Basic Writing Skills in English Language (EnLa 1012)

UNIT ONE: WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES

It is obvious that people usually communicate verbally through two media. These are speaking and
writing. When they communicate through writing formally, mostly the basic unit of idea is a sentence.
For constructing a meaningful and complete sentence, understanding the nature of a sentence is
compulsory.
1. What is a sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that are arranged appropriately to express an idea through a logically
related subject and predicate.
2. Sentence Parts
In English sentences, there are two basic elements. They are subject and predicate.
Subject: a subject is noun/pronoun the sentence is about. It is the basic element of a sentence that
normally appears at the beginning of a sentence. Subject can be simple or compound.
Example: 1. The rain will stop.
2. The President of America will attend the meeting.
3. She was elected the president of the union.
4. An intelligent and industrious boy surely achieves even the most difficult goal.

Activity 1: Underline the subjects in each of the sentences below

1. A group of explorers in a remote region of France made a starting discovery in 1994.
2. The first simple microscopes were built in the middle of the fifteenth century.
3. The entire business district was destroyed.
4. Impurities in the glass greatly distorted microscope images.
Predicate: A predicate is a part of a sentence that says something about the subject. It consists of at
least one word- a verb. When it is extended, it may consist of other modifiers.
Example: The man died.
The man died yesterday.
The man died in the hospital yesterday
In the above sentences, you can easily identify that the words and word groups written in bold are
predicates. Like a subject, a predicate can be simple or complete predicate.
Simple predicate: Complete predicate:
Example: The old man is praying. Example: The old man prayed for peace.
The rain stopped. The girl is dancing with her sister.

Activity 2: Underline the predicate in each of the following sentences and identify whether it is a
simple or a complete predicate.
1. Many fires erupted.
2. The entire business district and many homes were destroyed.
3. Impurities in the glass greatly distorted microscope images.
4. A group of explorers in remote region of France made a startling discovery in 1994.
3. Sentence Classification
Generally, sentences could be put into two major categories. If sentences are seen in terms of their
purposes or functions, they are classified into four types as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and

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exclamatory sentence. If they are considered in terms of their structure, they are classified into simple,
compound, complex and compound- complex sentences.
3.1Sentence Classification by Function
Sentences are means by which we communicate with others and express our thought and feeling to
others. As ideas, thoughts or feelings are different in kind and type, the purpose of communicating
them also varies. If the purpose of communicating with people varies, the type of sentence we use for
communication will also vary. So, based up on purpose sentences are classified into four types:
declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences.
a) Declarative Sentence
A declarative sentence is a statement which is used to give information. It is a kind of sentence which
usually demands a true or false response. It is also a sentence that is used more frequently than any
other sentence types. This sentence normally ends with a period or a full stop. It can be manifested in
different forms. It can be either affirmative of negative.
Examples:
1. Time is running short. (affirmative)
2. She does not respect her elder brother. (negative)
3. Stories entertain. (affirmative)
4. The instructors do not allow cheating in exam. (negative)
b) Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a question, or seeks information. It ends with question mark
(interrogation)
Example: 1.What is your favorite football team?
2. Can you get away today?
3. Have you ever seen any park in Ethiopia?
4. Is Abe being your friend?
c) Imperative Sentence
This is a type of sentence that expresses a command, a request, an order, an advice, etc. The order of
the subject and the predicate is like that of a declarative sentence, except that subject is rarely
expressed. The end mark for an imperative sentence is a period, but sometimes an exclamation mark is
used for emphasis.
Example:
1. Shut the door. (command )
2. Be good to your colleagues. (advice)
3. Have a cup of coffee, please. (invitation)
4. Please, have a seat.(invitation)
5. Show me your Id, please. (request)
d) Exclamatory Sentence
This is a sentence that expresses strong emotion, excitement or sudden feeling. The feeling could be
of different types. It could be a feeling of happiness, sorrow, wonder, surprise etc. In exclamatory
sentence, there are words and phrases that are commonly used with the main sentence. These include
words like ‘what;’ ‘how ‘,’perhaps;’ ‘oh’, ‘oh god’, etc. The punctuation mark in this type of
sentence is an exclamatory mark. It is placed at the end of either the exclamatory word or sentence.
Example: 1. Wow! We have won the match.
2. How late the doctor is!
3. What a brave boy he is!
4. How beautiful flowers they are!

