for plastic identification
4. Preservation
 Creates a barrier between the product and external environmental factors.
 Helps in extending shelf life and maintaining product integrity.
5. Convenience
 Enhances user-friendliness with features such as:
o Various size options
o Easy handling, opening, and dispensing
o Resealability
o Compatibility with food preparation methods
6. Unitization
 Groups multiple individual items into a single unit for easy distribution and sale.
 Examples:
o A carton containing multiple pouches of soup mix.
o A pack of 12 beer bottles instead of individual bottles.
 Reduces handling, transportation costs, and potential damages.
7. Information about the Product
 Acts as a key communication medium between manufacturers and consumers.
 Educates consumers about:
o Product ingredients
o Usage instructions
o Storage guidelines
8. Presentation
 Packaging influences product display through:
o Material type
o Shape
o Size
o Color
o Merchandising display units
9. Brand Communication
 Uses typography, symbols, illustrations, advertising, and colors to create a visual impact and enhance
brand identity.
10. Promotion
 Highlights promotional offers such as:
o Free extra product
o Discounts
o New product launches
11. Economy
 Plays a vital role in manufacturing efficiency by ensuring:
o Cost-effective material selection
o High-speed processing
o Reduced packaging costs relative to food value
Other Functions of Packaging
 Standardization – Prepares products in standard weight, measure, or quantity for easy purchase.
  Facilitating Usage – Incorporates dispensing features like spouts, squeeze bottles, and spray cans.
 Further Product Preparation – Uses specialized packaging like:
o Aerosols for whipped toppings
o Tea bags with plastic-coated, porous paper pouches
o Frozen dinner trays made of crystallized polyester or coated paperboard
 Requirements for Effective Food Packaging

Objectives of Packaging and Package Labeling

Packaging and labeling serve multiple essential purposes, ensuring product safety, efficiency, and market
appeal. The key objectives include:
1. Physical Protection
 Protects enclosed objects from shock, vibration, compression, temperature changes, and other
external factors.
2. Barrier Protection
 Acts as a barrier against oxygen, water vapor, dust, and contaminants.
 Package permeability is a crucial design factor.
 Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to extend shelf life.
 Modified or controlled atmospheres help keep contents fresh and safe for the intended duration.
3. Containment and Agglomeration
 Groups small objects together for efficiency, reducing handling time.
 Essential for liquids, powders, and flowable materials to prevent spills and ensure easy
transportation.
4. Information Transmission
 Provides details on:
 o Usage instructions
o Transportation guidelines
o Recycling and disposal methods
 Required legal information for pharmaceutical, food, medical, and chemical products.
5. Marketing
 Packaging and labeling influence consumer purchasing decisions.
 Graphic design and branding elements enhance product appeal.
 Packaging serves as a silent salesman, especially in retail environments.
6. Security
 Enhances product safety by incorporating:
o Tamper-resistant and tamper-evident features.
o Anti-pilferage designs with seals or authentication marks to prevent counterfeiting.
o Anti-theft devices such as dye packs, RFID tags, and electronic surveillance tags for loss
prevention.
7. Convenience
 Designed for ease of:
o Distribution and handling
o Display and sale
o Opening, resealing, and reuse
8. Portion Control
 Provides single-serving or single-dosage packaging for controlled usage.
 Helps in inventory management and prevents product wastage.
 Example: Pre-packaged one-liter milk bottles instead of self-filled containers.
Types of Packaging

Packaging is classified into three main types based on its function and application: individual packaging,
inner packaging, and external packaging:

 Individual packaging, also known as primary packaging, refers to the packaging of individual
items using suitable materials and containers. This type of packaging is designed to protect the
product, enhance its merchandise value, and maintain its quality. Since it comes in direct contact
with the product, it plays a crucial role in ensuring safety and usability. Examples of primary
packaging include a soft drink bottle, a shampoo sachet, or a blister pack for tablets.
 Inner packaging, or secondary packaging, provides an additional layer of protection for
individually packaged goods. It serves as a shield against external factors such as water vapor, light,
heat, and impact. This type of packaging often groups multiple primary packages together, making
handling and transportation easier while ensuring extra protection. For instance, a cardboard box
containing multiple tubes of toothpaste or a shrink-wrapped bundle of beverage cans falls under
secondary packaging.
  External packaging, also referred to as tertiary packaging, is the outermost layer of packaging
primarily used for transportation and bulk handling. This packaging involves placing products into
larger boxes, bags, barrels, or cans to facilitate storage, shipping, and logistics. It is commonly used
for bundling multiple secondary packages together and often features markings for identification and
cargo handling. Examples include a large carton containing multiple smaller boxes of cereal or a
pallet of shrink-wrapped cartons ready for shipment.

Forms of Packaging

Packaging comes in various forms, each designed to suit different types of products while ensuring
protection, convenience, and efficiency in storage and transportation. Some of the most commonly used
forms of packaging include metal cans, glass bottles, stretch-wrap packaging, flexible pouches, bag-in-box
packages, cups and trays, and paperboard containers.

 Metal cans are widely used for packaging food and beverages. They come in various shapes,
including round, square, oval, and pill-shaped, and are further classified into two-piece and three-
piece cans. Three-piece cans, typically made from tin-plate, are joined by soldering or welding, while
tin-free steel (TFS) cans use an organic adhesive for body-making. Two-piece cans, made through
processes like impact extraction or contraction, include aluminium cans, D1 cans with high internal
pressure resistance, and DR cans, which undergo multiple contraction processes for added strength.
Bonded and welded cans offer an alternative to conventional soldered cans.
 Glass bottles are another common form of packaging, available in various shapes and sizes. They
include large “free-size” bottles, small single-use bottles, lightweight bottles for soft drinks, heavy
handcrafted liquor bottles, and returnable bottles for reuse. Glass is preferred for its excellent barrier
properties, making it ideal for beverages, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.
 Stretch-wrap packaging involves placing food on a tray and covering it with a stretchable plastic
film, such as PVC or PE, to maintain freshness. A similar technique, shrink packaging, involves
wrapping one or more items with a film that shrinks when exposed to heat. This method, using
materials like PVC, PP, and PE, ensures tight and secure packaging, commonly used for bundling
multiple products together.
 Flexible pouches are made from materials such as plastic film, aluminum foil, and paper. These
pouches can be used individually or as part of a larger packaging system. They are lightweight,
adaptable, and suitable for a wide range of food and non-food products, including snacks,
condiments, and pharmaceuticals.
 Bag-in-box packages feature a dual-layer construction, consisting of an inner bag and an outer box.
The inner bag protects the contents from water vapor, gases, and volatiles, while the outer box
provides mechanical strength. This packaging method is commonly used for liquids, bulk food
products, and institutional food service. It is available in both single-substance and multi-layer
structures for enhanced durability.
 Cups and trays are widely used in the food packaging industry and are made from materials such as
thermo-formed plastic, air-pressure formed plastic sheets, and expanded plastic sheets. Some cups
include barrier layers made from aluminum foil for added protection, while others use composite
materials for improved durability. Paper cups with PE, PP, or PET inserts are also used for various
food and beverage applications.
 Paperboard containers are commonly used for dairy products, beverages, and food packaging. The
most recognizable types include the "Pure-Pak" and "Tetra Pak" containers, known for their
distinctive gable-top or brick-shaped designs. These containers often feature laminated paper with
polyethylene for standard milk packaging, while long-life milk, fruit drinks, and other perishable
products require an additional aluminium foil layer for enhanced protection and extended shelf life.

Packaging Developments: A Historical Perspective

Over the last 200 years, packaging has evolved from being a mere container for products to becoming an
integral part of product design. A prime example of this transformation is the shift from packing tomato
ketchup in glass bottles to using squeezable multi-layer plastic bottles with oxygen barrier materials,
ensuring extended shelf life. Military requirements have often accelerated packaging innovations, such as
the invention of food canning in Napoleonic France and the increased use of paper-based containers due to
tinplate shortages during the First World War. The demand for pre-packaged foods and food service
packaging has grown exponentially since the Second World War, diversifying packaging materials and
designs. These advancements have been made possible by progress in food science, technology, packaging
materials, and machine technology.

Evolution of Food Packaging

Prehistoric to Early Civilizations:

 Paleolithic Age: Food was instantly consumed.

 Mesolithic Age: Surplus food stored in baskets made of grasses and rushes.
 Neolithic Age: Development of pottery and metal containers.
 200 BC: Paper invented in China.
 160 BC: Glass bottles made in Egypt.
 1200 AD: Discovery of tin plating on iron sheets.

Modern Developments:

 1825: Aluminium extracted.

 1870: Celluloid (first man-made plastic) developed.
 1872: First PVC reported.
 1892: Viscose developed.
 1924: Introduction of Cellophane in the USA.
 1933: Development of Polyethylene (PE).
 1936: Copolymer of VC and VDC (SARAN) prepared.
 1941: Mylar (PE-G-T) introduced.
 1956: HDPE commercialized.
 1958: Heat shrinkable PVC film and polyamides as packaging film introduced

Major Packaging Innovations Over the Past 200 Years

 In the early 1800s, Nicolas Appert pioneered the thermal preservation of food in hermetically sealed
glass jars in 1809, while Peter Durand designed the soldered tinplate canister in 1810, leading to the
commercialization of heat-preserved food containers. Handmade cans of preserved meats were
produced in England for the Admiralty. The paper bag-making machine was later developed by
Francis Wolle in 1852.
 By the 1870s, Albert L. Jones patented the use of corrugated materials for packaging in 1871,
followed by Oliver Long's patent for lined corrugated materials in 1874. In 1879, Robert Gair
introduced the first machine-made folding carton.
 The 1880s saw the introduction of packaging innovations such as Quaker Oats using a folding box
for cereal in 1884.
 During the 1890s, William Painter patented the Crown cap for glass bottles in 1892, and by 1899,
Michael J. Owens developed the concept of automatic bottle-making, which led to mass production
in the early 1900s.
 The 1900s saw advancements such as the introduction of paraffin wax-coated paper milk containers
in 1906. In the 1910s, waxed paperboard cartons became popular, and in 1912, regenerated cellulose
film (RCF) was developed. John Van Wormer introduced the "Pure-Pak" paper bottle in 1915,
revolutionizing milk packaging.
 In the 1920s, Clarence Birdseye founded Birdseye Seafoods and commercialized frozen foods in
retail packs. The decade also witnessed the perfection of the cellulose casting process, leading to the
introduction of Cellophane in 1927.
  By the 1930s, American brewers began selling canned beer in 1935, and ethylene was polymerized
commercially, leading to polyethylene (PE), which became a dominant packaging material by the
1960s.
 During the 1940s, aerosol containers were used by the US military for pesticides, later evolving into
popular food dispensers. In 1946, polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC), also known as Saran, was
introduced as a moisture barrier resin.
 The 1950s saw significant innovations such as the retort pouch for heat-processed foods, initially
developed for the US military. This decade also marked the introduction of aluminum trays for
frozen foods, aluminum cans, and squeezable plastic bottles. In 1956, the Tetra Pak system
introduced its tetrahedral milk carton.
 In the 1960s, the two-piece drawn and wall-ironed (DWI) can was developed in the USA for
carbonated drinks, while tamper-evident bottle neck shrink sleeves were introduced. Tetra Pak
launched its rectangular Tetra Brik Aseptic (TBA) carton, which became a global standard for long-
life beverages.
 The 1970s brought the introduction of barcodes for retail packaging, tamper-evident food packaging,
and boil-in-the-bag frozen meals. The decade also saw the rise of microwaveable plastic containers
and the development of injection stretch blow-molded PET bottles for carbonated drinks.
 During the 1980s, co-extruded plastics with oxygen barrier materials were introduced for squeezable
sauce bottles, and retortable plastic containers became popular for microwave heating. PET-coated
dual-ovenable paperboard for ready meals was developed, and innovations like the beer widget were
commercialized. Japan's Sapporo beer launched a contoured can with a removable lid, transforming
the can into a drinking vessel.
 The 1990s saw the rise of digital printing for carton sleeves and food labels in the UK, as well as the
widespread adoption of shrink-sleeve plastic labels for glass bottles. Shaped can technology gained
popularity in the USA and Europe, enhancing brand differentiation for beverage companies.

Since the introduction of the food can in the 19th century, the key drivers of packaging innovation have
been protection, hygiene, product quality, and consumer convenience. Over time, packaging has evolved
to meet the demands of busy lifestyles, with advancements such as gas barrier plastics for aseptic
containers, modified atmosphere packaging for premium meats, and microwaveable retortable plastic
containers for ready meals. Technological advancements in transportation, post-harvest technology, new
retail formats, and domestic appliances have also played a crucial role in packaging evolution. For
instance, the development of the microwave oven led to the creation of convenient packaging for a
variety of foods. Furthermore, socio-cultural and demographic changes, along with economic factors,
have influenced market demand and the adoption of innovative packaging solutions. As packaging
continues to evolve, the focus remains on sustainability, convenience, and improved product
preservation, ensuring that packaging innovations align with modern consumer needs and environmental
concerns.

