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INFORMATION SHEET UNIT OF

COMPETENCY
Use structure query
language
LEARNING LO1 Write SQL statement to
OUTCOME retrieve and sort data

SQL is a standard language for accessing databases. Our SQL tutorial will teach
you how to use SQL to access and manipulate data in: MySQL, SQL Server, Access,
Oracle, Sybase, DB2, and other database systems.
Examples in Each Chapter
With our online SQL editor, you can edit the SQL statements, and click on a button
to view the result.
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;
Introduction to SQL
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.
What is SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language
SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
What Can SQL do?
 SQL can execute queries against a database
 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
SQL is a Standard - BUT....
Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard, there are
different versions of the SQL language.
However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major
commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar
manner.
Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in
addition to the SQL standard!

Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:
 An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)
 To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
 To use SQL to get the data you want
 To use HTML / CSS
RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
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RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems such as MS SQL
Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.
A table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.

SQL Syntax
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a
name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database (included in
MS Access and MS SQL Server).

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country

e
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German
y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos 2312 México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Hardy

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund
The table above contains five records (one for each customer) and seven columns
(CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, and
Country).
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL
statements.
The following SQL statement selects all the records in the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;
Keep in Mind That...
 SQL is NOT case sensitive: SELECT is the same as select
Semicolon after SQL Statements?
Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database
systems that allow more than one SQL statement to be executed in the same call to
the server.
In this tutorial, we will use semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Some of The Most Important SQL Commands
 SELECT - extracts data from a database
 UPDATE - updates data in a database

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 DELETE - deletes data from a database

 INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
 CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database
 ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
 CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
 ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
 DROP TABLE - deletes a table
 CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
 DROP INDEX - deletes an index
SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
SQL SELECT Syntax
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name;
and
SELECT * FROM table_name;

SELECT Column Example

The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from
the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT CustomerName,City FROM Customers;
SELECT * Example
The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values.
The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
In a table, a column may contain many duplicate values; and sometimes you only
want to list the different (distinct) values.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name;

SELECT DISTINCT Example

The following SQL statement selects only the distinct values from the "City"
columns from the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Customers;
SQL WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
The SQL WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified
criterion.

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SQL WHERE Syntax

SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value;
WHERE Clause Example
The following SQL statement selects all the customers from the country "Mexico", in
the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Mexico';
Text Fields vs. Numeric Fields
SQL requires single quotes around text values (most database systems will also
allow double quotes).
However, numeric fields should not be enclosed in quotes:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerID=1;

Operators in The WHERE Clause

The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:
Operator Description
= Equal

<> Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this operator may be written as !=

> Greater than

< Less than

>= Greater than or equal

<= Less than or equal

BETWEEN Between an inclusive range

LIKE Search for a pattern

IN To specify multiple possible values for a column

SQL AND & OR Operators
The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one
condition.
The SQL AND & OR Operators
The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition AND the second
condition are true.
The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition OR the second
condition is true.
AND Operator Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the country "Germany" AND
the city "Berlin", in the "Customers" table:
Example

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SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Germany'
AND City='Berlin';
OR Operator Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the city "Berlin" OR
"München", in the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City='Berlin'
OR City='München';

Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions).

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the country "Germany" AND
the city must be equal to "Berlin" OR "München", in the "Customers" table:

EExample
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
AND (City='Berlin' OR City='München');

SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.
The SQL ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by one or more columns.
The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the
records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name,column_name ASC|DESC;
ORDER BY Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table,
sorted by the "Country" column:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country;
ORDER BY DESC Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table,
sorted DESCENDING by the "Country" column:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country DESC;

ORDER BY Several Columns Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table,
sorted by the "Country" and the "CustomerName" column:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country,CustomerName;
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SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
The SQL INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO Syntax
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.
The first form does not specify the column names where the data will be inserted,
only their values:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);
The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1,column2,column3,...)
VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);
INSERT INTO Example
Assume we wish to insert a new row in the "Customers" table.
We can use the following SQL statement (without specifying column names):
INSERT INTO Customers
VALUES ('Cardinal','Tom B. Erichsen','Skagen
21','Stavanger','4006','Norway');
Or this SQL statement (including column names):
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City,
PostalCode, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal','Tom B. Erichsen','Skagen
21','Stavanger','4006','Norway');

The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

87 Wartian Herkku Pirkko Torikatu 38 Oulu 90110 Finland
Koskitalo

88 Wellington Paula Parente Rua do Resende 08737- Brazil

Importadora Mercado, 12 363

89 White Clover Karl Jablonski 305 - 14th Ave. Seattle 98128 USA
Markets S. Suite 3B

90 Wilman Kala Matti Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland

Karttunen

91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland

92 Cardinal Tom B. Skagen 21 Stavanger 4006 Norway

Erichsen

Did you notice that we did not insert any number into the CustomerID field?
The CustomerID column is an AutoNumber field and is automatically updated with a
unique number for each record in the table.

AutoNumber is a type of data used in Microsoft Access tables to generate an automatically

incremented numeric counter. The default AutoNumber type has a start value of 1 and an

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increment of 1.
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
It is also possible to only insert data in specific columns.
The following SQL statement will insert a new row, but only insert data in the
"CustomerName", "City", and "Country" columns (and the CustomerID field will of
course also be updated automatically):
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger', 'Norway');

The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
87 Wartian Herkku Pirkko Torikatu 38 Oulu 90110 Finland
Koskitalo

88 Wellington Paula Parente Rua do Mercado, Resende 08737- Brazil

Importadora 12 363

89 White Clover Karl Jablonski 305 - 14th Ave. Seattle 98128 USA
Markets S. Suite 3B

90 Wilman Kala Matti Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland

Karttunen

91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland

92 Cardinal Stavanger Norway

SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update records in a table.
The SQL UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
SQL UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value1,column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value;

Notice the WHERE clause in the SQL UPDATE statement!

