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 EDUCATION

Gutstein and Peterson

Rethinking Rethinking
“Who would have thought math could be taught through such
compelling social issues as racial profiling, the war in Iraq, and
environmental racism? This superb book is an extraordinary

Mathematics
Mathematics
collection of ideas for any teacher who wants to bring passion,
engagement, and social justice to the mathematics classroom.”
—Lisa Delpit
Felton G. Clark Distinguished Professor of Education, Southern University, Baton Teaching Social Justice
Rouge and author of “Multiplication Is for White People”: Raising Expectations for Other
People’s Children by the Numbers Teaching Social Justice by the Numbers
Second Edition

Rethinking Mathematics
“From the songs of Sweet Honey in the Rock we know that ‘We
who believe in freedom cannot rest.’ Now from the pages of
Rethinking Mathematics we know that ‘We who believe in freedom Edited by Eric (Rico) Gutstein
cannot rest’ until we ensure that the learning and teaching of and Bob Peterson
school mathematics sings of social justice. We should all learn its
new songs.” In this expanded and updated edition
—Bob Moses
of Rethinking Mathematics more than 50
President and Founder of the Algebra Project
articles show how to weave social justice
“The premise of this book is that mathematics is not just a set of issues throughout the mathematics
rules and procedures to be memorized and regurgitated, but a curriculum, as well as how to integrate
relevant set of tools to make sense of the social injustice and power mathematics into other curricular areas.
imbalances in our society. Mathematics teachers at any level
interested in motivating their students should read this book.”
Rethinking Mathematics offers teaching
—Thomas A. Romberg
Bascom Professor of Education, Professor Emeritus, University of Wisconsin-Madison ideas, lesson plans, and reflections
by practitioners and mathematics
“An invaluable resource! Rethinking Mathematics has the potential educators. This is real-world math—
to change the basic ways we think about and teach one of the most math that helps students analyze
important subjects in schools today. With clarity and insight, it social problems as they gain essential
shows how teachers who are dedicated to social justice can act on
academic skills.
their commitments in a subject that has for too long been seen as
simply a technical area. ”
—Michael W. Apple This book offers hope and guidance
John Bascom Professor of Curriculum and Instruction and Educational Policy Studies, for teachers to enliven and strengthen
University of Wisconsin-Madison
their math teaching. It will deepen
students’ understanding of society and
Praise for the First Edition of Rethinking Mathematics
help prepare them to be critical, active
“An amazing collection of articles and lesson plans that infuse participants in a democracy. Blending
mathematics with a relevancy that will excite students. Use this as a theory and practice, this is the only
supplement to your math class and you might no longer hear, ‘Why resource of its kind. Rethinking Schools
do we have to learn this?’ A must-have book not only for math
teachers but for all teachers concerned with equity and social A Rethinking Schools Publication Edited by Eric (Rico) Gutstein & Bob Peterson
justice.”—Teaching Tolerance 800-669-4192 / www.rethinkingschools.org

“A significant contribution to the literature on social justice and

mathematics education.”—Teachers College Record
A R e t h i n k i n g S c h o o l s P u b l i c at i o n
second edition

RethinkingMath cov.indd 1 3/26/13 11:53 AM

 Rethinking
Mathematics

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 Rethinking
Mathematics
Teaching Social Justice by the Numbers
Second Edition

Edited by
Eric (Rico) Gutstein
and Bob Peterson

A Rethinking Schools Publication

Rethinking Mathematics
Teaching Social Justice by the Numbers
Second Edition
Edited by Eric (Rico) Gutstein and Bob Peterson

Dedicated to
Claudia Zaslavsky
1917–2006
Educator, Multiculturalist, Anti-Racist, Ethnomathematician

Rethinking Schools, Ltd., is a nonprofit educational publisher of books, booklets, and a quarterly journal on school
reform, with a focus on issues of equity and social justice. To request additional copies of this book or a catalog of other
publications, or to subscribe to the quarterly journal Rethinking Schools, contact:

Rethinking Schools
1001 East Keefe Avenue
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800-669-4192
www.rethinkingschools.org

Rethinking Mathematics: Teaching Social Justice by the Numbers

Second Edition
© 2013, Rethinking Schools, Ltd.

Cover design: Joanna Dupuis (1st ed.), Nancy Zucker, (2nd ed.)
Cover artwork by David McLimans
Page design and layout: Joanna Dupuis (1st ed.), Kate Hawley (2nd ed.)
Proofreading: Jennifer Morales and Lawrence Sanfilippo

Production Editors: Bill Bigelow and Michael Trokan

Cartoons on pages 64 and 258 are by Fred Wright/UE NEWS. Used with the permission of UE NEWS/United Electrical,
Radio and Machine Workers of America (UE).

All rights reserved. Except as permitted below, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means,
including electronic, without the express prior written permission of the publisher, except for brief quotation in an
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appropriate fees. If you have any questions, contact the publisher at the address above.

ISBN: 978-0-942961-55-3 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for.

 Contents
Acknowledgments ix
Preface xi
Introduction 1

P a r t O ne: V i ewi ng Math B ro adl y

1 Teaching Math Across the Curriculum, by B ob P e t e r s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Teaching Suggestions: Disparities in Wealth Cartoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Activity Box: No-TV Week Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Driving While Black or Brown: A Math Project About Racial Profiling,
by Eric (Rico) Gutstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Historical, Cultural, and Social Implications of Mathematics,

b y S. E. A n d e r s on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 “I Thought This U.S. Place Was Supposed to Be About Freedom,”

b y M au r a Va r l ey G u t i é rr e z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Rethinking Mathematics and Its Intersection with Race: Interview with

Danny Martin, b y e r i c ( R i c o) G u t s t e i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5 Reading the World with Math, b y Ma r i l y n F r a nk e ns t e i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Teaching Suggestions: The War in Iraq, The Boondocks Cartoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Activity Box: Using Math to Take a Critical Look at How the
Unemployment Rate Is Determined, by Marilyn Frankenstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
The War in Iraq: How Much Does It Cost? by Bob Peterson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6 Race, Retrenchment, and the Reform of School Mathematics,

b y W i l l i a m F . T at e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Environmental Hazards: Is Environmental Racism Real? by Larry Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

