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 Mathematics IGCSE notes

Index

1. Decimals and standard form

2. Accuracy and Error
3. Powers and roots
click on a topic to
4. Ratio & proportion visit the notes
5. Fractions, ratios
6. Percentages
7. Rational and irrational numbers
8. Algebra: simplifying and factorising
9. Equations: linear, quadratic, simultaneous
10. Rearranging formulae
11. Inequalities
12. Parallel lines, bearings, polygons
13. Areas and volumes, similarity
14. Trigonometry
15. Circles
16. Similar triangles, congruent triangles
17. Transformations
18. Loci and ruler and compass constructions
19. Vectors
20. Straight line graphs
21. More graphs
22. Distance, velocity graphs
23. Sequences; trial and improvement
24. Graphical transformations
25. Probability
26. Statistical calculations, diagrams, data collection
27. Functions
28. Calculus
29. Sets

{also use the intranet revision course of question papers and answers by topic }
1. Decimals and standard form top

(a) multiplying and dividing

(i) 2.5 × 1.36 Move the decimal points to the right until each is a whole
number, noting the total number of moves, perform the multiplication, then
move the decimal point back by the previous total:
→ 25 × 136 = 3400 , so the answer is 3.4
{Note in the previous example, that transferring a factor of 2, or even better,
4, from the 136 to the 25 makes it easier:
25 × 136 = 25 × (4 × 34) = (25 × 4) × 34 = 100 × 34 = 3400 }

(ii) 0.00175 ÷ 0.042 Move both decimal points together to the right until the
divisor is a whole number, perform the calculation, and that is the answer.
→ 1.75 ÷ 42 , but simplify the calculation by cancelling down any factors first.
In this case, both numbers share a 7, so divide this out: → 0.25 ÷ 6 , and
0.0416
6 0.25 , so the answer is 0.0416

(iii) decimal places

To round a number to n d.p., count n digits to the right of the decimal point. If
the digit following the nth is ≥ 5 , then the nth digit is raised by 1.
e.g. round 3.012678 to 3 d.p. 3.012678 → 3.012|678 so 3.013 to 3 d.p.

(iv) significant figures

To round a number to n s.f., count digits from the left starting with the first
non-zero digit, then proceed as for decimal places.
e.g. round 3109.85 to 3 s.f., 3109.85 → 310|9.85 so 3110 to 3 s.f.
e.g. round 0.0030162 to 3 s.f., 0.0030162 → 0.00301|62 , so 0.00302 to 3 s.f.

(b) standard form

(iii) Convert the following to standard form: (a) 25 000 (b) 0.0000123
Move the decimal point until you have a number x where 1 ≤ x < 10 , and the
number of places you moved the point will indicate the numerical value of the
power of 10. So 25000 = 2.5 × 104 , and 0.0000123 = 1.23 × 10−5

(iv) multiplying in standard form: (4.4 × 105 ) × ( 3.5 × 106 ) As all the
elements are multiplied, rearrange them thus:
= (4.4 × 3.5) × (105 × 106 ) = 15.4 × 1011 = 1.54 × 1012

2
 3.2 × 1012
(v) dividing in standard form: Again, rearrange the calculation to
2.5 × 103
(3.2 ÷ 2.5) × (1012 ÷ 103 ) = 1.28 × 10 9

(vi) adding/subtracting in standard form: (2.5 × 106 ) + (3.75 × 107 ) The

hardest of the calculations. Convert both numbers into the same denomination,
i.e. in this case 106 or 107, then add.
= (0.25 × 107 ) + (3.75 × 107 ) = 4 × 107

Questions

(a) 2.54 × 1.5

(b) 2.55 ÷ 0.015

(c) Convert into standard form and multiply: 25 000 000 × 0.000 000 000 24

(d) (2.6 × 103 ) ÷ (2 × 10−2 )

(e) (1.55 × 10 −3 ) − ( 2.5 × 10−4 )