The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be updated. If you omit
the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!
SQL UPDATE Example
Assume we wish to update the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" with a new contact
person and city.
We use the following SQL statement:
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Alfred Schmidt', City='Hamburg'
WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

Update Warning!
Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in the
example above, like this:

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UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Alfred Schmidt', City='Hamburg';

The "Customers" table would have looked like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country

e
1 Alfreds Alfred Obere Str. 57 Hambur 12209 German
Futterkiste Schmidt g y

2 Ana Trujillo Alfred Avda. de la Hambur 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Schmidt Constitución g
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Alfred Mataderos 2312 Hambur 05023 Mexico

Taquería Schmidt g

4 Around the Horn Alfred 120 Hanover Sq. Hambur WA1 1DP UK
Schmidt g

5 Berglunds Alfred Berguvsvägen 8 Hambur S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Schmidt g

SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete records in a table.
The SQL DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value;

Notice the WHERE clause in the SQL DELETE statement!

The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be deleted. If you
omit the WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!

SQL DELETE Example

Assume we wish to delete the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" from the "Customers"
table.
We use the following SQL statement:
DELETE FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste' AND ContactName='Maria
Anders';

Delete All Data

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that
the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name;
or
DELETE * FROM table_name;

Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!
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SQL SELECT TOP Clause

The SQL SELECT TOP Clause
The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
The SELECT TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of
records. Returning a large number of records can impact on performance.

Note: Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause.
SQL Server / MS Access Syntax
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name;

SQL SELECT TOP Equivalent in MySQL and Oracle

MySQL Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
LIMIT number;
Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
LIMIT 5;

Oracle Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE ROWNUM <= number;
Example
SELECT *FROM Persons WHERE ROWNUM <=5;
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country

e
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German
y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos 2312 México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Hardy

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund

INFORMATION SHEET UNIT OF Use Advanced SQL

COMPETENCY

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LEARNING
LO2 Write ADVANCED SQL
OUTCOME
statements that use functions

SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is used to select values within a range.
The SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects values within a range. The values can be numbers,
text, or dates.
SQL BETWEEN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_nameWHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 A
ND value2;

BETWEEN Operator Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20:
Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
NOT BETWEEN Operator Example
To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT
BETWEEN:
Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
SQL IN Operator
The IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN
(value1,value2,...);

IN Operator Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City of "Paris" or "London":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City IN ('Paris','London');

SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is used to select values within a range.
The SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects values within a range. The values can be numbers,
text, or dates.

SQL BETWEEN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

BETWEEN Operator Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20:
Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

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NOT BETWEEN Operator Example

To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT
BETWEEN:
Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

BETWEEN Operator with IN Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20,
but products with a CategoryID of 1,2, or 3 should not be displayed:
Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE (Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20)
AND NOT CategoryID IN (1,2,3);

BETWEEN Operator with Text Value Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName beginning
with any of the letter BETWEEN 'C' and 'M':
Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'C' AND 'M';

NOT BETWEEN Operator with Text Value Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName beginning
with any of the letter NOT BETWEEN 'C' and 'M':
Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE ProductName NOT BETWEEN 'C' AND 'M';

Sample Table
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10248 90 5 7/4/1996 3

10249 81 6 7/5/1996 1

10250 34 4 7/8/1996 2

10251 84 3 7/9/1996 1

10252 76 4 7/10/1996 2

BETWEEN Operator with Date Value Example

The following SQL statement selects all orders with an OrderDate BETWEEN '04-July-
1996' and '09-July-1996':
Example
SELECT * FROM Orders
WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #07/04/1996# AND #07/09/1996#;

SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to temporarily rename a table or a column heading.
SQL Aliases
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SQL aliases are used to give a database table, or a column in a table, a temporarily
name.
Basically aliases are created to make column names more readable.

SQL Alias Syntax for Columns

SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name;

SQL Alias Syntax for Tables

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name AS alias_name;

Alias Example for Table Columns

The following SQL statement specifies two aliases, one for the CustomerName
column and one for the ContactName column. Tip: It require double quotation
marks or square brackets if the column name contains spaces:
Example
SELECT CustomerName AS Customer, ContactName AS [Contact Person]
FROM Customers;
In the following SQL statement we combine four columns (Address, City,
PostalCode, and Country) and create an alias named "Address":
Example
SELECT CustomerName, Address+', '+City+', '+PostalCode+', '+Country AS
Address FROM Customers;
Alias Example for Tables
The following SQL statement selects all the orders from the customer "Alfreds
Futterkiste". We use the "Customers" and "Orders" tables, and give them the table
aliases of "c" and "o" respectively (Here we have used aliases to make the SQL
shorter):
Example
SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName
FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o
WHERE c.CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';
The same SQL statement without aliases:
Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Orders.OrderDate, Customers.CustomerName
FROM Customers, Orders
WHERE Customers.CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

Aliases can be useful when:

 There are more than one table involved in a query

 Functions are used in the query
 Column names are big or not very readable
 Two or more columns are combined together

SQL SELECT TOP Example

The following SQL stament selects the two first records from the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Customers;

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SQL SELECT TOP PERCENT Example

The following SQL stament selects the first 50% of the records from the
"Customers" table:
Example
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Customers;
SQL LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a
column.
The SQL LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.

SQL LIKE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE pattern;

SQL LIKE Operator Examples

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with the
letter "s":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE 's%';

Tip: The "%" sign is used to define wildcards (missing letters) both before and after
the pattern. You will learn more about wildcards in the next chapter.

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City ending with the letter
"s":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '%s';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a Country containing the
pattern "land":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country LIKE '%land%';
Using the NOT keyword allows you to select records that does NOT match the
pattern.
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a Country NOT containing
the pattern "land":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country NOT LIKE '%land%';

SQL Wildcards
A wildcard character can be used to substitute for any other character(s) in a string.