7 Adventures of a Beginning Teacher with Social Justice Mathematics,

b y l i z Tr ex l e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

P a r t T w o : I nf u si ng So cial J ustice int o

Math Classes

8 “Home Buying While Brown or Black,” by Er i c ( r i c o ) Gu t s t e i n . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Teaching Suggestions: Corporate Control of U.S. Media Line Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Teaching Suggestions: “And How Do You Spend Your Wages?” Cartoon . . . . . . . . . . . 65

v
 Rethinking Mathe m atics

9 Living Algebra, Living Wage, by J a na D e a n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Teaching Suggestions: The Dependent Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Teaching Suggestions: The Y-Intercept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
“I Can’t Survive on $8.25”—Using Math to Investigate
Minimum Wage, CEO Pay, and More, by Eric (Rico) Gutstein. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

10 Sweatshop Accounting, b y L arr y S t e e l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Activity Box: How Do You Live on 31 Cents an Hour? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Teaching Suggestions: The Global Capitalist Economy Cartoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Globalization, Labor, and the Environment: A Linear Programming Unit,
by Indigo Esmonde and Jessica Quindel 87
Poverty and World Wealth: Recognizing Inequality,
by Susan Hersh and Bob Peterson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Unequal Distribution of U.S. Wealth: Recognizing Inequality,
Part Two, by Michael Langyel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

11 Chicanos Have Math in Their Blood, by L u i s O r t i z - F r a nc o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Activity Box: The Hidden Grain in Meat, by Stephanie Kempf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

12 Whose Community Is This?

Understanding the Mathematics of Neighborhood Displacement,
B y Er i c (Ri c o ) G ut st ei n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

13 Understanding Large Numbers, b y B ob P e t e r s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Activity Box: How Many Willis Towers Tall Is $135
Billion? by Eric (Rico) Gutstein 114

14 When Equal Isn’t Fair, B y J ul i a M . A gu i rr e a nd

M ar i a d el R osa ri o Za v al a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

15 Racism and Stop and Frisk,

B y K at h ry n H i mm el st ei n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

16 “With Math, It’s Like You Have More Defense,”

b y Er i n E. T ur n er an d B e a t r i z T. F o nt S t r a w hu n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Designing a Wheelchair Ramp: Putting the Pythagorean
Theorem to Use, by Adam Renner 136

17 “That Smell Is from the Sugar Cane Fire!” B y R a q u e l Mi l a ni

an d M i c h el a T uc h ap esk da Si l va . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

18 What’s a Good School? B y M i c he l l e A l l m a n a nd A l m a nz i a O pe y o . . . . . . 141

19 Radical Equations: A Review of the Book by

Bob Moses and Charles E. Cobb Jr., b y D a v i d Lev i ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

20 Teaching Percent Change + Social Justice = Opportunity for

Deep Mathematical Discussion, B y F l a nne r y D e nny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

vi
 Ta ble of Contents

21 The Square Root of a Fair Share, B Y J ANA DEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

22 The Geometry of Inequality, b y A ndr e w B r a nt l i nge r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

South Central Los Angeles: Ratios, Density, and Geometry in Urban Areas,
by Eric (Rico) Gutstein 173

23 Plotting Inequality, Building Resistance, BY ADA M R ENNE R ,

B RIDGET B REW, AND CR YSTAL P R OCTO R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

24 Integrals and Equity, b y Me ga n S t a p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

HIV/AIDS Status: Using Statistics to Understand Ratios,
181

by Sage Forbes-Gray 185

Teaching Suggestions: HIV Status Bus Stop Photo 186
Justice for Janitors: Rich Lessons in the Power of Math,
by Bob Peterson 187

25 Math, Maps, and Misrepresentation, b y Er i c ( r i c o ) G u t s t e i n . . . . . . . . . .

Teaching Suggestions: Map of Territory That Mexico Lost
189

to the United States 191

Real-World Projects: Seeing Math All Around Us 195
Teaching Suggestions: Do You Support Invading Iraq? Cartoon 199
Deconstructing Barbie: Math and Popular Culture,
by Swapna Mukhopadhyay 200

26 Multicultural Math, b y C l a u di a Z a s l a v s k y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Tracking PA Announcements: Collecting Data in the Classroom,
by Robert M. Berkman 208

P a r t T h r ee: I n f using So cial J ustice M ath in t o

O ther Curr i c u l ar Areas

27 Ten Chairs of Inequality, b y P o l l y Ke l l o gg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Fast Foods, Junk Foods, and Advertising: Analyzing the Barrage
of Advertising Aimed at Children, by Bob Peterson 216

28 Transparency of Water,
an d M ar t h a M ers o n
B y S e l e ne Go nz a l e z - C a r i l l o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

29 Write the Truth: Presidents and Slaves, b y B ob P e t e r so n . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Teaching Suggestions: “Eight Companies Earn More” One-Dollar Bill Graphic
226
228
Libraries, Books, and Bias: Using Math to Raise Issues of Representation,
by Bob Peterson 235
The Mathematics of Lotteries: Going Beyond Probability,
by Laurie Rubel 236

30 Rethinking and Connecting Algebra to Real-World Issues,

B y S an d r a K i n g a n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

vii
 Rethinking Mathe m atics

31 A SocialB Y Justice Data Fair,

B ETH ALEXANDE R AND M ICHELLE M UNK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

32 Sweatshop
The Transnational Capital Auction, b y B i l l B i ge l o w
Math: Taking a Closer Look at Where Kids’
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

“Stuff” Comes From, by Bob Peterson 256

Teaching Suggestions: “Work Faster!” Cartoon 258

P a r t F o u r: Res o u r c es for Rethinkin g M ath e m atics

Websites, Math Curriculum and Pedagogy,
Books with Theoretical/Academic Perspectives, Curriculum
Guides/Resources, Children’s Books, Sources for Maps, and More . . . . . . 261