Answers

(a) → 254 × 15 = 3810 , so 2.54 × 1.5 = 3.81

(b) 2.55 ÷ 0.015 = 2550 ÷ 15 . Notice a factor of 5, so let’s cancel it first:

= 510 ÷ 3 = 170

(c) = (2.5 × 107 ) × (2.4 × 10−10 ) = 6 × 10−3

(d) = (2.6 ÷ 2) × (103 ÷ 10−2 ) = 1.3 × 105

(e) = (1.55 × 10−3 ) − (0.25 × 10−3 ) = 1.3 × 10−3

3
2. Accuracy and Error top

To see how error can accumulate when using rounded values in a calculation,
take the worst case each way: e.g. this rectangular space is
measured as 5m by 3m, each measurement being to the nearest 3m
metre. What is the area of the rectangle? 5m

To find how small the area could be, consider the lower bounds of the two
measurements: the length could be as low as 4.5m and the width as low as
2.5m. So the smallest possible area is 4.5 × 2.5 = 11.25 m2. Now, the length
could be anything up to 5.5m but not including the value 5.5m itself (which
would be rounded up to 6m) So the best way to deal with this is to use the
(unattainable) upper bounds and get a ceiling for the area as
5.5 × 3.5 = 19.25 m2, which the area could get infinitely close to, but not equal
to. Then these two facts can be expressed as 11.25m2 ≤ area < 19.25m2.

Questions

(a) A gold block in the shape of as cuboid measures 2.5cm by 5.0cm by

20.0cm, each to the nearest 0.1cm. What is the volume of the block?

(b) A runner runs 100m, measured to the nearest metre, in 12s, measured to
the nearest second. What is the speed of the runner?

(c) a = 3.0, b = 2.5 , both measured to 2 s.f. What are the possible value of
a−b ?

Answers

(a) lower bound volume = 2.45 × 4.95 × 19.95 = 241.943625 cm3.

upper bound volume = 2.55 × 5.05 × 20.05 = 258.193875 cm3.
So 241.943625cm3 ≤ volume<258.193875cm3

distance
(b) Since speed = , for the lower bound we need to take the smallest
time
value of distance with the biggest value of time, and vice-versa for the upper
bound.
99.5 100.5
So < speed < , i.e. 7.96ms-1 < speed < 8.739…ms-1
12.5 11.5

(c) for the smallest value of a − b , we need to take the smallest value of a
together with the biggest value of b, etc.
So 2.95 − 2.55 < a − b < 3.05 − 2.45 , i.e. 0.4 < a − b < 0.6

4
3. Powers and roots top

1) x a × x b = x a + b
2) x a ÷ x b = x a −b
3) ( x a )b = x ab
1
4) x − a = a
x
5) x = 1
0

(a) whole number powers

Note that the base numbers (x’s) have to be the same;

25 × 32 cannot be simplified any further.

1) e.g. x 3 × x 2 = x 5 , 23 × 27 = 210
If in doubt, write the powers out in full: a 3 × a 2 means
( a × a × a ) × ( a × a) which is a 5

2) x 6 ÷ x 2 = x 4 , 58 ÷ 52 = 56
Again, if in doubt, spell it out:
a×a×a×a×a×a
a 6 ÷ a 2 means which cancels down to
a×a
a × a × a × a × a/ × a/
= a4
a/ × a/

3) ( x 3 ) 2 = x 6 , (32 ) 4 = 38
To check this, ( x 3 ) 2 means ( x 3 ) × ( x 3 ) which is x 6

1 1 1
4) x −3 = , 10−3 = = = 0.001
x3 3
10 1000

5) 100 = 1 .

