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BAI Preparatory Course in Mathematics 2nd Edition Guido

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Primary Mathematics 3A Hoerst

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Guido Walz · Frank Zeilfelder ·
Thomas Rießinger

Foundations
of Mathematics:
A Preparatory
Course
Foundations of Mathematics: A Preparatory
Course
Guido Walz • Frank Zeilfelder •
Thomas Rießinger

Foundations
of Mathematics:
A Preparatory Course
Guido Walz Frank Zeilfelder
Mannheim, Germany Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg
Germany

Thomas Rießinger
Bensheim, Germany

ISBN 978-3-662-67808-4 ISBN 978-3-662-67809-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-67809-1

This book is a translation of the original German edition „Brückenkurs Mathematik“ by Walz, Guido, published by
Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE in 2014. The translation was done with the help of artificial intelligence (machine
translation by the service DeepL.com). A subsequent human revision was done primarily in terms of content, so
that the book will read stylistically differently from a conventional translation. Springer Nature works continu-
ously to further the development of tools for the production of books and on the related technologies to support the
authors.

Translation from the German language edition: “Brückenkurs Mathematik” by Guido Walz et al., # Springer-
Verlag GmbH Deutschland, ein Teil von Springer Nature 2019. Published by Springer Berlin Heidelberg. All
Rights Reserved.

# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of
Springer Nature 2023
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believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a
warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that
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Introduction and Foreword

Mathematics as a subject is so serious that no opportunity should be missed to make this

subject more entertaining. (Blaise Pascal)

Even today, it is said to happen from time to time that someone picks up a book in a quiet
hour to browse through it; however, in the rarest cases this will be a mathematics book, but
this is not so much due to the mathematics itself, but to the way it is presented in many
books. If terms like “dry”, “brittle” or “incomprehensible” come to mind here, we are
already well on the way to a common assessment.
Unfortunately, mathematics has a high “yuck” factor in society, and this is often due to
traumatic school experiences and bad textbooks for students. With such a school career,
however, one is usually afraid of the mathematical parts of studies, and quite in the spirit of
a self-fulfilling prophecy, one then really gets into trouble there.
With this book, we try to save you from these entry problems by building a bridge in an
entertaining way that gently guides you over all shoals into the interior of college
mathematics. This bridge starts on one side with simple number crunching, as you probably
encountered it in middle school, and takes you across to the basics of linear algebra,
differential calculus, and probability, which will be the main content of your first semesters.
You will always face this content there, and when dealing with it, you can then say with
confidence, “I know it already!”
The book is aimed at students of all disciplines who come into contact with mathematics
in the course of their studies or even their professional lives. One of our main concerns is to
prove that it is possible to write a mathematics book that is easy to read from cover to cover
without getting lost in formalism or humourless dryness, but which, after reading, has
nevertheless given you the necessary knowledge and technical confidence for a successful
mathematics part of your studies.
A large number of exercises, the solutions of which you will find at the end of the book,
will help you to further deepen what you have read. We have deliberately avoided proofs
for the most part – you will have to deal with this often enough in the course of your
studies – rather, we simply want to whet your appetite for mathematics, even if this may
seem contradictory to you at the moment.

v
vi Introduction and Foreword

A major annoyance in our eyes is the “nurse plural” displayed by many textbook authors
(“How are we doing today?”, “So tomorrow we’ll have our livers out!”, “Now let’s
integrate a function!”). Horrible! (Mind you, this refers only to this formulation bad
habit, not to the profession of nursing, a group whose representatives each individually
probably do more for humanity than all the mathematics professors in the world put
together). In order to avoid this bad habit, we have decided to address you personally in
each chapter in first-person style – each of us has written those chapters whose contents he
can convey competently and (hopefully) instructively, and this should also be expressed by
the writing style.
And now (and we mean it!): Have fun studying the following pages!

Mannheim, Germany Guido Walz

Mannheim, Germany Frank Zeilfelder
Bensheim, Germany Thomas Rießinger
Summer 2005
Preface to the Second Edition

The gratifyingly good acceptance of our book has already made a second edition necessary.
We have taken the opportunity to correct some minor errors in the text that were pointed
out to us by attentive readers.
We have also included a new chapter on the basics of complex numbers. We hope you
enjoy this as much as the rest of the text.