About the Editors 271

Contributors 271
Index 275

viii
 Acknowledgments

P
utting together the second edi-
tion of Rethinking Mathematics
would not have been possible if
it had not been for the support and work of many individuals. We would like
to thank all those math teachers and authors we have worked with to include
their writings and ideas in this book. We have learned from their teaching and
writing as we hope the readers of this book will as well.
We would like to thank, in particular, Bill Bigelow, Rethinking Schools cur-
riculum editor, who worked closely with us giving advice and feedback on the
book as a whole and many specific articles.
Rico Gutstein offers special thanks to the students and communities of
Chicago’s Social Justice High School (Sojo) and Rivera Elementary School,
and to Pauline Lipman for her ever-critical support and analysis.
Bob Peterson thanks the 5th-grade students he has taught at La Escuela
Fratney, in Milwaukee, many of whom have provided the inspiration and chal-
lenges that have helped him become the social justice teacher that he is. He
also thanks the entire Fratney community and dedicated staff, who continue
to inspire him. Finally, he thanks Barbara Miner for her support and feedback.
Rethinking Mathematics, like all Rethinking Schools books, was supported by
the broader Rethinking Schools community, especially the editors and editorial
associates, Wayne Au, Terry Burant, Linda Christensen, Helen Gym, David
Levine, Stan Karp, Larry Miller, Kelley Dawson Salas, Melissa Bollow Tempel,
Rita Tenorio, Stephanie Walters, Dyan Watson, and Kathy Xiong; and the
Rethinking Schools staff, past and present: Susan Bates, Catherine Capellaro,
Kris Collett, Tegan Dowling, Leon Lynn, Jody Sokolower, and Mike Trokan.
And special thanks to Rethinking Schools volunteer Sandy Shedivy for addi-
tional research and proofreading.

ix
 Preface

A
lot has changed since the first edi-
tion of Rethinking Mathematics,
though some things stayed
the same. The U.S. people elected Barack Obama president—twice—but
Guantánamo is still open. Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy have come and gone,
the latter maybe finally convincing people that climate catastrophe is real and
upon us. The Arab Spring has sprung, the “1 percent-99 percent” divide has
been lifted up by social movements, and the U.S. economy is stumbling along
and suffering from its worst disaster since the 1930s—while elites continue to
push policies that only exacerbate inequality.
In education, business is hot and lucrative. Schemes abound to privatize numer-
ous aspects of schooling, but the resistance is coalescing and strengthening as
well. In Chicago, the 2012 seven-day teachers’ strike, led by a new union lead-
ership committed to principles of social justice, was a dramatic victory in many
ways with national implications for both education and labor. It showed that
people’s movements can create real solidarity between progressive organizations,
communities of color, and a social justice union, and that, together, they could
unite people across a city to articulate a more democratic vision of education.
Across the United States, educators are collaborating and creating organizations
that work with community organizations against high-stakes testing, school
closings, charter proliferation, and apartheid-style education, and for critical
and culturally relevant education that speaks to full human development for all
students.
Teaching math for social justice is part of this larger effort. But we know it’s not
easy. High-stakes testing, accountability regimes, threats of probation/closing/
reconstitution, teacher evaluations based on student test scores, and irrelevant
top-down standards, all pushed by the Bush and Obama administrations and

xi
 Rethinking Mathe m atics

the Department of Education, make it diffi- Mathematics Education and Society conference
cult. These measures narrow the curriculum and in Cape Town, South Africa, bringing together
constrain even innovative, creative teachers, let people from all continents to further the agenda
alone critical ones wanting to push back against of mathematics, equity, and justice. There is vital
the system. Most teachers recognize that schools and critical work under way in the mathematics
are not factories, children are not widgets, and education world, and it’s growing. We wish
standardized test scores tell us little. Years ago, to make one small contribution by adding
Donaldo Macedo termed this “education for stu- Rethinking Mathematics, 2nd edition to the mix.
pidification,” and today its manifestations have As we release this edition, we want
become more acute. to clear up a few misconceptions. One is that
But there is more that has to do the “critical math camp” suggests that social
with math education. President Obama’s justice math be taught only to students from
2009 Educate to Innovate initiative put $260 marginalized communities—that is, students of
million into “science, technology, engineering, color and low-income/working-class students.
mathematics” (STEM) education to raise U.S. We definitely believe students of color should
students “from the middle to the top of the learn mathematics for social justice, given the
pack in science and math over the next decade.” profound impact of racism on their lives, which
The administration’s Race to the Top prioritizes is exacerbated by the current economic crisis
grants to states that push STEM education. The and a system that increasingly regards them
Gates Foundation, Microsoft, Time-Warner and their communities as disposable. But in
Cable, and many other corporate entities strongly contrast to the notion that only they should learn
support these plans to reclaim, once again, critical mathematics, we believe that all students,
U.S. global economic supremacy in a period of including those from schools and communities
ever-intensifying international competition for of privilege, need to study their reality and learn
markets, lax environmental regulations, natural mathematics to understand and shape the world
resources, and cheap labor supplies—all in the for the better.
service of maximizing profit. In the White Second, some think that social justice
House’s plainspoken words, the goal is to “enable math is watered-down math. “Where is the
them [U.S. students] to outcompete any worker, math?” is the implicit question. That would
anywhere in the world.” And math is a key way be a powerful injustice indeed. In fact, our
to do it. Or so they claim. commitment is for students to learn the necessary
We think our response, as critical math to deal with and get past the unjust gates
math teachers, is instead to position teaching in front them—and the math necessary to tear
and learning mathematics in the service of down the gates entirely. The stronger students’
humanity and nature. No knowledge is neutral, grasp of math, the better equipped they are to
and the same mathematics that can fly killer comprehend and change the world.
drones and cook up arcane financial derivatives Third, we’ve heard some say that social
that bankrupted millions can help the visually justice math proponents believe that “relevant”
impaired navigate their world, epidemiologists math is necessary for black, brown, and low-income
stem the HIV/AIDS tide, and environmental students, as they cannot learn math otherwise.
justice activists express the dangers of fossil fuels. Actually, we believe that math (and all education)
Since 2007, the U.S.-based RadicalMath. should tap into who people are and build on their
org group has held five national conferences on knowledge, culture, language, and experiences—
math and social justice. Internationally, critical but never stop there. Although an education
mathematics educators recently held the seventh focused on liberation can start from the realities of

xii
 pr e face

the young people in front of us, it should always organizers, and college-based teacher educators.
go beyond. Global forces come into our lives in Contributions include classroom vignettes and
both obvious and subtle ways, and we would be curriculum suggestions (“activity boxes”). The
foolish not to teach about them. In fact, that learning sites include private, alternative, and
would be the greatest disservice we could do to public schools, as well as community-based set-
our students, because we would not be preparing tings; middle- and upper-middle-class contexts
them to change the world, at a time when its to low-income ones; and all-black, all-Latina/o,
transformation is so urgent. all-female settings, as well as ones of mixed race
and gender. Geographically, the new additions
What’s New in the 2nd Edition range from Canada to Brazil, San Francisco
This edition is substantially longer than the to New York, with others scattered across the
first. Although we have kept most chapters country. Together, with the articles from the
from the first edition, we have also added 15 first edition, we hope that Rethinking Mathemat-
new pieces (five that previously appeared in ics, 2nd Edition is a resource that teachers will
Rethinking Schools). The diversity of the addi- use to grow as professionals and become, over
tions is striking. They cover elementary, middle time, competent and confident social justice
school, and high school; and in-school, out- educators. Toward that end, we dedicate it to
of-school, adult education, after-school, and those around the world who are committed to
summer school settings. Writers include stu- supporting students in reading and writing the
dent teachers, experienced teachers, community world with mathematics.