5
 Questions

Simplify the following as far as possible:

(a) x 5 × x 3

(b) a 3 ÷ a 5 × a 6

34 × 37
(c) 5
3 ×3

25 × 410
(d)
86 ÷ 43

Answers

(a) x 5 × x 3 = x 5+ 3 = x8

(b) a 3 ÷ a 5 × a 6 = a 3−5+ 6 = a 4

34 × 37 34+ 7 311
(c) = 5+1
= = 311− 6 = 35
3 ×3
5
3 3 6

25 × 410 25 × (22 )10 25 × 220 225

(d) = = = = 213
86 ÷ 43 (23 )6 ÷ (22 )3 218 ÷ 26 212

(b) fractional powers

1
6) x n = n x
p

7) x = x p = ( x ) p
q q q

1 1
6) e.g. x 3 = 3 x , 92 = 9 = 3

2
7) 27 = ( 3 27) 2 = (3)2 = 9
3

q
Note: if you can find the qth root of x easily then it’s better to use the ( x ) p version.

6
Q. Simplify the following as far as possible:

1
(a) 16 2

1
(b) 64 3

3
(c) 4 2

3
(d) 81 4

2
(e) ( x 6 ) 3

Answers.

1
(a) 16 2 = 16 = 4

1
(b) 64 3 = 3
64 = 4

3
(c) 4 2 = ( 4)3 = (2)3 = 8

3
(d) 81 4 = ( 4 81)3 = (3)3 = 27

2 2
6×
(e) easier to use power law (3) above: ( x 6 ) 3 = x 3
= x4

7
 top
4. Ratio and Proportion

(a) Using ratios

This is really a special case of proportion. If quantities are linearly related,
either directly or inversely, (like number of workers and time taken to do a job),
calculate by multiplying by a ratio:

e.g. If 8 workers can together do a job in 6 days, how long would the same job take
with 12 workers?
ans: it will take less time, so we multiply by the ratio 128 . So it takes
6 × 128 = 4 days.

e.g. If a workforce of 20 can produce 12 cars in 15 days, how many workers

should be used if 15 cars are needed in 10 days?
ans: no. of workers = 20× 1215
× 10
15
= 37 12 , ie 38.

(b) Proportion

Where quantities are related not necessarily linearly.

(i) Direct proportion

This is when an increase in one quantity causes an increase in the other.
eg y ∝ x 2 , and you are given that y is 7.2 when x is 6.
Rewrite as y = kx 2 , and substitute the given values to find k:
7.2 = k × 6 2 , so
k = 0.2 . The relationship can now be written as
y = 0.2 x 2 , and any problems solved.

(ii) Inverse proportion

This is when an increase in one quantity causes an decrease in the other.
e.g. If y is inversely proportional to the cube of x,
1
then y∝ 3
x
k
Rewrite as y = 3 , and proceed as usual.
x

(iii) Multiplier method

For the cunning, it is possible (but harder) to solve a problem without calculating k.
e.g. Radiation varies inversely as the square of the distance away from the source. In
suitable units, the radiation at 10m away from the source is 75. What is the radiation
at 50m away?
ans: as distance increases by a factor of 5, radiation must decrease by a factor of 52 ,
so the radiation is 75 ÷ 25 = 3.

8
Questions.

(a) Water needs to be removed from an underground chamber before work can
commence. When the water was at a depth of 3m, five suction pipes were used and
emptied the chamber in 4 hours. If the water is now at a depth of 5m (same cross-
section), and you want to empty the chamber in 10 hours time, how many pipes need
to be used?

(b) y is proportional to x 2 and when x is 5 y is 6. Find

(i) y when x is 25 (ii) x when y is 8.64

(c) The time t seconds taken for an object to travel a certain distance from rest is
inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration a. When a is 4m/s2, t is
2s.
What is the value of a if the time taken is 5 seconds?

Answers

5 4
(a) No. of pipes = 5 × × = 3 13 , so it would be necessary to use 4 pipes to be sure
3 10
of emptying within 10 hours.

y ∝ x2
(b) and we know when x is 5, y is 6, so
y = kx 2

6 = k × 52 , so k = 6
25 , and we can write the relationship as
y= 6
25 x2 .
(i) When x is 25, y = 6
25 × 252 = 150 .
(ii) When y is 8.64, 8.64 = 256 x 2 , so
25 × 8.64
x2 = no, don’t reach for the calculator yet!
6

x 2 = 25 × 1.44 , so x = 5 ×1.2 = 6 .