FLEXIBLE PACKAGING MATERIAL -MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND

APPLICATION
The packaging material used for food products can be classified into three categories i.e. Flexible, Rigid, and
Semi-Rigid. Different materials under these three categories are discussed below:
Flexible Packaging Materials
It has been estimated that there would be an average growth of 20-25% in the consumption of flexible
packaging materials by the end of 2010 A.D. These materials are not rigid; they are soft and elastic in nature.
Different types of flexible materials used for the packaging of food products are enumerated here.

1.PAPER
Pulp is the raw material for the production of paper, paperboard, corrugated board, and similar
manufactured products. It is obtained from plant fiber and is therefore a renewable resource. Today,
about 97 percent of the world's paper and board is made from wood pulp, and about 85 percent of the
wood pulp used comes from spruces, firs, and pines—coniferous trees that predominate in the forests of
the North Temperate Zone.
There are three main constituents of the wood cell wall:
 Cellulose
o This is a long-chain, linear polymer built up of a large number of glucose molecules and is
the most abundant, naturally occurring organic compound. Cellulose is moderately resistant
to the action of chlorine and dilute sodium hydroxide under mild conditions but is modified
or dissolved under more severe conditions. It is relatively resistant to oxidation, and
therefore, bleaching operations can be used to remove small amounts of impurities such as
lignin without appreciable damage to the strength of the pulp.
 Hemicelluloses
o These are lower molecular weight mixed sugar polysaccharides consisting of one or more of
the following molecules: Xylose, mannose, arabinose, and galactose. Hemicelluloses are
usually soluble in dilute alkalis.
 Lignin
o This is a highly branched, thermoplastic polymer of uncertain size, built up largely from
substituted phenyl-propane units. It has no fiber-forming properties and is attacked by
chlorine and sodium hydroxide, forming soluble, dark brown derivatives. It softens at about
160°C.
The principal differences between paper, paperboard, and fiberboard are thickness and use. Paper is thin,
flexible, and used for bags and wraps, whereas paperboard is thicker, more rigid, and used to construct
single-layer cartons. Fiberboard is made by combining layers of strong papers and is used to construct
secondary shipping cartons. Paper from wood pulp is bleached and coated or impregnated with waxes,
resins, lacquers, plastics, and laminations of aluminum to improve its strength, especially in high
humidity environments such as those often found around foods.
Acid treatment of paper pulp modifies the cellulose and gives rise to water and oil-resistant parchments
of considerable wet strength. These papers are called greaseproof or glassine papers and are
characterized by long wood pulp fibers, which impart increased physical strength. Kraft paper is the
strongest of papers and, in its unbleached form, is commonly used for grocery bags. If bleached and
coated, it is commonly used as butcher wrap. The word "Kraft" comes from the German word for strong.
Paper and Paperboard-Based Packaging
Papers and paperboards used for packaging range from thin tissues to thick boards. The main examples
of paper and paperboard-based packaging are:
1. Paper bags, wrapping, packaging papers, and infusible tissues (e.g., tea and coffee bags, sachets,
pouches, overwrapping paper, sugar and flour bags, carrier bags)
2. Multiwall paper sacks
3. Folding cartons and rigid boxes
4. Corrugated and solid fiberboard boxes (shipping cases)
5. Paper-based tubes, tubs, and composite containers
6. Fire drums
7. Liquid packaging
8. Moulded pulp containers
9. Labels
10. Sealing tapes
11. Cushioning materials
12. Cap liners (sealing wads) and diaphragms (membranes)
Paper and paperboard packaging is used over a wide temperature range, from frozen food storage to the
high temperatures of boiling water and heating in microwave and conventional radiant heat ovens. While
approved for direct contact with many food products, packaging made solely from paper and paperboard
is permeable to water, water vapor, aqueous solutions, emulsions, organic solvents, fatty substances
(except grease-resistant paper grades), gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, aggressive
chemicals, and volatile flavors and aromas. While it can be sealed with several types of adhesive, it is
not itself heat sealable.
Paper and paperboard can acquire barrier properties and extended functional performance, such as heat
sealability for leak-proof liquid packaging, through coating and lamination with plastics like
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE), and ethylene vinyl
alcohol (EVOH), as well as aluminum foil, wax, and other treatments. Packaging made solely from
paperboard can provide a wide range of barrier properties by being overwrapped with a heat-sealable
plastic film such as polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC) coated oriented polypropylene (OPP or BOPP).
Properties of Paper and Paperboard
The features of paper and paperboard that make these materials suitable for packaging relate to
appearance and performance. These features are determined by the type of paper and paperboard used,
the raw materials, and the way they have been processed.
1. Appearance
Appearance relates to the visual impact of the pack and can be expressed in terms of color, smoothness,
and whether the surface has a high or low gloss (matte) finish. The color depends on the choice of fiber
for the outer surface and, where appropriate, the reverse side. The choices include white, brown, or grey.
Some liners for corrugated board comprise a mix of bleached and brown fibers. Other colors are
technically possible either by using dyed fibers or a coated mineral pigment.
2. Performance
Performance properties relate to the efficiency achieved during the manufacture of the pack, including
printing, cutting, creasing, gluing, and packing operations. These properties also influence compression
strength in storage, distribution, at the point of sale, and in consumer use. Specific measurable properties
include:
 Stiffness
 Short span compression (rigidity) strength
 Tensile strength
 Wet strength
 % Stretch
 Tear strength
 Fold endurance
 Puncture resistance
 Ply bond strength
Other properties include moisture content, air permeability, water absorbency, surface friction, surface
tension, and ink absorbency. Chemical properties include pH, while chloride and sulfate residues are
relevant for aluminum foil lamination. Flatness is another crucial aspect, influenced by fiber hygroscopic
characteristics, manufacturing variables, and handling at any stage, including printing and usage.
Neutrality concerning odor and taint, as well as product safety, are essential in paper and board
packaging, especially when in direct contact with food.
Types of Paper
Paper is divided into two broad categories:
 Fine papers – Made of bleached pulp, typically used for writing, bond, book, and cover papers.
 Coarse papers – Made of unbleached Kraft softwood pulps and used for packaging.
Main types of packaging papers include:
1. Kraft paper – A coarse paper with exceptional strength, often made on a Fourdrinier machine and
either machine-glazed or finished.
2. Bleached paper – Made from relatively white, bright, and soft pulps receptive to special chemicals
to develop functional properties. Generally more expensive and weaker than unbleached papers.
3. Greaseproof paper – Translucent, machine-finished paper with oil and grease resistance achieved
through hydration.
4. Glassine paper – Has a glassy, smooth surface, high density, and transparency.
5. Vegetable parchment – Resembles animal parchment, grease-resistant, and used for wrapping fatty
foods.
6. Tissue paper – Ranges from semitransparent to opaque and can be waxed.
7. Waxed paper – Provides a barrier against liquid and vapor penetration.
Types of Paperboard
Paperboards are made from the same raw materials as paper but typically consist of multiple layers. The
main types used in food packaging include:
 Chipboard – Made from repulped waste and mechanical pulp, typically grey and weak.
 Duplex board – Made from chemical and mechanical pulp, lined on both sides.
 Solid white board – All plies consist of fully bleached chemical pulp, offering high protection for
frozen foods and food liquids.

Paper and paperboard – fibre sources and fibre separation (pulping)

1. Structure and Composition of Paper and Paperboard:

Paper and paperboard are composed of cellulose fibres that interlace to form a network. These fibres
are derived from wood and bond physically and chemically at contact points to create a sheet. The
sheet's strength depends on the fibre type, how it's processed, the thickness, and the weight per unit
area.
2. Multilayered Construction and Fibre Choice:
Paperboard typically has a multilayered construction, which provides specific performance advantages. This
allows manufacturers to tailor the material based on the intended packaging use. Different fibres can be used
in each layer depending on the required properties like strength or appearance.

3. Virgin Fibre and Pulping Methods:

Virgin fibre, also known as primary fibre, is obtained directly from wood through pulping. This process can
be done either mechanically or chemically. In mechanical pulping, fibres are physically separated, while in
chemical pulping, non-cellulose components are dissolved using chemicals, which can later be used for
energy generation.

4. Mechanical vs Chemical Pulping:

Mechanically separated fibres retain the natural colour of the wood, though they can be lightened through
mild chemical treatment. In contrast, chemical pulping—mainly using the sulphate or sulphite process—
produces brown fibres that can be bleached to remove non-cellulosic materials, resulting in a white
appearance.

5. Appearance of Pure Cellulose Fibres:

Individually, pure cellulose fibres are translucent, but when they are combined in bulk, they appear white.
Chemically processed fibres, after bleaching, show no trace of non-cellulose components and contribute to
this white appearance of the final sheet.
6. Recovered Fibre and Its Colour Properties:
Secondary fibre, or recycled fibre, is obtained from used paper and board. If not de-inked and bleached, it
usually appears grey or brown. Brown packaging results in brown pulp, and mixed printed paper gives grey
pulp. However, dyes can be added to adjust the pulp colour to specific requirements.

7. Effects of Recycling on Fibre Quality:

Fibre can endure multiple recycling cycles, but with each cycle, fibre length and inter-fibre bonding
decrease. This weakens the sheet's strength. Since not all paper products are recoverable due to their usage,
there's a continuous demand for virgin fibre to maintain strength and volume.

8. Fibre Recovery and Recycling Rates:

On average, about 40–60% of fibres are recovered and recycled in various countries. Although recycling is
beneficial for sustainability, it cannot fully replace virgin fibre because of the gradual degradation of fibre
properties with repeated processing.

9. Tree Species and Fibre Characteristics:

The properties of the fibre are also influenced by the species of tree used. Long fibres, generally 3–4.5 mm,
come from softwoods like Spruce, Pine, and Douglas Fir and are valued for strength. Short fibres, from
hardwoods like Birch, are about 1–1.5 mm and provide smoothness and better sheet formation.

Paper and Paperboard Manufacturing

1. Stock Preparation:
If pulp is purchased in bales, it is first dispersed in water using a hydrapulper. All pulp, whether dried or
straight from the pulpmill, is mechanically refined to increase inter-fibre bonding by swelling the fibres and
increasing surface area. Refining also affects drainage during sheet formation and is adjusted based on the
desired product. Additives such as alum, synthetic resins, wet strength resins, and fluorescent whitening
agents are added to improve water repellency, wet strength, and brightness.
2. Sheet Forming:
A suspension of 2% fibre and 98% water is deposited evenly onto a moving plastic mesh or cylinder to form
the sheet. Thinner sheets can be formed in a single layer, while heavier boards require multiple wet layers of
pulp. Fibre orientation occurs in the machine direction (MD), which affects strength properties, while
turbulence and shaking help randomise fibre alignment. A difference in appearance can occur between the
wire side and top side unless coated or formed on twin wires.
3. Pressing:
After initial formation, the sheet enters the press section where it is pressed between absorbent blankets and
steel rolls. Vacuum assistance removes more water, reducing moisture content to about 60–65%. This
pressing consolidates the sheet so it can support its own weight for further processing.
4. Drying:
The sheet is passed over steam-heated cylinders to reduce moisture to below 10%, depending on the grade.
A Machine Glazing (MG) cylinder may be used to produce a glazed surface on one side. Starch may be
applied during drying for surface sizing, which improves strength and finish. Calendering is used to enhance
smoothness and uniform thickness, and high-speed supercalendering may be done off-machine for a glossy
finish.
5. Coating:
White pigmented coatings, made of minerals like china clay and calcium carbonate with synthetic binders,
are applied on-machine to one or both sides. Techniques like blade coating, air knife, or metering bar ensure
smooth application and removal of excess. Coatings are dried by radiant heat and steam cylinders and may
be burnished for high gloss. Off-line cast coating creates ultra-smooth finishes using polished heated
cylinders.
6. Reel-up:
Once dried and coated, the continuous sheet is wound into large reels. This prepares the material for the final
finishing stage and ensures ease of transport and handling.
7. Finishing:
The large reels are slit into narrower rolls or cut into sheets to meet customer needs. Sheets are guillotined,
pile-turned, counted, ream-wrapped, and palletised. Wrapping is done using moisture-resistant materials like
PE-coated paper or film to protect the final product during storage and transport.

2.ALUMINIUM FOILS
What is Aluminium Foil?
Aluminium foil is a continuous web/sheet of aluminium metal rolled to thickness/gauges ranging from
0.005mm to 0.2mm. It is produced from commercial purity aluminium with an aluminium content of not
less than 98%. Purer metal with 99.8% content is of more interest to the electrical industry. It is available as
free unsupported or unlaminated or laminated to paper or film. It is available in plain, coloured, coated,
lubricated, and embossed forms.
Properties of Aluminium Foils
The important properties are as follows:
 1. Impermeable
2. Non-toxic
3. Stable
4. Light and heat barriers
5. Tasteless and odourless
Advantages of Foil
1. Tearing properties facilitate its use as a sealing surface in the blister pack.
2. Extensively used for lamination due to impermeable properties.