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Activity 3: Identify whether the following sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative,
and exclamatory. Thenput appropriate end marks.
1.Who is your best friend
2.What a wonderful adventure it is
3. Don’t ever get out of your car to take the pictures of the elephants.
4.The human backbone has thirty bones
5.Which one is the best exercise?
3.2) Sentence Classification by Grammatical Structure
In terms of their structure, sentences could be classified into four types. Structure of a sentence refers
to the constituent parts from which the sentence is formed. Thus based on these constituent parts, we
can categorize sentences into simple, compound, complex and compound–complex sentences.
a) Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is a sentence with one main clause or a sentence with one subject and one predicate.
Both the subject and the predicate could be simple or compound.
Examples:
1.The students played tennis.(simple subject and predicate)
2.The students and their teachers played tennis. (compound subject and simple predicate)
3.The students played tennis and took shower. (simple subject and compound predicate)
4.The student and their teachers played tennis and took shower. (compound subject and
compound
Predicate)
b) Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two independent/ main clauses. Each main clause of a compound
sentence has its own subject and predicate. The clauses are usually joined by:
1. a coordinating conjunction: and, or, but, for, so, yet, nor preceded by a comma, or
2. semicolon (;), or
3. Semicolon (;), conjunctive adverbs or independent markers (however, moreover, therefore,
thus, consequently, also) followed by comma.
Examples:
1. My wallet had disappeared, and I had no way to pay my fee.
2. The park was crowded, for Monday was a holiday
3. The sky is cloudy; it is to rain.
4. I am an Ethiopian; however, he is a European.
c) Complex Sentence
This is a type of sentence made up of one independent clause and one or more than one
dependent/subordinate clauses. Common examples of dependent markers are: because, before, since,
as, while, although, if, until, when, after, as if etc.
Example:
1.Because I had lost my wallet, I had no way to pay my fee.
2. I had no way to pay my fee because I had lost my wallet.
In the first sentence, the clause because I had lost my wallet is a subordinate (dependent) clause. It is
dependent because it cannot give a complete meaning on its own. It needs to be attached to the main
clause to give a complete meaning. The other clause I had no way to pay my fee is an independent
(main) clause. In brief, when a dependent clause and an independent clause are combined into one
sentence to express an idea, the sentence is called a complex sentence. The order of the main clause
and the subordinate clause may be exchanged. Either the main clause or the subordinate clause can
come first. When the subordinate clause comes first, the comma splits the two clauses as in the above
example. If the main clause precedes the subordinate clause, no need of using a comma in between.
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d) Compound –Complex Sentence
A compound –complex sentence is a sentence with two main clauses and one or more subordinate
clauses. In other words, as the name indicates, compound –complex sentence has a compound sentence
and a complex sentence. The following example illustrates the idea.
Examples:
1. Because I had been careless, my wallet had disappeared, and I had no way to pay my fee.
2. The class is inconvenient; however, we should cover the course since it is compulsory.
Activity 4: Identify whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or
compound-complex sentences.
1. Have you ever been to the exhibition, or are you going just now?
2. What is the main objective of this course?
3. When you go to Harar, you have to visit the historical place there.
4. Windows rattled and doors shook.
5. Because out fuel pump failed, we were stranded on the way, and we couldn’t attend the
meeting.
6. The United States is depleting its none-renewable energy source: coal, oil, and gas.
7. As the storm blew, windows rattled and doors shook
8. Sun, wind, and water are renewable energy sources, and they do not cause pollution.
9. Although the rain fell for three days, the city’s reservoirs were not filled.
4. Common Sentence Errors
The most common sentence errors are sentence fragments, run-on sentences, comma splices,
misplaced, dangling modifiers and agreement errors. Thus this section discusses those sentence errors
and ways of correcting them.
A. Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete idea. It looks like a sentence,
but is not. It may begin with a capital letter and end with a period, but its construction fails to satisfy
the reader’s expectation of a meaningful statement. It may lack a subject, or a verb, or the dependent
clause unattached to the independent clause.
Examples: a) Genealogy, the study of family history. (Lacks verb)
b) Although several large rivers have been cleaned up. (Lacks independence)
c) When you come to school. (Lacks independence)
d) Shouted with delight.(Lacks subject)
e) I always stay at library up to 6: pm. attempting to score 4.0. (Dependent clause
unattached to the Independent one)
Sentence fragments can be corrected in the following ways:
Adding a subject and /or a predicate to make the sentence complete.
Attaching the fragment to an adjacent sentence and making it an integral part of the sentence.
Omitting some elements and making a separate sentence.
a) Fragment: In many families, both parents work. Need two incomes.(Lacks a complete
predicate)
Sentence: In many families, both parents work because the family needs two incomes.
In many families both parents work. The family needs two incomes.
b) Fragment: Sometimes two or three generations of one family living together.(lacks a complete
verb)
Sentence: Sometimes two or three generations of one live together.
c) Fragment: The simplest family group is the nuclear family. This consists of parents and
children. ( subordinate Clause unattached to the main clause)
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 Sentence: The simplest family group is nuclear family, which consist of parents and children.
d) Fragment: She wins an award every winter. For looking after many helpless street children.
(subordinate clause unattached to the main clause)
Sentence: She wins an award every winter for looking after many helpless street children.
e) Fragments: Although she works hard .(has subordinate clause only)
Sentence: She works hard.
Activity5: Read the following text and then state whether each of the numbered word group is a
complete sentence or a sentence fragment.
(1)When he entered elementary school as a child in California knew only about fifty words of
English.(2) Because he was afraid he would be mocked, Richard was reluctant to speak in class.(3)
The priest who taught him asked his parents, who had been born in Mexico, to speak to the child in
English rather than in Spanish. (4) Richards developed a deep love of reading. (5) Which became the
basis of his later academic success?
B. Run- on Sentences (fused sentences): is a construction where two or more independent
sentences are written and punctuated as if they were one sentence. Usually it is the absence of
punctuation marks.
Example:1. He drove the car fast it was a beautiful day. (Run-on) This can be corrected as:
He drove the car fast; it was a beautiful day. Or
He drove the car fast, and it was a beautiful day.
Methods of correcting run-on sentences:
1. Place period between the two clauses, making two complete sentences
Example: It was raining heavily. I did not take an umbrella.
2. Place semi-colon between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily; I did not take an umbrella.
3. Use comma and adverbial conjunctions with semi-colon.
Example: It was raining heavily; however, I did not take an umbrella.
4. Use comma and the coordinating conjunctions between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily, but I did not take an umbrella.
5. Add the subordinate conjunctions and make one clause dependent and then join to the
independent clause.
Example: Although it was raining heavily, I did not take an umbrella.
The most common run-on sentence errors are of three kinds:
 When there is comma splice. It occurs when two main clauses are punctuated by a comma
rather than a semi colon or a period since comma cannot separate sentences.
Example: Human nature is not as simple as it appears, hasty judgments are often wrong.(run-on)
 When no punctuation separates two independent clauses.
Example: My father is the chairman of the committee on foreign relations .He also heads the
warrant commission. (Run-on)
 When there is no comma before a coordinating conjunction joining two main clauses. (run-on)
Example: I listened to the football game all afternoon but my wife went to the movies.
C. Comma Splices
Comma splice or comma fault occurs when a comma is used between two independent clauses without
a coordinating conjunction.
Example1.The examination is approaching; you should study day and night. (Incorrect)
The examination is approaching; you should study day and night. (Correct)
The examination is approaching; therefore, you should study day and night. (Correct)
The examination is approaching, and you should study day and night. (Correct)
2. It was raining heavily I would not take an umbrella. (Incorrect)
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 It was raining heavily; however, I would not take an umbrella. (Correct)
D. Misplaced Modifiers
Misplaced modifier occurs when it is unclear what a modifying phrase or clause modifies. So, it is
important to make sure that the modifier clearly refers to the element you want it to modify. Logically,
modifiers should be placed with words, phrases or clauses they modify because they make the
sentence ambiguous. To correct a sentence with misplaced modifier, put the modifier as close as
possible to the word it modifies.
Example: The council advises physicians at regular intervals to administer the drug.
Is the meaning clear to you?
What does the modifying phrase “at regular intervals” modify?
The council’s advise or administering the drug?
To avoid this ambiguity, it can be revised as:
1) The council advises physicians to administer the drug at regular intervals.(administering the
drug at regular intervals)
2) At regular intervals, the council advises physicians to administer the drug.(the council
advising physicians at regular intervals)
Activity 6:Correct the following misplaced modifier and make unambiguous sentences.
1. The bread sat on the table that Seble had backed.
2. The man walked towards the car carrying the stick.
3. I saw a jacket in a shop that cost 1000 birr.
4. Leaves floated gently down on to the lawn with dazzling autumn colors.
5. Cleaned and polished, Azeb proudly viewed her car.
E. Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier modifies a word which has been left out of the sentence or that is not clearly
stated in the sentence. It does not modify any word in the sentence in which it appears.
Example: 1.Following the guidelines carefully, the soup was made.
What does the sentence mean? Who followed the guidelines carefully? The participial phrase
following the guidelines is not modifying any word in the sentence. The word or phrase that needs to
be modified is left out of the sentence. By supplying a word that can be modified by the dangling
modifier, you can correct the sentence.
 Following the guidelines carefully, the woman made the soup.
 Notice how the phrase the woman is used to correct the sentence.
2. After trying several times, the lock finally opened. (dangling)
After trying several times, the officer finally opened the lock. (correct)
Activity 8: Correct the following dangling modifier and write the correct version.
1. Walking on the beach, the water touched my feet.
2. Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
3. Watching horror film, the bread burned.
Possible ways of correcting dangling modifiers:
 Name the doer of the action
E.g. Having arrived late for practice, excuse letter was written. (Dangled)
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain wrote excuse letter. (Corrected)
 Change the phrase that dangles to a subordinate clause by naming the doer of the action in the
clause.
E.g. Playing tennis, the first class was lost. (Dangled)
While I was playing tennis, the first class was lost. (Corrected)
 Combine the phrase and the main clause.
E.g. To improve his results, the trial was done. (Dangled)
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Tola improved his results by doing the trial again. (Corrected)
F. Agreement Errors
Activity 9: Before you go to the discussion, can you comment whether the following sentences
have errors or not. Where there is an error, rewrite the sentence, correcting the error.
a. Recent discoveries about the weather reveal that several cycles are involved.
b. The media was biased in its reporting of the event.
c. A student is free to express their opinion
d. Once one has decided to take the course, you must keep certain policies in mind.
e. Eating huge meals, snacking between meals, and too little exercise can lead to obesity.
There are some agreement problems which most writers commonly face. Among these are: subject and
verb agreement, pronoun and antecedent agreement and tense compatibility problems.
i. Subject-Verb Agreement
The subject of a sentence should always agree with the verb in such a way that when the subject is
singular, the verb must also be singular and when the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
Examples: 1.The group of bizarrely dressed youths are taking over the cafeteria (the subject is singular
but the
verb is plural)
2. Either the girls or the boy is capable of solving the problem.
3. My favorite thing to buy is compact discs.
4. A letter with many mistakes does not make a good impression.
5. Everyone want to see that movie.
ii. Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number (singular or plural), in person (first, second or
third person) and in gender (masculine, feminine, or neutral). An antecedent is the word or group of
words to which a pronoun refers to or that a pronoun replaces.
Examples:
1.A student is an important member of a society, and you should express your opinion freely.
A student is an important member of a society, and he/she should express his/her opinion freely.
2.The doctor is driving a car, but it is not their own car.
The doctor is driving a car, but it is not his own car.
iii. Vague Pronoun Reference
Examples: John and James are good friends, which began when they were in elementary school.(What
did begin when John and James were in Elementary school? This is a vague pronoun reference. It was
their friendship).
John and James have a lasting friendship, which began when they were elementary school.(correct)
iv. Compatibility of Tenses
Tense compatibility refers to the harmony that should exist between/among tenses of two or more
events occurring at the same time. Do not shift or change tenses when two or more events occur at the
same time .Tenses can shift to show that one event precedes or follows another.
Examples:1:The rain has poured down endlessly, and the roads will have flooded. (incorrect)
The rain has poured down endlessly, and the roads have flooded. (correct)
2: The students cheered when the principal announces a holiday.
The students cheered when the principal announced a holiday. (two events took place at the same
time).