xiii
 Introduction

I thought math was just a subject they implanted on us just because

they felt like it, but now I realize that you could use math to defend
your rights and realize the injustices around you. … [N]ow I think
math is truly necessary and, I have to admit it, kinda cool. It’s sort of
like a pass you could use to try to make the world a better place.
— Freida, 9th grade, Chicago Public Schools

S
ome students would prefer
to have a dentist drill their
teeth than to sit through a
math class. Others view math class as a necessary but evil part of get-
ting through school. Still others enjoy playing and working with num-
bers and problems.
We agree with Freida. Math is often taught in ways divorced from the
real world. The alternative we propose in this book is to teach math in
a way that helps students more clearly understand their lives in relation
to their surroundings, and to see math as a tool to help make the world
more equal and just.
In a “rethought” math class, teachers make mathematics more lively,
accessible, and personally meaningful for students, who in turn learn
in more depth.
The articles in this book provide examples of how to weave social jus-
tice issues throughout the mathematics curriculum and how to inte-
grate mathematics into other curricular areas. This approach seeks to
deepen students’ understanding of society and to prepare them to be
critical, active participants in a democracy.

1
 Rethinking Mathe m atics

The elementary school, middle school, high the level of pollutants in the water, air, and soil;
school, and college teachers who have contributed and the dangers of the chemicals in the food we
to this book also note the many potential benefits eat. Math helps students understand these issues,
of such a social justice approach to mathematics. to see them in ways that are impossible without
Among them: math; for example, by visually displaying data in
• Students can recognize the power of graphs that otherwise might be incomprehensible
mathematics as an essential analytical tool or seemingly meaningless.
to understand and potentially change the As an example, consider racial profiling.
world, rather than merely regarding math This issue only becomes meaningful when viewed
as a collection of disconnected rules to be through a mathematical lens, whether or not the
rotely memorized and regurgitated. “viewer” appreciates that she or he is using math-
• Students can deepen their understanding of ematics. That is, it is difficult to declare that racial
important social issues, such as racism and profiling occurs unless there is a sufficiently large
sexism, as well as ecology and social class. data set and a way to examine that data. If, for
• Students can connect math with their example, 30 percent of drivers in a given area are
own cultural and community histories African Americans, and the police stop six African
and can appreciate the contributions that American drivers and four white drivers, there is
various cultures and peoples have made to weak evidence that racial profiling exists. But if
mathematics. police stop 612 African American drivers and 423
• Students can understand their own power whites, then there is a much stronger case.
as active citizens in building a democratic The explanation lies in mathematics: In
society and become equipped to play a an area where only 30 percent of the drivers are
more active role in that society. black, it is virtually impossible for almost 60 per-
• Students can become more motivated to cent of more than 1,000 people stopped randomly
learn important mathematics. by the police to be black.
The underlying mathematical ideas—(dis)
These benefits come both when teachers proportionality, probability, randomness, sample
reshape the mathematics curriculum with a social size, and the law of large numbers (that over a suf-
justice vision and when they integrate social jus- ficiently large data set, the results of a probability
tice mathematics across the curriculum into other simulation or of real-world experiences should
subjects, such as social studies, science, health, approximate the theoretical probabilities)—all
reading, and writing. become part of the context that students must
understand to really see, and in turn demonstrate,
An Essential Tool for Understanding
that something is amiss. Thus with a large data
and Changing the World
set, one can assert that a real problem exists and
To have more than a surface understanding of further investigate racial profiling. For youth,
important social and political issues, mathematics racial profiling may mean being “picked on,” but
is essential. Without mathematics, it is impos- the subtleties and implications are only compre-
sible to fully understand a government budget, hensible when the mathematical ideas are there.
the impact of a war, the meaning of a national (See “Driving While Black or Brown,” page 16.)
debt, or the long-term effects of a proposal such When teachers weave social justice into the
as the privatization of Social Security. The same math curriculum and promote social justice math
is true with other social, ecological, and cultural “across the curriculum,” students’ understand-
issues: You need mathematics to have a deep ing of important social matters deepens. When
grasp of the influence of advertising on children; teachers use data on sweatshop wages to teach

2
 I nt ro ducti o n

accounting to high school students or multi-digit both Chicano students and others, that math has
multiplication to upper-elementary students, stu- deep roots in indigenous cultures in the Americas.
dents can learn math, but they can also learn David Levine’s article about the Algebra Project
something about the lives of people in various started by Bob Moses (see “Radical Equations,”
parts of the world and the relationship between page 147) provides another example of teachers
the things we consume and their living condi- connecting with students’ cultural and commu-
tions. (See “Sweatshop Accounting,” page 78, and nity histories to promote deeper student learning.
“Sweatshop Math,” page 256.) Moses summarized the importance of these con-
Moreover, to understand some issues, stu- nections in his book on the project:
dents need to combine math with other subjects. [I]n the Algebra Project we are using a
For example, although the government releases version of experiential learning; it starts
unemployment figures monthly, Marilyn Fran- with where the children are, experiences
kenstein explains in “Reading the World with that they share. We get them to reflect on
Math” (page 30) that how unemployment figures these, drawing on their common culture,
are reported profoundly affects one’s understand- then to form abstract conceptualizations
ing of what really goes on in our communities. out of their reflection, and then to apply
Frankenstein points out that it’s easy enough the abstraction back on their experience.
to figure unemployment percentages, but who
gets counted as unemployed and who is—or is You can think of it as a circle or clock: At
not—considered part of the workforce are politi- 12 noon students have an experience; at
cal questions. The unemployment rate changes a quarter past they are thinking about it;
depending on these decisions. Thus math needs at half past they are doing some concep-
social studies, and social studies needs math. tual work around their reflections; and
at a quarter to they are doing applica-
Connecting Math with Students’ tions based on their conceptual work. In
Cultural and Community Histories the Algebra Project this movement from
Rethinking math also means using culturally rel- experience to abstraction takes the form
evant practices that build on the knowledge and of a five-step process that introduces
experiences of students and their communities. students to the idea that many important
Many of these approaches have been developed concepts of elementary algebra may be
by teachers and then described and theorized accessed through ordinary experiences.
by researchers of color, such as Gloria Ladson- Each step is designed to help students
Billings and William Tate. A guiding principle bridge the transition from real life to
behind much of this work is that teachers should mathematical language and operations.
view students’ home cultures and languages as Because of this connection with real life,
strengths upon which to build, rather than as the transition curriculum is not only
deficits for which to compensate. In “Race, experiential; it is also culturally based.
Retrenchment, and the Reform of School Math- The experiences must be meaningful in
ematics” (page 42), Tate offers the simple example terms of the daily life and culture of the
of a teacher’s failure to reach her students because students. One key pedagogical problem
she uses story problems that are not grounded addressed by the curriculum is that
in the students’ culture; while Luis Ortiz-Franco of providing an environment where
(“Chicanos Have Math in Their Blood,” page 95) students can explore these ideas and
encourages teachers to teach about the base 20 effectively move toward their standard
Mayan number system as a way to emphasize, to expression in school mathematics.