SQL Wildcard Characters

In SQL, wildcard characters are used with the SQL LIKE operator.
SQL wildcards are used to search for data within a table.
With SQL, the wildcards are:

Wildcard Description

% A substitute for zero or more characters

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_ A substitute for a single character

[charlist] Sets and ranges of characters to match

[^charlist] Matches only a character NOT specified within the brackets

or
[!charlist]
Using the SQL % Wildcard
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "ber":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE 'ber%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City containing the pattern
"es":
Examplee
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '%es%';

Using the SQL _ Wildcard

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with any
character, followed by "erlin":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '_erlin';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "L",
followed by any character, followed by "n", followed by any character, followed by
"on":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE 'L_n_on';
Using the SQL [charlist] Wildcard
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "b", "s",
or "p":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '[bsp]%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "a", "b",
or "c":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '[a-c]%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City NOT starting with "b",
"s", or "p":
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '[!bsp]%';

SQL JOIN
An SQL JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a
common field between them.

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The most common type of join is: SQL INNER JOIN (simple join). An SQL INNER
JOIN return all rows from multiple tables where the join condition is met.

Let's look at a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID OrderDate

10308 2 1996-09-18

10309 37 1996-09-19

10310 77 1996-09-20

Then, have a look at a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany

2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Ana Trujillo Mexico

3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mexico

Notice that the "CustomerID" column in the "Orders" table refers to the customer in
the "Customers" table. The relationship between the two tables above is the
"CustomerID" column.
Then, if we run the following SQL statement (that contains an INNER JOIN):
Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate
FROM Orders INNER JOIN Customers
ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;

it will produce something like this:

OrderID CustomerName OrderDate
10308 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 9/18/1996

10365 Antonio Moreno Taquería 11/27/1996

10383 Around the Horn 12/16/1996

10355 Around the Horn 11/15/1996

10278 Berglunds snabbköp 8/12/1996

Different SQL JOINs

Before we continue with examples, we will list the types the different SQL JOINs you
can use:

 INNER JOIN: Returns all rows when there is at least one match in BOTH tables

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 LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, and the matched rows from the
right table
 RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, and the matched rows from
the left table
 FULL JOIN: Return all rows when there is a match in ONE of the tables

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a
match between the columns in both tables.

SQL INNER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;or:
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

PS! INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country
e

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German

y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.

And a selection from the "Orders" table:

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OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3

10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1

10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

SQL INNER JOIN Example

The following SQL statement will return all customers with orders:
Example
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

Note: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a
match between the columns. If there are rows in the "Customers" table that do not
have matches in "Orders", these customers will NOT be listed.

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the right table (table2), with the
matching rows in the left table (table1). The result is NULL in the left side when
there is no match.
SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;or:

SELECT column_name(s)FROM table1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2

ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
PS! In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.

Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country

e

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1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German

y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
And a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3

10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1

10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example
The following SQL statement will return all orders, and any customers that might
have placed them:
Example
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
RIGHT JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
Note: The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders),
even if there are no matches in the left table (Customers).
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1) and from
the right table (table2).
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword combines the result of both LEFT and RIGHT joins.
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

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CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country

e

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German

y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.

And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3

10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1

10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers, and all orders:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

A selection from the result set may look like this:

CustomerName OrderID
Alfreds Futterkiste

Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 10308

Antonio Moreno Taquería 10365

10382

10351

Note: The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table
(Customers), and all the rows from the right table (Orders). If there are rows in
"Customers" that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders"
that do not have matches in "Customers", those rows will be listed as well.
The SQL UNION Operator
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT
statements.

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Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number
of columns. The columns must also have similar data types. Also, the columns in
each SELECT statement must be in the same order.

SQL UNION Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate
values, use the ALL keyword with UNION.

SQL UNION ALL Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are usually equal to the column
names in the first SELECT statement in the UNION.
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country
e

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German

y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.

And a selection from the "Suppliers" table:

SupplierID SupplierName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country

e
1 Exotic Liquid Charlotte 49 Gilbert Londona EC1 4SD UK
Cooper St.

2 New Orleans Cajun Shelley Burke P.O. Box New 70117 USA
Delights 78934 Orleans

3 Grandma Kelly's Regina 707 Oxford Ann Arbor 48104 USA

Homestead Murphy Rd.

SQL UNION Example

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The following SQL statement selects all the different cities (only distinct values)
from the "Customers" and the "Suppliers" tables:
Example
SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;

Note: UNION cannot be used to list ALL cities from the two tables. If several
customers and suppliers share the same city, each city will only be listed once.
UNION selects only distinct values. Use UNION ALL to also select duplicate values!

SQL UNION ALL Example

The following SQL statement uses UNION ALL to select all (duplicate values also)
cities from the "Customers" and "Suppliers" tables:
Example
SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION ALL
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;

SQL UNION ALL With WHERE

The following SQL statement uses UNION ALL to select all (duplicate values
also) German cities from the "Customers" and "Suppliers" tables:
Example
SELECT City, Country FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
UNION ALL

SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers

WHERE Country='Germany'
ORDER BY City;

SQL SELECT INTO Statement

With SQL, you can copy information from one table into another.
The SELECT INTO statement copies data from one table and inserts it into a new
table.
The SQL SELECT INTO Statement
The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a new
table.

SQL SELECT INTO Syntax

We can copy all columns into the new table:
SELECT *
INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM table1;
Or we can copy only the columns we want into the new table:
SELECT column_name(s)
INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM table1;

Tip: The new table will be created with the column-names and types as defined in the

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SELECT statement. You can apply new names using the AS clause.