G. Faulty Parallelism
This occurs when there are non-parallel structures in a sentence.

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Example1.Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and she likes reading. (Non-
parallel)
Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and reading. (Parallel)
2.The students attended classes did their homework and they were going back home.
(Non- parallel)
The students attended classes, did their homework and they went back home. (Parallel)
H. Wordiness
It refers to excessive use of words in a sentence. Look at the following example.
1. Writing allows us to further our knowledge of the world around us and become aware of our social
surroundings and physical surroundings. This can be rewritten as:
E.g. Writing furthers our knowledge and awareness of physical and social surroundings.
2. Students will often write required writings that fulfill a grade requirement towards graduation.
(Wordy)
E.g. For many students, writing is a graduation requirement.
I. Diction
It refers to choice and use of words both in speech and written texts. To avoid improper use of words,
use the
following guidelines.
 Choose understandable and clear words.
 Avoid ambiguity.
 Use specific/precise words.
 Choose and emphasize strong words.
 Avoid over use of words.
Practice Exercises
A) Identify the following sentence fragments and correct them.
1. The best hope for peace lies in education. That teaches us how to live together.
2. The steam engine was a beautiful thing at night; sparks climbing high in to the sky and the fire
box glowing in the darkness.
3. A British diver finally got down to the wreckage. Measuring the size of the rivets to determine
its identify.
4. For my eighteenth birthday my grandfather gave me his own watch. One that I shall always
treasure.
5. He was often teased by the other boys at school .Because he spoke with alight lip.
6. From the darkened room came a flickering light. The television set.
7. We expect to make the playoffs this year. The team winning most of its games.

B) Correct the following run-ons(fused sentences) using one of the ways you have learned.
1.His encouragement produced good results. For many people took his advice and became more
useful citizens
2.They bought large amount of food but nothing was left.
3.Almaz and her friend went on a picnic yesterday they had a wonderful time until it began to rain.
4. The Sayannah was launched in 1958, it was the first ship to be propelled by nuclear power.
5. The magnitudes of earthquakes are measured by instruments Seismographs, they record
movements in the earth’s crust.
6.All over the city, new buildings springing up, the sky line is rapidly changing.
7. Lighthouses are fascinating, many people travel around the country to visit them.
C) Indicate whether the modifiers in the following sentences are misplaced, dangling or correct.

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Rewrite the sentences by correcting all misplaced and dangling modifiers.
1. Rebuilding the motor, the tool box fell on the mechanic’s legs
2. Driving into the gas station, the advertisements for lower gas prices influenced the customers.
3. Pumping the gasoline, the dog in the car licked the attendants
4. Shining through the window, John could see the sun
5. In order to be understood, proper articulation and pronunciation are necessary.
6. By reading this letter, I hope that you will be convinced
7. Morning tea is always served here while still in bed
8. Changing the tires, the customer chatted with the mechanic.
9. Visiting Egypt, the pyramids are impressive
10. He admitted that he was the anonymous donor in the letter.
D) Correct the following agreement problems.
1. His temperament and his wide experience makes him more patient than most people.
2. George is one of those boys who never thinks of anything but sport.
3. Our greatest problem are mosquitoes, which swarm out of the woods in great numbers as soon
as evening comes.
4. More news of the disasters are coming in hourly.
5. Bread and milk were our usual Sunday night supper on the farm.
6. Bad luck can be very effective in making a person change their minds.
7. My room has a bed, a desk, a dresser, and a wardrobe in which you can hang your clothes.
8. My family was poor but always ready to help their neighbors.
9. It is necessary to accept each tale as truth no matter how fantastic they may seem.
10. Ato Belayneh visited the man before he went to the party.
11. There was a rumor going around those worms constituted part of the hamburger meat, and it
was nasty.
12. The professor did not push his point further with the student because he was embarrassed.
13. On the night of July 14, the patriots stormed the doors of the prison, and they were smashed.
14. My mother and my sister went to the dentist to get her teeth fixed.
5. Punctuation and Capitalization
A) Punctuation
What do you think is punctuation? List down the punctuation marks you know in English along with
their functions.
Punctuation is the use of punctuation marks to indicate the pauses and gestures that we use in speech
to clarify and emphasize meaning. In English, the most frequently used punctuation marks are:period
(full stop), comma, question mark, exclamation point, semi colon, colon, quotation marks, ellipsis and
others.
1. Period (Full stop) (.): A period is a punctuation mark that is used to end a declarative or an
imperative sentence.
Example: Money is necessary, but you need not sell your soul for it. (Declarative)
Send me your address as soon as possible. (Imperative)
It is also used after abbreviations like Mr., Ms., Dr., St. as in Mr. Ones, Mrs. Smith, Ms. Evans, Dr.
Peter and St. Louis.
2.Comma (,):A comma is a punctuation mark that is used more frequently in a piece of writing than
any other punctuation marks. It has different functions. Its main role in a given sentence or groups of
words or phrases is to indicate to readers a slightest pause.

3. Question Mark (?): The question mark closes an interrogative sentence or other sentences with
interrogative meaning. It is used for different purposes.
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  To indicate direct question. Example: Can you go with me to the movies tonight?
 Used at the end of a statement that has an interrogative meaning. Example: You think you
will be able to get away?
 Used after a title that is interrogative phrase or sentence. Example: After Graduation –
what?
4. The Semi-colon (;): A semi-colon is a punctuation mark which is used to join two closely related
independent (main) clauses that are not connected by coordinating conjunctions. Though it is not
always, a semi-colon can replace a full stop (a period) in separating two independent clauses. The
distinct feature of a semi-colon is that it appears only between equals (clauses of the same rank or
items in a coordinate series).
Example:1. The project began slowly; additional staffs were assigned to it.
2. Right means straight; wrong means twisted.
A semicolon is also used to separate elements in a series when some of the elements already contain
commas.
Example: Chala wishes us to attend the first, third, and fifth sessions on Wednesday; the second,
fourth and sixth sessions on Thursday; and the first only on Friday.
Besides, semi-colon separates main clauses joined by transitional devices like furthermore, therefore,
nevertheless, however, for instance, for example etc.
Example: 1. Money is necessary; nevertheless, you shouldn’t sell your life for it.
2. Most Ethiopian farmers use compost; however, modern farmers use commercial fertilizers.
5. The Colon (:): This is a punctuation mark usually used to introduce and prepare the reader for
something to follow.
Example: To write an essay, follow these steps: think of the topic you write about, plan how you
write, write the first draft, and then read to edit.
It is also used to introduce formal quotations and long explanations.
Example.1. He began his speech with these words: “My fellow countrymen, I want you to hear me.”

6. The Exclamation Point (!): used to show strong feeling. It also indicates a forceful command. It is
used after any statement, command or question to which a writer wants to add emotional force.
Example: 1. Help me!
2. What do you know about that!
3. What a beautiful sunset it is!
4. What a pretty dress you bought!
5. Oh! The man I was talking about is coming.

7. The Quotation Marks (“”): used to enclose any word, phrase, sentence or text of other body’s less
than four lines, and to enclose unfamiliar slang and other unusual or original expressions. The
expressions can be technical words in general writing or slang in formal writing
Examples: Gabriel Garica Marquez once said, “It is much more important to write than to be written
about.”
I am the “baby” in my family

8. Ellipsis (…): are three dots used to indicate omission of materials from a quotation. They could be
used anywhere in a given text (quotation) where the omission is made. They can appear at the
beginning, in the middle or at the end of a quotation. When they are used at the end, the number of
dots will be four. The last (fourth) dot is a full stop (period) that closes the sentence.
Example: A split infinitive has a word or several words between the ‘to’ and the ‘verb’ following it.
Splitting an infinitive is generally considered incorrect….

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Exercise
Rewrite the following sentences, using appropriate punctuation marks.
1. She will attend the meeting later today
2. Gandhi the father of the Nation lived and died for the poor.
3. The manager said I wish you good luck
4. The Indian put a fish in each hill of corn however, modern farmers use commercial fertilizers
5. His direction was as follows go out of the town north to the main road. When you come to the
T-junction, turn left and go five hundred meters. The hotel is in front of you.
6. He asked will you study with me tonight
7. Oh What a beautiful morning it is
8. I wonder what he is doing right now
9. Closing the book with a sign, my friend exclaimed I love that poem
B) Capitalization: is the use of capital letters to make special emphasis on particular letters to set
them off from lower case letters. A letter is capitalized:
 when it is the first letter of the opening word of any sentence
 when it is the first letter of the opening word of a direct quotation that is a complete sentence
 when it begins the first word of a sentence with in a parenthesis or a dash that can stand on its
own
 if it is the first letter of proper nouns
 provided that it is the initial letter of titles used along with proper nouns
Examples: He came home after his last examination.
Will you please send me your latest catalog?
Help me please!
The king said, “Show me a wise man and I’ll show you an old one.”
The singer I like most is Aster Awoke.(proper name)
My sister left for Japan last week
In England there are two dominant political parties–the Conservative Party and the Labor Party.
I pray to God! He is Almighty.
Introduction to Ethiopian Literature (title initials of content words)
6. Joining Sentences
One of the mechanisms to keep the interest of our readers is by varying the length of our
sentences. To do this, we should combine two or more short sentences using coordination and
subordination.
A. Coordination-is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In
a coordination, when sentences are combined they still remain independent clauses. The
linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are coordinating, correlative and adverb
conjunctions.
Coordinating Conjunctions- are conjunctions that are used with comma to join two or more
complete sentences. The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions are:

For: it shows a result-cause relationship between two independent clauses. It shows logical
consequence; it has the same meaning as because, the reason why.
And: shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the same meaning as in addition, along
with, moreover, further more.
Nor: shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition a negative point. (Note: you
must reverse the normal subject-verb positions in the second clause when using nor).
But: shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as however,
except on the other hand
11
Or: shows alternatives or choices.
Yet: shows oppositions, also shows emphasis (a stronger but)
So: shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result.
Example: Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
She studied hard, but she failed the exam.
Exercise: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1. A. The dog ate the food very fast.
B. The dog was very hungry.
2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idol.
B. The judges didn’t allow him to pass to next stage.
3. A. The farmer worked all day and night.
B. The farmer harvested a lot of crops.
B. Correlative Conjunctions- are coordinating words that work in pairs to join words,
phrases and sentences. The most common correlatives are:
Correlative Conjunctions Meaning
Either….or one of the two
Neither…nor none of the two
Both….and both
Whether….or dilemma/hesitation/confusion
Not only….but also both
Example: Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
Teachers should be not only intelligent but also friendly.
Exercise6: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using correlative conjunctions.
1. A. To go to Gondar, you can use a bus.
B. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.
2. A. Azeb is beautiful.
B. Azeb is honest.
3. A. I want to go to class.
B. I want to go to my appointment.(I am in confusion)
C. Adverb Conjunctions-are adverbs used to relate and connect main clauses in a
sentence. The common ones are:
also still consequently however indeed hence then otherwise
thus instead furthermore moreover likewise therefore nevertheless
Example: Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t have to stand in line.
Exercise: Join the following pairs of sentences using the appropriate conjunctive
adverbs.
1. A. Tell him to carry out his duties properly.
B. We will fire him.
2. A. He worked hard.
B. He became rich.
3. A. Computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo.
B. There will be thousands of new jobs available next year.
D. Subordination-is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same
sentence by using subordinators. In subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be
combined is reduced to a subordinate clause. The subordinators we use in subordination are:
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Subordinating Conjunctions-are kinds of conjunctions that join subordinate clauses with
independent clauses. When subordinating conjunctions are added at the beginning of
independent clause, the independent clause becomes dependent.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Cause Because since, as
Time Since, as, after, as soon as, before, when, while, once, whenever, as long as
Condition If, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, as though
Contrast Although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while
Result That, so that, in order that
Place Where, wherever
Comparison As, than, as……as
Example: I arrived late to work because the train was late.
After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.
If I were a bird, I would fly.
E. Relative Pronouns-Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used
to join subordinate clauses with independent clauses. They also introduce relative clauses.
What makes the subordinate clause in relative clause different from the other type of
subordinate clauses is that it is an adjective clause. In relative clauses, the adjective clauses
which are dependent clauses and modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause usually begin
with relative pronoun are who, whom, whose, which or that. The adjective clauses may be
restrictive (essential) or non- restrictive (non- defining) clauses. In the following sentence the
underlined parts are adjective clauses.
Example: The movie that I saw yesterday won a Grammy Award. (Restrictive adjective)
New York, which is America’s populous city, is one of the world’s leading commercial
centers. (Non- restrictive)
The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the harbor. (Restrictive)
Exercise: Join the following sentences using the most appropriate relative pronouns.
1. A. The woman has been arrested. B. Her child was accused of theft.
2. A. the thief has been caught .B. The police were looking for the thief.
3. A. Roberto is sure to win an art scholarship. B. Roberto is a talented portrait artist.
4. A. The medicine is very expensive. B. Helen needs the medicine.

UNIT TWO: Writing Effective Paragraphs

2.1. What is a paragraph?
We have tried to familiarize you with structure of English sentences. However, being able to
write correct sentences does not necessarily mean being able to write a correct paragraph. To
write at a paragraph level, you need to be able to write a coherent and unified series of
sentences that can convey a single idea.
Brainstorming activities: Try to answer the following questions before we are going to
deal with each of them.
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a. What is a paragraph?
b. How many sentences can a paragraph have?
c. How many topics should a paragraph talk about?
d. What is a topic sentence?
e. Where do you usually find a topic sentence of a paragraph?
g. What are supporting details?
Now, check your ideas with the description of a good paragraph given below.
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that present and develop one main idea. A
paragraph can stand alone, or it can be part of a longer piece of writing. Just as words are the
building blocks of sentence, sentences are the building blocks of longer forms of writing.
Thus, a paragraph is a unit of writing beyond a sentence level containing one main idea or
topic and sentences that develop the main idea. It is termed as unified because it has one
central idea and all the sentences in the paragraph should only talk about this central idea. A
good paragraph is well organized, is fully developed, has properly linked points and contains
sentences developing one idea.
In a paragraph, every word, every point and every sentence has a useful role to play in
fulfilling the purpose of the paragraph. The sentences in a paragraph should follow each other.
It is not a paragraph if every sentence begins on a new line. The length of a paragraph varies
according to the complexity of the main idea or theme to be developed. However, a well-
supported paragraph has about five to ten sentences or about 100 to 150 words.
2.2. Structure of a Paragraph
Structure of a paragraph refers to the components of a paragraph. A paragraph contains three
major parts: a topic sentence (introduction), supporting sentences (body) and a concluding
sentence.
 Topic sentence: a sentence which expresses the main idea of a paragraph that tells the
readers what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence usually begins the paragraph. It
can also appear in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.
 Supporting sentences: are a group of sentences which develop/ expand the topic sentence
(general idea) with specific information. They can be developed by:
- Explaining or restating ideas
- Providing facts /evidences
- Giving specific examples and /or illustrations
- Adding specific details, etc.
Concluding sentence: the sentence that ends a paragraph by summarizing the main points or
restating the crucial point,or by giving a final thought or comment on the issue under
consideration.
Activity: Examine the following paragraphs and answer the questions that follow.
Paragraph 1: Barefoot Boy
I had a scary experience when I was a young boy. One evening, while my parents were eating
dinner, I was playing barefoot in the yard with my toys. While I was sitting on the grass and
playing with a truck, I looked up at the sky, and my attention was distracted by the beauty of
the stars. Then I felt something cold and smooth slide over my feet. I stayed perfectly still, but
I looked down at my feet. Then I saw a snake slowly slithering over my toes. I felt terrible and
afraid, so my heart beats very fast. After the snake moved away, I screamed to my parents for
help, and they captured the snake and took it away. The experience frightened me, and I never
went outside barefoot again.
1. What is the topic sentence? Where is it? At the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the
paragraph?
2. How many supporting sentences are there?
3. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
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4. Write the concluding sentence below.
Paragraph 2:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First Canada
has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a
reasonable price. Second Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by
well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at universities. Finally,
Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed. They have many parks and lots of spaces
for people to leave. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.
1. What could be the topic of the paragraph?
2. What is the topic sentence?
3. How many supporting sentences are there?
4. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
5. Write the concluding sentence below.
As stated so far, a paragraph contains only one main idea or topic. Topics should be neither
narrow nor wide but should be moderate enough to be fully developed. Look at the following
examples of broad topics which have been gradually narrowed down to specific ones.
Example 1
1. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia
2. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian Higher Institutions
3. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian University
4. Anti HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Ethiopian Universities
5. Anti HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Madawalabu University
Here, the last topic (topic No 5) is the most specific and appropriate for adequate
development.
Example 2
1. The Problem of University Students
2. The Academic Problem of University Students
3. The Language Problem of University Students
4. The Language Problem of Madawalabu University Students
5. The Language Problem of First Year Madawalabu University Students
6. The Writing Problem First Year Madawalabu University Students
7. The Problem of Taking Notes of First Year English Department of Madawalabu
University Students
8. My Problems in Taking Notes
The title in number 8 is narrowed down to a specific one ‘My problems in taking notes’.
My Problems in Taking Notes
I have hard time while taking notes during my Nursing class. The instructor talks so fast that I
cannot keep up with him. He has a soft voice and I miss lots of things. He never writes on the
blackboard like other instructors. He also talks everything in the same tone and never
emphasizes the important points. Because of this, I have trouble in separating the important
points from the rest. Thus, I have decided to listen and write my notes from reference
materials.
Activity: Comment on the following topics of a paragraph
1. A surprise party is a kind of party
2. There were 14 guests at my surprise birthday party
3. My classmates gave me an unforgettable surprise party for my 18th birthday
2.3. Essentials/Characteristics of a Good Paragraph
A good paragraph has the following characteristics: unity, coherence andcompleteness.
1. Unity
Brainstorming activity: 1.What do you think is unity in a paragraph?
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2. How can unity be achieved in a paragraph?
Unity refers to the idea that all points and the sentences in a paragraph are related to and
aimed at developing the topic sentence of the paragraph. Unity is achieved by advancing a
single point and sticking to that pointwith examples, details, steps or definitions.
Example 1:
Topic sentence: My friend Meaza is generous.
Supporting sentences: She often lets travelers stay in her home. She has hosted many
students temporarily. She sends money to her family in Jimma every month to help them with
their bills. She always brings food or items to her friends when they are sick or have a need.
Concluding sentence: Generally, Meaza is one of the most generous people I know.
Notice that all sentences are about Meaza’s generosity. A sentence about the way she looks or
about her job will not support the unity of the paragraph unless it somehow relates to her
generosity.
Activity
A. Read the following topic sentences and circle the sentence that is deviating from the
controlling idea. Write your reasons in the blank spaces.
1. There are several reasons why online courses are increasing in popularity.
a. Online courses are flexible in terms of time.
b. Online courses have been available since 1990s.
c. Online courses are more convenient for students who live faraway from the
campus.