3.PLASTIC MATERIALS
Plastic is an organic macromolecular compound obtained by polymerization, polycondensation,
polyaddition, or similar processes from molecules with a lower molecular weight or by chemical alteration
of natural macromolecular compounds. Plastics are used in food packaging due to their wide range of
appearance and performance properties, derived from the inherent features of individual plastic materials
and their processing methods.
Plastics are resistant to many compounds and do not react significantly with inorganic chemicals, making
them suitable for food packaging. They do not support the growth of microorganisms but may absorb food
constituents like oils and fats. Thus, thorough testing is necessary to ensure food safety. Gases like oxygen,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor can permeate plastics, with the rate depending on:
 Type of plastic
 Thickness and surface area
 Processing method
 Concentration or partial pressure of the permeant molecule
 Storage temperature
Applications of plastic in food processing include:
 Rigid plastic containers (bottles, jars, tubs, trays)
 Flexible plastic films (bags, sachets, pouches, heat-sealable lidding)
  Plastic-paperboard combinations in liquid packaging
 Expanded/foamed plastic for insulation and compression resistance
 Plastic lids, caps, wadding, and tamper-evident bands
 Pouring/dispensing devices, multipack collations
 Cling, stretch, and shrink wrapping
 Labels for bottles and jars
 Components of coatings, adhesives, and inks
“A plastic material is solid at ordinary temperatures and allows appreciable and permanent change of form
without losing its coherence on the application of pressure and heat.” Plastic materials are perhaps the most
versatile group of materials used in packaging. The plastic resins are generally categorized in two ways i.e.
thermoset and thermoplastic resin. Some of the important thermoplastic materials which have got extensive
application in packaging are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyester, nylon or polyamide,
polystyrene, etc. These polymeric materials are normally classified into different groups based on the
polymerization process and molecular structure:
These polymeric materials are normally classified into different groups based on the polymerization process
and molecular structure, such as:
(a) Polyolefins - Polyethylene and Polypropylene (PP)
(b) Polyvinyl group - Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
(c) Condensation - Polyester (PET), Nylon-6 or Polyamide (PA)
(d) Styrene Polymers - Polystyrene (PS) and Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
(e) Carbonate group - Polycarbonate (PC)
Polyolefins Group
The properties of different polymeric films are as follows:
(i) Low-density Polyethylene (LDPE) film:
 Density ranges from 0.910 – 0.925 gms/cc
 Average molecular weight is 3 x 10⁵
 Resistance to heat is about 180 – 212°F
 Translucent type of clarity
 Water absorption is 0.015%
 Permeability to gas is 1.0 cc/m²/24hrs at 27°C & 1 atmospheric pressure
 Good tensile strength properties & high percentage of elongation
 Good dart impact resistance
 Resistance to the effect of weak acids and alkalies
 Good barrier to moisture vapors but has a relatively high gas permeability
(ii) Linear Low-density Polyethylene (LLDPE):
 High film tensile strength properties as compared to LDPE
  High percentage of elongation as compared to LDPE
 High tear strength properties
 Better stress crack resistance and low temperature brittleness
 Improved stiffness properties
 Excellent puncture resistance and excellent heat seal properties
(iii) Medium-density Polyethylene (MDPE) film:
 Density varies from 0.926 – 0.940 gm/cc
 Average molecular weight is 2 x 10⁵
 Resistance to heat is 220 – 250°F
 Translucent type of clarity
 Percentage of water absorption is 0.01%
 Permeability to gas is 1.33 cc/m²/24 hrs at 27°C & 1 atm pressure
 Highly resistant to the effect of weak acids, alkalies, etc.
 Exposure to sunlight turns its color to yellowish
(iv) High-density Polyethylene (HDPE) film:
 Density varies from 0.941 – 0.965 gm/cc
 Average molecular weight is 1.25 x 10⁵
 Resistance to heat is 250°F
 Opaque in nature
 High barrier to moisture vapor
 Permeability to gas is lower compared to other polyethylene films
 Exposure to sunlight turns it yellowish
(v) High Molecular High-density Polyethylene (HMHDPE):
 High mechanical strength in both directions
 Pleasant translucence in clarity
 High tear resistance properties
 Does not impart any taste or odor
 Suitable for food contact applications
 Less elongation compared to other polyethylene films
 Excellent moisture barrier properties
(vi) Polypropylene (PP) film:
 High tensile strength
 High chemical resistance and high temperature performance compared to HDPE
 Very low permeability to moisture vapor and gas compared to polyethylene
  High transparency
 Chemical inertness
 High softening point
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Hard, brittle, and transparent material
 Low GTR (Gas Transmission Rate)
 Moderate WVTR (Water Vapor Transmission Rate)
 Good resistance to fat and oil
 Glass-like clarity
 Good mechanical strength
 Retention of flavor
 Excellent printability
 Lower weight/volume ratio
 Resistance to chemicals
Condensation Polymer
The properties of polyester and polyamide are as follows:
(i) Polyester film:
 Excellent gloss, enhancing sales appeal
 Very low moisture and gas permeability
 High mechanical strength
 Resistance to tear, puncture, burst, and flex crack
 Dimensionally stable over a wide range of temperatures (-70°C to +130°C)
 Excellent machinability
 Excellent printability
 Light in weight, reducing transport costs
 Free from all kinds of additives and does not contribute off flavors
 Good surface properties for metallization
(ii) Polyamide or Nylon-6 film:
 High mechanical strength
 High elongation capability
 Excellent resistance to cutting, perforation, abrasion, and bursting
 High chemical resistance to oils and fats
 Outstanding impermeability to gases and vapors
 Easy printability
  Easy metallizing
 Economical (considering best yield/kg)
 Can be biaxially oriented
Styrene Polymers
The important characteristics are:
(i) Polystyrene (PS):
 Not flexible like LDPE and PP
 Mostly used as rigid containers in packaging
 Crystal-clear containers
 Available in attractive light or dark colors
 Lustrous finish
 Rigidity and dimensional stability
 Resistance to chemicals
 Easy processing
 Good barrier to moisture
 Ability to take post-molding decorations like hot stamp foiling, screen printing, inlay foil molding,
etc.
(ii) Expanded Polystyrene (EPS):
 Neither flexible nor rigid, but cushioning in nature
 Commonly called ‘thermocole’
 Fully resistant to dilute acids, alkalies, alcohols, and seawater, but reacts with aliphatic hydrocarbons
and ketones
 Density varies from 20-30 kg/m³
 Stress at 10% compression: 1 to 1.4 kg/cm²
 Shear strength: 6 to 8 kg/cm²
 Flexural strength: 2.5 to 3 kg/cm²
 Tensile strength: 2.5 to 3.2 kg/cm²
 Thermal conductivity at 100°C: 0.028 k.cal m/hr. m²°C
 Water vapor transmission rate: 0.6 to 1 gms/m²/14hrs at 38°C & 90% RH
 Water absorption % volume after 7 days immersion: 0.6%
 No nutritive value for organisms, does not support fungi, bacteria, or insects
 Safe for food contact
Multilayer Plastic Film
To combine desirable properties in a single polymeric material for processed food packaging, especially
dairy products requiring extended shelf life, multilayer plastic films have been developed in laminate or co-
extruded forms.
Properties of Multilayer Co-extruded Plastic Films:
 High barrier properties to moisture and oxygen
 Improved flexural endurance properties
 Increased dart impact strength
 No risk of delamination of individual layers (unlike laminates)
 Cheaper compared to laminates
 Easy surface printing

SEMI RIGID PACKAGING MATERIAL -MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND

APPLICATION
Semi-rigid Packaging Materials
Semi-rigid packaging materials are those materials that are neither rigid nor flexible in nature. The important
packaging materials under this category are discussed below:
Folding Carton
Folding cartons are primarily made from duplex board or triplex board. The duplex board, with a grammage
ranging from 220 gsm to 300 gsm, is used to create folding cartons through different steps like creasing,
scoring, slotting, and gluing.
Properties of Folding Carton:
 Amenable to multiple-color printing
 Ease of handling, distribution, and storage at retail outlets under refrigeration
 Suitable for pilfer-proof closing devices
 Stiffness facilitates easy stacking of products
 Empty cartons collapse, allowing excellent space utilization
Lined Carton
A lined carton is made of paperboard and lined internally with appropriate packaging materials.
Properties of Lined Carton:
 Very economical compared to metal containers
 Excellent shelf life due to superior barrier properties against moisture, gas, and light
 Easy to stack due to its rectangular shape
 Available in different capacities (100 ml, 200 ml, 1 kg, 2 kg)
 Suitable for packing solid, semi-solid, and liquid products
 Printable outer surface
 Easy-open features like notches or spouts
  Customizable designs
Aseptic Carton
In this system, both the package and the product are sterilized separately, and the packaging operation is
carried out under aseptic (sterile) conditions. This system offers a long storage life of about three months
without preservatives or refrigeration. The carton is made using three key materials:
(a) Paperboard (about 80%) - Provides rigidity and stiffness.
(b) Polyethylene (about 15%) - Contributes to heat sealing and acts as a barrier to microorganisms.
(c) Aluminum foil (about 5%) - Acts as a barrier against air, light, and off-flavors.
The combination of these three materials results in packaging with optimal properties and excellent
performance.
Properties of Aseptic Cartons:
 High safety, hygiene, and nutrient retention
 Preserves taste and freshness
 Can be stored for months
 Efficient use of minimal material
 Resource-efficient and one of the lightest packaging materials
Thermoformed Containers
These containers or packages are made using thermoforming techniques. The containers can take the form of
tubs or plastic cups and are sealed with plastic lids made of either polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP).
Properties of Thermoformed Containers:
 Amenable to screen printing on the surface
 High barrier against moisture, gas, and light
 Lighter in weight compared to other packaging materials
 Resistant to low temperatures, making them suitable for refrigeration
 Can be customized based on mold design
 Available in colored variations
 Easy to handle and hygienic
Corrugated fiberboard boxes
 Corrugated fiberboard boxes are well known for their good stacking strength when dry, easy
availability, and low cost. They are the most commonly used material for shipping containers,
with the regular slotted container (RSC) being the most prevalent design. In a well-designed box,
the load-bearing panels have their flutes aligned parallel to the expected load direction—vertical
flutes provide better stacking strength, while horizontal flutes are better suited for side-to-side
strength, such as in clamp handling.
 Corrugated fiberboard is easy to recycle both technically and logistically. Used boxes are
typically discarded in large, homogeneous piles by factories, warehouses, and retail stores, which
are motivated to reduce disposal costs by recycling. Consequently, corrugated board enjoys a
very high recycling rate. It has been used for shipping containers for nearly a century, and
standard grades have been widely adopted across countries. It is categorized by the thickness and
spacing of the fluted medium, the weight of the facings, and the quality of paper used.
 The most commonly used flute configurations are A, B, C, and E. The earliest materials were
either coarse A-flute or fine B-flute. C-flute, an intermediate grade, is now the most widely used,
offering a balance of the best qualities of the other two. E-flute has smaller flutes, and even finer
grades called microflute serve as alternatives to solid fiberboard. Dimensions are standardized by
institutions like the British Standards Institute and the US Fibre Box Association.
 Kraft liners used to face the board range from 125 to 400 gm ⁻², with 150, 200, and 300 being
most common in Europe. In the US, materials are specified by basis weight, with liners ranging
from 26 to 90 lb per 1,000 ft², and 26#, 33#, and 42# being predominant. The corrugated medium
is typically 127 gm⁻², or 26# in the US.
 Single wall board with two facings is the most commonly used form for cases and trays. Double
and triple wall boards are used for palletload-sized intermediate bulk containers, especially in the
food industry for dry ingredients. At one end of the spectrum, single face board is soft and used
 to wrap delicate items like light bulbs and glass bottles. At the other extreme are multi-wall
laminated structures, which are formed into lightweight pallets.
 A key drawback of corrugated board is its loss of strength when wet, especially compression
strength. Commonly used starch-based adhesives are also moisture sensitive. Therefore, it's good
design practice to minimize headspace in the box so that the contents can help bear the load and
prevent uneven collapsing that may topple a palletload. Wax dipping or coating has been used for
wet contents like broccoli shipped with ice, but this method is declining due to recycling issues
caused by wax.
 Corrugated fiberboard boxes are also increasingly used for advertising in point-of-purchase
displays, creating a demand for higher quality printing. There are three main options: direct
printing, preprinted liners, and litho lamination. The board's uneven surface limits direct printing
to simple one- or two-color flexography. Inkjet printing is also possible and is particularly useful
for variable, short-run information like lot codes. Preprinted liners, which are high-quality flexo-
printed facing materials, can be incorporated during board manufacture. Litho lamination, which
offers the highest quality printing including full-color halftones, is achieved by laminating litho-
printed paper to already converted board.
 Corrugated fiberboard containers are a standard part of most logistics systems. In the USA, their
use was once required by transport carriers until deregulation in 1980. They remain popular
because they are easy to procure, perform well, and are recyclable. Mechanical case-packing
technologies are well-developed, though plastic alternatives like shrink-wrap and reusable totes
are increasingly used where they offer lower costs.