SQL SELECT INTO Examples

Create a backup copy of Customers:
SELECT *
INTO CustomersBackup2013
FROM Customers;
Use the IN clause to copy the table into another database:
SELECT *
INTO CustomersBackup2013 IN 'Backup.mdb'
FROM Customers;

Copy only a few columns into the new table:

SELECT CustomerName, ContactName
INTO CustomersBackup2013
FROM Customers;

Copy only the German customers into the new table:

SELECT *
INTO CustomersBackup2013
FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany';

Copy data from more than one table into the new table:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
INTO CustomersOrderBackup2013
FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID;

Tip: The SELECT INTO statement can also be used to create a new, empty table
using the schema of another. Just add a WHERE clause that causes the query to
return no data:

SELECT *
INTO newtable
FROM table1
WHERE 1=0;

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement

With SQL, you can copy information from one table into another.
The INSERT INTO SELECT statement copies data from one table and inserts it into
an existing table.
The SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement
The INSERT INTO SELECT statement selects data from one table and inserts it into
an existing table. Any existing rows in the target table are unaffected.

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Syntax

We can copy all columns from one table to another, existing table:
INSERT INTO table2
SELECT * FROM table1;

Or we can copy only the columns we want to into another, existing table:

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INSERT INTO table2

(column_name(s))
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1;

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Examples

Copy only a few columns from "Suppliers" into "Customers":
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, Country)
SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM Suppliers;

Copy only the German suppliers into "Customers":

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, Country)
SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany';
The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax
CREATE DATABASE dbname;
SQL CREATE DATABASE Example
The following SQL statement creates a database called "my_db":
CREATE DATABASE my_db;
Database tables can be added with the CREATE TABLE statement.
The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
Tables are organized into rows and columns; and each table must have a name.
SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type(size),
column_name2 data_type(size),
column_name3 data_type(size),
....
);

The column_name parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.
The data_type parameter specifies what type of data the column can hold (e.g.
varchar, integer, decimal, date, etc.).
The size parameter specifies the maximum length of the column of the table.
SQL CREATE TABLE Example
Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains five columns:
PersonID, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City.
We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);
The PersonID column is of type int and will hold an integer.
The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar and will
hold characters, and the maximum length for these fields is 255 characters.
The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:

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PersonID LastName FirstName Address City

Tip: The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.
SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
If there is any violation between the constraint and the data action, the action is
aborted by the constraint.
Constraints can be specified when the table is created (inside the CREATE TABLE
statement) or after the table is created (inside the ALTER TABLE statement).
SQL CREATE TABLE + CONSTRAINT Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type(size) constraint_name,
column_name2 data_type(size) constraint_name,
column_name3 data_type(size) constraint_name,
....
);

In SQL, we have the following constraints:

 NOT NULL - Indicates that a column cannot store NULL value

 UNIQUE - Ensures that each rows for a column must have a unique value
 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Ensures that a
column (or combination of two or more columns) have an unique identity
which helps to find a particular record in a table more easily and quickly
 FOREIGN KEY - Ensure the referential integrity of the data in one table to
match values in another table
 CHECK - Ensures that the value in a column meets a specific condition
 DEFAULT - Specifies a default value when specified none for this column

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that
you cannot insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this
field.

The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column to not
accept NULL values:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),

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City varchar(255)
)

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

SQL UNIQUE Constraint
The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.

The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness
for a column or set of columns.

A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it.

Note that you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY
KEY constraint per table.

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the
"Persons" table is created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
UNIQUE (P_Id)
)
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on

multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)
)

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

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To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already
created, use the following SQL:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD UNIQUE (P_Id)

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on

multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)
To DROP a UNIQUE Constraint
To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP INDEX uc_PersonID
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only ONE primary
key.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons"
table is created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),

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City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY
constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)
)
Note: In the example above there is only ONE PRIMARY KEY (pk_PersonID).
However, the value of the pk_PersonID is made up of two columns (P_Id and
LastName).
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already
created, use the following SQL:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)

To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY
constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)

Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the primary key
column(s) must already have been declared to not contain NULL values (when the
table was first created).

To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP PRIMARY KEY
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.
Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables:

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The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3

2 44678 3

3 22456 2

4 24562 1
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the
"Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.

The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links
between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents invalid data from being inserted into the
foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the table it
points to.
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders"
table is created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)

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To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY
constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is
already created, use the following SQL:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)

To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY
constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)

To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
SQL CHECK Constraint
The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a
column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for
this column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns
based on values in other columns in the row.

SQL CHECK Constraint on CREATE TABLE

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The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the
"Persons" table is created. The CHECK constraint specifies that the column "P_Id"
must only include integers greater than 0.
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CHECK (P_Id>0)
)
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL CHECK (P_Id>0),
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on

multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')
)

SQL CHECK Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already
created, use the following SQL:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CHECK (P_Id>0)

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on

multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')

To DROP a CHECK Constraint

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To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL:

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT chk_Person
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CHECK chk_Person

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

SQL DEFAULT Constraint
The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.
The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.
SQL DEFAULT Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the
"Persons" table is created:
My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
)

The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using
functions like GETDATE():

CREATE TABLE Orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
)

SQL DEFAULT Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is already
created, use the following SQL:

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'
SQL Server / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'

Oracle:
ALTER TABLE Persons
MODIFY City DEFAULT 'SANDNES'
To DROP a DEFAULT Constraint
To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL:

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MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City DROP DEFAULT
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN City DROP DEFAULT
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement
The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.

Indexes allow the database application to find data fast; without reading the whole
table.
Indexes
An index can be created in a table to find data more quickly and efficiently.
The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries.
Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without
(because the indexes also need an update). So you should only create indexes on
columns (and tables) that will be frequently searched against.

SQL CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)

SQL CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)

Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies amongst different databases.
Therefore: Check the syntax for creating indexes in your database.

CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "PIndex" on the "LastName"
column in the "Persons" table:
CREATE INDEX PIndex
ON Persons (LastName)

If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column
names within the parentheses, separated by commas:

CREATE INDEX PIndex

ON Persons (LastName, FirstName)

SQL DROP INDEX, DROP TABLE, and DROP DATABASE

Indexes, tables, and databases can easily be deleted/removed with the DROP
statement.
The DROP INDEX Statement
The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

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DROP INDEX Syntax for MS Access:

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for MS SQL Server:

DROP INDEX table_name.index_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for DB2/Oracle:

DROP INDEX index_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for MySQL:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name

The DROP TABLE Statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table.
DROP TABLE table_name

The DROP DATABASE Statement

The DROP DATABASE statement is used to delete a database.
DROP DATABASE database_name
The TRUNCATE TABLE Statement
What if we only want to delete the data inside the table, and not the table itself?
Then, use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name

The ALTER TABLE Statement

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an
existing table.
SQL ALTER TABLE Syntax
To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype

To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some
database systems don't allow deleting a column):

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name
To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:
SQL Server / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype
My SQL / Oracle:
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY column_name datatype
SQL ALTER TABLE Example
Look at the "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

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Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD DateOfBirth date
Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a
date. The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. The "Persons"
table will now like this:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Change Data Type Example
Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the
"Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year

Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year
in a two-digit or four-digit format.

DROP COLUMN Example

Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth

The "Persons" table will now like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field

Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated when a new record is
inserted into a table.
AUTO INCREMENT a Field
Very often we would like the value of the primary key field to be created
automatically every time a new record is inserted.
We would like to create an auto-increment field in a table.
Syntax for MySQL
The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id" column to be an auto-increment
primary key field in the "Persons" table:
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
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LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,

FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)

MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.

By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1

for each new record.

To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the following
SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE Persons AUTO_INCREMENT=100

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a value
for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)

VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The
"P_Id" column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be
set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for SQL Server

The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id" column to be an auto-increment
primary key field in the "Persons" table:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int PRIMARY KEY IDENTITY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to perform an auto-increment

feature.
By default, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each
new record.
To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5,
change the identity to IDENTITY(10,5).
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a value
for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)
VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

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The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The
"P_Id" column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be
set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".
Syntax for Access
The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id" column to be an auto-increment
primary key field in the "Persons" table:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment
feature.
By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1
for each new record.
To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5,
change the autoincrement to AUTOINCREMENT(10,5).
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a value
for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)
VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The
"P_Id" column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be
set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".
Syntax for Oracle
In Oracle the code is a little bit more tricky.

You will have to create an auto-increment field with the sequence object (this object
generates a number sequence).

Use the following CREATE SEQUENCE syntax:

CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person
MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 10

The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with 1 and
will increment by 1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance. The cache
option specifies how many sequence values will be stored in memory for faster
access.

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the nextval
function (this function retrieves the next value from seq_person sequence):

INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id,FirstName,LastName)

VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen')

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The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The
"P_Id" column would be assigned the next number from the seq_person sequence.
The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would
be set to "Monsen".
SQL Views
A view is a virtual table.
This chapter shows how to create, update, and delete a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.

You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the
data as if the data were coming from one single table.

SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the
data, using the view's SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.
SQL CREATE VIEW Examples
If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed
by default.

The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not
discontinued) from the "Products" table. The view is created with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No

We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]
Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the
"Products" table with a unit price higher than the average unit price:
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice
FROM Products
WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products)
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]
Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category
in 1997. Note that this view selects its data from another view called "Product Sales
for 1997":
CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS
SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales
FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
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We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for
the category "Beverages":
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'

SQL Updating a View

You can update a view by using the following syntax:

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We
will update the view with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No

SQL Dropping a View

You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax
DROP VIEW view_name
SQL Date Functions
SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the
date you are trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the
database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as
expected. However, if a time portion is involved, it gets complicated.

Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the
most important built-in functions for working with dates.

MySQL Date Functions

The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in MySQL:

Function Description
NOW() Returns the current date and time

CURDATE() Returns the current date

CURTIME() Returns the current time

DATE() Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression

EXTRACT() Returns a single part of a date/time

DATE_ADD() Adds a specified time interval to a date

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DATE_SUB() Subtracts a specified time interval from a date

DATEDIFF() Returns the number of days between two dates

DATE_FORMAT() Displays date/time data in different formats

SQL Server Date Functions
The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in SQL Server:
Function Description
GETDATE() Returns the current date and time

DATEPART() Returns a single part of a date/time

DATEADD() Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date

DATEDIFF() Returns the time between two dates

CONVERT() Displays date/time data in different formats

SQL Date Data Types

MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value
in the database:
 DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
 DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
 TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
 YEAR - format YYYY or YY

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time
value in the database:
 DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
 DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
 SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
 TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number

Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in your
database!
SQL Working with Dates
You can compare two dates easily if there is no time component involved!
Assume we have the following "Orders" table:
OrderId ProductName OrderDate
1 Geitost 2008-11-11

2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09

3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11

4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29

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Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from the
table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

The result-set will look like this:

OrderId ProductName OrderDate
1 Geitost 2008-11-11

3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11

Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the time component in
the "OrderDate" column):
OrderId ProductName OrderDate
1 Geitost 2008-11-11 13:23:44

2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09 15:45:21

3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11 11:12:01

4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29 14:56:59

If we use the same SELECT statement as above:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no time
portion.

Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not allow time
components in your dates!
SQL NULL Values
NULL values represent missing unknown data.
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
This chapter will explain the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators.
SQL NULL Values
If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an existing
record without adding a value to this column. This means that the field will be saved
with a NULL value.
NULL values are treated differently from other values.
NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or inapplicable values.
Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they are not equivalent.
SQL Working with NULL Values
Look at the following "Persons" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

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3 Pettersen Kari Stavanger

Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This means
that if we insert a record with no value for the "Address" column, the "Address"
column will be saved with a NULL value.
How can we test for NULL values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or
<>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
SQL IS NULL
How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NULL operator:
SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NULL
The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName Address

Hansen Ola

Pettersen Kari

Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.