2. Train stations are interesting places to visit

a. The architecture of each train station is often connected to the history of a city.
b. The passengers are frequently more interested to watch than other types of
travelers.
c. Using trains is a good alternative for people who are afraid of flying.
Examine the organization of the following paragraphs and answer the questions below
it.
1. Native Americans cultivated and developed many plants. Among them were white potatoes,
sweet potatoes, corn, beans tobacco, chocolate, peanuts, cotton, rubber and gum. Native
Americans were also expert builders and tanners. Some of the plants were used for dyes,
medicines, soap, clothes, shelter and baskets.
2. My composition class is in the old building. The classroom walls are white and the desks
and chairs are brown. There are large windows in one wall. The chalkboard is in the front of
the room near the door. My composition class is difficult and I do not like to write
compositions. The classroom is cool in warm weather and warm in winter. I like my
classroom.
1. Underline the topic sentence.
2. One sentence in the paragraph is irrelevant. Identify.
3. Why is the sentence irrelevant?
2. Coherence
Brainstorming Activities: Try to answer the following questions before you read the notes.
a) What is coherence, and how can we achieve coherence in a paragraph?
b) What are the functions of cohesive devices?
c) List the linking devices you know with their functions.
Coherence refers to the logical flow/ proper linkage of ideas in a paragraph, and this can be
maintained by appropriate use of linking devices.
Note: Cohesion can be achieved by the using linking devices such as transitional expressions,
pronouns, synonyms and repeated words. Cohesive devices have different functions. But
16
generally they help to make writing clear, natural and easy to read. They are used to link parts
of a sentence or separate sentences and in showing the relationship between the ideas or facts
the writer is expressing.
A paragraph must have coherence. This means that the supporting details are organized so
that information that goes together appears together. A true paragraph is not just a set of
sentences put together, but sentences which are interlinked with each other. These interlinked
sentences provide coherence to the paragraph. .
Example 1:
(1)When I was a freshman in high school, I enjoyed most of my courses. (2) Physical
education, to be sure, I didn’t like, probably because I was small for my age then, and rather
frail. (3) But English was easy for me, as I had always been a great reader. (4) I found
algebra mostly fun, even, as I am naturally good at figures and logically relationships. (5) It
was biology, however, that I enjoyed most of all; this study of animals and plants opened a
whole new world to me. Generally speaking, I performed well in most of the subject.

As you can notice in the example paragraph, the phrase to be sure in sentence 2 indicates that
the writer’s attitude towards physical education is the exception to the general claim of
enjoyment in the topic sentence. The word but at the beginning of sentence 3 shows that the
attitude towards English is in contrast to that expressed about physical education in sentence
2. The word even in the middle of sentence 4 stresses the fact that algebra is pleasurable too,
despite what many students feel about it. In sentence 5, however indicates that the feeling
toward biology is again in contrast to that expressed in the preceding sentence, and most of all
tells us that this subject is held in the highest regard.
Note: These devices are not needed in every sentence, but they should be used frequently.
There are four significant ways of achieving paragraph coherence.
I. Using connectives
Connectives are words and phrases that writers use to make smooth transition from one idea
to another within a paragraph. They are also called transitional devices or cohesive devices.
Some of them are mentioned below with their functions.
1) Addition : and, furthermore, moreover, besides, again, likewise, similarly, also, in
addition, what is more, what is worse, next, the other reason
2) Contrast : but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, though,
even though, although
3) Result/conclusion: therefore, hence, thus, consequently, as a result, in summary,
4) Enumeration: firstly, second,(ly)
5) Sequence : first, second, third, last, then finally, next
6) Time : in the meantime, then, later, soon, next, after, before, as, while, now, during,
finally
7) Space : above, below, beside, behind, in front of, next, across, the opposite side, to the
left, nearby
8) Illustration : Namely, that is, for instance, for example, specifically, such as
Transitional words signal the direction of a writers thought. They are like the road signs that
guide travelers. Writers often use time, space or order of importance to present the
supporting information in a paragraph coherently. The following example is organized by
space.
When you drive into the airport, you will see many signs for the different terminals. After you
pass the signs, you drive over a hill. On your right you will see the international terminal.
This terminal is two stories tall. The front is all glass. On the left, you will see the domestic
terminals.
Activities

17
A. Read the paragraph below. Then circle the word that best describes the way the
paragraph is organized.
My favorite restaurant is in an old house. My husband and I enjoy eating there on summer
evenings. We usually walk from our house so we can enjoy our neighbor’s gardens and get a
little bit of exercise. The afternoon sun shines through the trees, but it is not too bright. We
arrive at dusk, and if we are lucky, we can sit outside. The waiter brings a basket of warm
bread and a cold drink. We have an appetizer or a salad while the sun goes down. Then the
waiter lights the candles while we enjoy the main course. By the time we finish desert it is
right time. We walk home slowly, feeling full but happy in the moonlight.
Time:_____________________________Space:______________________________
Order: _________________________________
B. Underline the cohesive devices in the following paragraphs and then state the
direction they give to readers.
Paragraph 1
After you’ve snagged the job of TV sports reporter, you have to begin working on the details
of your image. First invest in two or three truly loud sports jackets. Look for gigantic plaid
patterns in odd color combinations like purple and green or orange and blue. These should
become familiar enough to viewers so that they will associate that crazy jacket with that
dynamic sportscaster. Next, try to cultivate a distinctive voice that will be just annoying
enough to be memorable. Be sure to speak only in tough, punchy sentences that seem to be
punctuated with imaginary exclamation points. Finally, you must share lots of pompous,
obnoxious opinions with your viewers. You tone of voice must covey the hidden message “I
dare anyone to disagree with me.”
Paragraph 2
Supermarkets also use psychology to encourage you to buy. For example, in most
supermarkets, the milk and the bread are either at opposite ends of the store or located far
away from the first aisle. Even if you have stopped at the market only for staples like these,
you must pass hundreds of items in order to reach them. The odds are that instead of leaving
with just a quart of milk, you will leave with additional purchases as well. Special displays
such as a pyramid of canned green beans in an aisle and a large end display of cartons of
paper towels, also increase sales. Because you assume that these items are a good buy, you
may pick them up. However they may not even be on sale! Store managers know that the
customer is automatically attracted to a display like this and they will use it to move an
overstocked product.
II. Repeating words
You might have been taught not to repeat words in writing. However, repeating key words
helps you tie together the flow of thought in your writing.
Example:
Capital can build irrigation canals in India, supply pumps and tube-wells to tap the fresh
water under the saline marshes of the Indus river basin in West Pakistan. Capital can supply
tools, machinery, pesticides, and fertilizers and provide training in modern methods. Most
important of all, foreign capital can create an atmosphere that is conducive to self-help. In the
countless analysis of the subject, one fact stands out: the lack of incentive in the poverty
stricken, potentially rich, farm lands of the third world. Capital generates incentive by
producing goods and creating demand and it widest the distribution of the fruits of labour.
As you can see the key word “capital” is repeated to achieve coherence of the paragraph.
III. Using pronouns
Pronouns (he, she, it, they and others) are another ways to connect ideas in a paragraph.
Pronouns have transitional values by referring to their antecedents. Also using pronouns in
place of other words can help you avoid needless repetition. .
18
Pasteur proved that he was right by a very simple and clever experiment. He put some soup in
to some bottles and then he boiled it in order to destroy any germs that might already be in
the soup. After that, he heated and pulled out the neck of each bottle until it formed a long
narrow neck with a big bend in the middle.
IV. Using Synonyms
Synonyms are words alike in meaning. Using synonyms can also help you move easily from
one thought to the next. In addition, the use of synonyms increases variety and interest by
avoiding needless repetition. Note how the writer used synonyms to achieve paragraph
coherence in the following example.
There are several methods of fund-raising that work well with small organizations. One
technique is to hold an auction, with everyone either contributing an item from home or
obtaining a donation from a sympathetic local merchant. Because all the merchandise and the
service of the auctioneer have been donated, the entire proceeds can be placed in the
organizations treasury. A second fund-raising procedure is a car wash. Club members and
their children get together on a Saturday and wash all the cars in the neighborhood for a few
dollars apiece. A third time-tested way to raise money is to hold a bake sale, with each family
contributing homemade cookies, brownies, layer cakes, or cupcakes. Sold by the piece or by
the box, these baked goods will satisfyingly fill both the stomach and the pocketbook.
Generally, coherence in a paragraph means that the ideas have a logical flow: the relationship
between the sentences is clear and one idea connects to the next. All the ideas fit together in a
logical flow.
Exercises
A. Underline the sentence(s) that violates unity in the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
(1) I live in a flat with my family. (2) We have two bedrooms and a living room. (3) We have a
garden and we have some flowers there. (4) In weekdays I arrive home at five o’clock and I
have lunch. (5) Then I do my homework and go to bed. (6) I had a computer, but now it
doesn’t work. (7) I have a brother and a sister and I think I am very lucky to leave with them
in the flat. (8) Sometimes our relatives visit us and (9) our flat sometimes becomes very
crowded. However, I like it.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Paragraph 2
(1) I am a Thai girl living in the USA, and there many adjustments that I must make. (2) First
of all, I must get used to a new kind of food. (3) I am learning to eat a lot of hamburgers
because they are not expensive and they are easy to buy. (4) The people are different and I am
learning to meet new foreign friends. (5) For example two of my new friends are from
Pakistan. (6) Pakistan is also an interesting country to visit. (7) The weather requires another
kind of adjustment. (8) Some days it is hot just as in my country, but on other days it is cold
and this is very strange for me. (9) I came to us to study and I enjoy my classes and my
teachers. I am adjusting to the USA in many ways, but it is not a problem for me because I
like to know about different places and people.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
B. Read the following paragraphs. Then list the transitional devices used to achieve the
coherence. Explain their specific function in the paragraphs.
Paragraph 1