1
(c) t ∝ ,
a
k
So t = . Substituting given values:
a
k
2= , so k = 4 , ie
4
4
t= .
a
4 4 16
When t = 5, 5 = , so a = , and a = or 0.64 m/s2.
a 5 25

9
5. Fractions and ratios top

(a) Fractions

1 2 19 5
(i) Adding/subtracting: e.g. 3 − 1 . Convert to vulgar form first: − ,
6 3 6 3
then find the lowest common denominator, in this case 6. Then
19 5 19 − 2 × 5 9 1
− = = = 1 .
6 3 6 6 2

1 7 16 7
(ii) Multiplying/dividing: e.g. 5 × . Convert to vulgar form: × , and
3 8 3 8
then always cancel any factor in the numerator with a factor in the
denominator if possible, before multiplying together:
2
16 7 // 7
16 2× 7 14
× = ×1 = = .
3 8 3 8/ 3 ×1 3
To divide, turn the ÷ into a × and invert the second fraction.

3
(iii) Converting to and from decimals: e.g. what is as a decimal?
40
0.075
3
40 3.000 so is 0.075.
40
75 3
But what is 0.075 as a fraction? 0.075 means , then cancel down to .
1000 40

(b) Ratios

(iv) To divide a quantity into 3 parts in the ratio 3: 4:5, call the divisions 3
parts, 4 parts and 5 parts. There are 12 parts altogether, so find 1 part, and
hence the 3 portions.

(v) To find the ratio of several quantities, express in the same units then cancel
or multiply up until in lowest terms e.g. what is the ratio of 3.0m to 2.25m to
75cm?
Perhaps metres is the best unit to use here, so the ratio is 3 :2.25: 0.75.
Multiplying up by 4 (or 100 if you really insist) will render all numbers
integer. So the ratio is 12 : 9 : 3, and we can now cancel down to 4:3:1

10
Questions

3 5
(a) (2 ) 2 × 1
4 11
1 3 1
(b) (1 − ) ÷ 2
3 5 5

(c) What is 0.0875 as a fraction in lowest terms?

(d) Split £5000 in the ratio of 1:2:5

Answers

11
11 16 121 16 / / / 116
121 //
(a) = ( )2 × = × = 1
×1 = 11
4 11 16 11 //
16 //
11

4 3 11 5 × 4 − 3× 3 5 11 5 1
(b) = ( − ) ÷ = × = × =
3 5 5 15 11 15 11 3

875 35 7
(c) = = =
10 000 400 80

(d) 1:2:5 means 8 parts altogether. Each part is £5 000 ÷ 8 = £625 , so the
£5000
£5000 splits into £625, £1250, and £3125.

11
6. Percentages top

(i) What is 75g as a percentage of 6kg? Express as a fraction, then multiply by

75
100 to covert to a percentage. As a fraction, it is , which is
6000
75 75 1
× 100% = % = 1 %.
6000 60 4

(ii) Find 23% of 3.2kg. This is

23 23
× 3.2kg = × 3200g = 23 × 32g = 736g (or 0.736kg.)
100 100

(iii) Increase £20 by 12%. The original amount is always regarded as 100%,
and this problem wants to find 112%. The simplest method is to first find 1%,
then 112%, by dividing by 100 then multiplying by 112. This can be
112
accomplished in one go, however, by multiplying by , i.e. 1.12.
100
So the answer is £20 × 1.12 = £22.40 .

(iv) Decrease £20 by 12%. This means we are trying to find 88% of the
original, so the answer is £20 × 0.88 = £17.60 .

(v) Reverse problems: An investment is worth £6000 after increasing by 20%

in a year: how much was it worth last year? If you are going to make a
mistake, this is where. The 20% refers to 20% of the original amount which
we don’t know, not 20% of £6000. A safe way of handling these “reverse”
problems is to call the unknown original amount £x. The information says that
6000
£ x × 1.2 = £6000 so x = = 5000 .
1.2

(vi) Anything weird, and use the simple unitary method, i.e. find what is 1%.
e.g. A coke can advertises 15% extra free, and contains 368ml. How much
extra coke was there?