3
 Rethinking Mathe m atics

Understanding Their Power take a little at a time. One way is to identify a

as Active Citizens concept/skill that you are teaching as part of your
As students develop deeper understandings of regular curriculum and relate it to a lesson idea in
social and ecological problems that we face, they this book (or on the website for this book, www.
also often recognize the importance of acting on rethinkingschools.org/math). Teach the lesson or
their beliefs. This notion of nurturing what Henry unit and then gauge how successful it was in terms
Giroux has called “civic courage”—acting as if we of student motivation, student understanding of
live in a democracy—should be part of all educa- the math concepts, and the deepening of the stu-
tional settings, including mathematics classrooms. dents’ knowledge about the particular social issue.
Rethinking Mathematics spotlights several Another way is to get to know your students
examples of student activism. These include 5th- and their communities well and listen closely to
grade Milwaukee students writing letters to social the issues they bring up. Many of our own social
studies textbook publishers based on their math- justice projects started from conversations with
ematical analysis of slaveholding presidents and students about their lives or from knowing about
textbooks’ failure to address this issue (see “Write issues in their communities. For example, see the
the Truth,” page 226); New York City students activity “Environmental Hazards,” page 52, in
who measured their school space, calculated ineq- which high school students investigate contami-
uities, and then spoke out against these inequities nation in their own neighborhoods.
in public forums (see “‘With Math, It’s Like You The media are also potential sources of proj-
Have More Defense,’” page 129); and students ects, because current issues both affect students’
who used math to convince their school admin- lives and have mathematical components that
istration to stop making so many obtrusive PA teachers can develop into social justice projects.
announcements (see the activity “Tracking PA For example, see “Home Buying While Brown or
Announcements,” page 208). Black,” page 61.
Certainly working in a school that has a
Motivated to Learn Important Math conceptually strong foundational mathematics
Engaging students in mathematics within social curriculum is helpful. Teachers cannot easily do
justice contexts increases students’ interest in social justice mathematics teaching when using a
math and also helps them learn important math- rote, procedure-oriented mathematics curriculum.
ematics. Once they are engaged in a project, Likewise a text-driven, teacher-centered approach
like finding the concentration of liquor stores does not foster the kind of questioning and reflec-
in their neighborhood and comparing it to the tion that should take place in all classrooms,
concentration of liquor stores in a different com- including those where math is studied.
munity, they recognize the necessity and value of By saying this, we do not wish to imply that
understanding concepts of area, density, and ratio. if teachers use a conceptually based curriculum
These topics are often approached abstractly or, that embraces the standards put forth by the
at best, in relation to trivial subjects. Social justice National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
math implicitly tells students: These skills help (NCTM)—such as Investigations in the elemen-
you understand your own lives—and the broader tary grades, Mathematics in Context or Connected
world—more clearly. Mathematics Project for the middle grades, and
Interactive Mathematics Program in high school—
Getting Started such a curriculum will automatically guide stu-
Teachers and preservice teachers sometimes ask: dents towards a social justice orientation. In
How do I get started integrating social justice fact, these programs have an unfortunate scar-
concepts in my math class? Our best advice is to city of social justice connections. But a strong,

4
 I nt ro ducti o n

conceptually based foundational curriculum can other campaigns. We’ve also been influenced
be a great asset to social justice math teaching, by educators such as the late Brazilian educa-
because it can encourage students to critique tor Paulo Freire, who argued against a “banking
answers, question assumptions, and justify reason- approach” to education in which “knowledge” is
ing. These are all important dispositions toward deposited into the heads of students and in favor
knowledge that teachers can integrate into their of “problem-posing” approaches in which students
social justice pedagogy. and teachers together attempt to understand and
Occasionally, a teacher needs to defend this eventually change their communities and the
kind of curriculum to supervisors, colleagues, broader world.
or parents. One approach is
to survey your state’s math
standards (or the national Math has the power to help us
standards) and to find refer-
ences to “critical thinking” understand and potentially
or “problem-solving” and use change the world.
those to explain your curricu-
lum. Also, the NCTM clearly
states that “mathematical connections” between In addition to the benefits outlined at the
curriculum and students’ lives are important. beginning of this introduction, an important
But it’s important for teachers to recognize aspect of a social justice approach to teaching
that social justice math is not something to sneak math is that it must include opening up the
into the cracks of the curriculum. It’s not some- “gates” that have historically kept students of
thing about which we should feel defensive. What color, women, working-class and low-income
we’re talking about here is something that helps students, and students with perceived disabili-
students learn rich mathematics, motivates them, ties out of advanced mathematics tracks and
and is really what math is all about. A social justice course offerings. The Algebra Project mentioned
approach to math is the appropriate type of math above, for example, seeks to ensure that “gate-
for these unjust times. Other, traditional forms keeper” classes like algebra don’t prevent large
of math are often too abstract, promote student numbers of historically disenfranchised students
failure and self-doubt, and, frankly, are immoral from succeeding in higher education. (For infor-
in a world as unjust as ours. Traditional math is mation on other such projects, see Resources,
bad for students and bad for society. page 259.)
Those who wrote for this book, and those
Views on Math and Social Justice who write for the magazine Rethinking Schools,
The two of us have been teaching math for a are always encouraged not only to explain what
combined total of more than 50 years—one of they teach and why they try certain things, but
us in a bilingual 5th-grade classroom in a public to reflect on how they would do things differ-
elementary school and the other in inner-city ently next time. In that spirit we recognize that,
public middle and high schools, in alternative as white male educators, our experiences have
high schools, and at the college level. Our per- their own limitations and, if we were to do this
spectives on teaching math for social justice have book over, we would work harder to increase the
been shaped by our own involvement in move- representation of authors of color. We encourage
ments for social justice during the past four all educators who teach math, particularly edu-
decades—the Civil Rights Movement, anti-war cators of color, to write about their experiences
movements, educational justice movements, and teaching math for social justice and to consider