19
 The Hazards of Movie Going
(1)Although I love movies, going to see them derives me slightly crazy. (2) For one thing,
getting to the theatre means that I have a thirty- minute drive down a congested highway.
(3)Then with a popular movie, I usually have to wait in a long line at the ticket booth.
(4)Another problem is that the theatre itself is seldom a pleasant place to be. (5)A nasty smell
suggests that there has been no fresh air in the theatre since it was built. (6)Half of the seats
seem to be falling apart. (7)And the floor often has a sticky coating that gets on your shoes.
(8)The problem of all is some of the other moviegoers.(9)Kids run up down the aisle.
(10)Teenagers laugh and shout at the screen. (11)People of all ages loudly drop soda cans
and popcorn tubs, cough and burp, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of your
seat. (12)All in all I would rather stay at home and wait for the latest movie hits to appear on
TV in the safety and comfort of my own living room.
A. Transitional devices:________________________________________________________
B.Sentence:__________________________________________________________________
C. Specific Functions: ______________________________________________
Paragraph 2
(1)For people who would like to act in the theater, there are several important rules to
remember. (2) One rule, often forgotten, is to make sure you face your audience when you are
on stage. (3) If you turn away from the audience, they cannot see your facial expressions. (4)
Next, make sure that you speak loudly enough. (5) If your audience has difficulty hearing you,
they will quickly lose interest. (6) Another important point is to memorize your lines. (7)
Rehearse them often in the taxi, in the mirror while you walk to the class so that you
remember them. (8) Finally, perhaps the most important rule of all is to remain calm on stage
if you forget your lines. (9) Don’t panic and stop speaking because the audience will notice.
(10) Instead make up something to say until you remember your next line. As long as you
continue speaking and appear relaxed, the audience will probably not realize that you have
made a mistake. (12) In conclusion, following these rules will help you ensure a successful
stage performance.
A. Cohesive devices: ______________________________________________________
B.Sentence:______________________________________________________________
C. Specific Functions: _____________________________________________________
C. One sentence is missing from each short paragraph below. Choose the sentence that
best completes the paragraph.
1. In many ways the invention of e-mail and computers has motivated many young people to
take up letter writing. E-mail makes it fun and easy to get in touch with far away friends.
_______________________________________________. For this reason fewer people are
sending letters through the mail.
a. I bought a new computer last week.
b. Furthermore, e-mail is convenient and essentially free.

2. Books on tape have become very popular in our fast-paced society. One of the
reasons is that people do not have the time to sit still and read.
____________________.Some listens while jogging out doors or exercising in
the gym. Therefore, a book on tape makes for a great gift idea for the active book
lover.

a. Stephen king’s latest book is available in this format.

b. In fact, many people listen to these tapes while driving to and from work.
D. The following sentences are from a paragraph. Some of them are out of
orders. Number them from 1-10 so that they can show logical time order.
20
a. My family hugged me and cried because I had been gone so long.
b. I will never forget one day when I have to travel alone on the subway.
c. I was pregnant, and I had to go to an appointment at the hospital
d. When my appointment ended, I got on the subway to go home.
e. That is why my surrounding looked unfamiliar.
f. My appointment was at 1:00 p.m.
g. Suddenly I looked up and did not know where I was.
h. I was exhausted and fell asleep on my way home.
i. Then I realized that I had fallen asleep.
j. It took me five more hours to get back to my home.
The logical order is b,c,f,d,h,g,a,I,e, j
____

E. Put the following jumbled sentences in a logical order so that they can make
unified and coherent paragraph.
a. The first year can be a tiring time for parents.
b. Consequently, the child bonds equally with both the mother and the father.
c. Some children suffer from colic, which makes them cry for long hours and refuse to
go to sleep.
d. When the child is older, co parents both participate in the daily routines of care
giving: cooking, feeding, bathing, entertaining, and discipline.
e. Many American couples today have chosen not to follow the traditional way of
being parents, in which the mother serves as the primary care giver.
f. Both father and mother take family leave when the body is born, and both feed and
change the newborn.
g. During its first year, a baby is very demanding.
The logical order is e,a,c,g,f,d,b
____________
3.Completeness
Completeness is related to how explanation an idea requires and it depends on how
much the reader needs. When there is incompleteness, there is an error by giving
either too much explanation or not enough. Giving a reader unnecessary explanation
may be boring, but giving too little may block communication.

Organization of a Paragraph
An effective paragraph is the result of carefully selected and properly ordered details.
Different techniques of organizing details create different effects. In writing a
paragraph, you may order details by using one of these orders: spatial order, order of
importance, or order of impression.
a) Spatial Order
 What kind of order is spatial order?
This is a way of organizing a paragraph with respect to spatial relations between
ideas.
Example:
My bedroom is very cozy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls.
Below the north window is my double bed covered with an imitation leopard skin bed
spread. To the left of the bed against the wall is a walnut night stand with a reading
lamp, a clock a radio. At the foot of the bed is a wooden stand holiday my portable
black-and-white TV and stereo. In all four corners of the room, my speakers are
mounted just below the ceiling. Behind the wooden stand and in front of the closet
21
 are three red bean bag chairs that are sagging from years of use. On the east and
west walls are posters of rock groups, and a family of stuffed monkeys sits on the
north and south window ledges. My room is small and cluttered and has that “lived
in” feeling I like.
As the paragraph shows, the details of the paragraph are organized in spatial order.
The paragraph also gives detail information about the position of one object in
relation to the other in the scene.
b) Time (Chronological) Order
 What does chronological order in a paragraph organization mean?

It is a way of organizing a paragraph in relating with time. This means that it is

presenting ideas based on their happenings one after the other.