Mannheim, Germany Guido Walz

Mannheim, Germany Frank Zeilfelder
Bensheim, Germany Thomas Rießinger
Spring 2007

vii
Preface to the Third Edition

Despite all efforts to be error-free – a state that probably no book in the world will ever
reach – there were still a few printing errors in the second edition, which we have now
corrected.
This third edition includes a new take-out formulary that provides a condensed version
of the most important formulas in the book, which you can carry with you for any occasion.

Mannheim, Germany Guido Walz

Mannheim, Germany Frank Zeilfelder
Bensheim, Germany Thomas Rießinger
Spring 2011

ix
Preface to the Fourth Edition

The unbroken strong demand for our book has again made a new edition necessary, which
we are very pleased about. We take this opportunity to eliminate some printing errors in the
last edition and thank all readers who brought them to our attention.
As in previous editions, we have added a new chapter on descriptive statistics to
the book.

Mannheim, Germany Guido Walz

Mannheim, Germany Frank Zeilfelder
Bensheim, Germany Thomas Rießinger
Summer 2014

xi
Contents

1 Elementary Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fractions and Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Bracket Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Powers and Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Special Expressions and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Basic Information About Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1 Definition Range, Value Set and Image Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 Concatenation of Functions; Monotonicity and Invertibility . . . . . . . 42
2.3 Power and Root Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4 Polynomials and Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3 Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3 Higher Order Polynomial Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4 Root and Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.5 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.1 Triangles and Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.2 Plane Geometric Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5 Introduction to Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.3 Linear Systems of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.4 Analytical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

xiii
xiv Contents

6 Differential and Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

6.1 First Derivative of Functions and Derivative Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.2 Applications of Derivatives and Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.3 Integration of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7 Fundamentals of Probability Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
7.1 Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.2 Relative Frequency and Classical Definition of Probability . . . . . . . . 332
7.3 Axiomatic Definition of Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.4 Conditional Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
8 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.2 Representation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
8.3 Position and Spreading Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
9 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
9.1 The Imaginary Unit i and the Set of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations for Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.3 The Gaussian Number Plane and the Trigonometric Form of
Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.4 Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.5 Complete Solution of Quadratic and Biquadratic Equations . . . . . . . 384
10 Formulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
10.1 Chapter 1: Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
10.2 Chapter 2: Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
10.3 Chapter 3: Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
10.4 Chapter 4: Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
10.5 Chapter 5: Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
10.6 Chapter 6: Differential and Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
10.7 Chapter 7: Probability Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
10.8 Chapter 8: Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
10.9 Chapter 9: Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Appendix: Solutions of the Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Elementary Calculation Methods
1

Before one ascends into the higher spheres of mathematics, one should first be sure that the
handling of the elementary arithmetic procedures is no problem. In this first chapter, I will
therefore first of all recall the basic arithmetic operations, especially fractions, and practice
dealing with terms, brackets and other mathematical symbols and notations.

1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations

Believe it or not, I am going to start with some very simple number crunching – although
first it needs to be made clear what kind of “numbers” we are talking about here in the first
place.
The simplest numbers are certainly the numbers 1, 2, 3, . . ., which you already
encounter as a small child when you count your building blocks or the cookies lying on
the table in front of you (Personally, I never got very far here, as I preferred to eat the
cookies rather than count them, but that does not belong here). These numbers are called
natural numbers, and the symbol ℕ is used to denote the set of all these numbers. A set in
mathematics is always a summary of objects, we also say elements, and the elements that
make up a set are written in curly brackets {and}, we also say set brackets.
With this notation regulation is therefore

ℕ = f1, 2, 3, . . .g: ð1:1Þ

On the basis of these simplest numbers we can already introduce the first laws of arithmetic,
whose transfer to more general number ranges is no problem later.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of 1

Springer Nature 2023
G. Walz et al., Foundations of Mathematics: A Preparatory Course,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-67809-1_1
2 1 Elementary Calculation Methods

By the way, it is disputed within the mathematical community whether the set ℕ still
includes the zero or not. I will not comment on these discussions here, but simply ask you
to adopt the definition given in line (1.1). For the set of natural numbers including the zero,
I will use the symbol ℕ0 if necessary, i.e. ℕ0 = {0,1,2,3, . . .}.
I really do not want to get into the definition of the sum or product of two natural
numbers, otherwise you would be bored and put this book aside, and I do not want that.
Instead, let us look at simple properties of these arithmetic operations.
As you may know, it is completely irrelevant whether you (on a humid and merry
evening) first drink two and soon after again four glasses of red wine or whether you down
four glasses right at the beginning and later again two glasses: the result, i.e. the headache
on the following day, is identical. This is simply because 2 + 4 = 4 + 2, and of course this is
true not only for these particular numbers, but for all of them; in mathematics, such a thing
is called a regularity, or a law for short, and this one is called the commutative law. This
also applies to multiplication, and I am going to formulate it in general terms, while I am
also going to tell you about a related law, the associative law:

Commutative Law and Associative Law

An arithmetic operation * on a set M is called commutative if for all a and b from
M holds:

a b = b a:

In this case, we also say that the operation * satisfies the commutative law.
An arithmetic operation * on a set M is called associative if for all a, b and c from
M holds:

a ðb cÞ = ða bÞ  c:

In this case, we also say that the operation * satisfies the associative law.