5
 Rethinking Mathe m atics

submitting articles for possible publication a subtext of consumerism and unhealthy eating
in Rethinking Schools. habits; the second has an explicit text of global
awareness and empathy. Both are political, in
Isn’t Math Teaching Neutral? that each highlights important social relations.
While reading these articles, some people might When teachers fail to include math prob-
question whether it’s appropriate to interject lems that help students confront important
social or political issues into mathematics. global issues, or when they don’t bring out the
Shouldn’t math teachers and curriculum, they underlying implications of problems like the
might say, remain “neutral?” first example here, these are political choices,
Simply put, teaching math in a neutral whether the teachers recognize them as such or
manner is not possible. No math teaching—no not. These choices teach students three things:
teaching of any kind, for that matter—is actu- 1. They suggest that politics are not rel-
ally “neutral,” although some teachers may be evant to everyday situations.
unaware of this. As historian Howard Zinn 2. They cast mathematics as having no role
once wrote: “In a world where justice is mal- in understanding social injustice and
distributed, there is no such thing as a neutral or power imbalances.
representative recapitulation of the facts.” 3. They provide students with no experi-
For example: Let’s say two teachers use ence using math to make sense of, and
word problems to teach double-digit multiplica- try to change, unjust situations.
tion and problem-solving skills. They each pres-
ent a problem to their students. The first teacher These all contribute to disempowering stu-
presents this one: dents and are objectively political acts, though
not necessarily conscious ones.
A group of youth aged 14, 15, and 16 As high school teacher Larry Steele details
go to the store. Candy bars are on sale in his article “Sweatshop Accounting” (page
for 43¢ each. They buy a total of 12 78), the seemingly neutral high school account-
candy bars. How much do they spend, ing curriculum in fact approaches the world in
not including tax? terms of markets and profit-making opportuni-
The second teacher, meanwhile, offers a ties. Not everything that counts gets counted,
very different problem: Steele says, and thus the “neutral” curriculum
Factory workers aged 14, 15, and 16 actually reinforces the status quo.
in Honduras make McKids children’s We believe it’s time to start counting that
clothing for Walmart. Each worker which counts. To paraphrase Freida, the 9th
earns 43 cents an hour and works a grader quoted above, we need to encourage stu-
14-hour shift each day. How much does dents to defend their rights and to recognize the
each worker make in one day, excluding injustices around them. By counting, analyzing,
any fees deducted by employers? and acting, we will help students and ourselves
better read the world and remake it into a more
While both problems are valid examples just place.
of applying multi-digit multiplication, each
has more to say as well. The first example has Eric (Rico) Gutstein and Bob Peterson

6
 Part 1

David McLimans

Viewing Math
Broadly
 chapter One

Teaching Math
Across the Curriculum
By Bob Peterson

I
once read a proposal for an inno-
vative school and it set me think-
ing about math. It wasn’t the
proposal’s numbers that got my mind going, but rather the approach to
structuring math into the curriculum. I disagreed with it.
The plan called for the curriculum to be divided into three areas—math/
science, the arts (including fine arts and language arts), and history/
philosophy. Blocks of time were set aside for a unified approach in
each area.
As I mulled over the proposal and thought of my experience in a self-
contained 5th-grade classroom, I realized I was uneasy with the pro-
posed curricular divisions, specifically the assumption that science and
math belong together as a unified block. It reminded me of how some
elementary teachers integrate the curriculum by lumping language arts
and social studies together in one strand, and math and science in
another.

9
 Viewing m ath bro adly

It also raised several questions for me. is essential to effectively enter most debates on
Why place math and science together and not public issues such as welfare, unemployment,
math and social studies? What are the political and the federal budget. For example, even
and pedagogical assumptions behind such an though the minimum wage is higher than it’s
approach? Why shouldn’t reformers advocate ever been, in constant dollars it is the lowest in
math in all subject areas? Why not have “math 40 years. But you need math to understand that.
across the curriculum,” comparable to “writing When I first began teaching more than
across the curriculum”? 25 years ago, I was dissatisfied with “number
One reason reformers have advocated numbness,” but wasn’t sure what to do about it.
changes in how math is structured is because My growth as a teacher first came in the area of
of the historic problems with math instruction language arts and reading. I increasingly stressed
itself: rote calculations, drill and practice ad nau- that students should write for meaningful pur-
seum, endless reams of worksheets, and a fetish poses and read books and stories that were con-
for “the right answer.” These have contributed nected to their lives. Thus I had children reading
to “number numbness” among students and, and discussing whole books, I conducted writing
ultimately, among the general population when workshops, and I incorporated reading and writ-
students become adults. ing in science and social studies.
But the problem is deeper than a ster- My math, however, remained noticeably
ile teacher-centered and text-driven approach. segregated from the rest of the curriculum,
“Number numbness” also has its roots in how even though I increasingly emphasized problem-
math is segregated in schools and kept separate solving and the use of manipulatives.
from the issues that confront students in their Later, with the help of my teaching col-
daily lives. Most students don’t want to do league Celín Arce and publications from the
abstract exercises with numbers or plod through National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
text-based story problems that have them forever (see Resources, page 261), I began to view math
making change in some make-believe store. The as akin to language. I now believe that math,
curriculum rarely encourages students to link like language, is both a discipline unto itself
math and history, math and politics, math and and a tool to understand and interact with the
literature—math and people. There are unfor- world and other academic disciplines. Just as
tunate consequences when math is isolated. written and oral language help children under-
First, the not-so-subtle message is that math is stand their community, so can written and oral
basically irrelevant except for achieving success mathematics. Just as teachers stress the need for
in future math classes, becoming a scientist or “writing across the curriculum,” I believe it is
mathematician, or making commercial trans- important to advocate “math across the curricu-
actions. Second, students learn that math is lum.” Just as students are expected to write for
not connected to social reality in any substan- meaningful purposes, they should do math for
tive way. Thus students approach math in the meaningful purposes.
abstract and never are encouraged to seriously Plans to integrate math into science are a
consider the social and ethical consequences of step in the right direction. Assuming that the
how math is sometimes used in society. science curriculum is “meaningful,” the teach-
Third, if students are not taught how math ing of mathematics will improve. But linking
can be applied in their lives, they are robbed of math with science is only a beginning and
an important tool to help them fully partici- should be followed with integration of math
pate in society. An understanding of math and across the curriculum. I have found that my 5th
how numbers and statistics can be interpreted graders, for instance, are particularly interested