Example:
Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 a. m. to attend an Easter sunrise
service. Then I had duties at the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon I
visited the Manor Rest Home and talked to shut-ins who seldom have visitors. Then I
went to my aunt’s for dinner and played cards with Uncle Herman until about 9:00
p.m. Then I drove up into the hills with my family for a special Easter midnight chapel
service in the pines. We stayed in a mountain cabin with ten other people that night
and didn’t get to sleep until after 2:00 a. m. I was exhausted after twenty one hours of
activity.

c) Emphatic Order (Order of Importance)

 What is emphatic order?
It is a method of organizing details which writers use when they want to show readers
that some details are more significant than others. Details can be written (sequenced)
by placing the most important ones before the least important.
Example:
Our apartment needs a lot of fixing up. First, we’ve got to fix the leaky roof before the
September rains come. Next, need to patch the big holes in the bedroom walls and
then strip the peeling paint off the walls. Then we can repaint the apartment. After the
walls are painted, we can work on replacing the linoleum squares in the kitchen that
are loose or cracked. Later the living room carpet needs shampooing, and we should
replace that old sway backed sofa. Then we won’t be embarrassed to have company
over once in a while.
d) Size Order
This is a way of organizing ideas based on the size of objects or things to be
developed in a paragraph.

Types of Paragraph
There are four basic types of paragraph in English. They are descriptive, narrative,
expository and argumentative (persuasive) paragraph.
1. Descriptive Paragraph
Descriptive paragraph is a paragraph which clearly and vividly portrays the image of
an object, a place, a scene, a person or spiritual aspects of a person (feeling, emotion,
attitude etc). It uses details that concentrated on the five senses such as hearing, smell,
taste and touch.
When writing a descriptive paragraph, writers use appropriate words which clearly
describe the image and nature of the thing described. The most appropriate and
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commonly used words and expressions are describers such as adjectives, adverbs,
adverbial phrases etc.
Example:
Mekuria is a well-known local man. He is both wealthy and generous – he is also a
very handsome man and popular with the women of the area. Mekuria lives in a huge,
rectangular house on the green banks of Lake Tana. Mekuriaworks in a nearby Bahir
Dar and every morning he drives into town in his expensive, excellent – new Toyota
Amazon. He lives alone. He does not have a wife. He doesn’t have children. He lives
alone with Toto, a beautiful vibrant yellow bird with pink-red eyes black-coloured
feet and very red beak.
As the above paragraph shows, almost all the describing words and phrases are
adjectives. The adjectives used to describe the man are well-known, wealthy,
generous, handsome and popular. The adjectives employed to modify the house are
huge and rectangular. The describing words used to express the car are expensive,
excellentand new. Words and phrases used to describe the bird are beautiful,
vibrant, yellow, pink-red, black-colored and very red.
In descriptive writing, a person, a place or object can be described.
A) Describing a person
When describing a person, it is possible to describe him or her in terms of his or her
physical appearance, behavior, particular characteristics (such as intelligence,
wisdom, creativity and social interaction) etc. It is also possible to describe a person
based on the role and responsibilities he has in the family, society, organization etc.
Example 1:
Christ Morley is one of the original seven British Airways Concorde Pilots. He is
central Casting’s idea of a Senior airline Captain, 47, glamorously grey, firm of jaw,
calm of voice, with a lean athletic build and mien of command and reassurance. He
earns more than £ 16,000 a year which still puts him low in the league in comparison
with foreign captains. He has four children, a pretty wife, a spacious house, and an
11-year-old Renault 16, which he now gets in to drive to Heathrow.
B. Describing an Object
In describing objects, you can deal with either the physical appearance or the
function, or both. When you describe an object in terms of the physical appearance,
you describe it mentioning its attributes as size, shape, colour, texture, material, type
etc. when you describe it in terms of its function you mention its uses in detail. Look
at the examples given below, and notice how the paragraphs are developed.
Example 2:
Here are the hammock’s vital statistics. It is free standing, easily and quickly
assembled and dismantled. The ‘weather-sealed’ frame may be left out in the open,
and the fabric token indoors after use. The fabric is of non-fading, red, green, blue
and white striped, rot-proof thread. The overall length of the tubular frame is 7ft 10
in. The hammock itself is 6 ft long and 20 in wide at the head, 22 in wide at the foot.
The ropes are of strong rot-proof poly propylene. The hammock is 2 ft above the
ground and it has been tasted to carry up to 25016 weights. It is easily transportable
in a car as the overall length of the dismantled frame is only 3 ft and the whole pack
weighs about 15 ℓb.
Example 3:
A piston pump consists of a cylinder, a piston connected to a handle, an inlet value
and an on let check value. The piston is pushed down wards to force air out through
the out let value. Then the piston is pushed upwards to suck air in through the inlet
value. On the return down ward stroke, the inlet check value is forced against the
23
piston wall, thus preventing any air from escaping; while the out let check value
opens to allow the air to flow through the connecting tube. Pumping is continued by
moving the position up and down in the cylinder.
B) Describing a Place
In describing places, the main issues you raise in the description are the location of
the place described, things that are found in the place, the position of the things and
the appearance of the place.
Example 4:
From north to south across the region, there are five major zones. First there is a
narrow coastal plain, immediately behind which there are coastal ranges up to a
thousand feet high. Behind these ranges, there is a wide zone of Intermontane low
land, which is intersected by extensive alluvial plains. Finally, there are the inland
ranges, running parallel to the coast, and rising to 12,000 feet at the highest point.
2) Narrative Paragraph
Narrative paragraph is a type of discourse writing that reports an account of events in
the past. It is a reporting of a series of happenings, incidents, actions and events.
Since it is concerned with time and action, it is presented following chronological
order. The most commonly used verb forms in narrative writing are simple past and
past perfect though it is possible to use other verb forms too.
Example 1:
My first step onto the bus was filled with fear. I had never taken the bus alone
before, but I was reassured by an old guy who smiled at me, so I sat next to him. I
couldn’t help noticing the many wrinkles on his face and obviously out-of-style
clothes he wore. I took out my cookies and thought that mom would have wanted me
to offer him one. He said no, mentioning not being able to chew well. I couldn’t
imagine not being able to chew sweets. I was feeling a little uncomfortable, but he got
off soon. He walked away slowly as if it hurt to move. It was really sad, and I
realized, I was lucky to be young and healthy.
Example 2:
Max boarded the bus and paid the fare. He took a seat next to an elderly man, took off
his mittens, and let his feet swing in the air. Staring down at him, the man could sense
Max’s nervousness. Max took out a bag of cookies his mom had baked for him and
offered one to the stranger. The gray-haired fellow pleasantly said, “No, Thank you,
but my teeth can’t chew them.” Max was a little upset by the man’s condition and he
watched the senior citizen slowly and painfully departs the bus at the next stop. The
aged man knew that he had left an impression on the future.
Activity
Read the following sentences. Then number them in the order you think they
occurred. Use the sequence words and phrases as clues.
a. A few years ago, my two older brothers and I went trekking in the mountains.
b. Finally, I found the muddy trail, and we made it back to our base camp.
c. Soon we were hiking through thick pine forests.
d. After that experience, I realized it is very important to be careful when hiking in
the mountains.
e. We set out from base camp on a bright winter morning.
f. A little while later, we stopped to eat, and my oldest brother said we should turn
around because we were losing the trail in show.
g. Eventually, it began to snow, and visibility became poor.
h. Going back down the mountain was harder because it was icy

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The correct order is
__________________________________________________________
3. Expository Paragraph
This is the other type of paragraph in which facts are presented, information is
explained and concepts or ideas are expressed in detail. As its name implies,
expository paragraph exposes and explains topics, ideas, thoughts or issues. It is the
most frequently used type of written discourse. When students answer essay
questions, when they give written instructions, define terms, express the cause and
effect of something, when explaining process; comparing and contrasting things, and
when classifying topics, they often use expository writing. Since it is usually factual,
expository paragraph is free from the emotion of the writer.
Example:
Behavioral scientists have found that a child’s emotional health is strongly affected
by the number of brothers and sisters he or she has. Emotional health means the
ability of a person to cope intellectually and emotionally with everyday stress. Several
studies of elementary and high school children have shown that youngsters in small
family get along more happily with their brothers and sisters, as well as their parents,
than youngsters in a large family. They are less liable to suffer emotional upsets and
much less likely to end up in a mental hospital. A survey of state hospitals in
Maryland revealed that mental illness among children in two-parent families
increases with the number of children in the family.
Activity
Now Read the Following Paragraph and Analyze Its Features Based on the
Questions Given Below It.
What children eat can affect their health. Children who do not eat enough foods
containing vitamin A can develop serious nutritional disorders. Of the effects caused
by vitamin A deficiency, those involving eye diseases are the most pronounced and
widespread. Several thousand children became blind each year because of this
dietary deficiency, which is most prevalent in poor, non industrialized countries.
Another result of vitamin A deficiency is skin dryness.
1. What is the topic of the paragraph?
___________________________________________________________
2. Which sentence contains the most important idea in the paragraph?
___________________________________________________________________
____________________