Composite cartons
 Composite cartons are a type of semi-rigid packaging material widely used in the food industry
due to their strength, lightweight nature, and ability to provide effective barriers against moisture,
light, and gases. These cartons are constructed using multiple layers of different materials—
typically paperboard, plastic, and aluminum foil—each serving a specific function. The
paperboard gives structural rigidity, plastic layers provide sealing and moisture resistance, while
aluminum offers excellent barrier properties against oxygen and light. The combination of these
materials results in a package that is both durable and protective, making it suitable for long
shelf-life products like fruit juices, milk, and ready-to-drink beverages.
 The layered construction of composite cartons allows for both functionality and design
flexibility. The outer surface is often printed with high-quality graphics, enabling branding and
 consumer appeal, while the internal layers maintain product integrity. The cartons are usually
formed, filled, and sealed in a single integrated system, which improves hygiene and efficiency.
Aseptic versions of composite cartons are also available, enabling the packaging of sterile
products without refrigeration. These packages are typically rectangular or tetrahedral in shape,
optimizing space utilization during storage and transportation.
 Composite cartons are also considered environmentally favorable compared to rigid containers,
as they use less material and are lightweight, reducing transportation costs and energy
consumption. However, their multi-material nature makes recycling more complex. Despite this,
efforts are ongoing to develop recycling technologies and infrastructure to support the sustainable
use of composite cartons in the food industry.

RIGID PACKAGING MATERIAL -MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND

APPLICATION
1. GLASS
Definition of glass The American Society for Testing Materials defined glass as ‘an inorganic product of
fusion which has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing’ (ASTM, 1965). The atoms and molecules in
glass have an amorphous random distribution. Scientifically this means that it has failed to crystallize from
the molten state, and maintains a liquid-type structure at all temperatures. In appearance it is usually
transparent but, by varying the components, this can be changed—as also can important properties such as
thermal expansion, colour and the pH of aqueous extracts. Glass is hard and brittle, with a chonchoidal
(shell-like) fracture.
Glass Composition Glass is primarily formed from oxides of metals, with the most common being dioxide
which is common sand. Glass is made by mixing several naturally-occurring inorganic compounds at a
temperature above their melting points. The molten mixture is then cooled to produce a noncrystalline,
amorphous solid. The main ingredient is silica (sand) (SiO2) that serves as the network-forming backbone of
the glass. However, silica has a very high melting temperature, and molten silica has high viscosity that
makes it difficult to form into shapes. Adding soda (Na2O) modifies the silica network by disrupting some
of the Si-O bonds, with resulting lower melting temperature and viscosity but reduced resistance to
dissolving in water. Thus, lime (CaO) is added as a network stabilizer, with the result that durability is
increased but tendency to crystallize is also increased. Finally, alumina (Al2O3) is added as an intermediate
to resist crystallization. Minor amounts of colorants are added to produce colored glass, including chromium
oxide for green, cobalt oxide for blue, nickel oxide for violet, selenium for red, and iron plus sulfur and
carbon for amber. Amber provides the best protection for light-sensitive foods and beverages, transmitting
very little light with wavelength shorter than 450 nm.
 Types of Glass
The three universally accepted standard are:
 Type III: All soda lime glasses are mainly Type III.
 Type II: This is the same glass as Type III but the inside of the glass container is coated at the time
of manufacture, usually with sulphur.
 Type I: This is Borosilicate glass which has the added property of almost complete neutrality.
White flint (clear glass)
Colorless glass, known as white flint, is derived from soda, lime and silica. This composition also forms the
basis for all other glass colors. A typical composition would be: silica (SiO2) 72%, from high purity sand;
lime (CaO) 12%, from limestone (calcium carbonate); soda (Na2O) 12%, from soda ash alumina (Al2O3),
present in some of the other raw materials or in feldspar-type aluminous material; magnesia (MgO) and
potash (K2O), ingredients not normally added but present in the other materials. Cullet, recycled broken
glass, when added to the batch reduces the use of these materials.
Pale green (half white)
Where slightly less pure materials are used, the iron content (Fe2O3) rises and a pale green glass is
produced. Chromium oxide (Cr2O3) can be added to produce a slightly denser blue green colour.
Dark green
This colour is also obtained by the addition of chromium oxide and iron oxide.
Amber (brown in various colour densities)
Amber is usually obtained by melting a composition containing iron oxide under strongly reduced
conditions. Carbon is also added. Amber glass has UV protection properties and could well be suited for use
with light-sensitive products.
Blue
Blue glass is usually obtained by the addition of cobalt to a low-iron glass. Almost any colored glass can be
produced either by furnace operation or by glass colouring in the conditioning forehearth. The latter
operation is an expensive way of producing glass and commands a premium product price. Forehearth colors
would generally be outside the target price of most carbonated soft drinks.
Attributes of food packaged in glass containers
The glass package has a modern profile with distinct advantages, including:
 Quality image- Consumer research by brand owners has consistently indicated that consumers
attach a high quality perception to glass packaged products and they are prepared to pay a premium
for them, for specific products such as spirits and liqueurs.
 Transparency- It is a distinct advantage for the purchaser to be able to see the product in many
cases, e.g. processed fruit and vegetables.
 Surface texture- Most glass is produced with a smooth surface, other possibilities also exist, for
example, for an overall roughened ice-like effect or specific surface designs on the surface, such as
text or coats of arms. These effects emanate from the moulding but subsequent acid etch treatment is
another option.
 Colour- A range of colors are possible based on choice of raw materials. Facilities exist for
producing smaller quantities of nonmainstream colors.
 Decorative possibilities Decorative possibilities including ceramic printing, powder coating,
coloured and plain printed plastic sleeving and a range of labeling options.
 Impermeability- All practical purposes in connection with the packaging of food, glass is
impermeable.
 Chemical integrity- Glass is chemically resistant to all food products, both liquid and solid. It is
odourless.
 Design potential- Distinctive shapes are often used to enhance product and brand recognition.
 Heat processable- Glass is thermally stable, which makes it suitable for the hot-filling and the in-
container heat sterilization and pasteurization of food products.
 Microwaveable- Glass is open to microwave penetration and food can be reheated in the container.
Removal of the closures is recommended, as a safety measure, before heating commences, although
the closure can be left loosely applied to prevent splashing in the microwave oven. Developments are
in hand to ensure that the closure releases even when not initially slackened.
 Tamper evident- Glass is resistant to penetration by syringes. Container closures can be readily
tamper evidenced by the application of shrinkable plastic sleeves or in-built tamper evident bands.
Glass can quite readily accept preformed metal and roll-on metal closures, which also provide
enhanced tamper evidence.
 Ease of opening- The rigidity of the container offers improved ease of opening and reduces the risk
of closure misalignment compared with plastic containers, although it is recognized that vacuum
packed food products can be difficult to open. Technology in the development of lubricants in
closure seals, improved application of glass surface treatments together with improved control of
filling and retorting all combine to reduce the difficulty of closure removal. However, it is essential
in order to maintain shelf life that sufficient closure torque is retained, to ensure vacuum retention
with no closure back-off during processing and distribution.
 UV protection- Amber glass offers UV protection to the product and, in some cases, green glass can
offer partial UV protection.
 Strength- Although glass is a brittle material glass containers have high top load strength making
them easy to handle during filling and distribution. While the weight factor of glass is unfavourable
compared with plastics, considerable savings are to be made in warehousing and distribution costs.
Glass containers can withstand high top loading with minimal secondary packaging. Glass is an
elastic material and will absorb energy.
Composition of Glass
The main constituent of glass are sand, lime stone and soda ash. The sand used is known as silica or
glass sand. In some cases, arsenic, selenium and cobalt oxides in proper proportion are added to make
clear glass. The green or brownish shade in glass comes from the impurities in natural sand, mainly iron.
Boron from borax added to glass to make the container stronger and to increase its resistance to acids.
Colours are added to glass, adding of small quantities of chromium, cobalt, iron and other colorants
depending on the colour required. For amber (brown) glass, carbon and sulphide are added.
Application of Glass Containers
Glass containers have wide application for the packaging of pharmaceuticals, dairy, liquor, breweries,
food products, soft drinks, cosmetics, chemicals, inks and other industries.

Glass Container Manufacturing

1. Melting
Glass manufacturing begins with melting raw materials like silica sand, soda ash, and limestone in a
furnace at around 1350°C (2462°F). The intense heat ensures a uniform, bubble-free molten glass.
This molten glass is then passed through a forehearth, a temperature-controlled channel, which
ensures the glass reaches the correct temperature (around 1100°C) for forming containers such as
bottles or jars.
2. Container Forming
Molten glass is cut into gobs and dropped into the forming machine, where it's shaped into a parison
 using pressing or blowing. The parison is then transferred to the final mould to form the container,
emerging at around 650°C.
Forming Methods:
• Press-and-blow: Used for jars (neck ≥ 35mm).
• Blow-and-blow: Used for bottles (neck ≤ 35mm).
• Narrow neck press-and-blow: Used for lightweight bottles and offers better glass distribution,
enabling up to 30% weight reduction.
3. Design Parameters
Design must consider tilt angles to ensure stability. Jars should have a tilt angle of at least 22°, and
bottles at least 16°, to withstand handling and transportation.
4. Surface Treatments
Hot End Treatment:
Applied while containers are still hot to strengthen the surface. A coating of tin oxide or titanium
derivatives is used, followed by a lubricant to reduce friction.
Cold End Treatment:
Done after annealing (stress removal), a polyester wax or polyethylene spray is applied to lubricate
the surface, aiding in smooth movement during high-speed filling.
5. Low-Cost Production Tooling
Glass tooling is five times cheaper than plastic. Though glass yields fewer units per cavity, it allows
quick design updates. Simple moulds can make up to 1 million pieces; complex moulds about
750,000.
6. Container Inspection and Quality
Quality is ensured through design-stage specs, online inspections, and testing (chemical, physical,
and visual). Defects are categorized as critical, major, or minor, depending on severity.
7. Advanced Inspection Technology
Modern systems use cameras, infrared, and X-ray detectors to inspect containers and detect hidden
foreign materials like metal, glass, stone, or plastic—at speeds up to 60,000 containers/hour.

2. PLASTIC CONTAINERS
Introduction
Plastic is an organic macromolecular compound obtained by polymerisation, polycondensation,
polyaddition, or any similar process from molecules with a lower molecular weight or by chemical alteration
of natural macromolecular compounds. Plastics are used in the packaging of food because they offer a wide
range of appearance and performance properties, which are derived from the inherent features of the
individual plastic material and how it is processed and used.
Plastics are resistant to many types of compounds – they are not very reactive with inorganic chemicals,
including acids, alkalis, and organic solvents, thus making them suitable, i.e., inert, for food packaging.
Plastics do not support the growth of microorganisms. Some plastics may absorb some food constituents,
such as oils and fats, and hence it is important that thorough testing is conducted to check all food
applications for absorption and migration.
Gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen together with water vapor and organic solvents
permeate through plastics. The rate of permeation depends on:
 Type of plastic
 Thickness and surface area
 Method of processing
 Concentration or partial pressure of the permeant molecule
 Storage temperature
Plastics have properties of strength and toughness. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film has a mechanical
strength similar to that of iron, but under load, the PET film will stretch considerably more than iron before
breaking.
Could be manufactured in different size, shape and capacity, High barrier to moisture and oxygen gas, It is
possible to manufacture the containers in different colours, Impact strength could be improved, Plastic
containers could be manufactured with handle to facilitate to carry, Could be made either opaque or
transparent, Amenable to make surface printing and it is possible to make leak proof container.

Application of Plastic in Food Processing

Plastics are used as containers, container components, and flexible packaging. In usage, by weight, they are
the second most widely used type of packaging and first in terms of value. Applications of plastic are:
 Rigid plastic containers such as bottles, jars, pots, tubs, and trays
 Flexible plastic films in the form of bags, sachets, pouches, and heat-sealable flexible lidding
materials
 Plastics combined with paperboard in liquid packaging cartons
 Expanded or foamed plastic for uses where some form of insulation, rigidity, and the ability to
withstand compression is required
 Plastic lids and caps and the wadding used in such closures
 Diaphragms on plastic and glass jars to provide product protection and tamper evidence
 Plastic bands to provide external tamper evidence
 Pouring and dispensing devices to collate and group individual packs in multipacks, e.g., Hi-cone
rings for cans of beer, trays for jars of sugar preserves, etc.
 Plastic films used in cling, stretch, and shrink wrapping
 Films used as labels for bottles and jars, as flat glued labels or heat shrinkable sleeves
 Components of coatings, adhesives, and inks

Thermosetting Plastic
The molecules of thermosetting plastics are heavily cross-linked. They form a rigid molecular structure.
Although they soften when heated the first time which allows them to be shaped they become permanently
stiff and solid and cannot be reshaped. Ex. Polyester resin and urea formaldehyde

THERMOPLASTIC
Thermoplastics can be heated and reshaped because of the ways in which the molecules are joined together.
The molecules of thermoplastics are in lines or long chains with very few entanglements. When heat is
applied the molecules move apart, which increases the distance between them, causing them to become
untangled. This allows them to become soft when heated so that they can be bent into all sorts of shapes. Ex.
Polyvinyl chlorides (PVC), Nylons, etc.