This can contains 115% of the original, so 1% is 15%

368 ÷ 115 = 3.2 ml. extra
So the extra amount, 15%, is 15 × 3.2 = 48 ml. free

12
Questions

(a) One part of a company produces £350 000 profit, while the whole
company makes £5.6 million. What percentage of the whole company’s profits
does this part produce?

(b) How much VAT at 17½% is added to a basic price of £25?

(c) An investment earns 8% interest every year. My account has £27000 this
year. How much is contained in my account (i) next year (ii) in ten years’ time
(iii) last year?

(d) Inflation runs at 4% per year in Toyland. Big Ears can buy 24 toadstools
for £1 this year. How many will he be able to buy for £1 in 5 years’ time?

Answers

350 000 1
(a) × 100% = 6 %
5600 000 4

17 12 175
(b) 17½% of £25 is × 25 = × 25 = £4.38
100 1000

(c) (i) £27000 × 1.08 = £29160

(ii) £27000 × 1.0810 = £58290.97
27000
(iii) £ x × 1.08 = £27000 x= , so it was worth £25000.
1.08

(d) Inflation at 4% per year means that if you pay £100 for some goods this
year, the same goods will cost you £104 in next years’ money. So 24
toadstools will cost £1× 1.045 = £1.2166529... in 5 years’ time, and so £1 will
1
buy him 24 × , i.e. 19.7… or 19 whole toadstools!
1.2166529...

13
7. Rational and irrational numbers top

a
A rational number is one which can be expressed as where a and b are
b
integers. An irrational number is one which can’t. Fractions, integers, and
2
recurring decimals are rational. Examples of rationals: , 1, 0.25, 3 8 .
3
Examples of irrationals: π , 2, 0.1234.... (not recurring).

a
(i) Converting rationals to the form (to confirm they really are rational)
b
125 1
A terminating decimal: 0.125 = =
1000 8
A recurring decimal: 0.123 . Call the number x, so x = 0.123123123......
Multiply by a suitable power of 10 so the recurring decimal appears exactly
again: 1000 x = 123.123123..... = 123 + 0.123123....
123 41
so 1000 x = 123 + x , then 999 x = 123 and x = = .
999 333

(ii) rationalising a denominator:

2
3 has a 3 in the denominator, so multiply top and bottom by 3 (which
3
does not change the value of the expression, only the shape):
2 3 6
3 × = 3 = 6.
3 3 3
(iii) a b = ab
a a
=
b b

and the same with cube roots, etc.

To simplify expressions using these:

200 = 100 × 2 = 100 × 2 = 10 2

18 18
= = 9 = 3
2 2

(iv) Finding irrational numbers in a given area:

e.g. find an irrational number between 5 and 6. Note that most square roots
4
are irrational (except for 16, , etc) are irrational, so as 5 = 25 and
9
6 = 36 , pick a root in between, e.g. 28 . (Or say π + 2 for example).

14
Questions

a i i
(a) Convert into the form : (i) 0.375 (ii) 0.36
b
6 50 3
(b) Simplify (i) (ii) (iii) 72 (iv) 250
2 2
(c) Find an irrational number between 1 and 1.1

Answers

375 3
(a) (i) 0.375 = = (ii) x = 0.36363636...... so 100 x = 36.363636.....
1000 8
36 4
= 36 + 0.363636 = 36 + x . Therefore 99 x = 36 , so x = =
99 11

6 2 6 2
(b) (i) = × = = 3 2
2 2 2
50
(ii) = = 25 = 5
2

(iii) 72 = 36 × 2 = 36 × 2 = 6 2

(iv) = 3 125 × 2 = 3 125 × 3 2 = 5 3 2

101
(c) e.g. 2 − 0.3, etc
10

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