10
 T eaching Math A cro ss the C urr iculu m

in social issues. Thus integrating math with and weight; to the number of brothers and
social studies is an effective way to bring math sisters they have; to addresses, phone numbers,
alive for the students. and so forth. I also ask them to write a history
Before I go any further, I want to make of their experiences in math classes, what they
two important clarifications. First, I don’t mean think about math, and why.
to imply that distinct math “mini-lessons” aren’t This process starts a yearlong conversation
important. They are, just as such lessons are on what we mean by mathematics and why it’s
necessary in reading and writing. I also want important in our lives. As the class increasingly
to make clear that integrating math with social becomes sensitive to the use of numbers and
studies does not necessarily make the teaching math in news articles, literature, and everyday
more student-centered or the content more events, our discussions help them realize that
concerned with issues of social justice.
Those important components depend on
the teacher’s philosophical and pedagogi-
cal beliefs.
In recent years I have tried in a
variety of ways to integrate mathemat-
ics—from the simplest understanding of
number concepts to solving more com-
plex problems—with social studies. In the
interests of clarity (my classroom life is
never so neatly ordered), I outline these
approaches as: Connecting Math to Stu-
dents’ Lives, Linking Math and Issues of
Equality, Using Math to Uncover Stereo-
types, and Using Math to Understand
History.

Connecting Math to
Students’ Lives
The starting point for many teachers is
to build on what students bring into the Susan Lina Ruggles
classroom, and to connect curriculum 5th-grade students survey classmates to learn
to students’ lives. Math is a great way to about each other and the power of Mathematics.

do this. I usually start the year by having

kids explore, in small groups, how math is used math is more than computation and definitions.
in their homes and communities. They scour It includes a range of concepts and topics—from
newspapers for numbers, cut them out, glue geometry and measurements to ratios, percent-
them onto poster paper, and try to give sense to ages, and probability.
their meanings, which at times is difficult. They As part of the autobiography project we
interview family members about how they use also do a timeline. We start by putting the stu-
math and then write up their discoveries. As part dents’ birthdates and those of their parents and
of a beginning-of-the-year autobiography, they grandparents on a class timeline that circles the
write an essay, “Numeric Me,” tying in all the outer perimeter of my classroom (and which
numbers that connect to their lives: from height is used throughout the year to integrate dates

11
 Viewing Math B ro adly

that we come across in all subject areas). The This activity is particularly popular with
students also make their own timelines—first my students, and often they want to do more
of a typical day and then of their lives. In these extensive surveys with broader groups of people.
activities, students use reasoning skills to figure The activity thus lays the basis for more in-depth
out relations between numbers, distance, time, study of polling and statistics around issues such
fractions, and decimals. as sampling, randomness, bias, and error. (For
I also use another beginning-of-the-year extensive curricular ideas on the use of polls and
activity that not only builds math skills but statistics in social studies, refer to The Power of
fosters community and friendship. The whole Numbers curriculum published by Educators for
class discusses what a survey or poll is, and Social Responsibility. See Resources, page 267.)
then brainstorms questions that they would like
to ask each other. First I model how to do a Linking Math and Issues of Equality
survey, and as a class we graph and write about To help my students understand that math-
the data. Then each student surveys her or his ematics is a powerful and useful tool, I flood my
classmates about a different topic. My students classroom with examples of how math is used in
have, for example, surveyed classmates on their major controversies in their community and in
national origins; their favorite fast-food restau- society at large. I also integrate math with social
rants, music groups, or football teams; and what studies lessons to show how math can help us
they think of our school’s peer mediation pro- better understand the nature of social inequality.
gram. Each student tabulates her or his survey Kids are inherently interested in what is “fair,”
data, makes a bar graph displaying the results, and using math to explore what is and isn’t fair is
and reflects in writing on what she or he has a great way to interest them in all types of math
learned. Later in the year students convert the concepts, from computation to fractions, percent-
data into fractions and percentages and make ages, ratios, averages, and graphing.
circle graphs. I encourage them to draw conclu- For example, during October and Novem-
sions from their data and hypothesize about ber, there is often lots of discussion of poverty
why the results are the way they are. They then and hunger in my classroom, related either to
present these conclusions orally and in writing. the UNICEF activities around Halloween or

POLYP (c) 2005 All rights reserved.

12
 T eaching Math A cro ss the C urr iculu m

issues raised by the Thanksgiving holiday. This One group, for example, looked at news
is a good time to use simulation exercises to stories summarizing a university report on
help children understand the disparity of wealth 10,000 new jobs created in downtown Milwau-
in the United States and around the world. In kee due to commercial development. According
one lesson (explained in detail in “Poverty and to the report, African Americans held fewer
World Wealth,” page 89), I provide information than 8 percent of the new jobs, even though
on the distribution of population and wealth they lived in close proximity to downtown and
on the six continents and then have children accounted for 30 percent of the city’s popula-
represent that information using different sets tion. In terms of the higher-paying managerial
of colored chips. jobs, Latinos and African Americans combined
After I work with students so that
they understand the data, we do a class
simulation using a map of the world Disparities in Wealth
painted on our school playground.
Instead of chips to represent data we use cartoon Teaching Suggestions
the children themselves. I tell them to
divide themselves around the playground Ask students to describe the multiple messages
map in order to represent the world’s contained in the cartoon below at left. Have them
population distribution. I then hand research the distribution of the world’s wealth and
out chocolate chip cookies to represent which companies control major media outlets. Ask
the distribution of wealth. As you can
why major media corporations might not highlight
imagine, some kids get far more cookies
disparities in wealth. Have students create graphs
than others and lively discussions ensue.
Afterwards, we discuss the simulation and cartoons to demonstrate inequality in wealth
and write about the activity. and who controls major media outlets.
Not only does such a lesson connect
math to human beings and social reality,
it does so in a way that goes beyond paper and held only 1 percent, while white residents, who
pencil exercises; it truly brings math to life. I are overwhelmingly from the suburbs, took
could simply tell my students about the world’s almost 80 percent of the new managerial jobs.
unequal distribution of wealth, but that wouldn’t Using these data, students made bar and pie
have the same emotional impact as seeing class- graphs of the racial breakdown of people in
mates in the North American and European sec- different jobs and in the city population. They
tions of the map get so many more cookies even compared the graphs and drew conclusions.
though they have so many fewer people. They then did a role play, with some stu-
I also use resources, such as news articles dents pretending to be representatives of commu-
on various social issues, to help students analyze nity organizations trying to convince the mayor
inequality. In small groups, students examine and major corporations to change their hiring
data such as unemployment or job trends, practices. What began as a math lesson quickly
convert the data into percentages, make com- turned into a heated discussion of social policy.
parisons, draw conclusions, and make graphs. At one point, for example, a student argued
This is a great way to help students understand that one third of the new jobs should be given
the power of percentages. Because they also use to African Americans, one third to Latinos and
a computerized graph-making program, they one third to whites, because those are the three
realize how the computer can be a valuable tool. principal ethnic groups in Milwaukee. Others,