Thermoplastics
1. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) accounts for the biggest proportion of the plastics
used in packaging. It can be extruded into film, blown into bottles, injection moulded
into closures and dispensers of all sorts, extruded as a coating on paper, aluminium foil
or cellulose film, and made into large tanks and other containers.
Low density polyethylene is relatively inert chemically and almost insoluble in all
solvents at room temperature. Some softening and swelling can occur, with hydrocarbons
and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Permeability is low for water vapour but many organic
vapours and essential oils pass rapidly through low density polyethylene.
2. High density polyethylene (HDPE) has a higher softening point than low density
polyethylene and is harder. Its barrier properties are also superior to those of low density
polyethylene. For an equal wall thickness, high density polyethylene gives bottles a
greater rigidity than low density polyethylene.
3. Polypropylene (PP) is similar chemically to low density polyethylene and high density
polyethylene. It is harder than either, however, and has a less waxy feel. Polypropylene has
excellent grease resistance and is also more resistant to solvents than low density polyethylene.
Toluene and xylene, however, will cause swelling. Its softening point is
higher than both polyethylenes, but it is still easily able to withstand steam sterilization.
polypropylene is a rigid polymer.
Ionomers describes a family of polymers in which there are ionic forces between the polymer
chains, as well as the usual covalent bonds between the atoms in each chain. Although these
interchain forces are strong, they are not sufficient to hold the molecules together when the
 polymer is heated, and ionomers are still thermoplastics and not thermosets.
The first commercial ionomer was 'Suriyn' A, a polymer of ethylene. It is similar in many of its
properties to polyethylene, but because of the ionic interchain forces it has a high melt
strength and therefore excellent drawing characteristics.
4. Polyvinylidene chloride (PV de) is a copolymer of vinylidene chloride with vinyl chloride used
either for film or as a coating. Its outstanding property is its low permeability to water vapour
and gases. As a shrinkable film, polyvinylidene chloride has been used for wrapping poultry,
hams and similar items and for the in-store wrapping of cheese.
5. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is unusual for a plastic in being soluble in water. It is utilized,
therefore, in the manufacture of film sachets used to give controlled dosage in water.
The sachet plus contents is simply added to the required amount of water, the sachet
dissolves and the contents are released. This is particularly valuable where the contents
are toxic or where there are other reasons for not touching them by hand.
6. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) is a polymer with the flexibility of PVC, but
this flexibility is inherent and no plasticizers are necessary. It has a greater resilience
than PVC and a greater flexibility than low density polyethylene.
7. Polystyrene (PS) is a colourless, transparent thermoplastic, hard and with a fairly high
tensile strength. It softens at about 90-95°C and is intrinsically brittle. It is resistant to
strong acids and alkalis and is insoluble in aliphatic hydrocarbons and the lower alcohols,
but is soluble in esters, aromatic hydrocarbons, higher alcohols, ketones and chlorinated
hydrocarbons. It is a poor barrier to moisture vapour.
8. Acrylic multipolymer (XT polymer) has been suggested in the USA as a bottle blowing
material suitable for food and pharmaceuticals. Impact strength is moderate and
dependent on bottle shape and manufacturing conditions. Oil and grease resistance is
high, as is resistance to acids, alkalis, detergents and aliphatic hydrocarbons. Resistance
to aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons is poor. Gas and odour permeability are low,
but water vapour permeability is higher than that of polyethylene or PVC.
9. Nylons- Nylons are tough materials with high tensile strength and good resistance to
abrasion. They also have high softening points and can withstand steam sterilization (up to
about 140°C). Nylons have fairly high moisture vapour permeability but are very good gas
barriers, and nylon films are thus used in laminates for vacuum packaging. Nylons are also
good barriers to odour. They are resistant to alkalis, even at high concentrations, and are
particularly resistant to organic solvents, oils and greases.
10. Polyester- The polyethylene terephthalates (PET) are the most important of packaging
materials. They can be used in film form for boil-in-the-bag and other applications, but must
be orientated to develop the full tensile strength. They are not easily heat-sealable and are
therefore often laminated to polyethylene film for bag-making purposes.
There are two kinds of PET extrusion and thermoforming products. The former is used for
bottles etc. and the latter is used in trays for microwave use.
PROCESSING OF PLASTICS:
1. COMPRESSION MOULDING
2. TRANSFER MOULDING
3. INJECTION MOULDING
4. EXTRUSION MOULDING
 5. BLOW MOULDING
6. CALENDARING
7. THERMOFORMING
8. ROTATIONAL MOULDING
9. LAMINATING
INJECTION MOULDING:
It is a manufacturing technique for making parts from thermoplastic and thermoset materials. Injection
moulding is a highly automated production process for producing large quantities of identical items. A
measured amount of molten thermoplastic is driven by a ram past a heating system into the mould. The
mould is split to allow finished object to be removed after cooling. Example: - Polystyrene, Nylon,
Polypropylene, PVC, Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
PROCESS:
-Plastic powder are fed from a hopper into a hollow steel barrel which contains a rotating screw.
-The barrel is surrounded by a jacket of heaters which melt the plastic material.
-The screw is forced back as the melted plastic collects at the end of the barrel.
-Once a sufficient charge of melted plastic has accumulated a hydraulic ram forces the screw forward
injecting the thermoplastic through a sprue into the mould cavity.
-This one is capable of exerting forces of up to 250 tonnes.
-Pressure is kept on the mould until the plastic has cooled sufficiently for the mould to be opened and the
component ejected.

BLOW MOULDING:
-Blow Moulding is an automated process that is used extensively to make bottles and other lightweight,
hollow parts from thermoplastic materials.
-A hollow length of plastic, called a parison, is extruded down between the two halves of the mould.
-The mould closes Compressed air is blown into the inside of the parison which inflates it, pushing the soft
plastic hard against the cold surfaces of the mould.
-The mould is then opened the moulding ejected and the waste (called flash) is trimmed off with a knife.
-Example : - high density polythene and low density polythene are used.
Extrusion blow moulding
Extrusion is the process by which a block/billet of metal is reduced in cross section by forcing it to flow
through a die orifice under high pressure. In Extrusion blow molding (EBM), plastic is melted and extruded
into a hollow tube (a parison). This parison is then captured by closing it into a cooled metal mold. Air is
then blown into the parison, inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container or part. After the plastic
has cooled sufficiently, the mould is opened and the part is ejected.
Parison and preform:
Parison is the part that is used in blow molding where air is inflated to from the desired shape. It is closed on
one end. Here the preform is same as parison but there is thread in the open end in preform. Preform is
mostly used in bottles.

INJECTION BLOW MOLDING

-The injection blow molding is used for the production of hollow objects in large quantities. The main
applications are bottles, jars and other containers.
-The process is divided into three sections
i) Injection
ii) Blowing
iii) Ejection

Stretch blow molding

Stretch blow molding is also carried out by injection. Used for the production of high quality containers.
This process is divided into four steps
 Injection: The material is injected as discussed before.
 Stretching: One conditioned to correct temperature, the parison is stretched by the blow pin/stretch rod
that stretches it longitudinally.
 Blowing: Using two levels of air pressure, the preform is blown circumferentially.
 Discharge: After a set time for cooling the molds open and the product is removed.

ADVANTAGES
 Low tooling costs.
 Fast production rates.
 Ability to mold complex parts.
 Little scrap generated.
 Large hollow shape can be produced.
 Produced parts can be recycled.
DISADVANTAGES
• Limited to hollow parts.
• Thick parts cannot be manufactured.
Applications
 Different types of plastic products can be manufactured by this process such as:
 Bottles in different shapes and sizes
 Jars and containers
 Fluid oil tanks
 Mugs
 Toys
The Role of plastic in packaging
► Plastic are so commonly used in packaging because it is moulded or transformed. As packaging is made
various plastics and their properties enable many packaging choices made along the way. This includes
color, weight, size, shape utility, printing , protection and so on.
► Plastics is ideal for producers because it is light weight material and easy to manipulate, extrude and form
into any shape you want this makes it easy to package unique items that would not normally fit into basic
structures.
Corrugated Fibre Board Boxes
Corrugated fibre board boxes are the world’s most popular and environment friendly packaging materials.
The intelligent use of corrugated fibre board boxes can replace some of the use of wood, thermocole and
plastics.
A single layer of kraft paper is passed through the corrugating machine to get the corrugations or fluting
media and then stuck into a plain layer of kraft paper by means of adhesives or gum to form 2 layer or 2 ply
corrugation roll.
Subsequently, the 2 ply corrugation roll could be converted into 3 ply corrugated fibre board by pasting
another Kraft liner or facing material. In the same manner, corrugated fibre board could be made either of 3
ply or 5 ply or 7 ply by means of pasting the corrugation roll and facing material. This could be illustrated
with the following diagram.

 3 Ply or Single Wall Corrugated Fibre Board

 5 Ply or Double Wall Corrugated Fibre Board
 7 Ply or Triple Wall Corrugated Fibre Board
The corrugated fibre board is converted into corrugated fibre board boxes by considering the following
steps:
Scoring Slitting Creasing Slotting Stitching
Advantages of Corrugated Fibre Board Boxes:
Availability of raw materials i.e. Kraft paper and adhesive; The technology of box making is simple;
Availability of box making machineries; Cost effective; Amenable to make display package; Tare weight of
box is less resulting to the reduction of freight cost; Maximum utilization of storage space due to collapsing
nature of boxes; Recognised as Eco-friendly packaging materials; Facilitates to have excellent printing on
the outer surface of the boxes; Easy to handle in the shop floor due to collapsing nature as compared to
wooden box.
Limitations:
a) Strength properties are influenced by the environmental condition;
b) Requires special condition for storage to maintain the strength properties;
c) Shortage of best quality of kraft papers in India and
d) Lack of technology in the converting machineries.
Applications of CFB Boxes:
Visual merchandising, danglers and promotional material, Die-cut box for display pack, Extensively used for
office stationery items like- trays, pen-stand, filing cabinets, folders for conferences etc., Explored around
the world by various designers in its application in furniture item, Wide application for making educational
aids, toys etc., As a unit pack for the packaging of horticultural produce, Popularly used as transport
packages for all types items including dairy products.
MANUFACTURE OF PLASTICS PACKAGING
Introduction to the Manufacture of Plastics Packaging
Plastic resin, usually in pellet form, is melted in an extruder using pressure, heat, and friction. The resulting
homogeneous molten plastic is then shaped into films, sheets, or containers via dies or moulds.
Plastic Film and Sheet for Packaging
Molten plastic is processed using cast or blown film methods and rapidly cooled. Films can be stretched to
orient molecules, improving strength and barrier properties. Oriented films are used for specific applications
like sachets, pouches, or thermoformed trays.
 Cast Film Process: Molten plastic is passed through a flat die and cooled on a chill roll.
 Blown Film Process: Plastic is extruded into a tube and expanded with air pressure before
solidifying.
 Film Orientation: Films are stretched in machine and/or transverse directions to improve strength
and reduce permeability.
 Thermoforming: Non-oriented films are heated and shaped under pressure or vacuum to create
containers.
 Opacity and Cavitation: Light-scattering techniques or fillers like TiO₂ are used to make films
white or pearlescent.
 Film Surface and Additives: Slip agents, waxes, and matte/gloss finishes are added to control
printability, blocking, and machine performance.
 Coextrusion: Multiple plastic layers are combined in a die for specialized performance, allowing up
to seven layers.
Pack Types Based on Plastic Films and Laminates
Plastic films and laminates are formed into bags, sachets, pouches, overwraps, or thermoformed packs.
Form-fill-seal machines are used for vertical or horizontal packaging, depending on the product type.
 Plastic Bags and Pouches: Formed by folding, sealing, and cutting; often made from laminated
films.
 Vertical Form Fill Seal: Film is shaped around a tube, filled, and sealed; used for powders and
granules.
 Horizontal Form Fill Seal: Solid products like bars are sealed and wrapped horizontally.
 Overwrapping and Shrink Wrapping: Used for cartons; film is folded and sealed or heat-shrunk
for tight fit.
 Thermoformed Packaging: Plastic sheets are moulded into trays or packs under heat and pressure,
often sealed with lidding films under MAP or vacuum.
Rigid Plastic Packaging
Rigid containers like bottles, tubs, and trays are made using blow moulding or injection moulding processes.
Coextrusion, injection stretch blow moulding, and thermoforming are used for enhanced performance and
barrier protection.
 Extrusion Blow Moulding: Plastic tube is extruded, moulded, and inflated to form bottles.
 Coextrusion in Blow Moulding: Multi-layer containers are formed with internal barriers like
EVOH.
 Injection Blow Moulding: Preforms are injection-moulded then blow-moulded for precise neck
finishes.
 Injection Stretch Blow Moulding: Preform is stretched and blow-moulded, enhancing strength and
clarity; used for PET bottles.
 Injection Moulding: Used for precise, solid items like caps, tubs, and boxes.
 Thermoforming: Used for single-serve containers and trays; can be integrated with filling and
sealing.
 Profile Extrusion: Used to form plastic tubes with moulded ends, suitable for salad dressings or
powdered products.
 Foamed Plastics: Gas-dispersed plastics like EPS are used in thermoformed trays or injection
moulded boxes.
 Rotational Moulding: Used to make large bulk containers by rotating heated moulds containing
polymer powder.