SQL IS NOT NULL
How do we select only the records with no NULL values in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NOT NULL operator:
SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NOT NULL

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName Address
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23

In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE()
functions.
SQL NULL Values
NULL values represent missing unknown data.
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
This chapter will explain the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators.
SQL NULL Values
If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an existing
record without adding a value to this column. This means that the field will be saved
with a NULL value.

NULL values are treated differently from other values.

NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or inapplicable values.
Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they are not equivalent.
SQL Working with NULL Values
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

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1 Hansen Ola Sandnes

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

3 Pettersen Kari Stavanger

Look at the following "Persons" table:

Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This means
that if we insert a record with no value for the "Address" column, the "Address"
column will be saved with a NULL value.

How can we test for NULL values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or
<>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
SQL IS NULL
How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NULL operator:
SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NULL
The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName Address
Hansen Ola

Pettersen Kari

Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.

SQL IS NOT NULL
How do we select only the records with no NULL values in the "Address" column?
We will have to use the IS NOT NULL operator:
SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NOT NULL
The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName Address
Svendson Tove Borgvn 23
In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE()
functions.
SQL NULL Functions
SQL ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() Functions
Look at the following "Products" table:
P_Id ProductName UnitPrice UnitsInStock UnitsOnOrder

1 Jarlsberg 10.45 16 15

2 Mascarpone 32.56 23

3 Gorgonzola 15.67 9 20

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Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL values.
We have the following SELECT statement:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder)
FROM Products
In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result is
NULL.
Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how we want to treat NULL values.
The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions can also be used to achieve the
same result.
In this case we want NULL values to be zero.
Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the calculation, because ISNULL()
returns a zero if the value is NULL:
SQL Server / MS Access
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
Oracle
Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function. However, we can use the NVL() function
to achieve the same result:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
MySQL
MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it works a little bit different from
Microsoft's ISNULL() function.
In MySQL we can use the IFNULL() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products
SQL General Data Types
A data type defines what kind of value a column can contain.
SQL General Data Types
Each column in a database table is required to have a name and a data type.
SQL developers have to decide what types of data will be stored inside each and
every table column when creating a SQL table. The data type is a label and a
guideline for SQL to understand what type of data is expected inside of each
column, and it also identifies how SQL will interact with the stored data.
The following table lists the general data types in SQL:

Data type Description

CHARACTER(n) Character string. Fixed-length n

VARCHAR(n) or Character string. Variable length. Maximum length n

CHARACTER
VARYING(n)

BINARY(n) Binary string. Fixed-length n

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BOOLEAN Stores TRUE or FALSE values

VARBINARY(n) or Binary string. Variable length. Maximum length n

BINARY VARYING(n)

INTEGER(p) Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision p

SMALLINT Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 5

INTEGER Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 10

BIGINT Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 19

DECIMAL(p,s) Exact numerical, precision p, scale s. Example: decimal(5,2) is a

number that has 3 digits before the decimal and 2 digits after the
decimal

NUMERIC(p,s) Exact numerical, precision p, scale s. (Same as DECIMAL)

FLOAT(p) Approximate numerical, mantissa precision p. A floating number in

base 10 exponential notation. The size argument for this type consists
of a single number specifying the minimum precision

REAL Approximate numerical, mantissa precision 7

FLOAT Approximate numerical, mantissa precision 16

DOUBLE PRECISION Approximate numerical, mantissa precision 16

DATE Stores year, month, and day values

TIME Stores hour, minute, and second values

TIMESTAMP Stores year, month, day, hour, minute, and second values

INTERVAL Composed of a number of integer fields, representing a period of time,

depending on the type of interval

ARRAY A set-length and ordered collection of elements

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MULTISET A variable-length and unordered collection of elements

XML Stores XML data

SQL Data Type Quick Reference

However, different databases offer different choices for the data type definition.
The following table shows some of the common names of data types between the
various database platforms:
Data type Access SQLServer Oracle MySQL PostgreSQL
boolean Yes/No Bit Byte N/A Boolean

Integer Number Int Number Int Int

(integer) Integer Integer

Float Number Float Number Float Numeric

(single) Real

currency Currency Money N/A N/A Money

string (fixed) N/A Char Char Char Char

string Text (<256) Varchar Varchar Varchar Varchar

(variable) Memo (65k+) Varchar2

binary object OLE Object Binary (fixed up to Long Blob Binary

Memo 8K) Raw Text Varbinary
Varbinary (<8K)
Image (<2GB)

Note: Data types might have different names in different database. And even if the
name is the same, the size and other details may be different! Always check the
documentation!
SQL Data Types for Various DBs
Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server.
Microsoft Access Data Types
Data type Description Storage
Text Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters
maximum

Memo Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536

characters.Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they are
searchable

Byte Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte

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Integer Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes

Long Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes

Single Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 4 bytes

Double Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 8 bytes

Currency Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 8 bytes
decimal places.Tip: You can choose which country's currency to
use

AutoNumber AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own number, 4 bytes
usually starting at 1

Date/Time Use for dates and times 8 bytes

Yes/No A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In 1 bit

code, use the constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and
0). Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields

Ole Object Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large up to
OBjects) 1GB

Hyperlink Contain links to other files, including web pages

Lookup Wizard Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a 4 bytes
drop-down list

MySQL Data Types

In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types.
Text types:
Data type Description

CHAR(size) Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255
characters

VARCHAR(size) Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to
255 characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted
to a TEXT type

TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters

TEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters

BLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data

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MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters

MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data

LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters

LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data

ENUM(x,y,z,etc.) Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an
ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be
inserted.

Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them.