13
 Viewing Math B ro adly

A similar tabulation and use of

A ctivity B ox percentages can be used to analyze popu-
lar TV shows for the number of “put-
No-TV Week Math downs” versus “put-ups,” who is quoted
or pictured in newspapers, stereotypes
During our school’s annual “No-TV Week” my of females in popular cartoons, who is
students survey the students in our school and use included in textbooks, and who is rep-
percentages and pie graphs to show, among other resented in the biography section of the
things, how many kids have TVs in their bedrooms,
school library. (See “Libraries, Books,
and Bias,” page 235.)
how many have cable, who can watch TV whenever
they want, and who would rather spend time with
Using Math to Understand
their parents than watching TV.
History
As we study history, we pay particular
however, disagreed. Needless to say, this led to an attention to dates and data. I try to high-
extensive discussion of what is “fair,” why minor- light numbers that relate to social movements
ities held so few of the jobs created downtown, for equity and justice. For example, as we look
and what it would take for things to be different. at the women’s struggle for equality we try to
imagine what it was like for Susan B. Anthony
Using Math to Uncover Stereotypes to go to work as a teacher and get paid $2.50 a
It’s important for students to be aware of whose week, exactly half the salary of the male teacher
voices they hear as they read a history book or she replaced. Lots can be done with such a sta-
the newspaper or watch a movie. Who gets to tistic: for example, figuring out and graphing
narrate history matters greatly, because it fun- the difference on an annual or lifetime basis, or
damentally shapes the readers’ or viewers’ per- looking for wage differentials in other occupa-
spective. We can analyze these things with kids tions and time periods, including the present.
and help them become more critical readers of I have found children particularly interested in
books and other media. In this process math can looking at wages paid to child workers, whether
play an important role. in coal mines or textile mills. We compare
I usually start with something fairly easy: such wages to the prices of commodities at the
I have students analyze children’s books on time, to the wages of adult workers, and to the
Christopher Columbus, tabulating whose views wealth that was accumulated by the owners
are represented. For instance, how many times of industry. Such historical connections can
do Columbus and his men present their per- easily be linked to present-day concerns over
spective, and how many times do the Taíno U.S. child-labor and minimum-wage laws or to
Indians present theirs? The students, using international concerns over multinational cor-
fractions and percentages, make large graphs to porations exploiting child labor in Asia or Latin
demonstrate their findings and draw potential America to make consumer goods for world-
conclusions. Large visual displays—bar graphs wide markets. An in-depth description of how
made with sticky tape, for instance—are good I have my class approach some of these global
points of reference for discussion and analysis. issues mathematically and socially can be found
Math concepts such as percentages, propor- in Rethinking Globalization: Teaching for Justice
tions, and comparisons can be used to help kids in an Unjust World (see Resources, page 266).
discuss the statistics they’ve uncovered and the One math/history connection, which can
graphs they’ve made. range in sophistication depending on the level of

14
 T eaching Math A cro ss the C urr iculu m

the students, is to look at who is represented in The Mayans were one of the first peoples to
different occupations and areas of power in our develop the concept of zero and make sophisti-
society, and how that has changed over time. For cated mathematical calculations. I have used a
example, students can figure out what percentage unit on the base 20 Mayan counting system with
of the signers of the Constitution were slavehold- my 5th graders to demonstrate such sophisti-
ers, common working people, cation and to help students
women, wealthy individuals expand their understanding
who held bonds, and so forth. of place value. (See the related
A similar exercise would be article “Chicanos Have Math
to analyze U.S. presidents in their Blood,” page 95.)
or the people our country
has chosen to honor by put- Conclusion
ting their faces on currency The sophistication and com-
and coins. Such historical plexity of the math we use
number-crunching can take in our classrooms naturally
a contemporary turn if the depends on the develop-
students analyze, for example, mental level of our students.
the gender and racial break- Teachers, however, too often
down of the U.S. House and underestimate what students
Senate, the editors of major are capable of doing. To the
newspapers, or the CEOs of degree that I provide quality
Fortune 500 corporations. instruction, clear modeling,
It’s important for stu- and purposeful activities, I
Susan Lina Ruggles
dents to understand that such A s t u de nt t o t a l s t he r e s u l t s
am usually pleased with the
numbers are not permanent of a s urve y he c o ndu c t e d of enthusiasm with which my
his classmates. kids take on such math-based
fixtures of our social structure
but have changed over time projects and with the success
as a result of social movements, such as the Civil they have in doing them.
Rights or women’s movements. To demonstrate I have found that as a result of trying to
this, a teacher might have students tally the cur- implement “math across the curriculum”—and
rent percentage of African Americans or women in particular, integrating math and social stud-
in selected professional occupations and compare ies—my students’ interest and skill in math have
it to the 1960s, before the rise of affirmative increased, both in terms of their understanding of
action. basic concepts and their ability to solve problems.
Another area to teach is the history of math, Furthermore, they can better clarify social issues,
pointing out the contributions of various non- understand the structures of society, and offer
European cultures and civilizations to mathemati- options for better social policies.
cal thought. Greek mathematicians, for instance, Kids need every tool they can get to make
were heavily influenced by their predecessors and this world—their world—a better place. Math-
counterparts in Africa and Asia. Arab mathemati- ematics is one very important tool. o
cians inspired European Renaissance scholars.

15
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