3. METAL
 Two basic types of alloyed metals are used in food packaging i.e. steel and aluminium. Steel is used
primarily to make rigid cans, whereas aluminium is used to make cans as well as thin aluminium
foils and coatings.
 Nearly all steel used for cans was coated with a thin layer of tin to inhibit corrosion, and called as
“tin can”. The reason for using tin was to protect the metal can from corrosion by the food. Tin is not
completely resistant to corrosion, but its rate of reaction with many food materials is considerably
slower than that of steel.
 The strength of the steel plate is another important consideration especially in larger cans that must
withstand the pressure stresses of retorting, vacuum canning and other processes. Can strength is
determined by the temper given the steel, the thickness of the plate, the size and the geometry of the
can, and certain construction features such as horizontal ribbing to increase rigidity. This ribbing is
known as beading.
 The user of cans will find it necessary to consult frequently with the manufacturer on specific
applications, since metal containers like all other materials of packaging are undergoing constant
change. Aluminium is light weight, resistant to atmospheric corrosion, and can be shaped or formed
easily. However, aluminium has considerably less structural strength than steel at the same gauge
thickness. This means that aluminium has limited use in cans such as those used with retorted foods.
 Aluminium works well in very thin beverage cans that contain internal pressure such as soda or beer.
This internal pressure from CO₂ gives rigidity to the can. Aluminium in contact with air forms an
aluminium oxide film which is resistant to atmospheric corrosion.
 However, if the oxygen concentration is low, as it is within most foods containing cans, this
aluminium oxide film gradually becomes depleted and the underlying aluminum metal is then no
longer highly resistant to corrosion.
 Metal packaging plays an important role in the process of food preservation. The common
expression used to describe such a process is “Canning”.
  Canned food has become an important part as it is of particular value in those parts of the world
where no or limited refrigeration exists for storing food. It is a means of safely preserving foodstuffs
without microbiological deterioration.
 Metal packaging has a double function as a protection against any external influence on the
foodstuff during heat treatment and storage and as a sales and information pack.
 The basic requirement for such a package is the hermetic tightness of the container.
 This rather complex requirement is often described as “container integrity”.
 Metals are used for many food contact applications, such as saucepans and coffee pots as well as
packaging. This monograph only considers metal packaging for foodstuffs. As many of these contain
an organic layer (referred to as coating) on the metal surface between the foodstuff and the metal.

Metals Used in Packaging

The metal materials used in food packaging are aluminium, tinplate and electrolytic chromium-coated
steel (ECCS). Aluminium is used in the form of foil or rigid metal.

Aluminium Foil

 Aluminium foil is produced from aluminium ingots by a series of rolling operations down to a
thickness in the range 0.15–0.008 mm. Most foil used in packaging contains not less than 99.0%
aluminium, with traces of silicon, iron, copper and in some cases, chromium and zinc.
 Foil used in semi-rigid containers also contains up to 1.5% manganese. After rolling, foil is
annealed in an oven to control its ductility. This enables foils of different tempers to be produced
from fully annealed (dead folding) to hard, rigid material.
 Foil is a bright, attractive material, tasteless, odorless and inert with respect to most food
materials. For contact with acid or salty products, it is coated with nitrocellulose or some
polymer material. It is mechanically weak, easily punctured, torn or abraded.
 Foil is used as a component in laminates, together with polymer materials and, in some cases,
paper. These laminates are formed into sachets or pillow packs on FFS equipment.
 Examples of foods packaged in this way include dried soups, sauce mixes, salad dressings and
jams. Foil is included in laminates used for restorable pouches and rigid plastic containers for
ready meals. It is also a component in cartons for UHT milk and fruit juices.

Tin

Tinplate

 Tinplate is the most common metal material used for food cans. It consists of a low-carbon, mild
steel sheet or strip, 0.50–0.15 mm thick, coated on both sides with a layer of tin. This coating
seldom exceeds 1% of the total thickness of the tinplate. The mechanical strength and fabrication
characteristics of tinplate depend on the type of steel and its thickness.
 The minor constituents of steel are carbon, manganese, phosphorous, silicon, sulphur and copper.
At least four types of steel, with different levels of these constituents, are used for food cans. The
corrosion resistance and appearance of tinplate depend on the tin coating.

Tin Coating
  The role of tin coating is an essential component of the can construction and plays an active role
in determining shelf life. The most significant aspect of the role of the tin coating is that it
protects the steel base-plate which is the structural component of the can.
 Without a coating of tin, the exposed iron would be attacked by the product and this would cause
serious discoloration and off-flavors in the product and swelling of the cans; in extreme cases the
iron could be perforated and the cans would lose their integrity.
 The second role of tin is that it provides a chemically reducing environment, any oxygen in the
can at the time of sealing being rapidly consumed by the dissolution of tin. This minimizes
product oxidation and prevents colour loss and flavor loss in certain products.

Tin Toxicity

 High concentrations of tin in food irritate the gastrointestinal tract and may cause stomach upsets
in some individuals, with symptoms which include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal
cramps, abdominal bloating, fever and headache.
 Tin corrosion occurs throughout the shelf life of the product. It is therefore imperative to take
steps to reduce the rate of corrosion.
 Accelerating factors include heat, oxygen, nitrate, some chemical preservatives and dyes, and
certain particularly aggressive food types (e.g. celery, rhubarb). A high vacuum level is one
effective method of reducing the rate of tin pick-up in cans with un-lacquered components.

Electrolytic Chromium-Coated Steel (ECCS)

 Electrolytic chromium-coated steel (ECCS), sometimes described as tin-free steel, is finding

increasing use for food cans. It consists of low-carbon, mild CR or DR steel coated on both sides
with a layer of metallic chromium and chromium sesquioxide, applied electrolytically.
 ECCS is less resistant to corrosion than tinplate and is normally lacquered on both sides. It is
more resistant to weak acids and sulphur staining than tinplate.

Aluminium Alloy

 Hard-temper aluminium alloy, containing 1.5–5.0% magnesium, is used in food can manufacture.
It is lighter but mechanically weaker than tinplate.
 It is manufactured in a similar manner to aluminium foil. It is less resistant to corrosion than
tinplate and needs to be lacquered for most applications. A range of lacquers suitable for
aluminium alloy is available, but the surface of the metal needs to be treated to improve lacquer
adhesion.

Lead

 Lead was a problem with older, soldered cans but levels are now very low. However, some
tinplate is contaminated with minimal amounts of lead. The manufacture of lead soldered cans
may still be found in the developing world.

Lacquers
  The presence of lacquer or enamel very effectively limits dissolution of tin into the product, and
so the use of lacquers is becoming increasingly common, even with those products which were
previously packed in plain tinplate cans.
 There are several different types of lacquer in common use today. By far the most common type
is the Epoxy Phenolic group, which are suitable for packing meat, fish, vegetable and fruit
products. These have largely replaced the oleoresinous group, which had a similar wide range of
application.
 Some canners use cans lacquered with vinyl resins, which have the important quality of being
free from any taste and odor, and are therefore particularly suitable for dry packs such as biscuits
and powders, but also some drinks.
 White vinyl lacquers have been used where staining of the underlying metal caused by reaction
with the product is a problem. Also, white vinyl lacquers have been used for marketing reasons in
order to present a hygienic/clinical appearance and not the aesthetically undesirable corrosion
patterns on tinplate.

CAN MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Food and drink cans may be constructed either as three-piece or two-piece containers. Three-piece cans
consist of a cylindrical body rolled from a piece of flat metal with a longitudinal seam (usually formed by
welding) together with two can ends, which are seamed onto each end of the body. The three-piece can-
making process is very flexible, as it is possible to produce almost any practical combination of height and
diameter. This process is particularly suit able for making cans of mixed specifications, as it is relatively
simple to change the equipment to make cans of different dimension. Container size flexibility facilitates the
use of pack promotions offering free extra product.

Three-piece welded cans

 Three-piece welded food cans are only constructed from steel, as aluminium is not suitable for
welding by this particular process. Coils of steel, after delivery from the steel maker, are cut into
sheets approximately 1m2.
 The cut sheets are then coated, and printed if necessary, to protect and decorate the surfaces. Areas
where the weld will be made on the can body are left without coating or print to ensure the weld is
always sound.
  The coatings and inks are normally dried by passing the sheets through a thermally heated oven
where the tempera ture is in the range 150–205°C. Alternatively, for some non-food contact uses,
ultraviolet (UV)-sensitive materials may be applied.
 These are cured instantaneously by passing the wet coating/ink under a UV lamp. The sheets are next
slit into small individual blanks, one for each can body, each blank being rolled into a cylinder with
the two longitudinal edges over lapping by approximately 0.4mm.
 The two edges are welded by squeezing them together whilst passing an alternating electric current
across the two thicknesses of metal. This heats up and softens the metal suffi ciently for a sound joint
to be made.
 If the can is internally coated with lacquer it is generally necessary to apply a repair side stripe
lacquer coat to the inside of the weld to ensure coating continuity over the whole can.
 For food cans, the can body now passes through a flanging machine where the top and bottom of the
can body are flanged outward to accept the can ends. For drink cans, the top and bottom edges of the
can body are necked-in to reduce the diameter prior to the creation of the flanges.
 This permits ends to be fitted which are smaller in diameter than that of the can body, reducing the
cost of the end and the space taken up by the seamed can. For both food and drink cans, one end is
then mechanically seamed-on to the bottom of the can body. This end is commonly referred to as the
maker’s end (ME).
 Where easy-open ends are fitted to three-piece cans, it is common prac tice for this end to be fitted at
this point, leaving the plain end (non-easy-open) to be fitted after filling. This practice allows the
seamed easy-open end to pass through the finished can testing process. The end applied by the
packer/filler after can filling is commonly referred to as the canner’s end (CE).
 At this stage, tall food cans (height-to-diameter ratio more than 1.0) pass through a beading machine
where the body wall has circumferential beads formed into it. The beads provide additional hoop
strength to prevent implosion of the can during subsequent heat process cycles.
 All cans finally pass through an air pressure tester, which automatically rejects any cans with
pinholes or fractures. This completes the manufacture of empty three-piece food and drink cans.

Two-piece single drawn and multiple drawn (DRD) cans

  Pre-coated, laminated and printed tinplate or TFS is fed in sheet or coil form in a reciprocating press
that may have single or multiple tools. At each tool station the press cycle cuts a circular disc (blank)
from the metal and whilst in the same station draws this in to a shallow can (cup).
 During the drawing process the metal is reformed from flat metal into a three-dimensional can
without changing the metal thickness at any point.
 After this single draw, the can may be already at its finished dimension. However, by passing this
cup through a similar process with different tooling, it may be re-drawn into a can of smaller
diameter and greater height to make a draw–redraw can (DRD).
 This process may be repeated once more to achieve the maximum height can. At each of these steps,
the can base and wall thickness remain effectively unchanged from that of the original flat metal.
 Following this body-forming operation, necking, flanging and beading operations follow according
to the end use and height-to-diameter ratio of the can (as for three-piece welded cans).
 For all two-piece cans pinhole and crack detection on finished cans is carried out in a light-testing
machine. This measures the amount of light passing across the can wall using high levels of external
illumination.
 One advantage of two-piece cans is that there is only one can end instead of two, meaning that one
major critical control hazard point is eliminated.