3. How is the paragraph developed?

____________________________________________________________
4. Argumentative (Persuasive) Paragraph
Argumentative paragraph is a paragraph in which you try to show that your idea or
belief is more acceptable than another idea. In this kind of paragraph, writers attempt
to influence readers to accept their idea and think or act in certain way. In developing
an argumentative paragraph, you need to employ logical reasoning and concrete
evidences by stating facts, giving sound reasons, using examples or/and quoting
experts.
When we state evidences, hearsays, personal opinion, speculations are not effective.
Thus, in argumentative paragraph, using reliable evidences which are relevant,
unbiased, up-to-date, complete and verifiable is very important.
Now look at the following two paragraphs about the solution of the growing
problem of trash disposal. Which paragraph is more convincing and why?
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Example 1:
Americans have developed a throwaway mindset. We are too accustomed to throwing
away everything. You name it; we throw it away. Many people think recycling is the
answer, but it is not enough. We need to reduce the amount of waste we produce as
well. We need to change our disposable lifestyle. And one way to do that is to
discourage the throwaway habit by charging households and businesses for the
amount of trash they create.
Example 2:
We live in a throwaway society. Each day, all day long, we dispose of things –
napkins, paper bags, diapers, juice boxes, and razors - more than three pounds of
trash per person per day. Of the approximately 160 million tons of garbage American
produce each year, only about 10 percent is recycled. The rest goes into about 6,000
landfills, one – third of which are nearly full. What’s more, people do not want
pollution – causing landfills started in their communities. More recycling can help,
but it won’tbe enough. We also need to produce less trash, and one way to encourage
people to reduce the amount of trash they produce is to charge them for it.
As you can see the above examples, the first paragraph is developed without the use
of supporting evidences. The second paragraph is more specific and uses concrete
examples and statistics as evidences; that is, it is developed by the use of supporting
evidences. Thus, it is more convincing than the paragraph in example one.
Methods of Paragraph Development
A writer can employ various paragraph developing techniques according to the
nature of the topic. Thus, in this section, we will introduce you with the most common
methods of paragraph development.
1. The Method of Definition
This method is used when a term in a topic sentence is explained at some length.
Mostly the terms defined at length are abstract, unfamiliar or unknown words. When
defining such kinds of words, a writer describes or explains the unknown term by
relating it to something known or concrete.
Example:
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s point of view. It is a
great asset in a police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being
closed-minded. It will help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal
incident. Empathy eliminates bias; instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and
sympathetic human relations.
2. The Method of Illustration
This is a paragraph developing technique which writers employ to help readers
understand a more general idea with something specific. It is a method of developing
paragraph by giving examples to readers to help them understand an idea easily.
Example:
Science has helped us get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. For
example, advancement in the field of psychology have enabled effective cures for
many mental elements like claustrophobia, schizophrenia etc. Similarly, many other
discoveries in science have made it possible to cure terrible diseases such as malaria,
small pox, pneumonia and tuberculosis.
As you can see in the paragraph, the writer illustrated the general ideas stated in the
topic sentence by presenting instances that helped to get rid of many sicknesses of the
mind and the body. All the sentences beginning from sentence two are examples used
to illustrate the idea in the topic sentence.
3. The Method of Comparison
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This is a paragraph developing technique which is used to show the similarity
between two things. It compares the similar aspects or qualities of two subjects.
Notice how a paragraph and an essay are compared below.
Example:
Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite
similar structurally. For example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic
introducer followed by topic sentence. In an essay, the first paragraph provides
introductory material and establishes the topic focus. Next, the sentences in the body
of an essay consist of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the idea
presented in the introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator, whether it is a
restatement, conclusion or observation ends the paragraph. The essay too, has a
device which brings its ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying completion:
the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may be
observed in modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and
essays are comparable in structure.
4. The Method of Contrast.
The method of contrast is a way of developing a paragraph by showing the
differences exist between two subjects.
Example:
Antarctica differs from the Arctic regions, which are better known to us and easier to
reach. The North Pole is crossed daily by commercials airlines, whereas not a single
commercial airliner operates over Antarctica. The Arctic is an ocean with drifting ice
and hemmed in by the continents of North America, Asia, and Europe, The Antarctic,
on the other hand, is a continent as large as Europe and the United States put
together, and surrounded entirely by oceans- the Atlantic, theIndian, and the Pacific.
More than a million persons live with 2,000 miles of the North Pole, and the area is
rich in forest and industry. There are animals and birds of many varieties. Within the
same distance of the South Pole, there are no settlement a part from scientific
stations, which are entirely dependent on outside supplies for every need. There is not
a single tree and not a single animal. It takes 70 to 80 years to grow an inch of moss.
The writer discussed the differences between the two regions, Antarctica and Arctic,
in terms of their location and what they possess.
5. The Method of Cause and Effect
This is a method of developing idea that looks for the relationship between two
actions or two events of which one is the reason and the other the result.
During the past five years, the number of persons killed annually in car accidents has
risen to more than 55,000. This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be
attributed to general causes. Mechanical failures, especially, those related to faulty
brakes and bald tires, account for a significant number of fatal accidents.
Environmental conditions such as blind corners, narrow streets and heavy roads also
contribute to the grisly accident statistics. But without doubt, the most frequently
reported factors in car accidents are errors of human judgment, all the way from
follies such as excessive speed and drunken driving to such momentary lapses as
failure to signal a turn, or a change from one lane to another.
The above paragraph reveals the general and specific causes for car accidents. The
writer developed the paragraph by presenting evidences for the causes of the
accidents.
6. The Method of Classification
This is a method of developing a paragraph by classifying subjects into separate
category. It presents ideas, objects, or issues to be discussed in their respective
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category. The following sample paragraph illustrates how the paragraph is developed
by classifying illustrations used in science and technology writing.
Example:
Illustrations used in science and technology writings can be broadly classified into
two categories namely ‘tables’ and ‘figures’. A table is used for displaying the
original numerical data and the derived statistics in a logical, orderly and compact
fashion. There are two sub-categories of table, namely, dependent table and
independent table. The former is a part of the text, where as the letter is self contained
and separated noticeably from the text. A figure is generally used as a visual to
summarize the text and to present the details left out in the discussion. The sub-
categories of the figure are graph, chart, drawing, photograph and map. The choice
of the type to be used depends up on the purpose and the kind of information to be
presented.
Activity: Complete the Chart Below Transferring the Information in the
Paragraph RightIllustrations
Above. used in science and technology
writing

Tables 2
Write your answers here.
2. 6.
3 ____________________4 5 6 7 8 9
3. ________________________ 7.
____________________
4. ________________________ 8.
____________________
5. 9.
________________________
7. The Method of Enumeration
This is a method of paragraph development which lists or enumerates details.
Example:
Whatever be our purpose of writing, it is likely to correspond to one of the four types
of writing conventionally classified as discourse. The first type is exposition or
explanation, where our main intention is to convey information. The second is
argument or persuasion, in which we persuade our readers to accept or do what we
want. The third is description, in which our aim is to share with our readers those
impressions that have made an impact on our senses. Finally, it is narration where
our intention is to enable the reader to perceive real or imagined events that took
place within a particular framework of time.
When using a method of enumeration, writers normally use words or phrases which
enable them to list their points. As used in the example above, words like first,
second, third, finally are words which maintain the coherence and smooth flow of a
paragraph.
8. The Method of Process Description
This is a method which explains how to do something step by step. It is a convenient
method to enable readers to be able to follow the step to get a desired result.
Example:

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Imagine that you are on vacation at beach, and open your suitcase to discover that
you have forgotten your swimsuit! This and other disasters and inconveniences can be
avoided if you follow certain steps when packing your suitcase. The first step is to
review your travel plans and activities. Make a list and save it so that you can check
your items before you leave. Next, gather the items you will need for your activities.
Remove any item that is not necessary. Try to mix and match fewer pieces of clothing
and shoes by choosing a colour or colours that match. Third, you are ready to pack.
Start with large items such as books or shoes. Stuff your shoes with extra socks to
save space. Then place shoes in plastic bags and fit them into the corners of your
suitcase. There should be plenty of room for the clothes. To avoid wrinkles, layer your
clothes and roll them up. Put the rolls of clothing into the suitcase. Then put in the
smaller items. Finally, before you close your suitcase, check your list. Make sure you
have not forgotten your swimsuit!
In developing a paragraph by describing a process, writers employ words or phrases
which show sequence or time order. These words tell readers the sequence of steps in
a process. The most commonly used words are first, second, next, then, later, after
that, finally etc.
The other feature of a process description paragraph is the use of imperative
sentences. An imperative is used to give instructions or direction or to tell the reader
the steps in the process directly. Apart from this, modals of advice, necessity and
prohibition such as should, must, should not or must not are common when
developing a process description paragraph. Passive sentences can also be used.

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