You enter the possible values in this format: ENUM('X','Y','Z')

SET Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64 list items and can
store more than one choice

Number types:

Data type Description

TINYINT(size) -128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits
may be specified in parenthesis

SMALLINT(size) -32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of

digits may be specified in parenthesis

MEDIUMINT(size) -8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum

number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

INT(size) -2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The

maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis

BIGINT(size) -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 normal. 0 to

18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may
be specified in parenthesis

FLOAT(size,d) A small number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of
digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of
digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

DOUBLE(size,d) A large number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of
digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of
digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

DECIMAL(size,d) A DOUBLE stored as a string , allowing for a fixed decimal point. The
maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The

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maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in

the d parameter
*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer
goes from an negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move
that range up so it starts at zero instead of a negative number.
Date types:

Data type Description

DATE() A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31'

DATETIME() *A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31

23:59:59'

TIMESTAMP() *A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since
the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD
HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-

09 03:14:07' UTC

TIME() A time. Format: HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'

YEAR() A year in two-digit or four-digit format.

Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155. Values allowed in

two-digit format: 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069

*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very
differently. In an INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself
to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats, like
YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.
SQL Server Data Types
String types:
Data type Description Storage

char(n) Fixed width character string. Maximum 8,000 characters Defined width

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varchar(n) Variable width character string. Maximum 8,000 2 bytes + number

characters of chars

varchar(max) Variable width character string. Maximum 1,073,741,824 2 bytes + number

characters of chars

Text Variable width character string. Maximum 2GB of text 4 bytes + number
data of chars

Nchar Fixed width Unicode string. Maximum 4,000 characters Defined width x 2

nvarchar Variable width Unicode string. Maximum 4,000

characters

nvarchar(max) Variable width Unicode string. Maximum 536,870,912

characters

Ntext Variable width Unicode string. Maximum 2GB of text

data

Bit Allows 0, 1, or NULL

binary(n) Fixed width binary string. Maximum 8,000 bytes

varbinary Variable width binary string. Maximum 8,000 bytes

varbinary(max) Variable width binary string. Maximum 2GB

Image Variable width binary string. Maximum 2GB

Date types:
Data type Description Storage

datetime From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 8 bytes
3.33 milliseconds

datetime2 From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 6-8
100 nanoseconds bytes

smalldatetime From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 minute 4 bytes

date Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 3 bytes

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Time Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds 3-5

bytes

datetimeoffset The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset 8-10
bytes

timestamp Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets
created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an
internal clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table
may have only one timestamp variable

Other data types:

Data type Description

sql_variant Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext,
and timestamp

Uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)

Xml Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB

Cursor Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations

Table Stores a result-set for later processing

SQL Functions
SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.
SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:
 AVG() - Returns the average value
 COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
 FIRST() - Returns the first value
 LAST() - Returns the last value
 MAX() - Returns the largest value
 MIN() - Returns the smallest value
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 SUM() - Returns the sum

SQL Scalar functions

SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.
Useful scalar functions:

 UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case

 LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
 MID() - Extract characters from a text field
 LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
 ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
 NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
 FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed

Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in
the next chapters.
SQL AVG() Function
The AVG() Function
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
SQL AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Products" table:

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 21.35

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 25

SQL AVG() Example

The following SQL statement gets the average value of the "Price" column from the
"Products" table:
Example
SELECT AVG(Price) AS PriceAverage FROM Products;

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The following SQL statement selects the "ProductName" and "Price" records that
have an above average price:
Example
SELECT ProductName, Price FROM Products
WHERE Price>(SELECT AVG(Price) FROM Products);

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SQL COUNT() Function

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will
not be counted) of the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;
SQL COUNT(*) Syntax
The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name;

SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values
of the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name;

Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not with
Microsoft Access.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10265 7 2 1996-07-25 1

10266 87 3 1996-07-26 3

10267 25 4 1996-07-29 1

SQL COUNT(column_name) Example

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The following SQL statement counts the number of orders from "CustomerID"=7
from the "Orders" table:
Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID) AS OrdersFromCustomerID7 FROM Orders
WHERE CustomerID=7;
SQL COUNT(*) Example
The following SQL statement omits the WHERE clause and counts the total number
of orders from the "Orders" table:
Example
SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders;
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example
Now we want to count the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT CustomerID) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders;
The result-set will look like this:

NumberOfCustomers
89

which is the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table.

SQL LAST() Function
The LAST() Function
The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column.
SQL LAST() Syntax
SELECT LAST(column_name) FROM table_name;
Note: The LAST() function is only supported in MS Access.
SQL LAST() Workaround in SQL Server, MySQL and Oracle

SQL Server Syntax

SELECT TOP 1 column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name DESC;

Example
SELECT TOP 1 CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID DESC;

MySQL Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name DESC
LIMIT 1;

Example
SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID DESC
LIMIT 1;

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Oracle Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name DESC
WHERE ROWNUM <=1;
Example
SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID DESC
WHERE ROWNUM <=1;
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country
e

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German

y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos 2312 México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Hardy

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund

SQL LAST() Example

The following SQL statement selects the last value of the "CustomerName" column
from the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT LAST(CustomerName) AS FirstCustomer FROM Customers;
SQL MAX() Function
The MAX() Function
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
SQL MAX() Syntax
SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name;
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Products" table:

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ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 21.35

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 25

SQL MAX() Example

The following SQL statement gets the largest value of the "Price" column from the
"Products" table:
Example
SELECT MAX(Price) AS HighestPrice FROM Products;
SQL MIN() Function
The MIN() Function
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
SQL MIN() Syntax
SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name;
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Products" table:
ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 21.35

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 25

SQL MIN() Example
The following SQL statement gets the smallest value of the "Price" column from the
"Products" table:
Example
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Products;
SQL SUM() Function
The SUM() Function
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SQL SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name;
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
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Below is a selection from the "OrderDetails" table:

OrderDetailID OrderID ProductID Quantity

1 10248 11 12

2 10248 42 10

3 10248 72 5

4 10249 14 9

5 10249 51 40

SQL SUM() Example

The following SQL statement finds the sum of all the "Quantity" fields for the
"OrderDetails" table:
Example
SELECT SUM(Quantity) AS TotalItemsOrdered FROM OrderDetails;
SQL GROUP BY Statement
Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement.
The GROUP BY Statement
The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to
group the result-set by one or more columns.
SQL GROUP BY Syntax
SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name;
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3

10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1

10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2

And a selection from the "Shippers" table:

ShipperID ShipperName Phone

1 Speedy Express (503) 555-9831

2 United Package (503) 555-3199

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3 Federal Shipping (503) 555-9931

And a selection from the "Employees" table:

EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo Notes
1 Davolio Nancy 1968-12-08 EmpID1.pic Education includes a BA....

2 Fuller Andrew 1952-02-19 EmpID2.pic Andrew received his BTS....

3 Leverling Janet 1963-08-30 EmpID3.pic Janet has a BS degree....

SQL GROUP BY Example

Now we want to find the number of orders sent by each shipper.
The following SQL statement counts as orders grouped by shippers:
Example
SELECT Shippers.ShipperName,COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM Orders
LEFT JOIN Shippers
ON Orders.ShipperID=Shippers.ShipperID
GROUP BY ShipperName;

GROUP BY More Than One Column

We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like this:
Example
SELECT Shippers.ShipperName, Employees.LastName,
COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM ((Orders
INNER JOIN Shippers
ON Orders.ShipperID=Shippers.ShipperID)
INNER JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID)
GROUP BY ShipperName,LastName;

SQL HAVING Clause

The HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be
used with aggregate functions.
SQL HAVING Syntax
SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3

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10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1

10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2

And a selection from the "Employees" table:

EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo Notes

1 Davolio Nancy 1968-12-08 EmpID1.pic Education includes a BA....

2 Fuller Andrew 1952-02-19 EmpID2.pic Andrew received his BTS....

3 Leverling Janet 1963-08-30 EmpID3.pic Janet has a BS degree....

SQL HAVING Example

Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000.
We use the following SQL statement:
The following SQL statement finds if any of the employees has registered more than
10 orders:
Example
SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM (Orders
INNER JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID)
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 10;

Now we want to find the if the employees "Davolio" or "Fuller" have more than 25
orders
We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement:
Example
SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID
WHERE LastName='Davolio' OR LastName='Fuller'
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 25;

SQL UCASE() Function

The UCASE() Function
The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to uppercase.
SQL UCASE() Syntax
SELECT UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name;

Syntax for SQL Server

SELECT UPPER(column_name) FROM table_name;

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Demo Database

In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.

Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country

e
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German
y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos 2312 México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Hardy

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund

SQL UCASE() Example

The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from
the "Customers" table, and converts the "CustomerName" column to uppercase:
Example
SELECT UCASE(CustomerName) AS Customer, City
FROM Customers;
SQL LCASE() Function
The LCASE() Function
The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to lowercase.
SQL LCASE() Syntax
SELECT LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name;

Syntax for SQL Server

SELECT LOWER(column_name) FROM table_name;
Demo Database

In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.

Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country

e

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1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German

y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos 2312 México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Hardy

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund
SQL LCASE() Example
The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from
the "Customers" table, and converts the "CustomerName" column to lowercase:
Example
SELECT LCASE(CustomerName) AS Customer, City
FROM Customers;
SQL MID() Function
The MID() Function
The MID() function is used to extract characters from a text field.
SQL MID() Syntax
SELECT MID(column_name,start[,length]) FROM table_name;
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to extract characters from

start Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1)

length Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the MID() function
returns the rest of the text

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country
e

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German

y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

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3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos 2312 México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Hardy

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund

SQL MID() Example

The following SQL statement selects the first four characters from the "City" column
from the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT MID(City,1,4) AS ShortCity
FROM Customers;
SQL LEN() Function
The LEN() Function
The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field.
SQL LEN() Syntax
SELECT LEN(column_name) FROM table_name;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCod Country
e
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 German
y

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos 2312 México 05023 Mexico

Taquería Moreno D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Hardy

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund

SQL LEN() Example

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The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and the length of the
values in the "Address" column from the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT CustomerName,LEN(Address) as LengthOfAddress
FROM Customers;
SQL ROUND() Function
The ROUND() Function
The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of decimals
specified.
SQL ROUND() Syntax
SELECT ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM table_name;
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to round.

decimals Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 21.35

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 25

Below is a selection from the "Products" table:

SQL ROUND() Example

The following SQL statement selects the product name and the price rounded to the
neares integer from the "Products" table:
Example
SELECT ProductName, ROUND(Price,0) AS RoundedPrice
FROM Products;
SQL NOW() Function
The NOW() Function
The NOW() function returns the current system date and time.
SQL NOW() Syntax
SELECT NOW() FROM table_name;
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Products" table:

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ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 21.35

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 25

SQL NOW() Example

The following SQL statement selects the product name, and price for today from the
"Products" table:
Example
SELECT ProductName, Price, Now() AS PerDate
FROM Products;
SQL FORMAT() Function
The FORMAT() Function
The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field is to be displayed.
SQL FORMAT() Syntax
SELECT FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM table_name;

Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to be formatted.

format Required. Specifies the format.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Products" table:
ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 21.35

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 25

SQL FORMAT() Example
The following SQL statement selects the product name, and price for today
(formatted like YYYY-MM-DD) from the "Products" table:
Example
SELECT ProductName, Price, FORMAT(Now(),'YYYY-MM-DD') AS PerDate
FROM Products;

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