Do you have any idea why I just put these definitions here? Well, that is why:

Addition and Multiplication Are Commutative and Associative

Addition + as well as multiplication  are both commutative and associative on the set
ℕ.

With which we would have the first two laws of arithmetic for these operations already
under roof. For example, 2 + (3 + 4) = (2 + 3) + 4 (=9), and it is also clear to the toddler
mentioned above that he has eaten nine biscuits at the end of the day, regardless of whether
he eats two biscuits in the morning and three and four biscuits in the afternoon, or whether
1.1 Basic Arithmetic Operations 3

he eats two biscuits in the morning and three more and is content with four in the afternoon;
with which we have also seen an example of the associative law.

Exercise 1.1 Show that for three natural numbers a, b, c holds:

a þ b þ c = c þ b þ a: ■

Also the next property, which I want to introduce, namely distributivity, can be
formulated for general arithmetic operations, but as here always two different operations
have to be combined, I want to write it down concretely, in order not to confuse you right at
the beginning.

Distributive Law
With multiplication  and addition +, the set ℕ satisfies the distributive law, that is, it
holds for any three natural numbers a, b, c:

a  ðb þ cÞ = a  b þ a  c: ð1:2Þ

By the way, the parentheses in this expression are not for embellishment, but have the
effect that the calculation b + c must be carried out first, and only then is multiplied by a.
This is the most elementary rule of the parenthesis, which we will look at in more detail
below.
As an example of (1.2), I calculate 3  (2 + 5) = 3  7 = 21, because this is also what you
get if you calculate according to the right-hand side of (1.2): 3  2 + 3  5 = 6 + 15 = 21.
You may have wondered why I have not yet mentioned subtraction, which is generally
regarded as the second basic arithmetic operation. This is because subtraction is unfortu-
nately not possible within the set of natural numbers alone: Although it is clear that 5-
2 = 3, what should 2-5 be? Obviously, it must be a number to which you have to add 3 to
get 0. This number is called -3 and is sometimes also called the opposite number of
3. Every natural number has such an opposite number, the totality of all these opposite
numbers of the natural numbers is called the negative numbers, and these together with
the natural numbers and zero form the set of integers, denoted by ℤ:

ℤ = f. . . , - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .g:

By the way, these newly introduced negative numbers are not an artificial invention of
unworldly mathematicians, but are quite relevant to practice; think, for example, of the
outside temperatures on a cold winter’s day or your bank balance at the end of the month.
4 1 Elementary Calculation Methods

Within the number range ℤ, you can now happily add, subtract and multiply without falling
out of the set.
However, subtraction, because of which we introduced the integers in the end, has a big
disadvantage: It does not fulfil the simplest laws of arithmetic, because it is neither
commutative nor associative. I have already shown the lack of commutativity in the first
example (5-2 ≠ 2–5), and the following example shows that subtraction is also not
associative:

7 - ð3 - 1Þ = 7 - 2 = 5,

but

ð7 - 3Þ - 1 = 4 - 1 = 3,

and 3 is not equal to 5. Of course, this is chosen rather arbitrarily, there are countless other
numerical examples that would have done here as well. But that is just the essence of an
important proof principle in mathematics, which we learned here in passing, so to speak:
To disprove an assumption (in this case, the assumption that subtraction would be
associative), a single counterexample suffices.
In order to be able to calculate with integers, especially negative ones, we still have to
clarify what an expression like -(-a) means. Well, this is supposed to be the opposite
number of -a, i.e. the one that results in zero when added to -agerade. But there we would
already have a candidate, namely a. So we have shown:

- ð- aÞ = a: ð1:3Þ

This is, so to speak, the prototype of all rules of arithmetic which produce among all of us
such associations as “minus times minus equals plus”, for it follows from (1.3) that for
arbitrary integers a and b hold:

Products of Negative Numbers

ð- aÞb = að- bÞ = - ab

and

ð- aÞð- bÞ = ab:
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