Two-piece drawn and wall ironed (DWI) cans

 The DWI cans are constructed from uncoated tinplate or aluminium. However, DWI cans for
processed food are only made from tinplate as thin wall aluminium cans do not have sufficient
strength to withstand the heat process cycles.
 For this process, which is described in Figure 5.5, the coiled metal, as it is unwound, is covered with
a thin film of water-soluble synthetic lubricant before being fed continuously into a cupping press.
 This machine blanks and draws multiple shallow cups for each stroke, as described under the section
entitled Drawn cans above. The cups are then fed to parallel body-making machines which convert
the cups into tall cans.
 This is the drawing and ironing process where the cups are first redrawn to the final can diameter and
then rammed through a series of rings with tungsten carbide internal surfaces which thin (iron) the
can walls whilst at the same time increasing the can height.
 During this process the can body is flooded with the same type of lubricant used in the cupping oper
ation. In addition to assisting the ironing process, the lubricant cools the can body and flushes away
any metallic debris.
 No heat is applied to the can during this process – any heat generated being from the cold working of
the metal as it is thinned. After the forming of the can body the uneven top edge of the can is
trimmed to leave a clean edge and a can of the correct overall height.
 Trimmed can bodies are passed through chemical washers and then dried. This process removes all
traces of lubricant and prepares the metal surfaces for internal and external coating and ultimately
external decoration (drink cans only).
 For food cans, which will ultimately receive a paper label, an external coating is applied by passing
them under a series of waterfalls of clear lacquer which protects the surface against corrosion.
 The lacquer is dried by passing the cans through a heated oven. Following this the can body now
passes through a flanging machine where the top of the can is flanged outwards to accept the can
end, which will be fitted after the can is filled with product.
 The flanged can is next passed through a beading machine which forms circumferential beads in the
can wall, to give added strength to the can.
 After all the mechanical forming operations have been completed, every can is tested by passing
through a light tester which automatically rejects any cans with pinholes or fractures. The inside of
each can is then coated with lacquer using an airless spray system.
 The special lacquer is applied to protect the can itself from corrosion and prevent its contents from
interacting with the metal. This lacquer is finally dried in a thermal oven at a temperature of about
210°C.
 For drink cans, the clean cans are coated externally with a clear or pigmented base coat that forms a
good surface for the printing inks. The coating is then dried by passing the cans through a thermally
heated oven.
  The next step is a high speed printer/decorator which applies the printed design around the outside of
the can wall in up to eight colours plus a varnish. A rim-coater coat applies a heavy varnish to the
base of each can in order to provide added protection against scuffing during distribution and
external corrosion, especially as such products are often kept in the cold humid conditions of chilled
refrigerators.
 The cans now pass through a second oven to dry the ink and varnish. The inside of each can is coated
with lacquer using an airless spray system. The special lacquer is applied to protect the can itself
from corrosion and prevent its contents from interacting with the metal.
 This lacquer is finally dried in an oven at a temperature of about 210°C. Following this, the can body
now passes through a necker/flanger machine where the diameter of the top wall is first reduced
(necked-in) before the top edge is flanged outwards to accept the can end.
 After all the mechanical forming operations have been completed, every can is tested by passing it
through a light tester which automatically rejects any cans with pinholes or fractures.

ACTIVE PACKAGING SYSTEMS

 Active packaging refers to the incorporation of certain additives into packaging film or within
packaging containers with the aim of maintaining and extending product shelf life.
 Packaging may be termed active when it performs some desired role in food preservation other
than providing an inert barrier to external conditions.
 Active packaging is a form of smart packaging designed to extend the shelf life of perishable
products and improve their quality. The packaging typically works by emitting or absorbing
compounds within a packaged product, slowing the rate of microbial growth, moisture loss or
gain, and oxygen reactions.
 There are various types of active packaging, each with its own advantages and applications.
Package scavengers currently dominate the market, but there are several other technologies
available.
 Aseptic packaging is a method in which food is sterilized or commercially sterilized outside of
the can, usually in a continuous process, and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized
containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment. After cooling, the sterile
food product is pumped to an aseptic packaging system where the food is filled and hermetically
sealed into previously sterilized containers.
 Aseptically processed foods can be packaged in the same types of containers used for retorted
foods. However, another advantage of aseptically processed foods is that they can be packaged in
containers that do not have to survive the conditions of a retort. These include
LDPE/Pb/LDPE/AL/LDPE laminate cartons and multilayer plastic flexible packaging that has
cost and convenience advantages. The disadvantage of these packages is that they are not as
easily recycled as metal and glass containers.
  Aseptic filling systems have also been developed for HDPE and PET bottles. Aseptic filling of
PET containers may have a cost advantage over hot filling of heat-set PET containers. Another
advantage of aseptically processed foods is that they can be filled into drums, railroad tank cars,
tank trucks, and silos that have been previously sterilized with steam. The food can later be
reprocessed and packaged to meet market demands.
 The sterilization agents available for aseptic packaging include heat, chemical treatment with
hydrogen peroxide, and high energy irradiation (UV light or ionizing (gamma) irradiation). A
combination of hydrogen peroxide and mild heat is most commonly used with plastic and
paperboard-based laminate packaging.
 The most commercially successful form of aseptic packaging utilizes paper and plastic materials
which are sterilized, formed, filled, and sealed in continuous operation. The package may be
sterilized with heat or a combination of heat and chemicals. In some cases, the disinfectant
property of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is combined with heated air or ultraviolet light to make
lower temperatures effective in sterilizing these less heat-resistant packaging materials.
 Aseptic packaging is also used with metal cans as well as large plastic and metal drums or large
flexible pouches. Great quantities of food materials are used as intermediates in the production of
further processed foods. This frequently requires packaging of such items as tomato paste or
apricot puree in large containers. The food manufacturer may then use the tomato paste in the
production of ketchup or the apricot puree in bakery products. If such large volumes were to be
sterilized in drums, by the time the cold point reached sterilization temperature, the product
nearer the drum walls would be excessively burned. Such items can be quickly sterilized in
efficient heat exchangers and aseptically packaged.

Figure: Active packaging

Types of Active Packaging
There are different types of active packaging depending on the systems used. They can be categorized as
follows:
 Active packaging with temperature systems
 Active packaging with absorber and emitter systems
 Active packaging with systems that modify the composition of the food or interact with it
Factors affecting the active packaging
Intrinsic Factors: acidity (pH), water activity (aw), nutrient content, occurrence of antimicrobial
compounds, redox potential, respiration rate and biological structure
Extrinsic factors: temperature, relative humidity (RH) and the surrounding gaseous composition.
These factors will directly influence the chemical, biochemical, physical and microbiological spoilage
mechanisms of individual food products and their shelf lives
Types of active packaging materials:
•Absorbing (scavenging): O2, CO2, H2O, ethylene, flavours, UV
•Releasing- Ethanol, CO2, preservation agents
•Removing- Lactose, cholesterol
•Temperature control- Self-heating’, isolating materials

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)

  Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a procedure that involves replacing air inside a package
with a predetermined mixture of gases prior to sealing it. Once the package is sealed, no further
control is exercised over the composition of the in-package atmosphere. However, this composition
may change during storage as a result of respiration of the contents and/or solution of some of the
gas in the product.
 Vacuum packaging is a procedure in which air is drawn out of the package prior to sealing but no
other gases are introduced. This technique has been used for many years for products such as cured
meats and cheese. It is not usually regarded as a form of MAP.
 The gases involved in modified atmosphere packaging, as applied commercially, are carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and oxygen. Carbon dioxide reacts with water in the product to form carbonic acid, which
lowers the pH of the food. It also inhibits the growth of certain microorganisms, mainly moulds and
some aerobic bacteria. Lactic acid bacteria are resistant to the gas and may replace aerobic spoilage
bacteria in modified atmosphere packaged meat. Most yeasts are also resistant to carbon dioxide.
Anaerobic bacteria, including food poisoning organisms, are little affected by carbon dioxide.
Consequently, there is a potential health hazard in MAP products from these microorganisms.
Moulds and some gram-negative, aerobic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas spp, are inhibited by carbon
dioxide concentrations in the range of 5–50%. In general, the higher the concentration of the gas, the
greater is its inhibitory power. The inhibition of bacteria by carbon dioxide increases as the
temperature decreases.
 Nitrogen has no direct effect on microorganisms or foods, other than to replace oxygen, which can
inhibit the oxidation of fats. As its solubility in water is low, it is used as a bulking material to
prevent the collapse of MAP packages when the carbon dioxide dissolves in the food. This is also
useful in packages of sliced or ground food materials, such as cheese, which may consolidate under
vacuum. Oxygen is included in MAP packages of red meat to maintain the red colour, which is due
to the oxidation of the myoglobin pigments. It is also included in MAP packages of white fish, to
reduce the risk of botulism.
 Other gases have antimicrobial effects. Carbon monoxide will inhibit the growth of many bacteria,
yeasts, and moulds, in concentrations as low as 1%. However, due to its toxicity and explosive
nature, it is not used commercially. Sulphur dioxide has been used to inhibit the growth of moulds
and bacteria in some soft fruits and fruit juices. Argon, helium, xenon, and neon have also been used
in MAP of some foods.
 MAP packages are either thermoformed trays with heat-sealed lids or pouches. With the exception of
packages for fresh produce, these trays and pouches need to be made of materials with low
permeability to gases (CO2, N2, and O2). Laminates are used, made of various combinations of
polyester (PET), polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC), polyethylene (PE), and polyamide.

Active Packaging

 Active packaging refers to the incorporation of certain additives into packaging film or within
packaging containers with the aim of maintaining and extending product shelf life. Packaging may
be termed active when it performs some desired role in food preservation other than providing an
inert barrier to external conditions.
 Active packaging includes additives or 'freshness enhancers' that are capable of scavenging oxygen,
adsorbing carbon dioxide, moisture, ethylene and/or flavor/odor taints, releasing ethanol, sorbates,
antioxidants and/or other preservatives and/or maintaining temperature control.

Effect of various scavenging agents

Oxygen

 The presence of oxygen in a package can trigger or accelerate oxidative reactions that result in food
deterioration.
 Oxygen facilitates the growth of aerobic microbes and molds. Oxidative reactions result in adverse
qualities such as off-odors, off-flavors, undesirable color changes, and reduced nutritional quality.
  O2 absorbing systems provide an alternative to vacuum and MAP technologies as a means of
improving product quality and shelf life.
For eg: Cryovac OS2000, polymer-based O2 scavenging film has been developed by Cryovac
• It is based on the incorporation of an O2 scavenging organic compound into a polymer for use as a
layer in a laminated packaging film
• Protects nutrients, color and flavor components in food products while reducing or eliminating the
formation of oxidative by-products.

Advantages:
Reduce oxidation, microbial growth, no need to other preservatives

Disadvantages:
Risk of ingestion, Cannot be used for liquid products, Unsuitable for taste.

Ethylene scavengers
Ethylene is a plant growth regulator and plays a key role in physiological processes and during postharvest.
The presence of ethylene in packages and storage environments could shorten the shelf-life of a large
amount of fresh products and also leads to over-ripening and undesirable changes in color, texture and taste
of food. Controlling the presence of ethylene in packages and storage environments with the use of ethylene
scavengers could lengthen the shelf-life of a large amount of fresh products.
Most of the ethylene adsorbers effectively work with potassium permagnate and immobilise with some
carriers such as silica gel, alumina pellets, activated carbon etc.

Moisture absorber
Excess moisture in packages can have detrimental results for example, caking in powdered products,
softening of crispy products such as crackers, and moistening of hygroscopic products such as sweets and
candy. Formation of a foggy film on fruits and vegetables etc. This reduces the nutritional value and shelf
life of food. Moisture control agents help control water activity, thus reducing microbial growth.

 Desiccants such as silica gels, natural clays, molecular sieves and calcium oxide are used with dry
foods while internal humidity controllers are used for high moisture foods (for example , meat,
poultry, fruits, and vegetables).
 They reduce moisture loss, and retard excess moisture in headspace and interstices where
microorganisms can grow.

Carbon dioxide scavengers

The use of carbon dioxide scavengers is particularly applicable for fresh roasted or ground coffees that
produce significant volumes of carbon dioxide. Fresh roasted or ground coffees cannot be left unpackaged
since they will absorb moisture and oxygen and lose desirable volatile aromas and flavours. However, if
coffee is hermetically sealed in packs directly after roasting, the carbon dioxide released will build up within
the packs and eventually cause them to burst. Carbon dioxide emitting sachet and label devices can either be
used alone or combined with an oxygen scavenger. For eg:

1. Iron oxide/calcium hydroxide

2. Ferrous carbonate/metal halide
3. Calcium oxide/activated charcoal
4. Ascorbate/sodium bicarbonate

Used in coffee, fresh meats and fish, nuts and other snack food products and sponge cakes.

Ethanol emitters

 The use of ethanol as an antimicrobial agent is well documented. It is particularly effective against
mould but can also inhibit the growth of yeasts and bacteria.
  Ethanol can be sprayed directly onto food products just prior to packaging. Increase in shelf life of
bakery products after spraying with 95% ethanol.
 More practical and safer method of generating ethanol is through the use of ethanol-emitting films
and sachets.
 Films and sachets contain absorbed or encapsulated ethanol in a carrier material which allows the
controlled release of ethanol vapour.

For example:
Ethicap™ which is the most commercially popular ethanol emitter in Japan, consists of food-grade alcohol
(55%) and water (10%) adsorbed onto silicon dioxide powder (35%) and contained in a sachet made of a
paper and ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer laminate. To mask the odour of alcohol, some sachets
contain traces of vanilla or other flavours.

Preservative releasers
The potential use of antimicrobial and antioxidant packaging films which have preservative properties for
extending the shelf life of a wide range of food products. Synthetic silver zeolite which has been directly
incorporated into food contact packaging film. The purpose of the zeolite is, apparently, to allow slow
release of antimicrobial silver ions into the surface of food products. Many other synthetic and naturally
occurring preservatives have been proposed and/or tested for antimicrobial activity in plastic and edible
films. These include:
• Organic acids, e.g. propionate, benzoate and sorbate
• Bacteriocins, e.g. nisin
• Spice and herb extracts, e.g. from rosemary, cloves, horseradish, mustard, cinnamon and thyme
• Enzymes, e.g. peroxidase, lysozyme and glucose oxidase
• Chelating agents, e.g. EDTA
• Inorganic acids, e.g. sulphur dioxide and chlorine dioxide
• Antifungal agents

Food applications for antimicrobial films include meats, fish, bread, cheese, fruit and vegetables.

Flavour and odour absorber

The interaction of packaging with food flavours and aromas has long been recognised, especially through
the undesirable flavour scalping of desirable food components. For eg:

 Dibittering of juices, use of limonin absorbers

 Unpleasant smelling, Volatile amines, such as trimethylamine, associated with fish protein
breakdown are alkaline and can be neutralised by various acidic compounds.
 Food applications for this technology are snack foods, cereals, dairy products, poultry and fish.
 These bags are claimed to oxidise amines as they are adsorbed by the polymer film.

Selected Active Packaging Systems

S.N. Systems Mechanisms Food Application

Bread, cakes, cooked rice, biscuits,

pizza, pasta, cheese, cured meats,
1 Oxygen scavengers Iron-based, metal/acid, platinum catalyst,
cured fish, coffee, snack foods,
dried foods and beverages

ascorbate/metallic salts, enzyme-based

CO2 Iron oxide/calcium hydroxide, ferrous Coffee, fresh meats, fresh fish, nuts,
2 carbonate/metal halide, calcium other snack food products, sponge
scavengers/emitters
oxide/activated charcoal, cakes
 ascorbate/sodium bicarbonate

Potassium permanganate, activated Fruit, vegetables and other

3 Ethylene scavengers
carbon, horticultural products

activated clays/zeolites

Organic acids, silver zeolite, spice/herb

Cereals, meats, fish, bread, cheese,
4 Preservative releasers extracts, BHA/BHT, Vitamin E, chlorine
snack foods, fruits and vegetables
dioxide/sulphur dioxide

Pizza crusts, cakes, bread, biscuits,

5 Ethanol emitters Alcohol spray, encapsulated ethanol
fish, bakery products

Fish, meats, poultry, snack foods,

PVA blanket, activated clays/minerals,
6 Moisture absorbers cereals, dried foods, sandwiches,
silica gel
fruits and vegetables

Cellulose triacetate, acetylated paper, Fruit juices, fried snack foods, fish,
Flavour/odour
7 citric acid, ferrous salt/ascorbate, activated cereals, poultry, dairy products,
adsorbers
carbon/clays/zeolites fruits

Non-woven plastics, double-walled

Temperature control Ready meals, meats, fish, poultry,
8 containers, hydrofluorocarbon gas,
packaging beverages
lime/water, ammonium nitrate/water

The shelf life of packaged food is dependent on numerous factors, such as the intrinsic nature of the food
(e.g. pH, water activity, nutrient content, occurrence of antimicrobial compounds, redox potential,
respiration rate, biological structure) and extrinsic factors (e.g. storage temperature, relative humidity,
surrounding gaseous composition). These factors directly influence the chemical, biochemical, physical, and
microbiological spoilage mechanisms of individual food products and their achievable shelf life. By
carefully considering all of these factors, it is possible to evaluate existing and developing active packaging
technologies and apply them for maintaining the quality and extending the shelf life of different food
products.

INTELLIGENT PACKAGING SYSTEMS

Intelligent packaging includes indicators used for quality control of packed food. These indicators are of
two types:
 External indicators, which are attached outside the package (e.g., time-temperature indicators).
 Internal indicators, which are placed inside the package, either in the headspace or attached to the
lid.
Time Temperature Indicator (TTI)
A Time Temperature Indicator (TTI) is a simple device that displays a measurable, time-temperature
dependent change. It reflects the full or partial temperature history of a food product to which it is
attached.
 The operation of a TTI is based on mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, enzymatic, or
microbiological irreversible changes.
Freshness Indicators
Two types of changes can occur in a fresh food product:
1. Microbiological growth and metabolism
o Causes pH changes
o Formation of toxic compounds
o Off-odors
o Gas and slime formation
2. Oxidation of lipids and pigments
o Leads to undesirable flavors
o Formation of biologically harmful compounds
o Discoloration
A freshness indicator directly indicates the quality of the product. It typically reacts to metabolites
produced during microbial growth in the product.
 An ideal indicator would detect spoilage or lack of freshness, in addition to temperature abuse or
package leaks, making it highly effective for quality control.
Pathogen Indicators
A commercially available system, Toxin Guard, is a polyethylene-based packaging material designed to
detect pathogenic bacteria using immobilized antibodies.
 When a toxin or microorganism (analyte) contacts the material:
o It binds to a specific, labelled antibody.
o Then binds to a capturing antibody printed in a certain pattern on the packaging.
This method can also be adapted for detecting:
 Pesticide residues
 Proteins resulting from genetic modifications
Functions of Intelligent packaging
• Detecting and Sensing
• Recording, Tracing and Communicating
To facilitate decision-making
• To extend shelf life
• Enhance safety
• Improve quality
• Provide information and
• Warn about possible problems
• Applying scientific logic
Time Temperature Indicators
The TTI is useful because it can tell the consumer when foods have been temperature abused. TTI can be
placed on shipping containers or individual packages as a small self-adhesive label, results in irreversible
change, like colour change. TTIs are particularly useful with chilled or frozen foods, where the cold storage
during transportation and distribution are important for food quality and safety. TTIs are also used as
freshness indicators for estimating the shelf life of perishable products. This also provide information about
how long a product has been opened or in use. The Time strip is very useful for products like sauces that
have to be refrigerated and used within a specific time period.
Gas indicators
The gas composition within a package can easily change due to the interaction of food with its environment.
Gas indicators are a helpful means of monitoring the composition of gases inside a package by producing a
change in the colour of the indicator though a chemical or enzymatic reaction (de Jong et al., 2005). The
indicators must be in direct contact with the gaseous environment directly surrounding the food in a
package. Indicators are capable of signalling whether there is a gas leakage in the package, or they may be
used to verify the efficiency of an oxygen scavenger. Gas indicators typically signal the presence or absence
of oxygen and/or carbon dioxide. Gas indicators are also being developed to detect water vapour, ethanol,
and hydrogen sulphide.
Thermochromic ink
Inks are available that are temperature sensitive and can change colours based on temperature. These inks
can be printed onto packages or labels such that a message can be conveyed to the consumer based on the
colour of the ink they are seeing. Thermochromic inks can let a consumer know whether a package is too hot
to touch, or cold enough drink. Thermochromic inks are becoming a popular technology for beverages.
These inks adversely affected by UV light and temperatures over 121°C, therefore, consumers should not
fully rely on the ink's message when it comes to deciding the proper time to consume a food. pH change also
results in change in colour of the packaging material.
Radio Frequency Identification Tags
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) offers a number of potential benefits to the meat production,
distribution and retail chain: traceability, inventory management, labour saving costs, security and
promotion of quality and safety. Inside the RFID tag is a minuscule microchip connected to a tiny antenna. A
RFID tag may also be integrated with a TTI or a biosensor to carry time-temperature history and
microbiological data. Track the entire production process, from the processing unit until to warehouses and
retail stores.

ASEPTIC PACKAGING SYSTEMS

  Aseptic packaging is a relatively new packaging concept aimed at developing a new product group,
namely pre-sterilized and aseptically packaged foods.
 During the aseptic packaging process, a pre-sterilized product is filled under sterile conditions into
sterile packages in a sterile environment and then germproof sealed.
 Although both the aseptic can filling and aseptic carton filling systems became commercial during
the late fifties and early sixties, only the latter found application in aseptic packaging of liquid foods,
more particularly UHT milk and fruit juices. In recent years, environmental considerations have led
to the use of recyclable glass bottles instead of cartons in countries like Germany.

Requirements of Aseptic Packaging Systems

The major requirement of an aseptic packaging unit is to prevent recontamination of the sterilized product.
The principal considerations in this regard include:
 Sterilization of the filling machine and packaging material by suitable physical and/or chemical
means.
 Maintaining aseptic barriers during filling and sealing.
 Preventing recontamination through gases used for pressurizing the filling space.
Mechanical failures such as:
 Inadequate heating of the gas,
 Leaks in valves,
 Pinholes in filters
may cause recontamination and must be checked.
Types of Packaging Materials for Aseptic Packaging Systems and Their Properties
(a) Glass
Glass bottles have been used for packaging many liquid foods but have not been a commercial success
with aseptic filling plants.
Glass offers protection against oxygen and light if provided with anti-actinic compounds.
(b) Cans
Aseptic canning is expensive, especially for low-cost products like milk.
Cans are not preferred for packaging UHT-processed products as they are associated with conventionally
retorted products.
Cans may be made of tinplate or drawn aluminium. The solder in tinplate cans must have a higher
melting point to withstand sterilization temperatures.
(c) Paperboard Cartons
Commonly used for aseptic filling of milk, cream, fruit juices, soups, etc.
Filling systems are of two types:
 Cartons formed within the filler from a continuous reel of materials.
 Preformed blanks folded flat and assembled into cartons in the filler.
Packaging material is composed of:
 Printed-paper coated with aluminium foil and plastic layers (polyethylene-paperboard-
polyethylene-aluminium foil-polyethylene).
Each layer serves a specific function:
  Outer polyethylene layer: protects ink and aids in flap sealing.
 Paperboard: carrier of décor and provides mechanical strength.
 Laminated polyethylene: binds aluminium to paper.
 Aluminium foil: gas and light barrier.
 Inner polyethylene layer: liquid barrier and enables sealing.
Sterilization of Packaging and Filler Environment
Chemical sterilization processes for packaging film include:
 Ethylene oxide: Slow action, long desorption time — suitable only for pre-treatment.
 Sodium hypochlorite and peracetic acid: Effective but require sterile-water rinse.
 Alcohols (e.g., glycols): Require high temperature (100°C) for sporicidal effect.
 Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂): Poor at ambient temperature, but effective at 80°C.
Applied to material, then evaporated using hot air or infrared radiation.
Limitations of H₂O₂:
1. Surfactants used for uniform deposition cannot be evaporated, may enter milk.
2. Vapors must be exhausted to protect workers.
3. Effectiveness of removal must be tested routinely in milk.
Sterilization of air and equipment:
 Steam or hot water for milk tubes.
 Hot air (300°C), with or without filtration, for injected air.
 Air at 330–350°C (30 mins) for tube sterilization.
 Air at 180–200°C to evaporate H₂O₂, then cooled to 50°C to pressurize filling chamber.
UV Radiation:
Requires:
 Perpendicular ray incidence
 Dry atmosphere
 Smooth surface
 Low microorganism count
 Absence of visible light
 Operator shielding
Used only as complementary treatment after sterilization.
Filtration:
 Through depth filters (glass-fiber, asbestos-fiber, sintered metal/ceramic) to remove bacteria from
air.
 Filters sterilized by fumigation, hot air, or steam.
Aseptic barriers (e.g., steam or liquid sterilant) are necessary for valves and fittings in contact with sterile
milk.
Leak detection using dye tests is crucial to prevent recontamination.
Aseptic Packaging Systems
Filling of sterile milk and fruit juices in sterilized containers and sealing to prevent recontamination can be
done in two ways:
(a) Using presterilized preformed containers (bottles, cans)
(b) Form-Fill-Seal (FFS) machines
 Sterilize packaging material
 Form into containers
 Fill with sterile product
 Seal the package
FFS machines use laminate materials: polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, paper, aluminium foil.
Examples of Aseptic Packaging Systems
 Dole aseptic canning system: Used for UHT milk in the USA, but limited usage.
 Tetrapak FFS systems:
o Use tetrahedron cartons, tetrabriks, or hexahedron cartons.
o Packaging formed continuously below milk level.
o Sterilized by H₂O₂, evaporated by radiant heat.
o Creates a sterile atmosphere in the packaging zone.
 Pillow Pak: New Tetrapak design to reduce packaging cost of UHT milk.
Coupling Aseptic Packaging with UHT Plant
In small units:
 A single flow-sterilizing plant is connected to a single packaging plant.
 Both must operate simultaneously.
 If one stops, the other must stop or sterilized product must be reprocessed.
 Solution: Use an aseptic tank between sterilizer and filler.
In large units:
 Multiple fillers are supplied by a single sterilizer.
 If one filler shuts down, only a small amount of product is reprocessed.
 Use of a variable speed homogenizer can eliminate recirculation.
Aseptic balance tank:
 Helps smooth operation.
 Adds cost, cleaning, and sterilization needs.
 Requires sterile air for positive pressure.